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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/10044-0.txt b/10044-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2984108 --- /dev/null +++ b/10044-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,5205 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10044 *** + +This etext was produced by Gardner Buchanan. + + + + + +CHRONICLES OF CANADA +Edited by George M. Wrong and H. H. Langton +In thirty-two volumes + +Volume 12 + + +THE FATHER OF BRITISH CANADA +A Chronicle of Carleton + +By WILLIAM WOOD +TORONTO, 1916 + + + + +CONTENTS + +I. GUY CARLETON, 1724-1759 +II. GENERAL MURRAY, 1759-1766 +III. GOVERNOR CARLETON, 1766-1774 +IV. INVASION, 1776 +V. BELEAGUERMENT, 1775-1776 +VI. DELIVERANCE, 1776 +VII. THE COUNTERSTROKE, 1776-1778 +VIII. GUARDING THE LOYALISTS, 1782-1783 +IX. FOUNDING MODERN CANADA, 1786-1796 +X. 'NUNC DIMITTIS,' 1796-1808 + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + + + + +CHAPTER I + +GUY CARLETON +1724-1759 + +Guy Carleton, first Baron Dorchester, was born at Strabane, +County Tyrone, on the 3rd of September 1724, the anniversary +of Cromwell's two great victories and death. He came of +a very old family of English country gentlemen which had +migrated to Ireland in the seventeenth century and +intermarried with other Anglo-Irish families equally +devoted to the service of the British Crown. Guy's father +was Christopher Carleton of Newry in County Down. His +mother was Catherine Ball of County Donegal. His father +died comparatively young; and, when he was himself fifteen, +his mother married the rector of Newry, the Reverend +Thomas Skelton, whose influence over the six step-children +of the household worked wholly for their good. + +At eighteen Guy received his first commission as ensign +in the 25th Foot, then known as Lord Rothes' regiment +and now as the King's Own Scottish Borderers. At +twenty-three he fought gallantly at the siege of +Bergen-op-Zoom. Four years later (1751) he was a lieutenant +in the Grenadier Guards. He was one of those quiet men +whose sterling value is appreciated only by the few till +some crisis makes it stand forth before the world at +large. Pitt, Wolfe, and George II all recognized his +solid virtues. At thirty he was still some way down the +list of lieutenants in the Grenadiers, while Wolfe, two +years his junior in age, had been four years in command +of a battalion with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. Yet +he had long been 'my friend Carleton' to Wolfe, he was +soon to become one of 'Pitt's Young Men,' and he was +enough of a 'coming man' to incur the king's displeasure. +He had criticized the Hanoverians; and the king never +forgave him. The third George 'gloried in the name of +Englishman.' But the first two were Hanoverian all through. +And for an English guardsman to disparage the Hanoverian +army was considered next door to _lese-majeste_. + +Lady Dorchester burnt all her husband's private papers +after his death in 1808; so we have lost some of the most +intimate records concerning him. But 'grave Carleton' +appears so frequently in the letters of his friend Wolfe +that we can see his character as a young man in almost +any aspect short of self-revelation. The first reference +has nothing to do with affairs of state. In 1747 Wolfe, +aged twenty, writing to Miss Lacey, an English girl in +Brussels, and signing himself 'most sincerely your friend +and admirer,' says: 'I was doing the greatest injustice +to the dear girls to admit the least doubt of their +constancy. Perhaps with respect to ourselves there may +be cause of complaint. Carleton, I'm afraid, is a recent +example of it.' From this we may infer that Carleton was +less 'grave' as a young man than Wolfe found him later +on. Six years afterwards Wolfe strongly recommended him +for a position which he had himself been asked to fill, +that of military tutor to the young Duke of Richmond, +who was to get a company in Wolfe's own regiment. Writing +home from Paris in 1753 Wolfe tells his mother that the +duke 'wants some skilful man to travel with him through +the Low Countries and into Lorraine. I have proposed my +friend Carleton, whom Lord Albemarle approves of.' Lord +Albemarle was the British ambassador to France; so Carleton +got the post and travelled under the happiest auspices, +while learning the frontier on which the Belgian, French, +and British allies were to fight the Germans in the Great +World War of 1914. It was during this military tour of +fortified places that Carleton acquired the engineering +skill which a few years later proved of such service to +the British cause in Canada. + +In 1754 George Washington, at that time a young Virginian +officer of only twenty-two, fired the first shot in what +presently became the world-wide Seven Years' War. The +immediate result was disastrous to the British arms; and +Washington had to give up the command of the Ohio by +surrendering Fort Necessity to the French on--of all +dates--the 4th of July! In 1755 came Braddock's defeat. +In 1756 Montcalm arrived in Canada and won his first +victory at Oswego. In 1757 Wolfe distinguished himself +by formulating the plan which, if properly executed, +would have prevented the British fiasco at Rochefort on +the coast of France. But Carleton remained as undistinguished +as before. He simply became lieutenant-colonel commanding +the 72nd Foot, now the Seaforth Highlanders. In 1758 his +chance appeared to have come at last. Amherst had asked +for his services at Louisbourg. But the king had neither +forgotten nor forgiven the remarks about the Hanoverians, +and so refused point-blank, to Wolfe's 'very great grief +and disappointment... It is a public loss Carleton's not +going.' Wolfe's confidence in Carleton, either as a friend +or as an officer, was stronger than ever. Writing to +George Warde, afterwards the famous cavalry leader, he +said: 'Accidents may happen in the family that may throw +my little affairs into disorder. Carleton is so good as +to say he will give what help is in his power. May I ask +the same favour of you, my oldest friend?' Writing to +Lord George Sackville, of whom we shall hear more than +enough at the crisis of Carleton's career Wolfe said: +'Amherst will tell you his opinion of Carleton, by which +you will probably be better convinced of our loss.' Again, +'We want grave Carleton for every purpose of the war.' +And yet again, after the fall of Louisbourg: 'If His +Majesty had thought proper to let Carleton come with us +as engineer it would have cut the matter much shorter +and we might now be ruining the walls of Quebec and +completing the conquest of New France.' A little later +on Wolfe blazes out with indignation over Carleton's +supersession by a junior. 'Can Sir John Ligonier (the +commander-in-chief) allow His Majesty to remain +unacquainted with the merit of that officer, and can he +see such a mark of displeasure without endeavouring to +soften or clear the matter up a little? A man of honour +has the right to expect the protection of his Colonel +and of the Commander of the troops, and he can't serve +without it. If I was in Carleton's place I wouldn't stay +an hour in the Army after being aimed at and distinguished +in so remarkable a manner.' But Carleton bided his time. + +At the beginning of 1759 Wolfe was appointed to command +the army destined to besiege Quebec. He immediately +submitted Carleton's name for appointment as +quartermaster-general. Pitt and Ligonier heartily approved. +But the king again refused. Ligonier went back a second +time to no purpose. Pitt then sent him in for the third +time, saying, in a tone meant for the king to overhear: +'Tell His Majesty that in order to render the General +[Wolfe] completely responsible for his conduct he should +be made, as far as possible, inexcusable if he should +fail; and that whatever an officer entrusted with such +a service of confidence requests ought therefore to be +granted.' The king then consented. Thus began Carleton's +long, devoted, and successful service for Canada, the +Empire, and the Crown. + +Early in this memorable Empire Year of 1759 he sailed +with Wolfe and Saunders from Spithead. On the 30th of +April the fleet rendezvoused at Halifax, where Admiral +Durell, second-in-command to Saunders, had spent the +winter with a squadron intended to block the St Lawrence +directly navigation opened in the spring. Durell was a +good commonplace officer, but very slow. He had lost many +hands from sickness during a particularly cold season, +and he was not enterprising enough to start cruising +round Cabot Strait before the month of May. Saunders, +greatly annoyed by this delay, sent him off with eight +men-of-war on the 5th of May. Wolfe gave him seven hundred +soldiers under Carleton. These forces were sufficient to +turn back, capture, or destroy the twenty-three French +merchantmen which were then bound for Quebec with supplies +and soldiers as reinforcements for Montcalm. But the +French ships were a week ahead of Durell; and, when he +landed Carleton at Isle-aux-Coudres on the 28th of May, +the last of the enemy's transports had already discharged +her cargo at Quebec, sixty miles above. + +Isle-aux-Coudres, so named by Jacques Cartier in 1535, +was a point of great strategic importance; for it commanded +the only channel then used. It was the place Wolfe had +chosen for his winter quarters, that is, in case of +failure before Quebec and supposing he was not recalled. +None but a particularly good officer would have been +appointed as its first commandant. Carleton spent many +busy days here preparing an advanced base for the coming +siege, while the subsequently famous Captain Cook was +equally busy 'a-sounding of the channell of the Traverse' +which the fleet would have to pass on its way to Quebec. +Some of Durell's ships destroyed the French 'long-shore +batteries near this Traverse, at the lower end of the +island of Orleans, while the rest kept ceaseless watch +to seaward, anxiously scanning the offing, day after day, +to make out the colours of the first fleet up. No one +knew what the French West India fleet would do; and there +was a very disconcerting chance that it might run north +and slip into the St Lawrence, ahead of Saunders, in the +same way as the French reinforcements had just slipped +in ahead of Durell. Presently, at the first streak of +dawn on the 23rd of June, a strong squadron was seen +advancing rapidly under a press of sail. Instantly the +officers of the watch called all hands up from below. +The boatswains' whistles shrilled across the water as +the seamen ran to quarters and cleared the decks for +action. Carleton's camp was equally astir. The guards +turned out. The bugles sounded. The men fell in and +waited. Then the flag-ship signalled ashore that the +strangers had just answered correctly in private code +that all was well and that Wolfe and Saunders were aboard. + +Next to Wolfe himself Carleton was the busiest man +in the army throughout the siege of Quebec. In addition +to his arduous and very responsible duties as +quartermaster-general, he acted as inspector of engineers +and as a special-service officer for work of an +exceptionally confidential nature. As quartermaster-general +he superintended the supply and transport branches. +Considering that the army was operating in a devastated +hostile country, a thousand miles away from its bases at +Halifax and Louisbourg, and that the interaction of the +different services--naval and military, Imperial and +Colonial--required adjustment to a nicety at every turn, +it was wonderful that so much was done so well with means +which were far from being adequate. War prices of course +ruled in the British camp. But they compared very favourably +with the famine prices in Quebec, where most 'luxuries' +soon became unobtainable at any price. There were no +canteen or camp-follower scandals under Carleton. Then, +as now, every soldier had a regulation ration of food +and a regulation allowance for his service kit. But +'extras' were always acceptable. The price-list of these +'extras' reads strangely to modern ears. But, under the +circumstances, it was not exorbitant, and it was slightly +tempered by being reckoned in Halifax currency of four +dollars to the pound instead of five. The British Tommy +Atkins of that and many a later day thought Canada a +wonderful country for making money go a long way when he +could buy a pot of beer for twopence and get back thirteen +pence Halifax currency as change for his English shilling. +Beef and ham ran from ninepence to a shilling a pound. +Mutton was a little dearer. Salt butter was eightpence +to one-and-threepence. Cheese was tenpence; potatoes from +five to ten shillings a bushel. 'A reasonable loaf of +good soft Bread' cost sixpence. Soap was a shilling a +pound. Tea was prohibitive for all but the officers. +'Plain Green Tea and very Badd' was fifteen shillings, +'Couchon' twenty shillings, 'Hyson' thirty. Leaf tobacco +was tenpence a pound, roll one-and-tenpence, snuff +two-and-threepence. Sugar was a shilling to eighteen +pence. Lemons were sixpence apiece. The non-intoxicating +'Bad Sproos Beer' was only twopence a quart and helped +to keep off scurvy. Real beer, like wine and spirits, +was more expensive. 'Bristol Beer' was eighteen shillings +a dozen, 'Bad malt Drink from Hellifax' ninepence a quart. +Rum and claret were eight shillings a gallon each, port +and Madeira ten and twelve respectively. The term 'Bad' +did not then mean noxious, but only inferior. It stood +against every low-grade article in the price-list. No +goods were over-classified while Carleton was +quartermaster-general. + +The engineers were under-staffed, under-manned, and +overworked. There were no Royal Engineers as a permanent +and comprehensive corps till the time of Wellington. +Wolfe complained bitterly and often of the lack of men +and materials for scientific siege work. But he 'relied +on Carleton' to good purpose in this respect as well as +in many others. In his celebrated dispatch to Pitt he +mentions Carleton twice. It was Carleton whom he sent to +seize the west end of the island of Orleans, so as to +command the basin of Quebec, and Carleton whom he sent to +take prisoners and gather information at Pointe-aux-Trembles, +twenty miles above the city. Whether or not he revealed +the whole of his final plan to Carleton is probably more +than we shall ever know, since Carleton's papers were +destroyed. But we do know that he did not reveal it to +any one else, not even to his three brigadiers, Monckton, +Townshend, and Murray. + +Carleton was wounded in the head during the Battle of +the Plains; but soon returned to duty. Wolfe showed his +confidence in him to the last. Carleton's was the only +name mentioned twice in the will which Wolfe handed over +to Jervis, the future Lord St Vincent, the night before +the battle. 'I leave to Colonel Oughton, Colonel Carleton, +Colonel Howe, and Colonel Warde a thousand pounds each.' +'All my books and papers, both here and in England, I +leave to Colonel Carleton.' Wolfe's mother, who died five +years later, showed the same confidence by appointing +Carleton her executor. + +With the fall of Quebec in 1759 Carleton disappears from +the Canadian scene till 1766. But so many pregnant events +happened in Canada during these seven years, while so +few happened in his own career, that it is much more +important for us to follow her history than his biography. + +In 1761 he was wounded at the storming of Port Andro +during the attack on Belle Isle off the west coast of +France. In 1762 he was wounded at Havana in the West +Indies. After that he enjoyed four years of quietness at +home. Then came the exceedingly difficult task of guiding +Canada through twelve years of turbulent politics and +most subversive war. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +GENERAL MURRAY +1759-1766 + +Both armies spent a terrible winter after the Battle of +the Plains. There was better shelter for the French in +Montreal than for the British among the ruins of Quebec. +But in the matter of food the positions were reversed. +Nevertheless the French gallantly refused the truce +offered them by Murray, who had now succeeded Wolfe. They +were determined to make a supreme effort to regain Quebec +in the spring; and they were equally determined that the +habitants should not be free to supply the British with +provisions. + +In spite of the state of war, however, the French and +British officers, even as prisoners and captors, began +to make friends. They had found each other foemen worthy +of their steel. A distinguished French officer, the Comte +de Malartic, writing to Levis, Montcalm's successor, +said: 'I cannot speak too highly of General Murray, +although he is our enemy.' Murray, on his part, was +equally loud and generous in his praise of the French. +The Canadian seigneurs found fellow-gentlemen among +the British officers. The priests and nuns of Quebec +found many fellow-Catholics among the Scottish and Irish +troops, and nothing but courteous treatment from the +soldiers of every rank and form of religion. Murray +directed that 'the compliment of the hat' should be paid +to all religious processions. The Ursuline nuns knitted +long stockings for the bare-legged Highlanders when the +winter came on, and presented each Scottish officer with +an embroidered St Andrew's Cross on the 30th of November, +St Andrew's Day. The whole garrison won the regard of +the town by giving up part of their rations for the hungry +poor; while the habitants from the surrounding country +presently began to find out that the British were honest +to deal with and most humane, though sternly just, as +conquerors. + +In the following April Levis made his desperate throw +for victory; and actually did succeed in defeating Murray +outside the walls of Quebec. But the British fleet came +up in May; and that summer three British armies converged +on Montreal, where the last doomed remnants of French +power on the St Lawrence stood despairingly at bay. When +Levis found his two thousand effective French regulars +surrounded by eight times as many British troops he had +no choice but to lay down the arms of France for ever. +On the 8th of September 1760 his gallant little army was +included in the Capitulation of Montreal, by which the +whole of Canada passed into the possession of the British +Crown. + +Great Britain had a different general idea for each one +of the four decades which immediately followed the conquest +of Canada. In the sixties the general idea was to kill +refractory old French ways with a double dose of new +British liberty and kindness, so that Canada might +gradually become the loyal fourteenth colony of the Empire +in America. But the fates were against this benevolent +scheme. The French Canadians were firmly wedded to their +old ways of life, except in so far as the new liberty +enabled them to throw off irksome duties and restraints, +while the new English-speaking 'colonists' were so few, +and mostly so bad, that they became the cause of endless +discord where harmony was essential. In the seventies +the idea was to restore the old French-Canadian life so +as not only to make Canada proof against the disaffection +of the Thirteen Colonies but also to make her a safe base +of operations against rebellious Americans. In the eighties +the great concern of the government was to make a harmonious +whole out of two very widely differing parts--the +long-settled French Canadians and the newly arrived United +Empire Loyalists. In the nineties each of these parts +was set to work out its own salvation under its own +provincial constitution. + +Carleton's is the only personality which links together +all four decades--the would-be American sixties, the +French-Canadian seventies, the Anglo-French-Canadian +eighties, and the bi-constitutional nineties--though, as +mentioned already, Murray ruled Canada for the first +seven years, 1759-66. + +James Murray, the first British governor of Canada, was +a younger son of the fourth Lord Elibank. He was just +over forty, warm-hearted and warm-tempered, an excellent +French scholar, and every inch a soldier. He had been a +witness for the defence of Mordaunt at the court-martial +held to try the authors of the Rochefort fiasco in 1757. +Wolfe, who was a witness on the other side, referred to +him later on as 'my old antagonist Murray.' But Wolfe +knew a good man when he saw one and gave his full confidence +to his 'old antagonist' both at Louisbourg and Quebec. +Murray was not born under a lucky star. He saw three +defeats in three successive wars. He began his service +with the abortive attack on pestilential Cartagena, where +Wolfe's father was present as adjutant-general. In +mid-career he lost the battle of Ste Foy. [Footnote: +See _The Winning of Canada_, chap. viii. See also, for +the best account of this battle and other events of the +year between Wolfe's victory and the surrender of Montreal, +_The Fall of Canada_, by George M. Wrong. Oxford, 1914.] +And his active military life ended with his surrender of +Minorca in 1782. But he was greatly distinguished for +honour and steadfastness on all occasions. An admiring +contemporary described him as a model of all the military +virtues except prudence. But he had more prudence and +less genius than his admirer thought; and he showed a +marked talent for general government. The problem before +him was harder than his superiors could believe. He was +expected to prepare for assimilation some sixty-five +thousand 'new subjects' who were mostly alien in religion +and wholly alien in every other way. But, for the moment, +this proved the least of his many difficulties because +no immediate results were required. + +While the war went on in Europe Canada remained nominally +a part of the enemy's dominions, and so, of course, was +subject to military rule. Sir Jeffery Amherst, the British +commander-in-chief in America, took up his headquarters +in New York. Under him Murray commanded Canada from +Quebec. Under Murray, Colonel Burton commanded the district +of Three Rivers while General Gage commanded the district +of Montreal, which then extended to the western wilds. +[Footnote: See _The War Chief of the Ottawas_, chap. iii.] + +Murray's first great trouble arose in 1761. It was caused +by an outrageous War Office order that fourpence a day +should be stopped from the soldiers to pay for the rations +they had always got free. Such gross injustice, coming +in time of war and applied to soldiers who richly deserved +reward, made the veterans 'mad with rage.' Quebec promised +to be the scene of a wild mutiny. Murray, like all his +officers, thought the stoppage nothing short of robbery. +But he threw himself into the breach. He assembled the +officers and explained that they must die to the last +man rather than allow the mutineers a free hand. He then +held a general parade at which he ordered the troops to +march between two flag-poles on pain of instant death, +promising to kill with his own hands the first man who +refused. He added that he was ready to hear and forward +any well-founded complaint, but that, since insubordination +had been openly threatened, he would insist on subordination +being publicly shown. Then, amid tense silence, he gave +the word of command--_Quick, March!_--while every officer +felt his trigger. To the immense relief of all concerned +the men stepped off, marched straight between the flags +and back to quarters, tamed. The criminal War Office +blunder was rectified and peace was restored in the ranks. + +'Murray's Report' of 1762 gives us a good view of the +Canada of that day and shows the attitude of the British +towards their new possession. Canada had been conquered +by Great Britain, with some help from the American +colonies, for three main reasons: first, to strike a +death-blow at French dominion in America; secondly, to +increase the opportunities of British seaborne trade; +and, thirdly, to enlarge the area available for British +settlement. When Murray was instructed to prepare a report +on Canada he had to keep all this in mind; for the +government wished to satisfy the public both at home and +in the colonies. He had to examine the military strength +of the country and the disposition of its population in +case of future wars with France. He had to satisfy the +natural curiosity of men like the London merchants. And +he had to show how and where English-speaking settlers +could go in and make Canada not only a British possession +but the fourteenth British colony in North America. Burton +and Gage were also instructed to report about their own +districts of Three Rivers and Montreal. The documents +they prepared were tacked on to Murray's. By June 1762 +the work was completed and sent on to Amherst, who sent +it to England in ample time to be studied there before +the opening of the impending negotiations for peace. + +Murray was greatly concerned about the military strength +of Quebec, then, as always, the key of Canada. Like the +unfortunate Montcalm he found the walls of Quebec badly +built, badly placed, and falling into ruins, and he +thought they could not be defended by three thousand men +against 'a well conducted _Coup-de-main_.' He proposed +to crown Cape Diamond with a proper citadel, which would +overawe the disaffected in Quebec itself and defend the +place against an outside enemy long enough to let a +British fleet come up to its relief. The rest of the +country was defended by little garrisons at Three Rivers +and Montreal as well as by several small detachments +distributed among the trading-posts where the white men +and the red met in the depths of the western wilderness. + +The relations between the British garrison and the French +Canadians were so excellent that what Gage reported from +Montreal might be taken as equally true of the rest of +the country: 'The Soldiers live peaceably with the +Inhabitants and they reciprocally acquire an affection +for each other.' The French Canadians numbered sixty-five +thousand altogether, exclusive of the fur traders and +coureurs de bois. Barely fifteen thousand lived in the +three little towns of Quebec, Montreal, and Three Rivers; +while over fifty thousand lived in the country. Nearly +all the officials had gone back to France. The three +classes of greatest importance were the seigneurs, the +clergy, and the habitants. The lawyers were not of much +account; the petty commercial classes of less account +still. The coureurs de bois and other fur traders formed +an important link between the savage and the civilized +life of the country. + +Apart from furs the trade of Canada was contemptibly +small in the eyes of men like the London merchants. But +the opportunity of fostering all the fur trade that could +be carried down the St Lawrence was very well worth while; +and if there was no other existing trade worth capturing +there seemed to be some kinds worth creating. Murray held +out well-grounded hopes of the fisheries and forests. 'A +Most immense Cod Fishery can be established in the River +and Gulph of St Lawrence. A rich tract of country on the +South Side of the Gulph will be settled and improved, +and a port or ports furnished with every material requisite +to repair ships.' He then went on to enumerate the other +kinds of fishery, the abundance of whales, seals, and +walruses in the Gulf, and of salmon up all the tributary +rivers. Burton recommends immediate attention to the iron +mines behind Three Rivers. All the governors expatiate +on the vast amount of forest wealth and remind the home +government that under the French regime the king, when +making out patents for the seigneurs, reserved the right +of taking wood for ship-building and fortifications from +any of the seigneuries. Agriculture was found to be in +a very backward state. The habitants would raise no more +than they required for their own use and for a little +local trade. But the fault was attributed to the gambling +attractions of the fur trade, to the bad governmental +system, and to the frequent interruptions of the _corvee_, +a kind of forced labour which was meant to serve the +public interest, but which Bigot and other thievish +officials always turned to their own private advantage. +On the whole, the reports were most encouraging in the +prospects they held out to honest labour, trade, and +government. + +While Murray and his lieutenants had been collecting +information for their reports the home government had +been undergoing many changes for the worse. The +master-statesman Pitt had gone out of power and the +back-stairs politician Bute had come in. Pitt's 'bloody +and expensive war'--the war that more than any other, +laid the foundations of the present British Empire--was +to be ended on any terms the country could be persuaded +to bear. Thus the end of the Seven Years' War, or, as +the British part of it was more correctly called, the +'Maritime War,' was no more glorious in statesmanship +than its beginning had been in arms. But the spirit of +its mighty heart still lived on in the Empire's grateful +memories of Pitt and quickened the English-speaking world +enough to prevent any really disgraceful surrender of +the hard-won fruits of victory. + +The Treaty of Paris, signed on the 10th of February 1763, +and the king's proclamation, published in October, were +duly followed by the inauguration of civil government in +Canada. The incompetent Bute, anxious to get Pitt out of +the way, tried to induce him to become the first British +governor of the new colony. Even Bute probably never +dared to hope that Pitt would actually go out to Canada. +But he did hope to lower his prestige by making him the +holder of a sinecure at home. However this may be, Pitt, +mightiest of all parliamentary ministers of war, refused +to be made either a jobber or an exile; whereupon Murray's +position was changed from a military command into that +of 'Governor and Captain-General.' + +The changes which ensued in the laws of Canada were +heartily welcomed so far as the adoption of the humaner +criminal code of England was concerned. The new laws +relating to debtor and creditor also gave general +satisfaction, except, as we shall presently see, when +they involved imprisonment for debt. But the tentative +efforts to introduce English civil law side by side with +the old French code resulted in great confusion and much +discontent. The land laws had become so unworkable under +this dual system that they had to be left as they were. +A Court of Common Pleas was set up specially for the +benefit of the French Canadians. If either party demanded +a jury one had to be sworn in; and French Canadians were +to be jurors on equal terms with 'the King's Old Subjects.' +The Roman Catholic Church was to be completely tolerated +but not in any way established. Lord Egremont, in giving +the king's instructions to Murray, reminded him that the +proviso in the Treaty of Paris--_as far as the Laws of +Great Britain permit_--should govern his action whenever +disputes arose. It must be remembered that the last +Jacobite rising was then a comparatively recent affair, +and that France was equally ready to upset either the +Protestant succession in England or the British regime +in Canada. + +The Indians were also an object of special solicitude in +the royal proclamation. 'The Indians who live under our +Protection should not be molested in the possession of +such parts of our Dominions and Territories as, not having +been ceded to or purchased by Us, are reserved to them.' +The home government was far in advance of the American +colonists in its humane attitude towards the Indians. +The common American attitude then and long afterwards +--indeed, up to a time well within living memory--was +that Indians were a kind of human vermin to be exterminated +without mercy, unless, of course, more money was to be +made out of them alive. The result was an endless struggle +along the ever-receding frontier of the West. And just +at this particular time the 'Conspiracy of Pontiac' had +brought about something like a real war. The story of +this great effort of the Indians to stem the encroachments +of the exterminating colonists is told in another chronicle +of the present Series. [Footnote: The War Chief of the +Ottawas.] The French traders in the West undoubtedly had +a hand in stirring up the Indians. Pontiac, a sort of +Indian Napoleon, was undoubtedly cruel as well as crafty. +And the Indians undoubtedly fought just as the ancestors +of the French and British used to fight when they were +at the corresponding stage of social evolution. But the +mere fact that so many jealously distinct tribes united +in this common cause proves how much they all must have +suffered at the hands of the colonists. + +While Pontiac's war continued in the West Murray had to +deal with a political war in Canada which rose to its +height in 1764. The king's proclamation of the previous +October had 'given express Power to our Governor that, +so soon as the state and circumstances of the said Colony +will admit thereof, he shall call a General Assembly in +such manner and form as is used in those Colonies and +Provinces in America which are under our immediate +government.' The intention of establishing parliamentary +institutions was, therefore, perfectly clear. But it was +equally clear that the introduction of such institutions +was to depend on 'circumstances,' and it is well to +remember here that these 'circumstances' were not held +to warrant the opening of a Canadian parliament till +1792. Now, the military government had been a great +success. There was every reason to suppose that civil +government by a governor and council would be the next +best thing. And it was quite certain that calling a +'General Assembly' at once would defeat the very ends +which such bodies are designed to serve. More than +ninety-nine per cent of the population were dead against +an assembly which none of them understood and all +distrusted. On the other hand, the clamorous minority of +less than one per cent were in favour only of a parliament +from which the majority should be rigorously excluded, +even, if possible, as voters. The immense majority +comprised the entire French-Canadian community. The +absurdly small minority consisted mostly of Americanized +camp-following traders, who, having come to fish in +troubled waters, naturally wanted the laws made to suit +poachers. The British garrison, the governing officials, +and the very few other English-speaking people of a more +enlightened class all looked down on the rancorous +minority. The whole question resolved itself into this: +should Canada be handed over to the licensed exploitation +of a few hundred low-class camp-followers, who had done +nothing to win her for the British Empire, who were +despised by those who had, and who promised to be a +dangerous thorn in the side of the new colony? + +What this ridiculous minority of grab-alls really wanted +was not a parliament but a rump. Many a representative +assembly has ended in a rump, The grab-alls wished to +begin with one and stop there. It might be supposed that +such pretensions would defeat themselves. But there was +a twofold difficulty in the way of getting the truth +understood by the English-speaking public on both sides +of the Atlantic. In the first place, the French Canadians +were practically dumb to the outside world. In the second, +the vociferous rumpites had the ear of some English and +more American commercial people who were not anxious to +understand; while the great mass of the general public +were inclined to think, if they ever thought at all, that +parliamentary government must mean more liberty for every +one concerned. + +A singularly apt commentary on the pretensions of the +camp-followers is supplied by the famous, or infamous, +'Presentment of the Grand Jury of Quebec' in October +1764. The moving spirits of this precious jury were +aspirants to membership in the strictly exclusive, rumpish +little parliament of their own seeking. The signatures +of the French-Canadian members were obtained by fraud, +as was subsequently proved by a sworn official protestation. +The first presentment tells its own tale, as it refers +to the only courts in which French-Canadian lawyers were +allowed to plead. 'The great number of inferior Courts +are tiresome, litigious, and expensive to this poor +Colony.' Then came a hit at the previous military +rule--'That Decrees of the military Courts may be amended +[after having been confirmed by legal ordinance] by +allowing Appeals if the matter decided exceed Ten Pounds,' +which would put it out of the reach of the 'inferior +Courts' and into the clutches of 'the King's Old Subjects.' +But the gist of it all was contained in the following: +'We represent that as the Grand Jury must be considered +at present as the only Body representative of the Colony, +... We propose that the Publick Accounts be laid before +the Grand Jury at least twice a year.' That the grand +jury was to be purged of all its French-Canadian members +is evident from the addendum slipped in behind their +backs. This addendum is a fine specimen of verbose +invective against 'the Church of Rome,' the Pope, Bulls, +Briefs, absolutions, etc., the empanelling 'en Grand and +petty Jurys' of 'papist or popish Recusants Convict,' +and so on. + +The 'Presentment of the Grand Jury' was presently followed +by _The Humble Petition of Your Majesty's most faithful +and loyal Subjects, British Merchants and Traders, in +behalf of Themselves and their fellow Subjects, Inhabitants +of Your Majesty's Province of Quebec_. 'Their fellow +Subjects' did not, of course, include any 'papist or +popish Recusants Convict.' Among the 'Grievances and +Distresses' enumerated were 'the oppressive and severely +felt Military government,' the inability to 'reap the +fruit of our Industry' under such a martinet as Murray, +who, in one paragraph, is accused of 'suppressing dutyfull +Remonstrances in Silence' and, in the next, of 'treating +them with a Rage and Rudeness of Language and Demeanor +as dishonourable to the Trust he holds of Your Majesty +as painfull to Those who suffer from it.' Finally, the +petitioners solemnly warn His Majesty that their 'Lives +in the Province are so very unhappy that we must be under +the Necessity of removing from it, unless timely prevented +by a Removal of the present Governor.' + +In forwarding this document Murray poured out the vials +of his wrath on 'the Licentious Fanaticks Trading here,' +while he boldly championed the cause of the French +Canadians, 'a Race, who, could they be indulged with a +few priveledges which the Laws of England deny to Roman +Catholicks at home, would soon get the better of every +National Antipathy to their Conquerors and become the +most faithful and most useful set of Men in this American +Empire.' + +While these charges and counter-charges were crossing +the Atlantic another, and much more violent, trouble came +to a head. As there were no barracks in Canada billeting +was a necessity. It was made as little burdensome as +possible and the houses of magistrates were specially +exempt. This, however, did not prevent the magistrates +from baiting the military whenever they got the chance. +Fines, imprisonments, and other sentences, out of all +proportion to the offence committed, were heaped on every +redcoat in much the same way as was then being practised +in Boston and other hotbeds of disaffection. The redcoats +had done their work in ridding America of the old French +menace. They were doing it now in ridding the colonies +of the last serious menace from the Indians. And so the +colonists, having no further use for them, began trying +to make the land they had delivered too hot to hold them. +There were, of course, exceptions; and the American +colonists had some real as well as pretended grievances. +But wantonly baiting the redcoats had already become a +most discreditable general practice. + +Montreal was most in touch with the disaffected people +to the south. It also had a magistrate of the name of +Walker, the most rancorous of all the disaffected +magistrates in Canada. This Walker, well mated with an +equally rancorous wife, was the same man who entertained +Benjamin Franklin and the other commissioners sent by +Congress into Canada in 1776, the year in which both the +American Republic and a truly British Canada were born. +He would not have been flattered could he have seen the +entry Franklin made about him and his wife in a diary +which is still extant. The gist of it was that wherever +the Walkers might be they would soon set the place by +the ears. Walker, of course, was foremost in the persecution +of the redcoats; and he eagerly seized his opportunity +when an officer was billeted in a house where a brother +magistrate happened to be living as a lodger. Under such +circumstances the magistrate could not claim exemption. +But this made no difference either to him or to Walker. +Captain Payne, the gentleman whose presence enraged these +boors, was seized and thrown into gaol. The chief justice +granted a writ of habeas corpus. But the mischief was +done and resentment waxed high. The French-Canadian +seigneurs sympathized with Payne, which added fuel to +the magisterial flame; and Murray, scenting danger, +summoned the whole bench down to Quebec. + +But before this bench of bumbles started some masked men +seized Walker in his own house and gave him a good sound +thrashing. Unfortunately they spoilt the fair reprisal +by cutting off his ear. That very night the news had run +round Montreal and made a start for Boston and Quebec. +Feeling ran high; and higher still when, a few weeks +later, the civil magistrates vented their rage on several +redcoats by imposing sentences exceeding even the utmost +limits of their previous vindictive action. Montreal +became panic-stricken lest the soldiers, baited past +endurance, should break out in open violence. Murray +drove up, post-haste, from Quebec, ordered the affected +regiment to another station, reproved the offending +magistrates, and re-established public confidence. Official +and private rewards were offered to any witnesses who +would identify Walker's assailants. But in vain. The +smouldering fire burst out again under Carleton. But the +mystery was never cleared up. + +Things had now come to a crisis. The London merchants, +knowing nothing about the internal affairs of Canada, +backed the petition of the Quebec traders, who were quite +unworthy of such support from men of real business probity +and knowledge. The magisterial faction in Canada advertised +their side of the case all over the colonies and in any +sympathetic quarter they could find in England. The +seigneurs sent home a warm defence of Murray; and Murray +himself sent Cramahe, a very able Swiss officer in the +British Army. The home government thus had plenty of +contradictory evidence before it in 1765. The result was +that Murray was called home in 1766, rather in a spirit +of open-minded and sympathetic inquiry into his conduct +than with any idea of censuring him. He never returned +to Canada. But as he held the titular governorship for +some time longer, and as he was afterwards employed in +positions of great responsibility and trust, the verdict +of the home authorities was clearly given in his favour. + +The troublous year of 1764 saw another innovation almost +as revolutionary, compared with the old regime, as the +introduction of civil government itself. This was the +issue of the first newspaper in Canada, where, indeed, +it was also the first printed thing of any kind. Nova +Scotia had produced an earlier paper, the _Halifax +Gazette_, which lived an intermittent life from 1752 to +1800. But no press had ever been allowed in New France. +The few documents that required printing had always been +done in the mother country. Brown and Gilmore, two +Philadelphians, were thus undertaking a pioneer business +when they announced that 'Our Design is, in case we are +fortunate enough to succeed, early in this spring to +settle in this City [Quebec] in the capacity of Printers, +and forthwith to publish a weekly newspaper in French +and English.' The _Quebec Gazette_, which first appeared +on the 21st of the following June, has continued to the +present time, though it is now a daily and is known as +the _Quebec Chronicle_. Centenarian papers are not common +in any country; and those that have lived over a century +and a half are very few indeed. So the _Quebec Chronicle_, +which is the second surviving senior in America, is also +among the great press seniors of the world. + +The original number is one of the curiosities of journalism. +The publishers felt tolerably sure of having what was +then considered a good deal of recent news for their +three hundred readers during the open season. But, knowing +that the supply would be both short and stale in winter, +they held out prospects of a Canadian _Tatler_ or _Spectator_, +without, however, being rash enough to promise a supply +of Addisons and Steeles. Their announcement makes curious +reading at the present day. + + The Rigour of Winter preventing the arrival of ships + from _Europe_, and in a great measure interrupting + the ordinary intercourse with the Southern Provinces, + it will be necessary, in a paper designed for General + Perusal, and Publick Utility, to provide some things + of general Entertainment, independent of foreign + intelligence: we shall therefore, on such occasions, + present our Readers with such _Originals_, both in + _Prose_ and _Verse_, as will please the FANCY and + instruct the JUDGMENT. And here we beg leave to observe + that we shall have nothing so much at heart as the + support of VIRTUE and MORALITY and the noble cause of + LIBERTY. The refined amusements of LITERATURE, and + the pleasing veins of well pointed wit, shall also be + considered as necessary to this collection; interspersed + with chosen pieces, and curious essays, extracted from + the most celebrated authors; So that, blending PHILOSOPHY + with POLITICKS, HISTORY, &c., the youth of both sexes + will be improved and persons of all ranks agreeably + and usefully entertained. And upon the whole we will + labour to attain to all the exactness that so much + variety will permit, and give as much variety as will + consist with a reasonable exactness. And as this part + of our project cannot be carried into execution without + the correspondence of the INGENIOUS, we shall take + all opportunities of acknowledging our obligations, + to those who take the trouble of furnishing any matter + which shall tend to entertainment or instruction. Our + Intentions to please the _Whole_, without offence to + any _Individual_, will be better evinced by our practice, + than by writing volumes on the subject. This one thing + we beg may be believed, that PARTY PREJUDICE, or + PRIVATE SCANDAL, will never find a place in this PAPER. + + + + +GOVERNOR CARLETON +1766-1774 + +The twelve years of Carleton's first administration +naturally fall into three distinct periods of equal +length. During the first he was busily employed settling +as many difficulties as he could, examining the general +state of the country, and gradually growing into the +change that was developing in the minds of the home +government, the change, that is, from the Americanizing +sixties to the French-Canadian seventies. During the +second period he was in England, helping to shape the +famous Quebec Act. During the third he was defending +Canada from American attack and aiding the British +counterstroke by every means in his power. + +On the 22nd of September 1766 Carleton arrived at Quebec +and began his thirty years' experience as a Canadian +administrator by taking over the government from Colonel +Irving, who had held it since Murray's departure in the +spring. Irving had succeeded Murray simply because he +happened to be the senior officer present at the time. +Carleton himself was technically Murray's lieutenant till +1768. But neither of these facts really affected the +course of Canadian history. + +The Council, the magistrates, and the traders each +presented. the new governor with an address containing +the usual professions of loyal devotion. Carleton remarked +in his dispatch that these separate addresses, and the +marked absence of any united address, showed how much +the population was divided. He also noted that a good +many of the English-speaking minority had objected to +the addresses on account of their own opposition to the +Stamp Act, and that there had been some broken heads in +consequence. Troubles enough soon engaged his anxious +attention--troubles over the Indian trade, the rights +and wrongs of the Canadian Jesuits, the wounded dignity +of some members of the Council, and the still smouldering +and ever mysterious Walker affair. + +The strife between Canada and the Thirteen Colonies over +the Indian trade of the West remained the same in principle +as under the old regime. The Conquest had merely changed +the old rivalry between two foreign powers into one +between two widely differing British possessions; and +this, because of the general unrest among the Americans, +made the competition more bitter, if possible, than ever. + +The Jesuits pressed their claims for recognition, for +their original estates, and for compensation. But their +order had fallen on evil days all over the world. It was +not popular even in Canada. And the arrangement was that +while the existing members were to be treated with every +consideration the Society itself was to be allowed to +die out. + +The offended councillors went so far as to present Carleton +with a remonstrance which Irving himself had the misfortune +to sign. Carleton had consulted some members on points +with which they were specially acquainted. The members +who had not been consulted thereupon protested to Irving, +who assured them that Carleton must have done so by +accident, not design. But when Carleton received a joint +letter in which they said, 'As you are pleased to signifye +to Us by Coll. Irving that it was accident, & not +Intention,' he at once replied: 'As Lieutenant Colonel +Irving has signified to you that the Part of my Conduct +you think worthy of your Reprehension happened by Accident +let him explain his reasons for so doing. He had no +authority from me.' Carleton then went on to say that he +would consult any 'Men of Good Sense, Truth, Candour, +and Impartial Justice' whenever he chose, no matter +whether they were councillors or not. + +The Walker affair, which now broke out again, was much +more serious than the storm in the Council's teacup. It +agitated the whole of Canada and threatened to range the +population of Montreal and Quebec into two irreconcilable +factions, the civil and the military. For the whole of +the two years since Murray had been called upon to deal +with it cleverly presented versions of Walker's views +had been spread all over the colonies and worked into +influential Opposition circles in England. The invectives +against the redcoats and their friends the seigneurs were +of the usual abusive type. But they had an unusually +powerful effect at that particular time in the Thirteen +Colonies as well as in what their authors hoped to make +a Fourteenth Colony after a fashion of their own; and +they looked plausible enough to mislead a good many +moderate men in the mother country too. Walker's case +was that he had an actual witness, as to the identity of +his assailants, in the person of McGovoch, a discharged +soldier, who laid information against one civilian, three +British officers, and the celebrated French-Canadian +leader, La Corne de St Luc. All the accused were arrested +in their beds in Montreal and thrown into the common +gaol. Walker objected to bail on the plea that his life +would be in danger if they were allowed at large. He also +sought to postpone the trial in order to punish the +accused as much as possible, guilty or innocent. But +William Hey, the chief justice, an able and upright man, +would consent to postponement only on condition that bail +should be allowed; so the trial proceeded. When the grand +jury threw out the case against one of the prisoners +Walker let loose such a flood of virulent abuse that +moderate men were turned against him. In the end all the +accused were honourably acquitted, while McGovoch, who +was proved to have been a false witness from the first, +was convicted of perjury. Carleton remained absolutely +impartial all through, and even dismissed Colonel Irving +and another member of the Council for heading a petition +on behalf of the military prisoners. + +The Walker affair was an instance of a bad case in which +the law at last worked well. But there were many others +in which it did not. What with the _Coutume de Paris_, +which is still quoted in the province of Quebec; the +other complexities of the old French law; the doubtful +meanings drawn from the capitulation, the treaty, the +proclamation, and the various ordinances; the instinctive +opposition between the French Canadians and the +English-speaking civilians; and, finally, what with the +portents of subversive change that were already beginning +to overshadow all America,--what with all this and more, +Carleton found himself faced with a problem which no man +could have solved to the satisfaction of every one +concerned. Each side in a lawsuit took whatever amalgam +of French and English codes was best for its own argument. +But, generally speaking, the ingrained feeling of the +French Canadians was against any change of their own laws +that was not visibly and immediately beneficial to their +own particular interests. Moreover, the use of the unknown +English language, the worthlessness of the rapacious +English-speaking magistrates, and the detested innovation +of imprisonment for debt, all combined to make every part +of English civil law hated simply because it happened to +be English and not French. The home authorities were +anxious to find some workable compromise. In 1767 Carleton +exchanged several important dispatches with them; and in +1768 they sent out Maurice Morgan to study and report, +after consultation with the chief justice and 'other well +instructed persons.' Morgan was an indefatigable and +clear-sighted man who deserves to be gratefully remembered +by both races; for he was a good friend both to the French +Canadians before the Quebec Act and to the United Empire +Loyalists just before their great migration, when he was +Carleton's secretary at New York. In 1769 the official +correspondence entered the 'secret and confidential' +stage with a dispatch from the home government to Carleton +suggesting a House of Representatives to which, practically +speaking, the towns would send Protestant members and +the country districts Roman Catholics. + +In 1770 Carleton sailed for England. He carried a good +deal of hard-won experience with him, both on this point +and on many others. He went home with a strong opinion +not only against an assembly but against any immediate +attempts at Anglicization in any form. The royal +instructions that had accompanied his commission as +'Captain-General and Governor-in-chief' in 1768 contained +directions for establishing the Church of England with a +view to converting the whole population to its tenets later +on. But no steps had been taken, and, needless to say, the +French Canadians remained as Roman Catholic as ever. + +An increasingly important question, soon to overshadow +all others, was defence. In April 1768 Carleton had +proposed the restoration of the seigneurial militia +system. 'All the Lands here are held of His Majesty's +Castle of St Lewis [the governor's official residence in +Quebec]. The Oath which the Vassals [seigneurs] take is +very Solemn and Binding. They are obliged to appear in +Arms for the King's defence, in case his Province is +attacked.' Carleton pointed out that a hundred men of +the Canadian seigneurial families were being kept on full +pay in France, ready to return and raise the Canadians +at the first opportunity. 'On the other hand, there are +only about seventy of these officers in Canada who have +been in the French service. Not one of them has been +given a commission in the King's [George's] Service, nor +is there One who, from any motive whatever, is induced +to support His Government.' The few French Canadians +raised for Pontiac's war had of course been properly paid +during the continuance of their active service. But they +had been disbanded like mere militia afterwards, without +either gratuities or half-pay for the officers. This +naturally made the class from which officers were drawn +think that no career was open to them under the Union +Jack and turned their thoughts towards France, where +their fellows were enjoying full pay without a break. + +What made this the more serious was the weakness of the +regular garrisons, all of which, put together, numbered +only 1,627 men. Carleton calculated that about five +hundred of 'the King's Old Subjects' were capable of +bearing arms; though most of them were better at talking +than fighting. He had nothing but contempt for 'the flimsy +wall round Montreal,' and relied little more on the very +defective works at Quebec. Thus with all his wonderful +equanimity, 'grave Carleton' left Canada with no light +heart when he took six months' leave of absence in 1770; +and he would have been more anxious still if he could +have foreseen that his absence was to be prolonged to no +less than four years. + +He had, however, two great satisfactions. He was +represented at Quebec by a most steadfast lieutenant, +the quiet, alert, discreet, and determined Cramahe; and +he was leaving Canada after having given proof of a +disinterestedness which was worthy of the elder Pitt +himself. When Pitt became Paymaster-General of England +he at once declined to use the two chief perquisites of +his office, the interest on the government balance and +the half per cent commission on foreign subsidies, though +both were regarded as a kind of indirect salary. When +Carleton became governor of Canada he at once issued a +proclamation abolishing all the fees and perquisites +attached to his position and explained his action to the +home authorities in the following words: 'There is a +certain appearance of dirt, a sort of meanness, in exacting +fees on every occasion. I think it necessary for the +King's service that his representative should be thought +unsullied.' Murray, who had accepted the fees, at first +took umbrage. But Carleton soon put matters straight with +him. The fact was that fees, and even certain perquisites, +were no dishonour to receive, as they nearly always formed +a recognized part, and often the whole, of a perfectly +legal salary. But fees and perquisites could be abused; +and they did lead to misunderstandings, even when they +were not abused; while fixed salaries were free from both +objections. So Carleton, surrounded by shamelessly +rapacious magistrates and the whole vile camp-following +gang, as well as by French Canadians who had suffered +from the robberies of Bigot and his like, decided to +sacrifice everything but his indispensable fixed salary +in order that even the most malicious critics could not +bring any accusation, however false, against the man who +represented Britain and her king. + +An interesting personal interlude, which was not without +considerable effect on Canadian history, took place in +the middle of Carleton's four years' stay in England. He +was forty-eight and still a bachelor. Tradition whispers +that these long years of single life were the result of +a disappointing love affair with Jane Carleton, a pretty +cousin, when both he and she were young. However that +may be, he now proposed to Lady Anne Howard, whose father, +the Earl of Effingham, was one of his greatest friends. +But he was doomed to a second, though doubtless very +minor, disappointment. Lady Anne, who probably looked on +'grave Carleton' as a sort of amiable, middle-aged uncle, +had fallen in love with his nephew, whom she presently +married, and with whom she afterwards went out to Canada, +where her husband served under the rejected uncle himself. +What added spice to this peculiar situation was the fact +that Carleton actually married the younger sister of the +too-youthful Lady Anne. When Lady Anne rejoined her sister +and their bosom friend, Miss Seymour, after the +disconcerting interview with Carleton, she explained her +tears by saying they were due to her having been 'obliged +to refuse the best man on earth.' 'The more fool you!' +answered the younger sister, Lady Maria, then just +eighteen, 'I only wish he had given me the chance!' There, +for the time, the matter ended. Carleton went back to +his official duties in furtherance of the Quebec Act. +His nephew and the elder sister made mutual love. Lady +Maria held her tongue. But Miss Seymour had not forgotten; +and one day she mustered up courage to tell Carleton the +story of 'the more fool you!' This decided him to act at +once. He proposed; was accepted; and lived happily married +for the rest of his long life. Lady Maria was small, +fair-haired, and blue-eyed, which heightened her girlish +appearance when, like Madame de Champlain, she came out +to Canada with a husband more than old enough to be her +father. But she had been brought up at Versailles. She +knew all the aristocratic graces of the old regime. And +her slight, upright figure--erect as any soldier's to +her dying day--almost matched her husband's stalwart form +in dignity of carriage. + +The Quebec Act of 1774--the Magna Charta of the +French-Canadian race--finally passed the House of Lords +on the 18th of June. The general idea of the Act was to +reverse the unsuccessful policy of ultimate assimilation +with the other American colonies by making Canada a +distinctly French-Canadian province. The Maritime Provinces, +with a population of some thirty thousand, were to be as +English as they chose. But a greatly enlarged Quebec, +with a population of ninety thousand, and stretching far +into the unsettled West, was to remain equally +French-Canadian; though the rights of what it was then +thought would be a perpetual English-speaking minority +were to be safeguarded in every reasonable way. The whole +country between the American colonies and the domains of +the Hudson's Bay Company was included in this new Quebec, +which comprised the southern half of what is now the +Newfoundland Labrador, practically the whole of the modern +provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and all the western +lands between the Ohio and the Great Lakes as far as the +Mississippi, that is, the modern American states of Ohio, +Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. + +The Act gave Canada the English criminal code. It recognized +most of the French civil law, including the seigneurial +tenure of land. Roman Catholics were given 'the free +Exercise' of their religion, 'subject to the King's +Supremacy' as defined 'by an Act made in the First Year +of Queen Elizabeth,' which Act, with a magnificently +prophetic outlook on the future British Empire, was to +apply to 'all the Dominions and Countries which then did, +or thereafter should, belong to the Imperial Crown.' The +Roman Catholic clergy were authorized to collect 'their +accustomed Dues and Rights' from members of their own +communion. The new oath of allegiance to the Crown was +silent about differences of religion, so that Roman +Catholics might take it without question. The clergy and +seigneurs were thus restored to an acknowledged leadership +in church and state. Those who wanted a parliament were +distinctly told that 'It is at present inexpedient to +call an Assembly,' and that a Council of from seventeen +to twenty-three members, all appointed by the Crown, +would attend to local government and have power to levy +taxes for roads and public buildings only. Lands held +'in free and common socage' were to be dealt with by the +laws of England, as was all property which could be freely +willed away. A possible establishment of the Church of +England was provided for but never put in operation. + +In some ways the Act did, in other ways it did not, fulfil +the objects of its framers. It was undoubtedly a generous +concession to the leading French Canadians. It did help +to keep Canada both British and Canadian. And it did open +the way for what ought to have been a crushing attack on +the American revolutionary forces. But it was not, and +neither it nor any other Act could possibly have been, +at that late hour, completely successful. It conciliated +the seigneurs and the parochial clergy. But it did not, +and it could not, also conciliate the lesser townsfolk +and the habitants. For the last fourteen years the +habitants had been gradually drifting away from their +former habits of obedience and former obligations towards +their leaders in church and state. The leaders had lost +their old followers. The followers had found no new +leaders of their own. + +Naturally enough, there was great satisfaction among the +seigneurs and the clergy, with a general feeling among +government supporters, both in England and Canada, that +the best solution of a very refractory problem had been +found at last. On the other hand, the Opposition in +England, nearly every one in the American colonies, and +the great majority of English-speaking people in +Newfoundland, the Maritime Provinces, and Canada itself +were dead against the Act; while the habitants, resenting +the privileges already reaffirmed in favour of the +seigneurs and clergy, and suspicious of further changes +in the same unwelcome direction, were neutral at the best +and hostile at the worst. + +The American colonists would have been angered in any +case. But when they saw Canada proper made as unlike a +'fourteenth colony' as could be, and when they also saw +the gates of the coveted western lands closed against +them by the same detested Act--the last of the 'five +intolerable acts' to which they most objected--their fury +knew no bounds. They cursed the king, the pope, and the +French Canadians with as much violence as any temporal +or spiritual rulers had ever cursed heretics and rebels. +The 'infamous and tyrannical ministry' in England was +accused of 'contemptible subservience' to the 'bloodthirsty, +idolatrous, and hypocritical creed' of the French Canadians. +To think that people whose religion had spread 'murder, +persecution, and revolt throughout the world' were to be +entrenched along the St Lawrence was bad enough. But to +see Crown protection given to the Indian lands which the +Americans considered their own western 'birthright' was +infinitely worse. Was the king of England to steal the +valley of the Mississippi in the same way as the king of +France? + +It is easy to be wise after the event and hard to follow +any counsel of perfection. But it must always be a subject +of keen, if unavailing, regret that the French Canadians +were not guaranteed their own way of life, within the +limits of the modern province of Quebec, immediately +after the capitulation of Montreal in 1760. They would +then have entered the British Empire, as a whole people, +on terms which they must all have understood to be +exceedingly generous from any conquering power, and which +they would have soon found out to be far better than +anything they had experienced under the government of +France. In return for such unexampled generosity they +might have become convinced defenders of the only flag +in the world under which they could possibly live as +French Canadians. Their relations to each other, to the +rest of a changing Canada, and to the Empire would have +followed the natural course of political evolution, with +the burning questions of language, laws, and religion +safely removed from general controversy in after years. +The rights of the English-speaking minority could, of +course, have been still better safeguarded under this +system than under the distracting series of half-measures +which took its place. There should have been no question +of a parliament in the immediate future. Then, with the +peopling of Ontario by the United Empire Loyalists and +the growth of the Maritime Provinces on the other side, +Quebec could have entered Carleton's proposed Confederation +in the nineties to her own and every one else's best +advantage. + +On the other hand, the delay of fourteen years after the +Capitulation of 1760 and the unwarrantable extension of +the provincial boundaries were cardinal errors of the +most disastrous kind. The delay, filled with a futile +attempt at mistaken Americanization, bred doubts and +dissensions not only between the two races but between +the different kinds of French Canadians. When the hour +of trial came disintegration had already gone too far. +The mistake about the boundaries was equally bad. The +western wilds ought to have been administered by a +lieutenant-governor under the supervision of a +governor-general. Even leasing them for a short term of +years to the Hudson's Bay Company would have been better +than annexing them to a preposterous province of Quebec. +The American colonists would have doubtless objected to +either alternative. But both could have been defended on +sound principles of administration; while the sudden +invasion of a new and inflated Quebec into the colonial +hinterlands was little less than a declaration of war. +The whole problem bristled with enormous difficulties, +and the circumstances under which it had to be faced made +an ideal solution impossible. But an earlier Quebec Act, +without its outrageous boundary clause, would have been +well worth the risk of passing; for the delay led many +French Canadians to suppose, however falsely, that the +Empire's need might always be their opportunity; and this +idea, however repugnant to their best minds and better +feelings, has persisted among their extreme particularists +until the present day. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +INVASION +1775 + +Carleton's first eight years as governor of Canada were +almost entirely occupied with civil administration. The +next four were equally occupied with war; so much so, +indeed, that the Quebec Act could not be put in force on +the 1st of May 1775, as provided for in the Act itself, +but only bit by bit much later on. There was one short +session of the new Legislative Council, which opened on +the 17th of August. But all men's minds were even then +turned towards the Montreal frontier, whence the American +invasion threatened to overspread the whole country and +make this opening session the last that might ever be +held. Most of the members were soon called away from the +council-chamber to the field. No further session could +be held either that year or the next; and Carleton was +obliged to nominate the judges himself. The fifteen years +of peace were over, and Canada had once more become an +object of contention between two fiercely hostile forces. + +The War of the American Revolution was a long and +exceedingly complicated struggle; and its many varied +fortunes naturally had a profound effect on those of +Canada. But Canada was directly engaged in no more than +the first three campaigns, when the Americans invaded +her in 1775 and '76, and when the British used her as +the base from which to invade the new American Republic +in 1777. These first three campaigns formed a purely +civil war within the British Empire. On each side stood +three parties. Opponents were ranged against each other +in the mother country, in the Thirteen Colonies, and in +Canada. In the mother country the king and his party +government were ranged against the Opposition and all +who held radical or revolutionary views. Here the strife +was merely political. But in the Thirteen Colonies the +forces of the Crown were ranged against the forces of +the new Continental Congress. The small minority of +colonists who were afterwards known as the United Empire +Loyalists sided with the Crown. A majority sided with +the Congress. The rest kept as selfishly neutral as they +could. Among the English-speaking civilians in Canada, +many of whom were now of a much better class than the +original camp-followers, the active loyalists comprised +only the smaller half. The larger half sided with the +Americans, as was only natural, seeing that most of them +were immigrants from the Thirteen Colonies. But by no +means all these sympathizers were ready for a fight. +Among the French Canadians the loyalists included very +few besides the seigneurs, the clergy, and a handful of +educated people in Montreal, Three Rivers, and Quebec. +The mass of the habitants were more or less neutral. But +many of them were anti-British at first, while most of +them were anti-American afterwards. + +Events moved quickly in 1775. On the 19th of April the +'shot heard round the world' was fired at Lexington in +Massachusetts. On the 1st of May, the day appointed for +the inauguration of the Quebec Act, the statue of the +king in Montreal was grossly defaced and hung with a +cross, a necklace of potatoes, and a placard bearing the +inscription, _Here's the Canadian Pope and English +Fool--Voila le Pape du Canada et le sot Anglais_. Large +rewards were offered for the detection of the culprits; +but without avail. Excitement ran high and many an argument +ended with a bloody nose. + +Meanwhile three Americans were plotting an attack along +the old line of Lake Champlain. Two of them were outlaws +from the colony of New York, which was then disputing +with the neighbouring colony of New Hampshire the possession +of the lawless region in which all three had taken refuge +and which afterwards became Vermont. Ethan Allen, the +gigantic leader of the wild Green Mountain Boys, had a +price on his head. Seth Warner, his assistant, was an +outlaw of a somewhat humbler kind. Benedict Arnold, the +third invader, came from Connecticut. He was a horse-dealer +carrying on business with Quebec and Montreal as well as +the West Indies. He was just thirty-four; an excellent +rider, a dead shot, a very fair sailor, and captain of +a crack militia company. Immediately after the affair at +Lexington he had turned out his company, reinforced by +undergraduates from Yale, had seized the New Haven powder +magazine and marched over to Cambridge, where the +Massachusetts Committeemen took such a fancy to him that +they made him a colonel on the spot, with full authority +to raise men for an immediate attack on Ticonderoga. The +opportunity seemed too good to be lost; though the +Continental Congress was not then in favour of attacking +Canada, as its members hoped to see the Canadians throw +off the yoke of empire on their own account. The British +posts on Lake Champlain were absurdly undermanned. +Ticonderoga contained two hundred cannon, but only forty +men, none of whom expected an attack. Crown Point had +only a sergeant and a dozen men to watch its hundred and +thirteen pieces. Fort George, at the head of Lake George, +was no better off; and nothing more had been done to man +the fortifications at St Johns on the Richelieu, where +there was an excellent sloop as well as many cannon in +charge of the usual sergeant's guard. This want of +preparation was no fault of Carleton's. He had frequently +reported home on the need of more men. Now he had less +than a thousand regulars to defend the whole country: +and not another man was to arrive till the spring of next +year. When Gage was hard pressed for reinforcements at +Boston in the autumn of 1774 Carleton had immediately +sent him two excellent battalions that could ill be spared +from Canada. But when Carleton himself made a similar +request, in the autumn of 1775, Admiral Graves, to his +lasting dishonour, refused to sail up to Quebec so late +as October. + +The first moves of the three Americans smacked strongly +of a well-staged extravaganza in which the smart Yankees +never failed to score off the dunderheaded British. The +Green Mountain Boys assembled on the east side of the +lake. Spies walked in and out of Ticonderoga, exactly +opposite, and reported to Ethan Allen that the commandant +and his whole garrison of forty unsuspecting men would +make an easy prey. Allen then sent eighty men down to +Skenesborough (now Whitehall) at the southern end of the +lake, to take the tiny post there and bring back boats +for the crossing on the 10th of May. Then Arnold turned +up with his colonel's commission, but without the four +hundred men it authorized him to raise. Allen, however, +had made himself a colonel too, with Warner as his +second-in-command. So there were no less than three +colonels for two hundred and thirty men. Arnold claimed +the command by virtue of his Massachusetts commission. +But the Green Mountain Boys declared they would follow +no colonels but their own; and so Arnold, after being +threatened with arrest, was appointed something like +chief of the staff, on the understanding that he would +make himself generally useful with the boats. This +appointment was made at dawn on the 10th of May, just as +the first eighty men were advancing to the attack after +crossing over under cover of night. The British sentry's +musket missed fire; whereupon he and the guard were +rushed, while the rest of the garrison were surprised in +their beds. Ethan Allen, who knew the fort thoroughly, +hammered on the commandant's door and summoned him to +surrender 'In the name of the Great Jehovah and the +Continental Congress!' The astonished commandant, seeing +that resistance was impossible, put on his dressing-gown +and paraded his disarmed garrison as prisoners of war. +Seth Warner presently arrived with the rest of Allen's +men and soon became the hero of Crown Point, which he +took with the whole of its thirteen men and a hundred +and thirteen cannon. Then Arnold had his own turn, in +command of an expedition against the sergeant's guard, +cannon, stores, fort, and sloop at St Johns on the +Richelieu, all of which he captured in the same absurdly +simple way. When he came sailing back the three victorious +commanders paraded all their men and fired off many +straggling fusillades of joy. In the meantime the +Continental Congress at Philadelphia, with a delightful +touch of unconscious humour, was gravely debating the +following resolution, which was passed on the 1st of +June: _That no Expedition or Incursion ought to be +undertaken or made, by any Colony or body of Colonists, +against or into Canada_. + +The same Congress, however, found reasons enough for +changing its mind before the month of May was out. The +British forces in Canada had already begun to move towards +the threatened frontier. They had occupied and strengthened +St Johns. And the Americans were beginning to fear lest +the command of Lake Champlain might again fall into +British hands. On the 27th of May the Congress closed +the phase of individual raids and inaugurated the phase +of regular invasion by commissioning General Schuyler to +'pursue any measures in Canada that may have a tendency +to promote the peace and security of these Colonies.' +Philip Schuyler was a distinguished member of the family +whose head had formulated the 'Glorious Enterprize' of +conquering New France in 1689. [Footnote: See, in this +Series, _The Fighting Governor_.] So it was quite in line +with the family tradition for him to be under orders to +'take possession of St Johns, Montreal, and any other +parts of the country,' provided always, adds the cautious +Congress, that 'General Schuyler finds it practicable, +and that it will not be disagreeable to the Canadians.' + +A few days later Arnold was trying to get a colonelcy +from the Convention of New York, whose members just then +happened to be thinking of giving commissions to his +rivals, the leaders of the Green Mountain Boys, while, +to make the complication quite complete, these Boys +themselves had every intention of electing officers on +their own account. In the meantime Connecticut, determined +not to be forestalled by either friend or foe, ordered +a thousand men to Ticonderoga and commissioned a general +called Wooster to command them. Thus early were sown the +seeds of those dissensions between Congress troops and +Colony troops which nearly drove Washington mad. + +Schuyler reached Ticonderoga in mid-July and assumed his +position as Congressional commander-in-chief. Unfortunately +for the good of the service he had only a few hundred +men with him; so Wooster, who had a thousand, thought +himself the bigger general of the two. The Connecticut +men followed Wooster's lead by jeering at Schuyler's men +from New York; while the Vermonters added to the confusion +by electing Seth Warner instead of Ethan Allen. In +mid-August a second Congressional general arrived, making +three generals and half a dozen colonels for less than +fifteen hundred troops. This third general was Richard +Montgomery, an ardent rebel of thirty-eight, who had been +a captain in the British Army. He had sold his commission, +bought an estate on the Hudson, and married a daughter +of the Livingstons. The Livingstons headed the +Anglo-American revolutionists in the colony of New York +as the Schuylers headed the Knickerbocker Dutch. One of +them was very active on the rebel side in Montreal and +was soon to take the field at the head of the American +'patriots' in Canada. Montgomery was brother to the +Captain Montgomery of the 43rd who was the only British +officer to disgrace himself during Wolfe's Quebec campaign, +which he did by murdering his French-Canadian prisoners +at Chateau Richer because they had fought disguised as +Indians. [Footnote: See _The Passing of New France_, p. +118.] Richard Montgomery was a much better man than his +savage brother; though, as the sequel proves, he was by +no means the perfect hero his American admirers would +have the world believe. His great value at Ticonderoga +was his professional knowledge and his ardour in the +cause he had espoused. His presence 'changed the spirit +of the camp.' It sadly needed change. 'Such a set of +pusillanimous wretches never were collected' is his own +description in a despairing letter to his wife. The +'army,' in fact, was all parts and no whole, and all the +parts were mere untrained militia. Moreover, the spirit +of the 'town meeting' ruled the camp. Even a battery +could not be moved without consulting a council of war. +Schuyler, though far more phlegmatic than Montgomery, +agreed with him heartily about this and many other +exasperating points. 'If Job had been a general in my +situation, his memory had not been so famous for patience.' + +Worn out by his worries, Schuyler fell ill and was sent +to command the base at Albany. Montgomery then succeeded +to the command of the force destined for the front. The +plan of invasion approved by Washington was, first, to +sweep the line of the Richelieu by taking St Johns and +Chambly, then to take Montreal, next to secure the line +of the St Lawrence, and finally to besiege Quebec. +Montgomery's forces were to carry out all the preliminary +parts alone. But Arnold was to join him at Quebec after +advancing across country from the Kennebec to the Chaudiere +with a flying column of Virginians and New Englanders. + +Carleton opened the melancholy little session of the new +Legislative Council at Quebec on the very day Montgomery +arrived at Ticonderoga--the 17th of August. When he closed +it, to take up the defence of Canada, the prospect was +already black enough, though it grew blacker still as +time went on. Immediately on hearing the news of +Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and St Johns at the end of May +he had sent every available man from Quebec to Montreal, +whence Colonel Templer had already sent off a hundred +and forty men to St Johns, while calling for volunteers +to follow. The seigneurial class came forward at once. +But all attempts to turn out the militia en masse_ proved +utterly futile. Fourteen years of kindly British rule +had loosened the old French bonds of government and the +habitants were no longer united as part of one people +with the seigneurs and the clergy. The rebels had been +busy spreading insidious perversions of the belated Quebec +Act, poisoning the minds of the habitants against the +British government, and filling their imaginations with +all sorts of terrifying doubts. The habitants were +ignorant, credulous, and suspicious to the last degree. +The most absurd stories obtained ready credence and ran +like wildfire through the province. Seven thousand Russians +were said to be coming up the St Lawrence--whether as +friends or foes mattered nothing compared with the awful +fact that they were all outlandish bogeys. Carleton was +said to have a plan for burning alive every habitant he +could lay his hands on. Montgomery's thousand were said +to be five thousand, with many more to follow. And later +on, when Arnold's men came up the Kennebec, it was +satisfactorily explained to most of the habitants that +it was no good resisting dead-shot riflemen who were +bullet-proof themselves. Carleton issued proclamations. +The seigneurs waved their swords. The clergy thundered +from their pulpits. But all in vain. Two months after +the American exploits on Lake Champlain Carleton gave a +guinea to the sentry mounted in his honour by the local +militia colonel, M. de Tonnancour, because this man was +the first genuine habitant he had yet seen armed in the +whole district of Three Rivers. What must Carleton have +felt when the home government authorized him to raise +six thousand of His Majesty's loyal French-Canadian +subjects for immediate service and informed him that the +arms and equipment for the first three thousand were +already on the way to Canada! Seven years earlier it +might still have been possible to raise French-Canadian +counterparts of those Highland regiments which Wolfe had +recommended and Pitt had so cordially approved. Carleton +himself had recommended this excellent scheme at the +proper time. But, though the home government even then +agreed with him, they thought such a measure would raise +more parliamentary and public clamour than they could +safely face. The chance once lost was lost for ever. + +Carleton had done what he could to keep the enemy at +arm's length from Montreal by putting every available +man into Chambly and St Johns. He knew nothing of Arnold's +force till it actually reached Quebec in November. Quebec +was thought secure for the time being, and so was left +with a handful of men under Cramahe. Montreal had a few +regulars and a hundred 'Royal Emigrants,' mostly old +Highlanders who had settled along the New York frontier +after the Conquest. For the rest, it had many American +and a few British sympathizers ready to fly at each +others' throats and a good many neutrals ready to curry +favour with the winners. Sorel was a mere post without +any effective garrison. Chambly was held by only eighty +men under Major Stopford. But its strong stone fort was +well armed and quite proof against anything except siege +artillery; while its little garrison consisted of good +regulars who were well provisioned for a siege. The mass +of Carleton's little force was at St Johns under Major +Preston, who had 500 men of the 7th and 26th (Royal +Fusiliers and Cameronians), 80 gunners, and 120 volunteers, +mostly French-Canadian gentlemen. Preston was an excellent +officer, and his seven hundred men were able to give a +very good account of themselves as soldiers. But the fort +was not nearly so strong as the one at Chambly; it had +no natural advantages of position; and it was short of +both stores and provisions. + +The three successive steps for Montgomery to take were +St Johns, Chambly, and Montreal. But the natural order +of events was completely upset by that headstrong Yankee, +Ethan Allen, who would have his private war at Montreal, +and by that contemptible British officer, Major Stopford, +who would not defend Chambly. Montgomery laid siege to +St Johns on the 18th of September, but made no substantial +progress for more than a month. He probably had no use +for Allen at anything like a regular siege. So Allen and +a Major Brown went on to 'preach politicks' and concert +a rising with men like Livingston and Walker. Livingston, +as we have seen already, belonged to a leading New York +family which was very active in the rebel cause; and +Livingston, Walker, Allen, and Brown would have made a +dangerous anti-British combination if they could only +have worked together. But they could not. Livingston +hurried off to join Montgomery with four hundred 'patriots' +who served their cause fairly well till the invasion was +over. Walker had no military qualities whatever. So Allen +and Brown were left to their own disunited devices. +Montreal seemed an easy prey. It had plenty of rebel +sympathizers. Nearly all the surrounding habitants were +either neutrals or inclined to side with the Americans, +though not as fighting men. Carleton's order to bring in +all the ladders, so as to prevent an escalade of the +walls, had met with general opposition and evasion. +Nothing seemed wanting but a good working plan. + +Brown, or possibly Allen himself, then hit upon the idea +of treating Montreal very much as Allen had treated +Ticonderoga. In any case Allen jumped at it. He jumped +so far, indeed, that he forestalled Brown, who failed to +appear at the critical moment. Thus, on the 24th of +September, Allen found himself alone at Long Point with +a hundred and twenty men in face of three times as many +under the redoubtable Major Carden, a skilled veteran +who had won Wolfe's admiration years before. Carden's +force included thirty regulars, two hundred and forty +militiamen, and some Indians, probably not over a hundred +strong. The militia were mostly of the seigneurial class +with a following of habitants and townsmen of both French +and British blood. Carden broke Allen's flanks rounded +up his centre, and won the little action easily, though +at the expense of his own most useful life. Allen was +very indignant at being handcuffed and marched off like +a common prisoner after having made himself a colonel +twice over. But Carleton had no respect for +self-commissioned officers and had no soldiers to spare +for guarding dangerous rebels. So he shipped Allen off +to England, where that eccentric warrior was confined in +Pendennis Castle near Falmouth in Cornwall. + +This affair, small as it was, revived British hopes in +Montreal and induced a few more militiamen and Indians +to come forward. But within a month more was lost at +Chambly than had been gained at Montreal. On the 18th of +October a small American detachment attacked Chambly with +two little field-guns and induced it to surrender on the +20th. If ever an officer deserved to be shot it was Major +Stopford, who tamely surrendered his well-armed and +well-provided fort to an insignificant force, after a +flimsy resistance of only thirty-six hours, without even +taking the trouble to throw his stores into the river +that flowed beside his strong stone walls. The news of +this disgraceful surrender, diligently spread by rebel +sympathizers, frightened the Indians away from St Johns, +thus depriving Major Preston, the commandant, of his best +couriers at the very worst time. But the evil did not +stop there; for nearly all the few French-Canadian +militiamen whom the more distant seigneurs had been able +to get under arms deserted _en masse_, with many threats +against any one who should try to turn them out again. + +Chambly is only a short day's march from Montreal to the +west and St Johns to the south; so its capture meant that +St Johns was entirely cut off from the Richelieu to the +north and dangerously exposed to being cut off from +Montreal as well. Its ample stores and munitions of war +were a priceless boon to Montgomery, who now redoubled +his efforts to take St Johns. But Preston held out bravely +for the remainder of the month, while Carleton did his +best to help him. A fortnight earlier Carleton had arrested +that firebrand, Walker, who had previously refused to +leave the country, though Carleton had given him the +chance of doing so. Mrs Walker, as much a rebel as her +husband, interviewed Carleton and noted in her diary that +he 'said many severe Things in very soft & Polite Termes.' +Carleton was firm. Walker's actions, words, and +correspondence all proved him a dangerous rebel whom no +governor could possibly leave at large without breaking +his oath of office. Walker, who had himself caused so +many outrageous arrests, now not only resisted the legal +arrest of his own person, but fired on the little party +of soldiers who had been sent to bring him into Montreal. +The soldiers then began to burn him out; whereupon he +carried his wife to a window from which the soldiers +rescued her. He then surrendered and was brought into +Montreal, where the sight of him as a prisoner made a +considerable impression on the waverers. + +A few hundred neighbouring militiamen were scraped +together. Every one of the handful of regulars who could +be spared was turned out. And Carleton set off to the +relief of St Johns. But Seth Warner's Green Mountain +Boys, reinforced by many more sharpshooters, prevented +Carleton from landing at Longueuil, opposite Montreal. +The remaining Indians began to slink away. The +French-Canadian militiamen deserted fast--'thirty or +forty of a night.' There were not two hundred regulars +available for a march across country. And on the 30th +Carleton was forced to give up in despair. Within the +week St Johns surrendered with 688 men, who were taken +south as prisoners of war. Preston had been completely +cut off and threatened with starvation as well. So when +he destroyed everything likely to be needed by the enemy +he had done all that could be expected of a brave and +capable commander. + +It was the 3rd of November when St Johns surrendered. +Ten days later Montgomery occupied Montreal and Arnold +landed at Wolfe's Cove just above Quebec. The race for +the possession of Quebec had been a very close one. The +race for the capture of Carleton was to be closer still. +And on the fate of either depended the immediate, and +perhaps the ultimate, fate of Canada. + +The race for Quebec had been none the less desperate +because the British had not known of the danger from the +south till after Arnold had suddenly emerged from the +wilds of Maine and was well on his way to the mouth of +the Chaudiere, which falls into the St Lawrence seven +miles above the city. Arnold's subsequent change of sides +earned him the execration of the Americans. But there +can be no doubt whatever that if he had got through in +time to capture Quebec he would have become a national +hero of the United States. He had the advantage of leading +picked men; though nearly three hundred faint-hearts did +turn back half-way. But, even with picked men, his feat +was one of surpassing excellence. His force went in eleven +hundred strong. It came out, reduced by desertion as well +as by almost incredible hardships, with barely seven +hundred. It began its toilsome ascent of the Kennebec +towards the end of September, carrying six weeks' supplies +in the bad, hastily built boats or on the men's backs. +Daniel Morgan and his Virginian riflemen led the way. +Aaron Burr was present as a young volunteer. The portages +were many and trying. The settlements were few at first +and then wanting altogether. Early in October the drenched +portagers were already sleeping in their frozen clothes. +The boats began to break up. Quantities of provisions +were lost. Soon there was scarcely anything left but +flour and salt pork. It took nearly a fortnight to get +past the Great Carrying Place, in sight of Mount Bigelow. +Rock, bog, and freezing slime told on the men, some of +whom began to fall sick. Then came the chain of ponds +leading into Dead River. Then the last climb up to the +height-of-land beyond which lay the headwaters of the +Chaudiere, which takes its rise in Lake Megantic. + +There were sixty miles to go beyond the lake, and a badly +broken sixty miles they were, before the first settlement +of French Canadians could be reached. There was no trail. +Provisions were almost at an end. Sickness increased. +The sick began to die. 'And what was it all for? A chance +to get killed! The end of the march was Quebec +--impregnable!' On the 24th of October Arnold, with +fifteen other men, began 'a race against time, a race +against starvation' by pushing on ahead in a desperate +effort to find food. Within a week he had reached the +first settlement, after losing three of his five boats +with everything in them. Three days later, and not one +day too soon, the French Canadians met his seven hundred +famishing men with a drove of cattle and plenty of +provisions. The rest of the way was toilsome enough. But +it seemed easy by comparison. The habitants were friendly, +but very shy about enlisting, in spite of Washington's +invitation to 'range yourselves under the standard of +general liberty.' The Indians were more responsive, and +nearly fifty joined on their own terms. By the 8th of +November Arnold was marching down the south shore of the +St Lawrence, from the Chaudiere to Point Levis, in full +view of Quebec. He had just received a dispatch ten days +old from Montgomery by which he learned that St Johns +was expected to fall immediately and that Schuyler was +no longer with the army at the front. But he could not +tell when the junction of forces would be made; and he +saw at once that Quebec was on the alert because every +boat had been either destroyed or taken over to the other +side. + +The spring and summer had been anxious times enough in +Quebec. But the autumn was a great deal worse. Bad news +kept coming down from Montreal. The disaffected got more +and more restless and began 'to act as though no opposition +might be shown the rebel forces.' And in October it did +seem as if nothing could be done to stop the invaders. +There were only a few hundred militiamen that could be +depended on. The regulars, under Colonel Maclean, had +gone up to help Carleton on the Montreal frontier. The +fortifications were in no state to stand a siege. But +Cramahe was full of steadfast energy. He had mustered +the French-Canadian militia on September 11, the very +day Arnold was leaving Cambridge in Massachusetts for +his daring march against Quebec. These men had answered +the call far better in the city of Quebec than anywhere +else. There was also a larger proportion of English-speaking +loyalists here than in Montreal. But no transports brought +troops up the St Lawrence from Boston or the mother +country, and no vessel brought Carleton down. The loyalists +were, however, encouraged by the presence of two small +men-of-war, one of which, the _Hunter_, had been the +guide-ship for Wolfe's boat the night before the Battle +of the Plains. Some minor reinforcements also kept +arriving: veterans from the border settlements and a +hundred and fifty men from Newfoundland. On the 3rd of +November, the day St Johns surrendered to Montgomery, an +intercepted dispatch had warned Cramahe of Arnold's +approach and led him to seize all the boats on the south +shore opposite Quebec. This was by no means his first +precaution. He had sent some men forty miles up the +Chaudiere as soon as the news of the raids on Lake +Champlain and St Johns had arrived at the end of May. +Thus, though neither of them had anticipated such a bolt +from the blue, both Carleton and Cramahe had taken all +the reasonable means within their most restricted power +to provide against unforeseen contingencies. + +Arnold's chance of surprising Quebec had been lost ten +days before he was able to cross the St Lawrence; and +when the habitants on the south shore were helping his +men to make scaling-ladders the British garrison on the +north had already become too strong for him. But he was +indefatigable in collecting boats and canoes at the mouth +of the Chaudiere, and at other points higher up than +Cramahe's men had reached when on their mission of +destruction or removal, and he was as capable as ever +when, on the pitch-black night of the 13th, he led his +little flotilla through the gap between the two British +men-of-war, the _Hunter_ and the _Lizard_. The next day +he marched across the Plains of Abraham and saluted Quebec +with three cheers. But meanwhile Colonel Maclean, who +had set out to help Carleton at Montreal and turned back +on hearing the news of St Johns, had slipped into Quebec +on the 12th. So Arnold found himself with less than seven +hundred effectives against the eleven hundred British +who were now behind the walls. After vainly summoning +the city to surrender he retired to Pointe-aux-Trembles, +more than twenty miles up the north shore of the St +Lawrence, there to await the arrival of the victorious +Montgomery. + +Meanwhile Montgomery was racing for Carleton and Carleton +was racing for Quebec. Montgomery's advance-guard had +hurried on to Sorel, at the mouth of the Richelieu, +forty-five miles below Montreal, to mount guns that would +command the narrow channel through which the fugitive +governor would have to pass on his way to Quebec. They +had ample time to set the trap; for an incessant nor'-easter +blew up the St Lawrence day after day and held Carleton +fast in Montreal, while, only a league away, Montgomery's +main body was preparing to cross over. Escape by land +was impossible, as the Americans held Berthier, on the +north shore, and had won over the habitants, all the way +down from Montreal, on both sides of the river. At last, +on the afternoon of the 11th, the wind shifted. Immediately +a single cannon-shot was fired, a bugle sounded the _fall +in!_ and 'the whole military establishment' of Montreal +formed up in the barrack square--one hundred and thirty +officers and men, all told. Carleton, 'wrung to the soul,' +as one of his officers wrote home, came on parade 'firm, +unshaken, and serene.' The little column then marched +down to the boats through shuttered streets of timid +neutrals and scowling rebels. The few loyalists who came +to say good-bye to Carleton at the wharf might well have +thought it was the last handshake they would ever get +from a British 'Captain-General and Governor-in-chief' +as they saw him step aboard in the dreary dusk of that +November afternoon. And if he and they had known the +worst they might well have thought their fate was sealed; +for neither of them then knew that both sides of the St +Lawrence were occupied in force at two different places +on the perilous way to Quebec. + +The little flotilla of eleven vessels got safely down to +within a few miles of Sorel, when one grounded and delayed +the rest till the wind failed altogether at noon on the +12th. The next three days it blew upstream without a +break. No progress could be made as there was no room to +tack in the narrow passages opposite Sorel. On the third +day an American floating battery suddenly appeared, firing +hard. Behind it came a boat with a flag of truce and the +following summons from Colonel Easton, who commanded +Montgomery's advance-guard at Sorel: + + SIR,--By this you will learn that General Montgomery + is in Possession of the Fortress Montreal. You are + very sensible that I am in Possession at this Place, + and that, from the strength of the United Colonies on + both sides your own situation is Rendered Very + disagreeable. I am therefore induced to make you the + following Proposal, viz.:--That if you will Resign + your Fleet to me Immediately, without destroying the + Effects on Board, You and Your men shall be used with + due civility, together with women & Children on Board. + To this I shall expect Your direct and Immediate + answer. Should you Neglect You will Cherefully take + the Consequences which will follow. + +Carleton was surprised: and well he might be. He had not +supposed that Montgomery's men were in any such commanding +position. But, like Cramahe at Quebec, he refused to +answer; whereupon Easton's batteries opened both from +the south shore and from Isle St Ignace. Carleton's +heaviest gun was a 9-pounder; while Easton had four +12-pounders, one of them mounted on a rowing battery that +soon forced the British to retreat. The skipper of the +schooner containing the powder magazine wanted to surrender +on the spot, especially when he heard that the Americans +were getting some hot shot ready for him. But Carleton +retreated upstream, twelve miles above Sorel, to Lavaltrie, +just above Berthier on the north shore, where, on attempting +to land, he was driven back by some Americans and habitants. +Next morning, the 16th, a fateful day for Canada, the +same Major Brown who had failed Ethan Allen at Montreal +came up with a flag of truce to propose that Carleton +should send an officer to see for himself how well all +chance of escape had now been cut off. The offer was +accepted; and Brown explained the situation from the +rebel point of view. 'This is my small battery; and, even +if you should chance to escape, I have a grand battery +at the mouth of the Sorel [Richelieu] which will infallibly +sink all of your vessels. Wait a little till you see the +32-pounders that are now within half-a-mile.' There was +a good deal of Yankee bluff in this warning, especially +as the 32-pounders could not be mounted in time. But the +British officer seemed perfectly satisfied that the way +was completely blocked; and so the Americans felt sure +that Carleton would surrender the following day. + +Carleton, however, was not the man to give in till the +very last; and one desperate chance still remained. His +flotilla was doomed. But he might still get through alone +without it. One of the French-Canadian skippers, better +known as 'Le Tourte' or 'Wild Pigeon' than by his own +name of Bouchette because of his wonderfully quick trips, +was persuaded to make the dash for freedom. So Carleton, +having ordered Prescott, his second-in-command, not to +surrender the flotilla before the last possible moment, +arranged for his own escape in a whaleboat. It was with +infinite precaution that he made his preparations, as +the enemy, though confident of taking him, were still on +the alert to prevent such a prize from slipping through +their fingers. He dressed like a habitant from head to +foot, putting on a tasselled _bonnet rouge_ and an _etoffe +du pays_ (grey homespun) suit of clothes, with a red sash +and _bottes sauvages_ like Indian moccasins. Then the +whaleboat was quietly brought alongside. The crew got in +and plied their muffled oars noiselessly down to the +narrow passage between Isle St Ignace and the Isle du +Pas, where they shipped the oars and leaned over the side +to paddle past the nearest battery with the palms of +their hands. It was a moment of breathless excitement; +for the hope of Canada was in their keeping and no turning +back was possible. But the American sentries saw no +furtive French Canadians gliding through that dark November +night and heard no suspicious noises above the regular +ripple of the eddying island current. One tense half-hour +and all was over, The oars were run out again; the men +gave way with a will; and Three Rivers was safely reached +in the morning. + +Here Carleton met Captain Napier, who took him aboard +the armed ship _Fell_, in which he continued his journey +to Quebec. He was practically safe aboard the _Fell_; +for Arnold had neither an army strong enough to take +Quebec nor any craft big enough to fight a ship. But the +flotilla above Sorel was doomed. After throwing all its +powder into the St Lawrence it surrendered on the 19th, +the very day Carleton reached Quebec. The astonished +Americans were furious when they found that Carleton had +slipped through their fingers after all. They got Prescott, +whom they hated; and they released Walker, whom Carleton +was taking as a prisoner to Quebec. But no friends and +foes like Walker and Prescott could make up for the loss +of Carleton, who was the heart as well as the head of +Canada at bay. + +The exultation of the British more than matched the +disappointment of the Americans. Thomas Ainslie, collector +of customs and captain of militia at Quebec, only expressed +the feelings of all his fellow-loyalists when he made +the following entry in the extremely accurate diary he +kept throughout those troublous times: + +'On the 19th (a Happy Day for Quebec!), to the unspeakable +joy of the friends of the Government, and to the utter +Dismay of the abettors of Sedition and Rebellion, General +Carleton arrived in the _Fell_, arm'd ship, accompanied +by an arm'd schooner. We saw our Salvation in his Presence.' + + + + +CHAPTER V + +BELEAGUERMENT +1775-1776 + +When Carleton finally turned at bay within the walls of +Quebec the British flag waved over less than a single +one out of the more than a million square miles that had +so recently been included within the boundaries of Canada. +The landward walls cut off the last half-mile of the +tilted promontory which rises three hundred feet above +the St Lawrence but only one hundred above the valley of +the St Charles. This promontory is just a thousand yards +wide where the landward walls run across it, and not much +wider across the world-famous Heights and Plains of +Abraham, which then covered the first two miles beyond. +The whole position makes one of Nature's strongholds when +the enemy can be kept at arm's length. But Carleton had +no men to spare for more than the actual walls and the +narrow little strip of the Lower Town between the base +of the cliff and the St Lawrence. So the enemy closed in +along the Heights' and among the suburbs, besides occupying +any point of vantage they chose across the St Lawrence +or St Charles. + +The walls were by no means fit to stand a siege, a fact +which Carleton had frequently reported. But, as the +Americans had neither the men nor the material for a +regular siege, they were obliged to confine themselves +to a mere beleaguerment, with the chance of taking Quebec +by assault. One of Carleton's first acts was to proclaim +that every able-bodied man refusing to bear arms was to +leave the town within four days. But, though this had +the desired effect of clearing out nearly all the dangerous +rebels, the Americans still believed they had enough +sympathizers inside to turn the scale of victory if they +could only manage to take the Lower Town, with all its +commercial property and shipping, or gain a footing +anywhere within the walls. + +There were five thousand souls left in Quebec, which was +well provisioned for the winter. The women, children, +and men unfit to bear arms numbered three thousand. The +'exempts' amounted to a hundred and eighty. As there was +a growing suspicion about many of these last, Carleton +paraded them for medical examination at the beginning of +March, when, a good deal more than half were found quite +fit for duty. These men had been malingering all winter +in order to skulk out of danger; so he treated them with +extreme leniency in only putting them on duty as a 'company +of Invalids.' But the slur stuck fast. The only other +exceptions to the general efficiency were a very few +instances of cowardice and many more of slackness. The +militia order-books have repeated entries about men who +turned up late for even important duties as well as about +others whose authorized substitutes were no better than +themselves. But it should be remembered that, as a whole, +the garrison did exceedingly good service and that all +the malingerers and serious delinquents together did not +amount to more than a tenth of its total, which is a +small proportion for such a mixed body. + +The effective strength at the beginning of the siege was +eighteen hundred of all ranks. Only one hundred of these +belonged to the regular British garrison in Canada--a +few staff-officers, twenty-two men of the Royal Artillery, +and seventy men of the 7th Royal Fusiliers, a regiment +which was to be commanded in Quebec sixteen years later +by Queen Victoria's father, the Duke of Kent. The Fusiliers +and two hundred and thirty 'Royal Emigrants' were formed +into a little battalion under Colonel Maclean, a first-rate +officer and Carleton's right-hand man in action. 'His +Majesty's Royal Highland Regiment of Emigrants,' which +subsequently became the 84th Foot, now known as the 2nd +York and Lancaster, was hastily raised in 1775 from the +Highland veterans who had settled in the American colonies +after the Peace of 1763. Maclean's two hundred and thirty +were the first men he could get together in time to reach +Quebec. The only other professional fighters were four +hundred blue-jackets and thirty-five marines of H.M.SS. +_Lizard_ and _Hunter_, who were formed into a naval +battalion under their own officers, Captains Hamilton +and McKenzie, Hamilton being made a lieutenant-colonel +and McKenzie a major while doing duty ashore. Fifty +masters and mates of trading vessels were enrolled in +the same battalion. The whole of the shipping was laid +up for the winter in the Cul de Sac, which alone made +the Lower Town a prize worth taking. The 'British Militia' +mustered three hundred and thirty, the 'Canadian Militia' +five hundred and forty-three. These two corps included +practically all the official and business classes in +Quebec and formed nearly half the total combatants. Some +of them took no pay and were not bound to service beyond +the neighbourhood of Quebec, thus being very much like +the Home Guards raised all over Canada and the rest of +the Empire during the Great World War of 1914. All the +militia wore dark green coats with buff waistcoats and +breeches. The total of eighteen hundred was completed by +a hundred and twenty 'artificers,' that is, men who would +now belong to the Engineers, Ordnance, and Army Service +Corps. As the composition of this garrison has been so +often misrepresented, it may be as well to state distinctly +that the past or present regulars of all kinds, soldiers +and sailors together, numbered eight hundred and the +militia and other non-regulars a thousand. The French +Canadians, very few of whom were or had been regulars, +formed less than a third of the whole. + +Montgomery and Arnold had about the same total number of +men. Sometimes there were more, sometimes less. But what +made the real difference, and what really turned the +scale, was that the Americans had hardly any regulars +and that their effectives rarely averaged three-quarters +of their total strength. The balance was also against +them in the matter of armament. For, though Morgan's +Virginians had many more rifles than were to be found +among the British, the Americans in general were not so +well off for bayonets and not so well able to use those +they had; while the artillery odds were still more against +them. Carleton's artillery was not of the best. But it +was better than that of the Americans. He decidedly +overmatched them in the combined strength of all kinds +of ordnance--cannons, carronades, howitzers, mortars, +and swivels. Cannons and howitzers fired shot and shell +at any range up to the limit then reached, between two +and three miles. Carronades were on the principle of a +gigantic shotgun, firing masses of bullets with great +effect at very short ranges--less than that of a long +musket-shot, then reckoned at two hundred yards. The +biggest mortars threw 13-inch 224-lb shells to a great +distance. But their main use was for high-angle fire, +such as that from the suburb of St Roch under the walls +of Quebec. Swivels were the smallest kind of ordnance, +firing one-, two-, or three-pound balls at short or medium +ranges. They were used at convenient points to stop +rushes, much like modern machine-guns. + +Thanks chiefly to Cramahe, the defences were not nearly +so 'ruinous' as Arnold at first had thought them. The +walls, however useless against the best siege artillery, +were formidable enough against irregular troops and +makeshift batteries; while the warehouses and shipping +in the Lower Town were protected by two stockades, one +straight under Cape Diamond, the other at the corner +where the Lower Town turns into the valley of the St +Charles. The first was called the Pres-de-Ville, the +second the Sault-au-Matelot. The shipping was open to +bombardment from the Levis shore. But the Americans had +no guns to spare for this till April. + +Montgomery's advance was greatly aided by the little +flotilla which Easton had captured at Sorel. Montgomery +met Arnold at Pointe-aux-Trembles, twenty miles above +Quebec, on the 2nd of December and supplied his little +half-clad force with the British uniforms taken at St +Johns and Chambly. He was greatly pleased with the +magnificent physique of Arnold's men, the fittest of an +originally well-picked lot. He still had some 'pusillanimous +wretches' among his own New Yorkers, who resented the +air of superiority affected by Arnold's New Englanders +and Morgan's Virginians. He felt a well-deserved confidence +in Livingston and some of the English-speaking Canadian +'patriots' whom Livingston had brought into his camp +before St Johns in September. But he began to feel more +and more doubtful about the French Canadians, most of +whom began to feel more and more doubtful about themselves. +On the 6th he arrived before Quebec and took up his +quarters in Holland House, two miles beyond the walls, +at the far end of the Plains of Abraham. The same day he +sent Carleton the following summons: + + SIR;--Notwithstanding the personal ill-treatment I + have received at your hands--notwithstanding your + cruelty to the unhappy Prisoners you have taken, the + feelings of humanity induce me to have recourse to + this expedient to save you from the Destruction which + hangs over you. Give me leave, Sir, to assure you that + I am well acquainted with your situation. A great + extent of works, in their nature incapable of defence, + manned with a motley crew of sailors, the greatest + part our friends; of citizens, who wish to see us + within their walls, & a few of the worst troops who + ever stiled themselves Soldiers. The impossibility of + relief, and the certain prospect of wanting every + necessary of life, should your opponents confine their + operations to a simple Blockade, point out the absurdity + of resistance. Such is your situation! I am at the + head of troops accustomed to Success, confident of + the righteousness of the cause they are engaged in, + inured to danger, & so highly incensed at your + inhumanity, illiberal abuse, and the ungenerous means + employed to prejudice them in the mind of the Canadians + that it is with difficulty I restrain them till my + Batteries are ready from assaulting your works, which + afford them a fair opportunity of ample vengeance and + just retaliation. Firing upon a flag of truce, hitherto + unprecedented, even among savages, prevents my taking + the ordinary mode of communicating my sentiments. + However, I will at any rate acquit my conscience. + Should you persist in an unwarrantable defence, the + consequences be upon your own head. Beware of destroying + stores of any kind, Publick or Private, as you have + done at Montreal and in Three Rivers--If you do, by + Heaven, there will be no mercy shown. + +Though Montgomery wrote bunkum like the common politician +of that and many a later age, he was really a brave +soldier. What galled him into fury was 'grave Carleton's' +quiet refusal to recognize either him or any other rebel +commander as the accredited leader of a hostile army. It +certainly must have been exasperating for the general of +the Continental Congress to be reduced to such expedients +as tying a grandiloquent ultimatum to an arrow and shooting +it into the beleaguered town. The charge of firing on +flags of truce was another instance of 'talking for +Buncombe.' Carleton never fired on any white flag. But +he always sent the same answer: that he could hold no +communication with any rebels unless they came to implore +the king's pardon. This, of course, was an aggravation +of his offensive calmness in the face of so much +revolutionary rage. To individual rebels of all sorts he +was, if anything, over-indulgent. He would not burn the +suburbs of Quebec till the enemy forced him to it, though +many of the houses that gave the Americans the best cover +belonged to rebel Canadians. He went out of his way to +be kind to all prisoners, especially if sick or wounded. +And it was entirely owing to his restraining influence +that the friendly Indians had not raided the border +settlements of New England during the summer. Nor was he +animated only by the very natural desire of bringing back +rebellious subjects to what he thought their true +allegiance, as his subsequent actions amply proved. He +simply acted with the calm dignity and impartial justice +which his position required. + +Three days before Christmas the bombardment began in +earnest. The non-combatants soon found, to their equal +amazement and delight, that a good many shells did very +little damage if fired about at random. But news intended +to make their flesh creep came in at the same time, and +probably had more effect than the shells on the weak-kneed +members of the community. Seven hundred scaling-ladders, +no quarter if Carleton persisted in holding out, and a +prophecy attributed to Montgomery that he would eat his +Christmas dinner either in Quebec or in Hell--these were +some of the blood-curdling items that came in by petticoat +or arrow post. One of the most active purveyors of all +this bombast was Jerry Duggan, a Canadian 'patriot' barber +now become a Continental major. + +But there was a serious side. Deserters and prisoners, +as well as British adherents who had escaped, all began +to tell the same tale, though with many variations. +Montgomery was evidently bent on storming the walls the +first dark night. His own orders showed it. + + HEAD QUARTERS, HOLLAND HOUSE. + Near Quebec, 15th Decr. 1755. + + The General having in vain offered the most favourable + terms of accommodation to the Governor of Quebec, & + having taken every possible step to prevail on the + inhabitants to desist from seconding him in his wild + scheme of defending the Town--for the speedy reduction + of the only hold possessed by the Ministerial Troops + in this Province--The soldiers, flushed with continual + success, confident of the justice of their cause, & + relying on that Providence which has uniformly protected + them, will advance with alacrity to the attack of + works incapable of being defended by the wretched + Garrison posted behind them, consisting of Sailors + unacquainted with the use of arms, of Citizens incapable + of Soldiers' duty, & of a few miserable Emigrants. + The General is confident that a vigorous & spirited + attack must be attended with success. The Troops shall + have the effects of the Governor, Garrison, & of such + as have been active in misleading the Inhabitants & + distressing the friends of liberty, equally divided + among them, except the 100th share out of the whole, + which shall be at the disposal of the General to be + given to such soldiers as distinguished themselves by + their activity & bravery, to be sold at public auction: + the whole to be conducted as soon as the City is in + our hands and the inhabitants disarmed. + +It was a week after these orders had been written before +the first positive news of the threatened assault was +brought into town by an escaped British prisoner who, +strangely enough, bore the name of Wolfe. Wolfe's escape +naturally caused a postponement of Montgomery's design +and a further council of war. Unlike most councils of +war this one was full of fight. Three feints were to be +made at different points while the real attack was to be +driven home at Cape Diamond. But just after this decision +had been reached two rebel Montrealers came down and, in +another debate, carried the day for another plan. These +men, Antell and Price, were really responsible for the +final plan, which, like its predecessor, did not meet +with Montgomery's approval. Montgomery wanted to make a +breach before trying the walls. But he was no more than +the chairman of a committee; and this egregious committee +first decided to storm the unbroken walls and then changed +to an attack on the Lower Town only. Antell was Montgomery's +engineer. Price was a red-hot agitator. Both were better +at politics than soldiering. Their argument was that if +the Lower Town could be taken the Quebec militia would +force Carleton to surrender in order to save the warehouses, +shipping, and other valuable property along the waterfront, +and that even if Carleton held out in debate he would +soon be brought to his knees by the Americans, who would +march through the gates, which were to be opened by the +'patriots' inside. + +Another week passed; and Montgomery had not eaten his +Christmas dinner either in Quebec or in the other place. +But both sides knew the crisis must be fast approaching; +for the New Yorkers had sworn that they would not stay +a minute later than the end of the year, when their term +of enlistment was up. Thus every day that passed made an +immediate assault more likely, as Montgomery had to strike +before his own men left him. Yet New Year's Eve itself +began without the sign of an alarm. + +Carleton had been sleeping in his clothes at the Recollets', +night after night, so that he might be first on parade +at the general rendezvous on the Place d'Armes, which +stood near the top of Mountain Hill, the only road between +the Upper and the Lower Town. Officers and men off duty +had been following his example; and every one was ready +to turn out at a moment's notice. + +A north-easterly snowstorm was blowing furiously, straight +up the St Lawrence, making Quebec a partly seen blur to +the nearest American patrols and the Heights of Abraham +a wild sea of whirling drifts to the nearest British +sentries. One o'clock passed, and nothing stirred. But +when two o'clock struck at Holland House Montgomery rose +and began to put the council's plan in operation. The +Lower Town was to be attacked at both ends. The +Pres-de-Ville barricade was to be carried by Montgomery +and the Sault-au-Matelot by Arnold, while Livingston was +to distract Carleton's attention as much as possible by +making a feint against the landward walls, where the +British still expected the real attack. Livingston's +Canadian fighting 'patriots' waded through the drifts, +against the storm, across the Plains, and took post close +in on the far side of Cape Diamond, only eighty yards +from the same walls that were to have been stormed some +days before. Jerry Duggan's parasitic Canadian 'patriots' +took post in the suburb of St John and thence round to +Palace Gate. Montgomery led his own column straight to +Wolfe's Cove, whence he marched in along the narrow path +between the cliff and the St Lawrence till he reached +the spot at the foot of Cape Diamond just under the right +of Livingston's line. Arnold, whose quarters were in the +valley of the St Charles, took post in St Roch, with a +mortar battery to fire against the walls and a column of +men to storm the Sault-au-Matelot. Livingston's and Jerry +Duggan's whole command numbered about four hundred men, +Montgomery's five hundred, Arnold's six. The opposing +totals were fifteen hundred Americans against seventeen +hundred British. There was considerable risk of confusion +between friend and foe, as most of the Americans, especially +Arnold's men, wore captured British uniforms with nothing +to distinguish them but odds and ends of their former +kits and a sort of paper hatband bearing the inscription +_Liberty or Death_. + +A little after four the sentries on the walls at Cape +Diamond saw lights flashing about in front of them and +were just going to call the guard when Captain Malcolm +Fraser of the Royal Emigrants came by on his rounds and +saw other lights being set out in regular order like +lamps in a street. He instantly turned out the guards +and pickets. The drums beat to arms. Every church bell +in the city pealed forth its alarm into that wild night. +The bugles blew. The men off duty swarmed on to the Place +d'Armes, where Carleton, calm and intrepid as ever, took +post with the general reserve and waited. There was +nothing for him to do just yet. Everything that could +have been foreseen had already been amply provided for; +and in his quiet confidence his followers found their +own. + +Towards five o'clock two green rockets shot up from +Montgomery's position beside the Anse des Meres under +Cape Diamond. This was the signal for attack. Montgomery's +column immediately struggled on again along the path +leading round the foot of the Cape towards the Pres-de-Ville +barricade. Livingston's serious 'patriots' on the top of +the Cape changed their dropping shots into a hot fire +against the walls; while Jerry Duggan's little mob of +would-be looters shouted and blazed away from safer cover +in the suburbs of St John and St Roch. Arnold's mortars +pitched shells all over the town; while his storming-party +advanced towards the Sault-au-Matelot barricade. Carleton, +naturally anxious about the landward walls, sent some of +the British militia to reinforce the men at Cape Diamond, +which, as he knew, Montgomery considered the best point +of attack. The walls lower down did not seem to be in +any danger from Jerry Duggan's 'patriots,' whose noisy +demonstration was at once understood to be nothing but +an empty feint. The walls facing the St Charles were well +manned and well gunned by the naval battalion. Those +facing the St Lawrence, though weak in themselves, were +practically impregnable, as the cliffs could not be scaled +by any formed body. The Lower Town, however, was by no +means so safe, in spite of its two barricades. The general +uproar was now so great that Carleton could not distinguish +the firing there from what was going on elsewhere. But +it was at these two points that the real attack was +rapidly developing. + +The first decisive action took place at Pres-de-Ville. +The guard there consisted of fifty men--John Coffin, who +was a merchant of Quebec, Sergeant Hugh McQuarters of +the Royal Artillery, Captain Barnsfair, a merchant skipper, +with fifteen mates and skippers like himself, and thirty +French Canadians under Captain Chabot and Lieutenant +Picard. These fifty men had to guard a front of only as +many feet. On their right Cape Diamond rose almost sheer. +On their left raged the stormy St Lawrence. They had a +tiny block-house next to the cliff and four small guns +on the barricade, all double-charged with canister and +grape. They had heard the dropping shots on the top of +the Cape for nearly an hour and had been quick to notice +the change to a regular hot fire. But they had no idea +whether their own post was to be attacked or not till +they suddenly saw the head of Montgomery's column halting +within fifty paces of them. A man came forward cautiously +and looked at the barricade. The storm was in his face. +The defences were wreathed in whirling snow. And the men +inside kept silent as the grave. When he went back a +little group stood for a couple of minutes in hurried +consultation. Then Montgomery waved his sword, called +out 'Come on, brave boys, Quebec is ours!' and led the +charge. The defenders let the Americans get about half-way +before Barnsfair shouted 'Fire!' Then the guns and muskets +volleyed together, cutting down the whole front of the +densely massed column. Montgomery, his two staff-officers, +and his ten leading men were instantly killed. Some more +farther back were wounded. And just as the fifty British +fired their second round the rest of the five hundred +Americans turned and ran in wild confusion. + +A few minutes later a man whose identity was never +established came running from the Lower Town to say that +Arnold's men had taken the Sault-au-Matelot barricade. +If this was true it meant that the Pres-de-Ville fifty +would be caught between two fires. Some of them made as +if to run back and reach Mountain Hill before the Americans +could cut them off. But Coffin at once threatened to kill +the first man to move; and by the time an artillery +officer had arrived with reinforcements perfect order +had been restored. This officer, finding he was not wanted +there, sent back to know where else he was to go, and +received an answer telling him to hurry to the +Sault-au-Matelot. When he arrived there, less than half +a mile off, he found that desperate street fighting had +been going on for over an hour. + +Arnold's advance had begun at the same time as Livingston's +demonstration and Montgomery's attack. But his task was +very different and the time required much longer. There +were three obstacles to be overcome. First, his men had +to run the gauntlet of the fire from the bluejackets +ranged along the Grand Battery, which faced the St Charles +at its mouth and overlooked the narrow little street of +Sous-le-Cap at a height of fifty or sixty feet. Then they +had to take the small advanced barricade, which stood a +hundred yards on the St Charles side of the actual +Sault-au-Matelot or Sailor's Leap, which is the +north-easterly point of the Quebec promontory and nearly +a hundred feet high. Finally, they had to round this +point and attack the regular Sault-au-Matelot barricade. +This second barricade was about a hundred yards long, +from the rock to the river. It crossed Sault-au-Matelot +Street and St Peter Street, which were the same then as +now. But it ended on a wharf half-way down the modern St +James Street, as the outer half of this street was then +a natural strand completely covered at high tide. It was +much closer than the Pres-de-Ville barricade was to +Mountain Hill, at the top of which Carleton held his +general reserve ready in the Place d'Armes; and it was +fairly strong in material and armament. But it was at +first defended by only a hundred men. + +The American forlorn hope, under Captain Oswald, got past +most of the Grand Battery unscathed. But by the time the +main body was following under Morgan the British +blue-jackets were firing down from the walls at less than +point-blank range. The driving snow, the clumps of bushes +on the cliff, and the little houses in the street below +all gave the Americans some welcome cover. But many of +them were hit; while the gun they were towing through +the drifts on a sleigh stuck fast and had to be abandoned. +Captain Dearborn, the future commander-in-chief of the +American army in the War of 1812, noted in his diary that +he 'met the wounded men very thick' as he was bringing +up the rear. When the forlorn hope reached the advanced +barricade Arnold halted it till the supports had come +up. The loss of the gun and the worrying his main body +was receiving from the sailors along the Grand Battery +spoilt his original plan of smashing in the barricade by +shell fire while Morgan circled round its outer flank on +the ice of the tidal flats and took it in rear. So he +decided on a frontal attack. When he thought he had a +fair chance he stepped to the front and shouted, 'Now, +boys, all together, rush!' But before he could climb the +barricade he was shot through the leg. For some time he +propped himself up against a house and, leaning on his +rifle, continued encouraging his men, who were soon firing +through the port-holes as well as over the top. But +presently growing faint from loss of blood he had to be +carried off the field to the General Hospital on the +banks of the St Charles. + +The men now called out for a lead from Morgan, who climbed +a ladder, leaped the top, and fell under a gun inside. +In another minute the whole forlorn hope had followed +him, while the main body came close behind. The guard, +not strong in numbers and weak in being composed of young +militiamen, gave way but kept on firing. 'Down with your +arms if you want quarter!' yelled Morgan, whose men were +in overwhelming strength; and the guard surrendered. A +little way beyond, just under the bluff of the +Sault-au-Matelot, the British supports, many of whom were +Seminary students, also surrendered to Morgan, who at +once pressed on, round the corner of the Sault-au-Matelot, +and halted in sight of the second or regular barricade. +What was to be done now? Where was Montgomery? How strong +was the barricade; and had it been reinforced? It could +not be turned because the cliff rose sheer on one flank +while the icy St Lawrence lashed the other. Had Morgan +known that there were only a hundred men behind it when +he attacked its advanced barricade he might have pressed +on at all costs and carried it by assault. But it looked +strong, there were guns on its platforms, and it ran +across two streets. His hurried council of war over-ruled +him, as Montgomery's council had over-ruled the original +plan of storming the walls; and so his men began a +desultory fight in the streets and from the houses. + +This was fatal to American success. The original British +hundred were rapidly reinforced. The artillery officer +who had found that he was not needed at the Pres-de-Ville +after Montgomery's defeat, and who had hurried across +the intervening half-mile, now occupied the corner houses, +enlarged the embrasures, and trained his guns on the +houses occupied by the enemy. Detachments of Fusiliers +and Royal Emigrants also arrived, as did the thirty-five +masters and mates of merchant vessels who were not on +guard with Barnsfair at the Pres-de-Ville. Thus, what +with soldiers, sailors, and militiamen of both races, +the main Sault-au-Matelot barricade was made secure +against being rushed like the outer one. But there was +plenty of fighting, with some confusion at close quarters +caused by the British uniforms which both sides were +wearing. A Herculean sailor seized the first ladder the +Americans set against the barricade, hauled it up, and +set it against the window of a house out of the far end +of which the enemy were firing. Major Nairne and Lieutenant +Dambourges of the Royal Emigrants at once climbed in at +the head of a storming-party and wild work followed with +the bayonet. All the Americans inside were either killed +or captured. Meanwhile a vigorous British nine-pounder +had been turned on another house they occupied. This +house was likewise battered in, so that its surviving +occupants had to run into the street, where they were +well plied with musketry by the regulars and militiamen. +The chance for a sortie then seeming favourable, Lieutenant +Anderson of the Navy headed his thirty-five merchant +mates and skippers in a rush along Sault-au-Matelot +Street. But his effort was premature. Morgan shot him +dead, and Morgan's Virginians drove the seamen back inside +the barricade. + +Carleton had of course kept in perfect touch with every +phase of the attack and defence; and now, fearing no +surprise against the walls in the growing daylight, had +decided on taking Arnold's men in rear. To do this he +sent Captain Lawes of the Royal Engineers and Captain +McDougall of the Royal Emigrants with a hundred and twenty +men out through Palace Gate. This detachment had hardly +reached the advanced barricade before they fell in with +the enemy's rearguard, which they took by complete surprise +and captured to a man. Leaving McDougall to secure these +prisoners before following on, Lawes pushed eagerly +forward, round the corner of the Sault-au-Matelot cliff, +and, running in among the Americans facing the main +barricade, called out, 'You are all my prisoners!' 'No, +we're not; you're ours!' they answered. 'No, no,' replied +Lawes, as coolly as if on parade 'don't mistake yourselves, +I vow to God you're mine!' 'But where are your men?' +asked the astonished Americans; and then Lawes suddenly +found that he was utterly alone! The roar of the storm +and the work of securing the prisoners on the far side +of the advanced barricade had prevented the men who should +have followed him from understanding that only a few were +needed with McDougall. But Lawes put a bold face on it +and answered, 'O, Ho, make yourselves easy! My men are +all round here and they'll be with you in a twinkling.' +He was then seized and disarmed. Some of the Americans +called out, 'Kill him! Kill him!' But a Major Meigs +protected him. The whole parley had lasted about ten +minutes when McDougall came running up with the missing +men, released Lawes, and made prisoners of the nearest +Americans. Lawes at once stepped forward and called on the +rest to surrender. Morgan was for cutting his way through. +A few men ran round by the wharf and escaped on the tidal +flats of the St Charles. But, after a hurried consultation, +the main body, including Morgan, laid down their arms. This +was decisive. The British had won the fight. + +The complete British loss in killed and wounded was +wonderfully small, only thirty, just one-tenth of the +corresponding American loss, which was large out of all +proportion. Nearly half of the fifteen hundred Americans +had gone--over four hundred prisoners and about three +hundred killed and wounded. Nor were the mere numbers +the most telling point about it; for the worse half +escaped--Livingston's Montreal 'patriots,' many of whom +had done very little fighting, Montgomery's time-expired +New Yorkers, most of whom wanted to go home, and Jerry +Duggan's miscellaneous rabble, all of whom wanted a +maximum of plunder with a minimum of war. + +The British victory was as nearly perfect as could have +been desired. It marked the turn of the tide in a desperate +campaign which might have resulted in the total loss of +Canada. And it was of the greatest significance and +happiest augury because all the racial elements of this +new and vast domain had here united for the first time +in defence of that which was to be their common heritage. +In Carleton's little garrison of regulars and militia, +of bluejackets, marines, and merchant seamen, there were +Frenchmen and French Canadians, there were Englishmen, +Irishmen, Scotsmen, Welshmen, Orcadians, and Channel +Islanders, there were a few Newfoundlanders, and there +mere a good many of those steadfast Royal Emigrants who +may be fitly called the forerunners of the United Empire +Loyalists. Yet, in spite of this remarkable significance, +no public memorial of Carleton has ever been set up; and +it was only in the twentieth century that the Dominion +first thought of commemorating his most pregnant victory +by placing tablets to mark the sites of the two famous +barricades. + +As soon as things had quieted down within the walls +Carleton sent out search-parties to bring in the dead +for decent burial and to see if any of the wounded had +been overlooked. James Thompson, the assistant engineer, +saw a frozen hand protruding from a snowdrift at +Pres-de-Ville. It was Montgomery's. The thirteen bodies +were dug out and Thompson was ordered to have a 'genteel +coffin made for Mr Montgomery,' who was buried in the +wall just above St Louis Gate by the Anglican chaplain. +Thompson kept Montgomery's sword, which was given to the +Livingston family more than a century later. + +The beleaguerment continued, in a half-hearted way, till +the spring. The Americans received various small +reinforcements, which eventually brought their total up +to what it had been under Montgomery's command. But there +were no more assaults. Arnold grew dissatisfied and +finally went to Montreal; while Wooster, the new general, +who arrived on the 1st of April, was himself succeeded +by Thomas, an ex-apothecary, on the 1st of May. The suburb +of St Roch was burnt down after the victory; so the +American snipers were bereft of some very favourite cover, +and this, with other causes, kept the bulk of the besiegers +at an ineffective distance from the walls. + +The British garrison had certain little troubles of its +own; for discipline always tends to become irksome after +a great effort. Carleton was obliged to stop the retailing +of spirits for fear the slacker men would be getting out +of hand. The guards and duties were made as easy as +possible, especially for the militia. But the 'snow-shovel +parade' was an imperative necessity. The winter was very +stormy, and the drifts would have frequently covered the +walls and even the guns if they had not promptly been +dug out. The cold was also unusually severe. One early +morning in January an angry officer was asking a sentry +why he hadn't challenged him, when the sentry said, 'God +bless your Honour! and I'm glad you're come, for I'm +blind!' Then it was found that his eyelids were frozen +fast together. + +News came in occasionally from the outside world. There +was intense indignation among the garrison when they +learned that the American commanders in Montreal were +imprisoning every Canadian officer who would not surrender +his commission. Such an unheard-of outrage was worthy of +Walker. But others must have thought of it; for Walker +was now in Philadelphia giving all the evidence he could +against Prescott and other British officers. Bad news +for the rebels was naturally welcomed, especially anything +about their growing failure to raise troops in Canada. +On hearing of Montgomery's defeat the Continental Congress +had passed a resolution, addressed to the 'Inhabitants +of Canada' declaring that 'we will never abandon you to +the unrelenting fury of your and our enemies.' But there +were no trained soldiers to back this up; and the raw +militia, though often filled with zeal and courage, could +do nothing to redress the increasingly adverse balance. +In the middle of March the Americans sent in a summons. +But Carleton refused to receive it; and the garrison put +a wooden horse and a bundle of hay on the walls with a +placard bearing the inscription, 'When this horse has +eaten this bunch of hay we will surrender.' Some excellent +practice made with 13-inch shells sent the Americans +flying from their new battery at Levis; and by the 17th +of March one of the several exultant British diarists, +whose anonymity must have covered an Irish name, was able +to record that 'this, being St Patrick's Day, the Governor, +who is a true Hibernian, has requested the garrison to +put off keeping it till the 17th of May, when he promises, +they shall be enabled to do it properly, and with the +usual solemnities.' + +A fortnight later a plot concerted between the American +prisoners and their friends outside was discovered just +in time. With tools supplied by traitors they were to +work their way out of their quarters, overpower the guard +at the nearest gate, set fire to the nearest houses in +three different streets, turn the nearest guns inwards +on the town, and shout 'Liberty for ever!' as an additional +signal to the storming-party that was to be waiting to +confirm their success. Carleton seized the chance of +turning this scheme against the enemy. Three safe bonfires +were set ablaze. The marked guns were turned inwards and +fired at the town with blank charges. And the preconcerted +shout was raised with a will. But the besiegers never stirred. +After this the Old-Countrymen among the prisoners, who had +taken the oath and enlisted in the garrison, were disarmed +and confined, while the rest were more strictly watched. + +Two brave attempts were made by French Canadians to reach +Quebec with reinforcements, one headed by a seigneur, +the other by a parish priest. Carleton had sent word to +M. de Beaujeu, seigneur of Crane Island, forty miles +below Quebec, asking him to see if he could cut off the +American detachment on the Levis shore. De Beaujeu raised +three hundred and fifty men. But Arnold sent over +reinforcements. A habitant betrayed his fellow-countrymen's +advance-guard. A dozen French Canadians were then killed +or wounded while forty were taken prisoners; whereupon +the rest dispersed to their homes. The other attempt was +made by Father Bailly, whose little force of about fifty +men was also betrayed. Entrapped in a country-house these +men fought bravely till nearly half their number had been +killed or wounded and the valiant priest had been mortally +hit. They then surrendered to a much stronger force which +had lost more men than they. + +This was on the 6th of April, just before Arnold was +leaving in disgust. Wooster made an effort to use his +new artillery to advantage by converging the fire of +three batteries, one close in on the Heights of Abraham, +another from across the mouth of the St Charles, and the +third from Levis. But the combination failed: the batteries +were too light for the work and overmatched by the guns +on the walls, the practice was bad, and the effect was +nil. On the 3rd of May the new general, Thomas, an +enterprising man, tried a fireship, which was meant to +destroy all the shipping in the Cul de Sac. It came on, +under full sail, in a very threatening manner. But the +crew lost their nerve at the critical moment, took to +the boats too soon, and forgot to lash the helm. The +vessel immediately flew up into the wind and, as the +tidal stream was already changing, began to drift away +from the Cul de Sac just when she burst into flame. The +result, as described by an enthusiastic British diarist, +was that 'she affoard'd a very pritty prospect while she +was floating down the River, every now & then sending up +Sky rackets, firing of Cannon or bursting of Shells, & +so continued till She disappear'd in the Channell.' + +Three days later, on the 6th of May, when the beleaguerment +had lasted precisely five months, the sound of distant +gunfire came faintly up the St Lawrence with the first +breath of the dawn wind from the east. The sentries +listened to make sure; then called the sergeants of the +guards, who sent word to the officers on duty, who, in +their turn, sent word to Carleton. By this time there +could be no mistake. The breeze was freshening; the sound +was gradually nearing Quebec; and there could hardly be +room for doubting that it came from the vanguard of the +British fleet. The drums beat to arms, the church bells +rang, the news flew round to every household in Quebec; +and before the tops of the _Surprise_ frigate were seen +over the Point of Levy every battery was fully manned, +every battalion was standing ready on the Grand Parade, +and every non-combatant man, woman, and child was lining +the seaward wall. The regulation shot was fired across +her bows as she neared the city; whereupon she fired +three guns to leeward, hoisted the private signal, and +showed the Union Jack. Then, at last, a cheer went up +that told both friend and foe of British victory and +American defeat. By a strange coincidence the parole for +this triumphal day was St George, while the parole +appointed for the victorious New Year's Eve had been St +Denis; so that the patron saints of France and England +happen to be associated with the two great days on which +the stronghold of Canada was saved by land and sea. + +The same tide brought in two other men-of-war. Some +soldiers of the 29th, who were on board the _Surprise_, +were immediately landed, together with the marines from +all three vessels. Carleton called for volunteers from +the militia to attack the Americans at once; and nearly +every man, both of the French- and of the English-speaking +corps, stepped forward. There was joy in every heart that +the day for striking back had come at last. The columns +marched gaily through the gates and deployed into line +at the double on the Heights outside. The Americans fired +a few hurried shots and then ran for dear life, leaving +their dinners cooking, and, in some cases, even their +arms behind them. The Plains were covered with flying +enemies and strewn with every sort of impediment to +flight, from a cannon to a loaf of bread. Quebec had been +saved by British sea-power; and, with it, the whole vast +dominion of which it was the key. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +DELIVERANCE +1776 + +The Continental Congress had always been anxious to have +delegates from the Fourteenth Colony. But as these never +came the Congress finally decided to send a special +commission to examine the whole civil and military state +of Canada and see what could be done. The news of +Montgomery's death and defeat was a very unwelcome +surprise. But reinforcements were being sent; the Canadians +could surely be persuaded; and a Congressional commission +must be able to set things right. This commission was a +very strong one. Benjamin Franklin was the chairman. +Samuel Chase of Maryland and Charles Carroll of Carrollton +were the other members. Carroll's brother, the future +archbishop of Baltimore, accompanied them as a sort of +ecclesiastical diplomatist. Franklin's prestige and the +fact that he was to set up a 'free' printing-press in +Montreal were to work wonders with the educated classes +at once and with the uneducated masses later on. Chase +would appeal to all the reasonable 'moderates.' Carroll, +a great landlord and the nearest approach yet made to an +American millionaire, was expected to charm the Canadian +noblesse; while the fact that he and his exceedingly +diplomatic brother were devout Roman Catholics was thought +to be by itself a powerful argument with the clergy. + +When they reached St Johns towards the end of April the +commissioners sent on a courier to announce their arrival +and prepare for their proper reception in Montreal. But +the ferryman at Laprairie positively refused to accept +Continental paper money at any price; and it was only +when a 'Friend of Liberty' gave him a dollar in silver +that he consented to cross the courier over the St +Lawrence. The same hitch occurred in Montreal, where the +same Friend of Liberty had to pay in silver before the +cab-drivers consented to accept a fare either from him +or from the commissioners. Even the name of Carroll of +Carrollton was conjured with in vain. The French Canadians +remembered Bigot's bad French paper. Their worst suspicions +were being confirmed about the equally bad American paper. +So they demanded nothing but hard cash--_argent dur_. +However, the first great obstacle had been successfully +overcome; and so, on the strength of five borrowed silver +dollars, the accredited commissioners of the Continental +Congress of the Thirteen Colonies made their state entry +into what they still hoped to call the Fourteenth Colony. +But silver dollars were scarce; and on the 1st of May +the crestfallen commissioners had to send the Congress +a financial report which may best be summed up in a +pithy phrase which soon became proverbial--'Not worth +a Continental.' + +On the 10th of May they heard the bad news from Quebec +and increased the panic among their Montreal sympathizers +by hastily leaving the city lest they should be cut off +by a British man-of-war. Franklin foresaw the end and +left for Philadelphia accompanied by the Reverend John +Carroll, whose twelve days of disheartening experience +with the leading French-Canadian clergy had convinced +him that they were impervious to any arguments or +blandishments emanating from the Continental Congress. +It was a sad disillusionment for the commissioners, who +had expected to be settling the affairs of a fourteenth +colony instead of being obliged to leave the city from +which they were to have enlightened the people with a +free press. In their first angry ignorance they laid the +whole blame on their unfortunate army for its 'disgraceful +flight' from Quebec. A week later, when Chase and Charles +Carroll ought to have known better, they were still +assuring the Congress that this 'shameful retreat' was +'the principal cause of all the disorders' in the army; +and even after the whole story ought to have been understood +neither they nor the Congress gave their army its proper +due. But, as a matter of fact, the American position had +become untenable the moment the British fleet began to +threaten the American line of communication with Montreal. +For the rest, the American volunteers, all things +considered, had done very well indeed. Arnold's march +was a truly magnificent feat. Morgan's men had fought +with great courage at the Sault-au-Matelot. And though +Montgomery's assault might well have been better planned +and executed, we must remember that the good plan, which +had been rejected, was the military one, while the bad +plan, which had been adopted, was concocted by mere +politicians. Nor were 'all the disorders' so severely +condemned by the commissioners due to the army alone. +Far from it, indeed. The root of 'all the disorders' lay +in the fact that a makeshift government was obliged to +use makeshift levies for an invasion which required a +regular army supported by a fleet. + +On the 19th of May another disaster happened, this time +above Montreal. The Congress had not felt strong enough +to attack the western posts. So Captain Forster of the +8th Foot, finding that he was free to go elsewhere, had +come down from Oswegatchie (the modern Ogdensburg) with +a hundred whites and two hundred Indians and made prisoners +of four hundred and thirty Americans at the Cedars, about +thirty miles up the St Lawrence from Montreal. Forster +was a very good officer. Butterfield, the American +commander, was a very bad one. And that made all the +difference. After two days of feeble and misdirected +defence Butterfield surrendered three hundred and fifty +men. The other eighty were reinforcements who walked into +the trap next day. Forster now had four American prisoners +for every white soldier of his own; while Arnold was near +by, having come up from Sorel to Lachine with a small +but determined force. So Forster, carefully pointing out +to his prisoners their danger if the Indians should be +reinforced and run wild, offered them their freedom on +condition that they should be regarded as being exchanged +for an equal number of British prisoners in American +hands. This was agreed to and never made a matter of +dispute afterwards. But the second article Butterfield +accepted was a stipulation that, while the released +British were to be free to fight again, the released +Americans were not; and it was over this point that a +bitter controversy raged. The British authorities maintained +that all the terms were binding because they had been +accepted by an officer commissioned by the Congress. The +Congress maintained that the disputed article was obtained +by an unfair threat of an Indian massacre and that it +was so one-sided as to be good for nothing but repudiation. + +'The Affair at the Cedars' thus became a sorely vexed +question. In itself it would have died out among later +and more important issues if it had not been used as a +torch to fire American public opinion at a time when the +Congress was particularly anxious to make the Thirteen +Colonies as anti-British as possible. Most of Forster's +men were Indians. He had reminded Butterfield how dangerous +an increasing number of Indians might become. Butterfield +was naturally anxious to prove that he had yielded only +to overwhelming odds and horrifying risks. Americans in +general were ready to believe anything bad about the +Indians and the British. The temptation and the opportunity +seemed made for each other. And so a quite imaginary +Indian massacre conveniently appeared in the American +news of the day and helped to form the kind of public +opinion which was ardently desired by the party of revolt. + +The British evidence in this and many another embittering +dispute about the Indians need not be cited, since the +following items of American evidence do ample justice to +both sides. In the spring of 1775 the Massachusetts +Provincial Congress sent Samuel Kirkland to exhort the +Iroquois 'to whet their hatchet and be prepared to defend +our liberties and lives'; while Ethan Allen asked the +Indians round Vermont to treat him 'like a brother and +ambush the regulars.' In 1776 the Continental Congress +secretly resolved 'that it is highly expedient to engage +the Indians in the service of the United Colonies.' This +was before the members knew about the Affair at the +Cedars. A few days later Washington was secretly authorized +to raise two thousand Indians; while agents were secretly +sent 'to engage the Six Nations in our Interest, on the +best terms that can be procured.' Within three weeks of +this secret arrangement the Declaration of Independence +publicly accused the king of trying 'to bring on the +inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages.' +Four days after this public accusation the Congress gave +orders for raising Indians along 'the Penobscot, the St +John, and in Nova Scotia'; and an entry to that effect +was made in its Secret Journal. Yet, before the month +was out, the same Congress publicly appealed to 'The +People of Ireland' in the following words: 'The wild and +barbarous savages of the wilderness have been solicited +by gifts to take up the hatchet against us, and instigated +to deluge our settlements with the blood of defenceless +women and children.' + +The American defeats at Quebec and at the Cedars completely +changed the position of the two remaining commissioners. +They had expected to control a victorious advance. They +found themselves the highest authority present with a +disastrous retreat. Thereupon they made blunder after +blunder. Public interest and parliamentary control are +the very life of armies and navies in every country which +enjoys the blessings of self-government. But civilian +interference is death. Yet Chase and Carroll practically +abolished rank in the disintegrating army by becoming an +open court of appeal to every junior with a grievance or +a plan. There never was an occasion on which military +rule was more essential in military matters. Yet, though +they candidly admitted that they had 'neither abilities +nor inclination' to command, these wretched misrulers +tried to do their duty both to the Congress and the army +by turning the camp into a sort of town meeting where +the best orders had no chance whatever against the loudest +'sentiments.' They had themselves found the root of all +evil in the retreat from Quebec. Their army, like every +impartial critic, found it in 'the Commissioners and the +smallpox'--with the commissioners easily first. The +smallpox had been bad enough at Quebec. It became far +worse at Sorel. There were few doctors, fewer medicines, +and not a single hospital. The reinforcements melted away +with the army they were meant to strengthen. Famine +threatened both, even in May. Finally the commissioners +left for home at the end of the month. But even their +departure could no longer make the army's burden light +enough to bear. + +Thomas, the ex-apothecary, who did his best to stem the +adverse tide of trouble, caught the smallpox, became +blind, and died at the beginning of June. Sullivan, the +fourth commander in less than half a year, having determined +that one more effort should be made, arrived at Sorel +with new battalions after innumerable difficulties by +the way. He was led to believe that Carleton's +reinforcements had come from Nova Scotia, not from England; +and this encouraged him to push on farther. He was +naturally of a very sanguine temper; and Thompson, his +second-in-command, heartily approved of the dash. The +new troops cheered up and thought of taking Quebec itself. +But, after getting misled by their guide, floundering +about in bottomless bogs, and losing a great deal of very +precious time, they found Three Rivers defended by +entrenchments, superior numbers, and the vanguard of the +British fleet. Nevertheless they attacked bravely on the +8th of June. But, taken in front and flank by well-drilled +regulars and well-handled men-of-war, they presently +broke and fled. Every avenue of escape was closed as they +wandered about the woods and bogs. But Carleton, who came +up from Quebec after the battle was all over, purposely +opened the way to Sorel. He had done his best to win the +hearts of his prisoners at Quebec and had succeeded so +well that when they returned to Crown Point they were +kept away from the rest of the American army lest their +account of his kindness should affect its anti-British +zeal. Now that he was in overwhelming force he thought +he saw an even better chance of earning gratitude from +rebels and winning converts to the loyal side by a still +greater act of clemency. + +The battle of Three Rivers was the last action fought on +Canadian soil. The American army retreated to Sorel and +up the Richelieu to St Johns, where it was joined by +Arnold, who had just evacuated Montreal. Most of the +Friends of Liberty in Canada fled either with or before +their beaten forces. So, like the ebbing of a whole river +system, the main and tributary streams of fugitives drew +south towards Lake Champlain. The neutral French Canadians +turned against them at once; though not to the extent of +making an actual attack. The habitant cared nothing for +the incomprehensible constitutionalities over which +different kinds of British foreigners were fighting their +exasperating civil war. But he did know what the king's +big fleet and army meant. He did begin to feel that his +own ways of life were safer with the loyal than with the +rebel side. And he quite understood that he had been +forced to give a good deal for nothing ever since the +American commissioners had authorized their famishing +army to commandeer his supplies and pay him with their +worthless 'Continentals.' + +From St Johns the worn-out Americans crawled homewards +in stray, exhausted parties, dropping fast by the way as +they went. 'I did not look into a hut or a tent,' wrote +a horrified observer, 'in which I did not find a dead or +dying man.' Disorganization became so complete that no +exact returns were ever made up. But it is known that +over ten thousand armed men crossed into Canada from +first to last and that not far short of half this total +either found their death beyond the line or brought it +back with them to Lake Champlain. + +It was on what long afterwards became Dominion Day--the +1st of July--that the ruined American forces reassembled +at Crown Point, having abandoned all hope of making Canada +the Fourteenth Colony. Three days later the disappointed +Thirteen issued the Declaration of Independence which +virtually proclaimed that Canadians and Americans should +thenceforth live a separate life. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE COUNTERSTROKE +1776-1778 + +Six thousand British troops, commanded by Burgoyne, and +four thousand Germans, commanded by Baron Riedesel, had +arrived at Quebec before the battle of Three Rivers. +Quebec itself had then been left to the care of a German +garrison under a German commandant, 'that excellent man, +Colonel Baum,' while the great bulk of the army had +marched up the St Lawrence, as we have seen already. Such +a force as this new one of Carleton's was expected to +dismay the rebel colonies. And so, to a great extent, it +did. With a much larger force in the colonies themselves +the king was confidently expected to master his unruly +subjects, no matter how much they proclaimed their +independence. The Loyalists were encouraged. The trimmers +prepared to join them. Only those steadfast Americans +who held their cause dearer than life itself were still +determined to venture all. But they formed the one party +that really knew its own mind. This gave them a great +advantage over the king's party, which, hampered at every +turn by the opposition in the mother country, was never +quite sure whether it ought to strike hard or gently in +America. + +On one point, however, everybody was agreed. The command +of Lake Champlain was essential to whichever side would +hold its own. The American forces at Crown Point might +be too weak for the time being. But Arnold knew that even +ten thousand British soldiers could not overrun the land +without a naval force to help them. So he got together +a flotilla which had everything its own way during the +time that Carleton was laboriously building a rival +flotilla on the Richelieu with a very scanty supply of +ship-wrights and materials. Arnold, moreover, could devote +his whole attention to the work, makeshift as it had to +be; while Carleton was obliged to keep moving about the +province in an effort to bring it into some sort of order +after the late invasion. Throughout the summer the British +army held the line of the Richelieu all the way south as +far as Isle-aux-Noix, very near the lake and the line. +But Carleton's flotilla could not set sail from St Johns +till October 5, by which time the main body of his army +was concentrated round Pointe-au-Fer, at the northern +end of the lake, ninety miles north of the American camp +at Crown Point. + +It was a curious situation for a civil and military +governor to be hoisting his flag as a naval +commander-in-chief, however small the fleet might be. +But it is commonly ignored that, down to the present day, +the governor-general of Canada is appointed 'Vice-Admiral +of the Same' in his commissions from the Crown. Carleton +of course carried expert naval officers with him and had +enough professional seamen to work the vessels and lay +the guns. But, though Captain Pringle manoeuvred the +flotilla and Lieutenant Dacre handled the flagship +_Carleton_, the actual command remained in Carleton's +own hands. The capital ship (and the only real square-rigged +'ship') of this Lilliputian fleet was Pringle's +_Inflexible_, which had been taken up the Richelieu in +sections and hauled past the portages with immense labour +before reaching St Johns, whence there is a clear run +upstream to Lake Champlain. The _Inflexible_ carried +thirty guns, mostly 12-pounders, and was an overmatch +for quite the half of Arnold's decidedly weaker flotilla. +The _Lady Maria_ was a sort of sister ship to the +_Carleton_. The little armada was completed by a 'gondola' +with six 9-pounders, by twenty gunboats and four longboats, +each carrying a single piece, and by many small craft +used as transports. + +On the 11th of October Carleton's whole naval force was +sailing south when one of Arnold's vessels was seen making +for Valcour Island, a few miles still farther south on +the same, or western, side of Lake Champlain. Presently +the Yankee ran ashore on the southern end of the island, +where she was immediately attacked by some British small +craft while the _Inflexible_ sailed on. Then, to the +intense disgust of the _Inflexible_'s crew, Arnold's +complete flotilla was suddenly discovered drawn up in a +masterly position between the mainland and the island. +It was too late for the _Inflexible_ to beat back now. +But the rest of Carleton's flotilla turned in to the +attack. Arnold's flanks rested on the island and the +mainland. His rear could be approached only by beating +back against a bad wind all the way round the outside of +Valcour Island; and, even if this manoeuvre could have +been performed, the British attack on his rear from the +north could have been made only in a piecemeal way, +because the channel was there at its narrowest, with a +bad obstruction in the middle. So, for every reason, a +frontal attack from the south was the one way of closing +with him. The fight was furious while it lasted and +seemingly decisive when it ended. Arnold's best vessel, +the _Royal Savage_, which he had taken at St Johns the +year before, was driven ashore and captured. The others +were so severely mauled that when the victorious British +anchored their superior force in line across Arnold's +front there seemed to be no chance for him to escape the +following day. But that night he performed an even more +daring and wonderful feat than Bouchette had performed +the year before when paddling Carleton through the American +lines among the islands opposite Sorel. Using muffled +sweeps, with consummate skill he slipped all his remaining +vessels between the mainland and the nearest British +gunboat, and was well on his way to Crown Point before +his escape had been discovered. Next day Carleton chased +south. The day after he destroyed the whole of the enemy's +miniature sea-power as a fighting force. But the only +three serviceable vessels got away; while Arnold burnt +everything else likely to fall into British hands. So +Carleton had no more than his own reduced flotilla to +depend on when he occupied Crown Point. + +A vexed question, destined to form part of a momentous +issue, now arose. Should Ticonderoga be attacked at once +or not? It commanded the only feasible line of march from +Montreal to New York; and no force from Canada could +therefore attack the new republic effectively without +taking it first. But the season was late. The fort was +strong, well gunned, and well manned. Carleton's +reconnaissance convinced him that he could have little +chance of reducing it quickly, if at all, with the means +at hand, especially as the Americans had supplies close +by at Lake George, while he was now a hundred miles south +of his base. A winter siege was impossible. Sufficient +supplies could never be brought through the dense, +snow-encumbered bush, all the way from Canada, even if +the long and harassing line of communications had not +been everywhere open to American attack. Moreover, +Carleton's army was in no way prepared for a midwinter +campaign, even if it could have been supplied with food +and warlike stores. So he very sensibly turned his back +on Lake Champlain until the following year. + +That was the gayest winter Quebec had seen since Montcalm's +first season, twenty years before. Carleton had been +knighted for his services and was naturally supposed to +be the chosen leader for the next campaign. The ten +thousand troops gave confidence to the loyalists and +promised success for the coming campaign. The clergy were +getting their disillusioned parishioners back to the fold +beneath the Union Jack; while _Jean Ba'tis'e_ himself +was fain to admit that his own ways of life and the money +he got for his goods were very much safer with _les +Angla's_ than with the revolutionists, whom he called +_les Bastonna's_ because most trade between Quebec and +the Thirteen Colonies was carried on by vessels hailing +from the port of Boston. The seigneurs were delighted. +They still hoped for commissions as regulars, which too +few of them ever received; and they were charmed with +the little viceregal court over which Lady Maria Carleton, +despite her youthful two-and-twenty summers, presided +with a dignity inherited from the premier ducal family +of England and brought to the acme of conventional +perfection by her intimate experience of Versailles. On +New Year's Eve Carleton gave a public fete, a state +dinner, and a ball to celebrate the anniversary of the +British victory over Montgomery and Arnold. The bishop +held a special thanksgiving and made all notorious +renegades do open penance. Nothing seemed wanting to +bring the New Year in under the happiest auspices since +British rule began. + +But, quite unknown to Carleton, mischief was brewing in +the Colonial Office of that unhappy government which did +so many stupid things and got the credit for so many +more. In 1775 the well-meaning Earl of Dartmouth was +superseded by Lord George Germain, who continued the +mismanagement of colonial affairs for seven disastrous +years. Few characters have abused civil and military +positions more than the man who first, as a British +general, disgraced the noble name of Sackville on the +battlefield of Minden in 1759, and then, as a cabinet +minister, disgraced throughout America the plebeian one +of Germain, which he took in 1770 with a suitable legacy +attached to it. His crime at Minden was set down by the +thoughtless public to sheer cowardice. But Sackville was +no coward. He had borne himself with conspicuous gallantry +at Fontenoy. He was admired, before Minden, by two very +brave soldiers, Wolfe and the Duke of Cumberland. And he +afterwards fought a famous duel with as much sang-froid +as any one would care to see. His real crime at Minden +was admirably exposed by the court-martial which found +him 'guilty of having disobeyed the orders of Prince +Ferdinand of Brunswick, whom he was by his commission +bound to obey as commander-in-chief, according to the +rules of war.' This court also found him 'unfit to serve +his Majesty in any military capacity whatever'; and George +II directed that the following 'remarks' should be added +when the sentence was read out on parade to every regiment +in the service: 'It is his Majesty's pleasure that the +above sentence be given out in public orders, not only +in Britain, but in America, and in every quarter of the +globe where British troops happen to be, so that all +officers, being convinced that neither high birth nor +great employments can shelter offences of such a nature, +and seeing they are subject to censures worse than death +to a man who has any sense of honour, may avoid the fatal +consequences arising from disobedience of orders.' + +This seemed to mark the end of Sackville's sinister +career. But when George II died and George III began to +reign, with a very different set of men to help him, the +bad general reappeared as an equally bad politician. +Haughty, cantankerous, and self-opinionated to the last +degree, Germain, who had many perverse abilities fitting +him for the meaner side of party politics, was appointed +to the post for which he was least qualified just when +Canada and the Thirteen Colonies most needed a master +mind. Worse still, he cherished a contemptible grudge +against Carleton for having refused to turn out a good +officer and put in a bad one who happened to be a pampered +favourite. At first, however, Carleton was allowed to do +his best. But in the summer of 1776 Germain restricted +Carleton's command to Canada and put Burgoyne, a junior +officer, in command of the army destined to make the +counterstroke. The ship bearing this malicious order had +to put back; so it was not till the middle of May 1777 +that Carleton was disillusioned by its arrival as well +as by a second and still more exasperating dispatch +accusing him of neglect of duty for not having taken +Ticonderoga in November and thus prevented Washington +from capturing the Hessians at Trenton. The physical +impossibility of a winter siege, the three hundred miles +of hostile country between Trenton and Ticonderoga, and +the fact that the other leading British general, Howe, +had thirty thousand troops in the Colonies, while Carleton +had only ten thousand with which to hold Canada that year +and act as ordered next year, all went for nothing when +Germain found a chance to give a good stab in the back. + +On May 20 Carleton wrote a pungent reply, pointing out +the utter impossibility of following up his victory on +Lake Champlain by carrying out Germain's arm-chair plan +of operations in the middle of winter. 'I regard it as +a particular blessing that your Lordship's dispatch did +not arrive in due time.' As for the disaster at Trenton, +he 'begs to inform his Lordship' that if Howe's thirty +thousand men had been properly used the Hessians could +never have been taken, 'though all the rebels from +Ticonderoga had reinforced Mr Washington's army.' Moreover, +'I never could imagine why, if troops so far south [as +Howe's] found it necessary to go into winter quarters, +your Lordship could possibly expect troops so far north +to continue their operations.' A week later Carleton +wrote again and sent in his resignation. 'Finding that +I can no longer be of use, under your Lordship's +administration ... I flatter myself I shall obtain the +king's permission to return home this fall. ... I shall +embark with great satisfaction, still entertaining the +ardent wish that, after my departure, the dignity of the +Crown in this unfortunate Province may not appear beneath +your Lordship's concern.' + +Burgoyne had spent the winter in London and had arrived +at Quebec about the same time as Germain's dispatches. +He had loyally represented Carleton's plans at headquarters. +But he did not know America and he was not great enough +to see the weak points in the plan which Germain proposed +to carry out with wholly inadequate means. + +There was nothing wrong with the actual idea of this +plan. Washington, Carleton, and every other leading man +on either side saw perfectly well that the British army +ought to cut the rebels in two by holding the direct line +from Montreal to New York throughout the coming campaign +of 1777. Given the irresistible British command of the +sea, fifty thousand troops were enough. The general idea +was that half of these should hold the four-hundred-mile +line of the Richelieu, Lake Champlain, and the Hudson, +while the other half seized strategic points elsewhere +and still further divided the American forces. But the +troops employed were ten thousand short of the proper +number. Many of them were foreign mercenaries. And the +generals were not the men to smash the enemy at all costs. +They were ready to do their duty. But their affinities +were rather with the opposition, which was against the +war, than with the government, which was for it. Howe +was a strong Whig. Burgoyne became a follower of Fox. +Clinton had many Whig connections. Cornwallis voted +against colonial taxation. To make matters worse, the +government itself wavered between out-and-out war and +some sort of compromise both with its political opponents +at home and its armed opponents in America. + +Under these circumstances Carleton was in favour of a +modified plan. Ticonderoga had been abandoned by the +Americans and occupied by the British as Burgoyne marched +south. Carleton's idea was to use it as a base of operations +against New England, while Howe's main body struck at +the main body of the rebels and broke them up as much as +possible. Germain however, was all for the original plan. +So Burgoyne set off for the Hudson, expecting to get into +touch with Howe at Albany. But Germain, in his haste to +leave town for a holiday, forgot to sign Howe's orders +at the proper time; and afterwards forgot them altogether. +So Howe, pro-American in politics and temporizer in the +field, manoeuvred round his own headquarters at New York +until October, when he sailed south to Philadelphia. +Receiving no orders from Germain, and having no initiative +of his own, he had made no attempt to hold the line of +the Hudson all the way north to Albany, where he could +have met Burgoyne and completed the union of the forces +which would have cut the Colonies in two. Meanwhile +Burgoyne, ignorant of Germain's neglect and Howe's +futilities, was struggling to his fate at Saratoga, north +of Albany. He had been receiving constant aid from +Carleton's scanty resources, though Carleton knew full +well that the sending of any aid beyond the limits of +the province exposed him to personal ruin in case of a +reverse in Canada. But it was all in vain; and, on the +17th of October, Burgoyne--much more sinned against than +sinning--laid down his arms. The British garrison +immediately evacuated Ticonderoga and retired to St Johns, +thus making Carleton's position fairly safe in Canada. +But Germain, only too glad to oust him, had now notified +him that Haldimand, the new governor, was on the point +of sailing for Quebec. Haldimand, to his great credit, +had asked to have his own appointment cancelled when he +heard of Germain's shameful attitude towards Carleton, +and had only consented to go after being satisfied that +Carleton really wished to come home. The exchange, however, +was not to take place that year. Contrary winds blew +Haldimand back; and so Canada had to remain under the +best of all possible governors in spite of Germain. + +Germain had provoked Carleton past endurance both by his +public blunders and by his private malice. Even in 1776 +there was hate on one side, contempt on the other. When +Germain had blamed Carleton for not carrying out the +idiotic winter siege of Ticonderoga, Carleton, in his +official reply, 'could only suppose' that His Lordship +had acted 'in other places with such great wisdom that, +without our assistance, the rebels must immediately be +compelled to lay down their arms and implore the King's +mercy.' After that Germain had murder in his heart to +the bitter end of Carleton's rule. Carleton had frequently +reported the critical state of affairs in Canada. 'There +is nothing to fear from the Canadians so long as things +are in a state of prosperity; nothing to hope from them +when in distress. There are some of them who are guided +by sentiments of honour. The multitude is influenced by +hope of gain or fear of punishment.' The recent invasion +had proved this up to the hilt. Then welcome reaction +began. The defeat of the invaders, the arrival of Burgoyne's +army, and the efforts of the seigneurs and the clergy +had considerably brightened the prospects of the British +cause in Canada. The partial mobilization of the militia +which followed Burgoyne's surrender was not, indeed, a +great success. But it was far better than the fiasco of +two years before. There was also a corresponding improvement +in civil life. The judges whom Carleton had been obliged +to appoint in haste all proved at leisure the wisdom of +his choice; and there seemed to be every chance that +other nominees would be equally fit for their positions, +because the Quebec Act, which annulled every appointment +made before it came into force, opened the way for the +exclusion of bad officials and the inclusion of the good. + +But the chance of perverting this excellent intention +was too much for Germain, who succeeded in foisting one +worthless nominee after another on the province just as +Carleton was doing his best to heal old sores. One of +the worst cases was that of Livius, a low-down, +money-grubbing German Portuguese, who ousted the future +Master of the Rolls; Sir William Grant, a man most +admirably fitted to interpret the laws of Canada with +knowledge, sympathy, and absolute impartiality. Livius +as chief justice was more than Carleton could stand in +silence. This mongrel lawyer had picked up all the Yankee +vices without acquiring any of the countervailing Yankee +virtues. He was 'greedy of power, more greedy of gain, +imperious and impetuous in his temper, but learned in +the ways and eloquence of the New England provinces, and +valuing himself particularly on his knowledge of how to +manage governors.' He had been sent by Germain 'to +administer justice to the Canadians when he understands +neither their laws, manners, customs, nor language.' +Other like nominees followed, 'characters regardless of +the public tranquility but zealous to pay court to a +powerful minister and--provided they can obtain +advantages--unconcerned should the means of obtaining +them prove ruinous to the King's service.' These +pettifoggers so turned and twisted the law about for the +sake of screwing out the maximum of fees that Carleton +pointedly refused to appoint Livius as a member of the +Legislative Council. Livius then laid his case before +the Privy Council in England. But this great court of +ultimate appeal pronounced such a damning judgment on +his gross pretensions that even Germain could not prevent +his final dismissal from all employment under the Crown. + +Wounded in the house of those who should have been his +friends, thwarted in every measure of his self-sacrificing +rule, Carleton served on devotedly through six weary +months of 1778--the year in which a vindictive government +of Bourbon France became the first of the several foreign +enemies who made the new American republic an accomplished +fact by taking sides in a British civil war. His burden +was now far more than any man could bear. Yet he closed +his answer to Germain's parting shot with words which +are as noble as his deeds: + +'I have long looked out for the arrival of a successor. +Happy at last to learn his near approach, I resign the +important commands with which I have been entrusted into +hands less obnoxious to your Lordship. Thus, for the +King's service, as willingly I lay them down as, for his +service, I took them up.' + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +GUARDING THE LOYALISTS +1782-1783 + +Burgoyne's surrender marked the turning of the tide +against the British arms. True, the three campaigns of +purely civil war, begun in 1775, had reached no decisive +result. True also that the Independence declared in 1776 +had no apparent chance of becoming an accomplished fact. +But 1777 was the fatal year for all that. The long +political strife in England, the gross mismanagement of +colonial affairs under Germain, and the shameful blunders +that made Saratoga possible, all combined to encourage +foreign powers to take the field against the king's +incompetent and distracted ministry. France, Spain, and +Holland joined the Americans in arms; while Russia, +Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, and all the German seaboard +countries formed the Armed Neutrality of the North. This +made stupendous odds--no less than ten to one. First of +the ten came the political opposition at home, which, in +regard to the American rebellion itself, was at least +equal to the most powerful enemy abroad. Next came the +four enemies in arms: the American rebels, France, Spain, +and Holland. Finally came the five armed neutrals, all +ready to use their navies on the slightest provocation. + +From this it may be seen that not one-half, perhaps not +a quarter, of all the various forces that won the +Revolutionary war were purely American. Nor were the +Americans and their allies together victorious over the +mother country, but only over one sorely hampered party +in it. Yet, from the nature of the case, the Americans +got much more than the lion's share of the spoils, while, +even in their own eyes, they seemed to have gained honour +and glory in the same proportion. The last real campaign +was fought in 1781 and ended with the British surrender +at Yorktown. From that time on peace was in the air. The +unfortunate ministry, now on the eve of political defeat +at home, were sick of civil war and only too anxious for +a chance of uniting all parties against the foreign foes. +But they had first to settle with the Americans, who had +considered themselves an independent sovereign power for +the last five years and who were determined to make the +most of England's difficulties. No darker New Year's Day +had ever dawned on any cabinet than that of 1782 on +North's. In spite of his change from repression to +conciliation, and in spite of dismissing Germain to the +House of Lords with an ill-earned peerage, Lord North +found his majority dwindling away. At last, on the 20th +of March, he resigned. + +Meanwhile every real statesman in either party had felt +that the crisis required the master-hand of Carleton. +With Germain, the empire-wrecker, gone, Carleton would +doubtless have served under any cabinet, for no government +could have done without him. But his actual commission +came through the Rockingham administration on the 4th of +April. After three quiet years of retirement at his +country seat in Hampshire he was again called upon to +face a situation of extreme difficulty. For once, with +a wisdom rare enough in any age and almost unknown in +that one, the government gave him a free hand and almost +unlimited powers. The only questions over which he had +no final power were those of making treaties. He was +appointed 'General and Commander-in-chief of all His +Majesty's forces within the Colonies lying in the Atlantic +Ocean, from Nova Scotia to the Floridas, and inclusive +of Newfoundland and Canada should they be attacked.' He +was also appointed commissioner for executing the terms +of any treaty that might be made; and his instructions +contained two passages which bore eloquent witness to +the universal confidence reposed in him. 'It is impossible +to judge of the precise situation at so great a distance' +and 'His Majesty's affairs are so situated that further +deliberations give way to instant decision. We are +satisfied that whatever inconveniences may arise they +will be compensated by the presence of a commander-in-chief +of whose discretion, conduct, and ability His Majesty +has long entertained the highest opinion.' Thus the great +justifier of British rule beyond the seas arrived in New +York on the 9th of May 1782 with at least some hope of +reconciling enough Americans to turn the scale before it +was too late. + +For three months the prospect, though worse than he had +anticipated, did not seem utterly hopeless. It had been +considerably brightened by Rodney's great victory over +the French fleet which was on its way to attack Jamaica. +But an unfortunate incident happened to be exasperating +Loyalists and revolutionists at this very time. Some +revolutionists had killed a Loyalist named Philip White, +apparently out of pure hate. Some Loyalists, under Captain +Lippincott, then seized and hanged Joshua Huddy, a captain +in the Congress militia, out of sheer revenge. A paper +left pinned on Huddy's breast bore the inscription: 'Up +goes Huddy for Philip White.' Washington then demanded +that Lippincott should be delivered up; and, on Carleton's +refusal, chose a British prisoner by lot instead. The +lot fell on a young Lieutenant Asgill of the Guards, +whose mother appealed to the king and queen of France +and to their powerful minister, Vergennes. The American +Congress wanted blood for blood, which would have led to +an endless vendetta. But Vergennes pointed out that +Asgill, a youth of nineteen, was as much a prisoner of +the king of France as of the Continental Congress. At +this the Congress gnashed its teeth, but had to give way. + +While the Asgill affair was still running its course, +and embittering Loyalists and rebels more than ever, +Carleton was suddenly informed that the government had +decided to grant complete independence. This was more +than he could stand; and he at once asked to be recalled. +He had been all for honourable reconciliation from the +first. He had been particularly kind to his American +prisoners in Canada and had purposely refrained from +annihilating the American army after the battle of Three +Rivers. But he was not prepared for independence. Nor +had he been sent out with this ostensible object in view. +His official instructions were to inform the Americans +that 'the most liberal sentiments had taken root in the +nation, and that the narrow policy of monopoly was totally +extinguished.' Now he was called upon to surrender without +having tried either his arms or his diplomacy. With +British sea-power beginning to reassert its age-long +superiority over all possible rivals, with practically +all constitutional points of dispute conceded to the +revolutionists, and with the certain knowledge that by +no means the majority of all Americans were absolute +anti-British out-and-outers, he thought it no time to +dismember the Empire. His Intelligence Department had +been busily collecting information which seems surprising +enough as we read it over to-day, but which was based on +the solid facts of that unhappy time. One member of the +Continental Congress was anxious to know what would become +of the American army if reconciliation should be effected +on the understanding that there would be no more imperial +taxation or customs duty--would it become part of the +Imperial Army, or what? + +But speculation on all such contingencies was suddenly +cut short by the complete change of policy at home. The +idea was to end the civil war that had divided the Empire +and to concentrate on the foreign war that at least united +the people of Great Britain. No matter at what cost this +policy had now to be carried out; and Carleton was the +only man that every one would trust to do it. So, +sacrificing his own feelings and convictions, he made +the best of an exceedingly bad business. He had to +safeguard the prisoners and Loyalists while preparing to +evacuate the few remaining footholds of British power in +the face of an implacable foe. At the same time he had +to watch every other point in North America and keep in +touch with his excellent naval colleague, Admiral Digby, +lest his own rear might be attacked by the three foreign +enemies of England. He was even ordered off to the West +Indies in the autumn. But counter-orders fortunately +arrived before he could start. Thus, surrounded by enemies +in front and rear and on both flanks, he spent the seven +months between August and the following March. + +At the end of March 1783 news arrived that the preliminary +treaty of peace had been signed. The final treaty was +not signed till his fifty-ninth birthday, the 3rd of the +following September. The signature of the preliminaries +simplified the naval and military situation. But it made +the situation of the Loyalists worse than ever. Compared +with them the prisoners of war had been most highly +favoured from the first. And yet the British prisoners +had little to thank the Congress for. That they were +badly fed and badly housed was not always the fault of +the Americans. But that political favourites and underlings +were allowed to prey on them was an inexcusable disgrace. +When a prisoner complained, he was told it was the fault +of the British government which would not pay for his +keep! This answer, so contrary to all the accepted usages +of war, which reserve such payments till after the +conclusion of peace, was no empty gibe; for when, some +time before the preliminaries had been signed, the British +and American commissioners met to effect an exchange of +prisoners, the Americans began by claiming the immediate +payment of what the British prisoners had cost them. This +of course broke up the meeting at once. In the meantime +the German prisoners in British pay were offered their +freedom at eighty dollars a head. Then farmers came +forward to buy up these prisoners at this price. But the +farmers found competitors in the recruiting sergeants, +who urged the Germans, with only too much truth, not to +become 'the slaves of farmers' but to follow 'the glorious +trade of war' against their employers, the British +government. To their honour be it said, these Germans +kept faith with the British, much to the surprise of the +Americans, who, like many modern writers, could not +understand that these foreign mercenaries took a +professional pride in carrying out a sworn contract, even +when it would pay them better to break it. The British +prisoners were not put up for sale in the same way. But +money sent to them had a habit of disappearing on the +road--one item mentioned by Carleton amounted to six +thousand pounds. + +If such was the happy lot of prisoners during the war, +what was the wretched lot of Loyalists after the treaty +of peace? The words of one of the many petitions sent in +to Carleton will suggest the answer. 'If we have to +encounter this inexpressible misfortune we beg consideration +for our lives, fortunes, and property, _and not by mere +terms of treaty_.' What this means cannot be appreciated +unless we fully realize how strong the spirit of hate +and greed had grown, and why it had grown so strong. + +The American Revolution had not been provoked by +oppression, violence, and massacre. The 'chains and +slavery' of revolutionary orators was only a figure of +speech. The real causes were constitutional and personal; +and the actual crux of the question was one of payment +for defence. Of course there were many other causes at +work. The social, religious, and political grudges with +which so many emigrants had left the mother country had +not been forgotten and were now revived. Commercial +restrictions, however well they agreed with the spirit +of the age, were galling to such keen traders. And the +mere difference between colonies and motherland had +produced misunderstandings on both sides. But the main +provocative cause was Imperial taxation for local defence. +The Thirteen Colonies could not have held their own by +land or sea, much less could they have conquered their +French rivals, without the Imperial forces, which, indeed, +had done by far the greater part of the fighting. How +was the cost to be shared between the mother country and +themselves? The colonies had not been asked to pay more +than their share. The point was whether they could be +taxed at all by the Imperial government when they had no +representation in the Imperial parliament. The government +said Yes. The colonies and the opposition at home said +No. As the colonies would not pay of their own accord, +and as the government did not see why they should be +parasites on the armed strength of the mother country, +parliament proceeded to tax them. They then refused to +pay under compulsion; and a complete deadlock ensued. + +The personal factors in this perhaps insoluble problem +were still more refractory than the constitutional. All +the great questions of peace and war and other foreign +relations were settled by the mother country, which was +the only sovereign power and which alone possessed the +force to make any British rights respected. The Americans +supplied subordinate means and so became subordinate men +when they and the Imperial forces worked together. This, +to use a homely phrase, made their leaders feel out of +it. Everything that breeds trouble between militiamen +and regulars, colonials and mother-countrymen, fanned +the flame of colonial resentment till the leaders were +able to set their followers on fire. It was a leaders' +rebellion: there was no maddening cruelty or even +oppression such as those which have produced so many +revolutions elsewhere. It was a leaders' victory: there +was no general feeling that death or independence were +the only alternatives from the first. But as the fight +went on, and Loyalists and revolutionists grew more and +more bitter towards one another, the revolutionary +followers found the same cause for hating the Loyalists +as their leaders had found for hating the government. +Many of the Loyalists belonged to the well-educated and +well-to-do classes. So the envy and greed of the +revolutionary followers were added to the personal and +political rage of their leaders. + +The British government had done its best for the Loyalists +in the treaty of peace and had urged Carleton, who needed +no urging in such a cause, to do his best as well. But +the treaty was made with the Congress; and the Congress +had no authority over the internal affairs of the thirteen +new states, each one of which could do as it liked with +its own envied and detested Loyalists. The revolutionists +wanted some tangible spoils. The safety of peace had made +the trimmers equally 'patriotic' and equally clamorous. +So the confiscation of Loyalist property soon became the +order of the day. + +It was not the custom of that age to confiscate private +property simply because the owners were on the losing +side, still less to confiscate it under local instead of +national authority. But need, greed, and resentment were +stronger than any scruples. Need was the weakest, resentment +the strongest of all the animating motives. The American +army was in rags and its pay greatly in arrears while +the British forces under Carleton were fed, clothed, and +paid in the regular way. But it was the passionate +resentment of the revolutionists that perverted this +exasperating difference into another 'intolerable wrong.' +Washington was above such meaner measures. But when he +said the Loyalists were only fit for suicide, and when +Adams, another future president, said they ought to be +hanged, it is little wonder that lesser men thought the +time had come for legal looting. Those Loyalists who best +understood the temper of their late fellow-countrymen +left at once. They were right. Even to be a woman was no +protection against confiscation in the case of Mary +Phillips, sister-in-law to Beverley Robinson, a well-known +Loyalist who settled in New Brunswick after the Revolution. +Her case was not nearly so hard as many another. But her +historic love-affair makes it the most romantic. +Eight-and-twenty years before this General Braddock had +marched to death and defeat beside the Monongahela with +two handsome and gallant young aides-de-camp, Washington +and Morris. Both fell in love with bewitching Mary +Phillips. But, while Washington left her fancy-free, +Morris won her heart and hand. Now that the strife was +no longer against a foreign foe but between two British +parties, the former aides-de-camp found themselves rivals +in arms as well as love; for Colonel Morris was Carleton's +right-hand man in all that concerned the Loyalists, being +the official head of the department of Claims and Succour: + +Morris, Morgan, and Carleton were the three busiest men +in New York. Forty thick manuscript volumes still show +Maurice Morgan's assiduous work as Carleton's confidential +secretary. But Morris had the more heart-breaking duty +of the three, with no relief, day after sorrow-laden day, +from the anguishing appeals of Loyalist widows, orphans, +and other ruined refugees. No sooner had the dire news +arrived that peace had been made with the Congress, and +that each of the thirteen United States was free to show +uncovenanted mercies towards its own Loyalists, than the +exodus began. Five thousand five hundred and ninety-three +Loyalists sailed for Halifax in the first convoy on the +17th of April with a strong recommendation from Carleton +to Governor Parr of Nova Scotia. 'Many of these are of +the first families and born to the fairest possessions. +I therefore beg that you will have them properly +considered.' Shipping was scarce; for the hostility of +the whole foreign naval world had made enormous demands +on the British navy and mercantile marine. So six thousand +Loyalists had to march overland to join Carleton's vessels +at New York, some of them from as far south as +Charlottesville, Virginia. They were carefully shepherded +by Colonel Alured Clarke, of whom we shall hear again. + +Meanwhile Carleton and Washington had exchanged the usual +compliments on the conclusion of peace and had met each +other on the 6th of May at Tappan, where they discussed +the exchange of prisoners. By the terms of the treaty +the British were to evacuate New York, their last foothold +in the new republic, with all practicable dispatch; so, +as summer changed into autumn, the Congress became more +and more impatient to see the last of them. But Carleton +would not go without the Loyalists, whose many tributary +streams of misery were still flowing into New York. In +September, when the treaty of peace was ratified in +Europe, the Congress asked Carleton point-blank to name +the date of his own departure. But he replied that this +was impossible and that the more the Loyalists were +persecuted the longer he would be obliged to stay. The +correspondence between him and the Congress teems with +complaints and explanations. The Americans were very +anxious lest the Loyalists should take away any goods +and chattels not their own, particularly slaves. Carleton +was disposed to consider slaves as human beings, though +slavery was still the law in the British oversea dominions, +and so the Americans felt uneasy lest he might discriminate +between their slaves and other chattels. Reams of the +Carleton papers are covered with descriptive lists of +claimed and counter-claimed niggers--Julius Caesars, +Jupiters, Venuses, Dianas, and so on, who were either +'stout wenches' and 'likely fellows' or 'incurably lazy' +and 'old worn-outs.' + +Perhaps, when a slave wished to remain British, and his +case was nicely balanced between the claimants and the +counter-claimants, Carleton was a little inclined to give +him the benefit of the doubt. But with other forms of +disputed property he was too severe to please all Loyalists. +A typical case of restitution in Canada will show how +differently the two governments viewed the rights of +private property. Mercier and Halsted, two Quebec rebels, +owned a wharf and the frame of a warehouse in 1775. It +was Arnold's intercepted letter to Mercier that gave +Carleton's lieutenant, Cramahe, the first warning of +danger from the south. Halsted was Major Caldwell's miller +at the time and took advantage of his position to give +his employer's flour to Arnold's army, in which he served +as commissary throughout the siege. Just after the peace +of 1783 Mercier and Halsted laid claim to their former +property, which they had abandoned for eight years and +on which the government had meanwhile built a provision +store, making use of the original frame. The case was +complicated by many details too long for notice here. +But the British government finally gave the two rebels +the original property, plus thirteen years' rent, less +the cost of government works erected in the meantime. +All the documents are still in Quebec. + +Property was troublesome enough. But people were worse. +And Carleton's difficulties increased as the autumn wore +on. The first great harrying of the Loyalists drove more +than thirty thousand from their homes; and about twenty-five +thousand of these embarked at New York. Then there were +the remnants of twenty Loyalist corps to pension, settle, +or employ. There were also the British prisoners to +receive, besides ten thousand German mercenaries. Add to +all this the regular garrison and the general oversight +of every British interest in North America, from the +Floridas to Labrador, remember the implacable enemy in +front, and we may faintly imagine what Carleton had to +do before he could report that 'His Majesty's troops and +such remaining Loyalists as chose to emigrate were +successfully withdrawn on the 25th [of November] without +the smallest circumstance of irregularity.' + +Thus ended one of the greatest acts in the drama of the +British Empire, the English-speaking peoples, or the +world; and thus, for the second time, Carleton, now in +his sixtieth year, apparently ended his own long service +in America. He had left Canada, after saving her from +obliteration, because, so long as he remained her governor, +the war minister at home remained her enemy. He had then +returned to serve in New York, and had stayed there to +the bitter end, because there was no other man whom the +new government would trust to command the rearguard of +the Empire in retreat. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +FOUNDING MODERN CANADA +1786-1796 + +Carleton now enjoyed two years of uninterrupted peace at +his country seat in England. His active career seemed to +have closed at last. He had no taste for party politics. +He was not anxious to fill any position of civil or +military trust, even if it had been pressed upon him. +And he had said farewell to America for good and all when +he had left New York. Though as full of public spirit as +before and only just turned sixty, he bid fair to spend +the rest of his life as an English country gentleman. +His young wife was well contented with her lot. His manly +boys promised to become worthy followers of the noble +profession of arms. And the overseeing of his little +estate occupied his time very pleasantly indeed. Like +most healthy Englishmen he was devoted to horses, and, +unlike some others, he was very successful with his +thoroughbreds. + +He had first bought a place near Maidenhead, beside the +Thames, which is nowhere lovelier than in that sylvan +neighbourhood. Then he bought the present family seat of +Greywill Hill near the little village of Odiham in +Hampshire. As an ex-governor and commander-in-chief, a +county magnate, a personage of great importance to the +Empire, and the one victorious British general in the +unhappy American war, he had more than earned a peerage. +But it was not till 1786, on the eve of his sixty-second +birthday, and at a time when his services were urgently +required again, that he received it. Needless to say this +peerage had nothing whatever to do with his acceptance +of another self-sacrificing duty. It was not given till +several months after he had promised to return to Canada; +and he would certainly have refused it if it had been +held out to him as an inducement to go there. He became +Baron Dorchester and was granted the not very extravagant +addition to his income of a thousand pounds a year payable +during four lives, his own, his wife's, and those of his +two eldest sons. His elevation to the House of Lords met +with the almost unanimous approval of his fellow-peers, +in marked contrast to the open hostility they had shown +towards his old enemy, Lord George Germain, when that +vile wrecker had been 'kicked upstairs' among them. The +Carleton motto, crest, and supporters are all most +appropriate. The crest is a strong right arm with the +hand clenched firmly on an arrow. The motto is _Quondam +his vicimus armis_--_We used to conquer with these arms_. +The supporters are two beavers, typifying Canada, while +their respective collars, one a naval the other a military +coronet, show how her British life was won and saved and +has been kept. + +Carleton was a man of great reserve and self-control. +But his kindly nature must have responded to the cordial +welcome which he received on his return to Quebec in +October 1786. It was not without reason that the people +of Canada rejoiced to have him back as their leader. All +that the Indians imagined the Great White Father to be +towards themselves he was in reality towards both red +man and white. Stern, when the occasion forced him to be +stern, just in all his dealings between man and man, +dignified and courteous in all his ways, a soldier through +every inch of his stalwart six feet, he was a ruler with +whom no one ever dreamt of taking liberties. But neither +did any deserving one in trouble ever hesitate to lay +the most confidential case before him in the full assurance +that his head and heart were at the service of all +committed to his care. And no other governor, before his +time or since, ever inspired his followers with such a +firm belief that all would turn out for the best so long +as he was in command. + +This power of inspiring confidence was now badly needed. +Everything in Canada was still provisional. Owing to the +war the Quebec Act of 1774 had never been thoroughly +enforced. Then, when the war was over, the Loyalists +arrived and completely changed the circumstances which +the act had been designed to meet. The next constitution, +the Canada Act of 1791, was of a very different character. +During the seventeen years between these two constitutions +all that could be done was to make the best of a very +confusing state of flux. Not that the Quebec Act was a +dead letter--far from it--but simply that it could not +go beyond restoring the privileges of the French-Canadian +priests and seigneurs within the area then effectively +occupied by the French-Canadian race. Carleton, as we +have seen, had faced its problem for the first four years. +Haldimand had carried on the government under its provisions +for the following six. Hamilton and Hope, successive +lieutenant-governors, had bridged the two years between +Haldimand's retirement and Carleton's second appointment. +Now Carleton was to pick up the threads and make what he +could of the tangled skein for the next five years. +Haldimand had not been popular with either of the two +chief parties into which the leading French Canadians +were divided. The seigneurs had nothing like the same +regard for a Swiss soldier of fortune that they had for +aristocratic British commanders like Murray and Carleton. +The clergy also preferred these Anglicans to such a strong +Swiss Protestant. The habitants and agitators, who were +far less favourable to the new regime, had passionately +resented Haldimand's firmness at times of crisis. But, +despite all this French-Canadian animus, he was not such +an absolute martinet as some writers would have us think. +The war with France and with the American Revolutionists +required strong government in Canada; while the influx +of Loyalists had introduced an entirely new set of most +perplexing circumstances. On the whole, Haldimand had +done very well in spite of many personal and public +drawbacks; and it was through no special fault of his, +nor yet of Hope's, that the threads which Carleton picked +up formed such a perversely tangled skein. + +The troubles that now dogged the great conciliator's +every step were of all kinds--racial, religious, social, +political, military, diplomatic, legal. The confusion +resulting from the intermixture of French and English +civil laws had become a great deal more confounded since +he had left Canada eight years before. The old proportions +of races and religions to each other had changed most +disturbingly. The Loyalists were of quite a different +social class from the English-speaking immigrants of +earlier days. They wanted a parliament, public schools, +and many other things new to the country; and they were +the sort of people who had a right to have them. The +problem of defence was always a vexed one with the +inadequate military forces at hand and the insuperable +difficulties concerning the militia. The British still +held the Western forts pending the settlement of the +frontier and the execution of the treaty of peace in +full. This naturally annoyed the American government and +gave Carleton endless trouble. But more serious still +was the ceaseless western march of the American +backwoodsmen, who were everywhere in conflict with the +Indians. The Indians, in their turn, were confused between +the British and Americans under the new conditions. They +and their ever-receding rights and territories had not +been mentioned in the treaty. But, seeing that they would +be better off under British than under American rule, +they were inclined to take sides accordingly. There were +now no openly hostile sides to take. But, for all that, +the British posts in the hinterland looked like weak +little islands which might be suddenly engulfed in the +sea of Indian troubles raging round them. Then, at the +other end of the British line, there were the three +maritime provinces to watch over. New Brunswick had been +divided off from Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island +had been taken from the direct supervision of the home +authorities and placed under the command of the new +governor at Quebec. Thus Carleton had to deal directly +with everything that happened from the far West to Gaspe, +while dealing indirectly with the three maritime provinces +and all the troubles that proved too much for their own +lieutenant-governors. There was no chance of concentrating +on one thing at a time. Nothing would wait. The governor +had to watch the writhing tangle as a whole during every +minute he devoted to any one kinked and knotted thread. + +Fortunately there were some good men in office on both +sides of the Atlantic. Lords Sydney and Grenville, the +two cabinet ministers with whom Carleton had most to do, +were both sensible and sympathetic. Years afterwards +Grenville, the favourite cousin of Pitt, became the +colleague of Fox at the head of the celebrated 'Ministry +of All the Talents.' Hope was an acceptable +lieutenant-governor, and his successor, Sir Alured Clarke, +was better still. Francois Bailly, the coadjutor Roman +Catholic bishop of Quebec, who had gone to England as +French tutor to Carleton's children, was a most enlightened +cleric. So too was Charles Inglis, the Anglican bishop +of Nova Scotia, appointed in 1787. He was the first +Canadian bishop of the Anglican communion and his diocese +comprised the whole of British North America. William +Smith, the new chief justice, was as different from +Carleton's last chief justice, Livius, as angels are from +devils. Smith had been an excellent chief justice of his +native New York in the old colonial days, and, like +Inglis, was a very ardent Loyalist. He respected all +reasonable French-Canadian peculiarities. But he favoured +the British-Constitutional way of 'broadening down from +precedent to precedent' rather than the French way of +referring to a supposedly infallible written regulation. +We shall soon meet him as a far-seeing statesman. But he +well deserves an honoured place in Canadian history for +his legal services alone. To him, more than to any other +man, is due the nicely balanced adjustments which eventually +harmonized the French and English codes into a body of +laws adapted to the extraordinary circumstances of the +province of Quebec. + +Besides the committee on laws Carleton had nominated +three other active committees of his council, one on +police, another on education, and a third on trade and +commerce. The police committee was of the usual kind and +dealt with usual problems in the usual way. But the +education committee brought out all the vexed questions +of French and English, Protestant and Roman Catholic, +progressive and reactionary. Strangely enough, the sharpest +personal controversy was that between Hubert, the Roman +Catholic bishop of Quebec, and his coadjutor Bailly. +Hubert enumerated all the institutions already engaged +in educational work and suggested that 'rest and be +thankful' was the only proper attitude for the committee +to assume. But Bailly very neatly pointed out that his +respected superior's real opinions could not be those +attributed to him over his own signature because they +were at variance with the facts. Hubert had said that +the cures were spreading education with most commendable +zeal, had repudiated the base insinuation that only three +or four people in each parish could read and write, and +had wound up by thinking that while there was so much +land to clear the farmers would do better to keep their +sons at home than send them to a university, where they +would be under professors so 'unprejudiced' as to have +no definite views on religion. Bailly argued that the +bishop could not mean what these words seemed to imply, +as the logical conclusion would be to wait till Canada +was cleared right up to the polar circle. In the end the +committee made three very sanguine recommendations: a +free common school in every parish, a secondary school +in every town or district, and an absolutely non-sectarian +central university. This educational ladder was never +set up. There was nothing to support either end of it. +The financial side was one difficulty. The Jesuits' +estates were intended to be made over into educational +endowments under government control. But Amherst's claim +that they had been granted to him in 1760 was not settled +for forty years; and by that time all chance of carrying +out the committee's intentions was seen to be hopeless. + +Commerce was another burning question and one of much +more immediate concern. In 1791 the united populations +of all the provinces amounted to only a quarter of a +million, of whom at least one-half were French Canadians. +Quebec and Montreal had barely ten thousand citizens +apiece. But the commercial classes, mostly English-speaking, +had greatly increased in numbers, ability, and social +standing. The camp-following gangs of twenty years before +had now either disappeared or sunk down to their appropriate +level. So petitions from the 'British merchants' required +and received much more consideration than formerly. The +Loyalists had not yet had time to start in business. All +their energies were needed in hewing out their future +homes. But two parts of the American Republic, Vermont +and Kentucky, were very anxious to do business with the +British at any reasonable price. Some of their citizens +were even ready for a change of allegiance if the terms +were only good enough. Vermont wanted a 'free trade' +outlet to the St Lawrence by way of the Richelieu. The +rapids between St Johns and Chambly lay in British +territory. But Vermont was ready to join in building a +canal and would even become British to make sure. The +old Green Mountain Boys had changed their tune. Ethan +Allen himself had buried the hatchet and, like his brother, +become Carleton's friendly correspondent. He frankly +explained that what Vermonters really wanted was 'property +not liberty' and added that they would stand no coercion +from the American government. About the same time Kentucky +was bent on getting an equally 'free trade' outlet to +the Gulf of Mexico by way of the Mississippi. The fact +that France Spain, the British Empire, and the United +States might all be involved in war over it did not +trouble the conspirators in the least. The central +authority of the new Republic was still weak. The individual +states were still ready to fly asunder. Federal taxation +was greatly feared. Anything that savoured of federal +interference with state rights was passionately resented. +The general spirit of the westerners was that of the +exploiting pioneer in a virgin wilderness--a law unto +itself alone. There were various plans for opening the +coveted Mississippi. One was to join Spain. Another was +to seize New Orleans, turn out the French, and bring in +the British. Then, to make the plot complete, the French +minister to the United States was asking permission to +make a tour through Canada at the very time when Carleton +was sending home reams of documents bearing on the +impending troubles. The letters exchanged on this subject +are perfect models of politeness. But Carleton's answer +was an emphatic No. + +Foreign complications were thickening fast. The French +Revolution had already begun, though its effect was not +yet felt in Canada. The American government was anxiously +watching its refractory states, while an anti-British +political party was making headway in the South. As if +this was not enough to engage whatever attention Carleton +had to spare from the internal affairs of Canada, he +suddenly heard that the Spaniards had been seizing British +vessels trading to a British post on Vancouver Island. +[Footnote: _See Pioneers of the Pacific Coast_ in this +Series.] This Nootka Affair, which nearly brought on a +war with Spain in 1790, was settled in London and Madrid. +But the threat of war added to Carleton's anxieties. + +Meanwhile the governor was busily employed with an +immigration problem. It was desirable that the +English-speaking immigrants should settle on the land +with the least possible friction between them and the +French Canadians. The French Canadians differed among +themselves. But no such differences brought them any +closer to their new neighbours on questions of land +settlement. The French had granted lands in seigneuries. +The British would hear of nothing but free and common +socage. French farms were measured by the arpent and were +staked out in long and narrow oblongs. British farms were +measured by the acre and staked out 'on the square.' +Language, laws, religion, manners and customs, ways of +life, were also different. So there was hardly any +intermixture of settlements. The French Canadians remained +where they were. Most of the new Anglo-Canadians settled +in the Maritime Provinces or moved west into what is now +Ontario. A few settled in rural Quebec on lands outside +the line of seigneuries. The Eastern Townships, that part +of the province lying east of the Richelieu and nearest +the American frontier, absorbed many English, Irish, and +Scots, as well as a good many Americans who were attracted +by cheap land. Ontario, or Upper Canada, received still +more Americans, who were to be a thorn in the side of +the British during the War of 1812. + +But Carleton's work comprised much more than this. There +were the Church of England, the Post Office, a refractory +lieutenant-governor down in Prince Edward Island, two +royal visitors, and many other distracting matters. The +only Anglican see thus far established was at Halifax; +but the bishop there had authority over the whole country +and the government intended to establish the Church of +England in Canada and endow it. The Presbyterians also +petitioned for the establishment of the Scottish Church. +The fortunes or misfortunes of the Clergy Reserves +belong to another chapter of Canadian history. But the +root of their good or evil was planted in the time of +Carleton. The postal service was surrounded by enormous +difficulties--the vast extent of wild country, the few +towns, the long winters, the poverty of the people. +The question of the winter port was even then a live +one between St John and Halifax. Each of these towns +asserted its advantages and promised twelve trips a year +and connection with Quebec overland by means of walking +postmen till a bush road should be cut from Quebec to the +sea. In Prince Edward Island the old lieutenant-governor, +Walter Patterson, declined to make way for the new one, +Edmund Fanning. In the end Patterson gave up the contest. +But the incident, trivial as it now appears, shows what +a governor-general had to face in the early days when +each province had queer little ways of its own. Patterson +had no precise official reason. But he said he could +not go home to answer charges he did not understand and +leave an island which had been his very successful hobby +for so many years! The people sided with him so vigorously +that time had to be given them to cool down before the +transfer could be peaceably effected. + +A judge whose court is in perpetual session or a commander +whose inadequate forces are continually surrounded by +prospective enemies has little time for the amenities of +purely social life. So Carleton generally left his young +consort to rule the viceregal court at the Chateau St +Louis with a perfect blend of London and Versailles. Two +Princes of the Blood, however, demanded more than the +usual attention from the governor. Prince William Henry, +afterwards King William IV, was the first member of the +Royal Family to set foot in the New World when he arrived +in H.M.S. _Pegasus_ in 1787. He was the proverbial jolly +Jack Tar, extremely affable to everybody; and he quickly +won golden opinions from all who met him, except perhaps +from Lady Dorchester and sundry would-be partners for +his duty dances. Philippe Aubert de Gaspe and other +privileged chroniclers record with slightly shocked +delight how often he would break loose from Lady +Dorchester's designing care, long before she thought it +right for him to do so, and 'command' his partners for +their pretty faces instead of by precedence. At Sorel +the people were so carried away by their enthusiasm that +they insisted on changing the name of their little town +to William Henry. Happily this name never took root in +public sentiment and the old one soon came back to stay. + +The second member of the Royal Family to come to Canada +was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, fourth son of George +III, father of Queen Victoria and grandfather of Prince +Arthur, Duke of Connaught, who became the first royal +governor-general in 1911, exactly a hundred and twenty +years later. The Duke of Kent would have gladly returned +to Quebec as governor-general, and the people would have +gladly welcomed him. But he was not a favourite with the +government at home, and so he never came. There was no +doubt about his being a popular favourite in Quebec during +the three years he spent there as colonel of the 7th +Fusiliers. Nor has he been forgotten to the present day. +Kent House is still the name of his quarters in the town +as well as of his country residence at Montmorency Falls +seven miles away, while the only new opening ever made +in the walls is called Kent Gate. + +The duke made fast friends with several of the seigneurial +families, more especially with the de Salaberrys, whose +manor-house at Beauport stood half-way between Montmorency +and Quebec and not far from Montcalm's headquarters in +1759. The de Salaberrys were a military family. All the +sons went into the Army and one became the hero of +Chateauguay in the War of 1812. But the duke mixed freely +with many other people than the local aristocracy. He +was young, high-spirited, and loved adventure, as was +proved by his subsequent gallantry at Martinique. He was +also fond of driving round incognito, a habit which on +at least one occasion obliged him to put his skill at +boxing to good use. This was at Charlesbourg, a village +near Quebec, where he was watching the fun at the first +election ever held. Perhaps, from a meticulously +constitutional point of view, the scene of a hotly +contested election was not quite the place for Princes +of the Blood. But, however that might be, when the duke +saw two electors pommelling a third, who happened to be +a friend of his, he dashed in to the rescue and floored +both of them with a neatly planted right and left. One +of these men, who lived to see King Edward VII arrive in +1860, as Prince of Wales, always took the greatest pride +in telling successive generations of voters how Queen +Victoria's father had knocked him down. + +Like his brother before him the duke was very fond of +dancing, and kept many a reluctant senior and many a +tired-out chaperone up till all hours at the grand ball +given in honour of his twenty-fourth birthday. Also like +his brother he was inclined to reduce his duty dances to +a minimum, much to Lady Dorchester's dismay. She had gone +home with her husband for two years shortly after the +duke's arrival. But she had seen enough of him, and was +to see enough again on her return, to make her regret +the good old times of more exacting ceremony. To her +dying day, half a century later, she kept up a prodigious +stateliness of manner. Before meals she expected the +whole company to assemble and remain standing till she +had made her royal progress through the room. She was a +living anachronism for many years before her death, with +her high-heeled, gold-buttoned, scarlet-coloured shoes, +her Marie-Antoinette _coiffure_ raised high above her +head and interlaced with ribbons, her elaborately gorgeous +dress, her intricate array of ornaments, and her long, +jet-black, official-looking cane. But she was no anachronism +to herself; for she still lived in the light of other +days, in the fondly remembered times when, as the vice-reine +of the Chateau St Louis, she helped her consort to settle +nice points of etiquette and maintain a dignity befitting +His Majesty's chosen representative. How did the seigneurs +rank among themselves and with the leading English-speaking +people? Who were to dance in the state minuet? Should +dancing cease when the bishops came in, and for how long? +Was that curtsy dropped quite low enough to her viceregal +self, and did that _debutante_ offer her blushing cheek +in quite the proper way to Carleton when he graciously +gave her the presentation kiss? How immeasurably far away +it all seems now, that stately little court where the +echoes of a dead Versailles lived on for seven years +after the fall of the Bastille! And yet there is still +one citizen o Quebec whose early partners were chaperoned +by ladies who had danced the minuet with Lord and Lady +Dorchester. + +The two royal visits were not without their political +significance--using the word political in its larger +meaning. But the three years between them--that is, +1788-89-90--formed the really pregnant time of +constitutional development, when the Canada Act of 1791 +was taking shape in the minds of its chief authors +--Carleton and Smith in Canada, Grenville and Pitt in +England. The Loyalists and the English-speaking merchants +of Quebec and Montreal took good care to make themselves +heard at every stage of the proceedings. Most French +Canadians would have preferred to be left without the +suspected blessings of a parliament. The clergy and +seigneurs wished for a continuance of the Quebec Act, +and the habitants wanted they knew not what, provided it +would enable them to get more and give less. The +English-speaking people, on the other hand, were all for +a parliament. But they differed widely as to what kind +of parliament would suit their purpose best. As a rule +they acquiesced, with a more or less bad grace, in the +necessity of admitting French Canadians on the same terms +as themselves. If Canada, without the Maritime Provinces, +should be taken as a whole then the French Canadians +would only be in a moderate majority. If, however, two +provinces, Upper Canada and Lower Canada, were to be +erected, then the English-speaking minority in Lower +Canada would be outvoted three or four to one. + +There was a third alternative: no less than the +establishment of a regular Dominion of British North +America in 1790, a step which might have saved much +trouble between that time and the Confederation of 1867. +William Smith was its strongest advocate, Carleton its +most cautious and judicious supporter. The chief justice +was in favour of federating Upper and Lower Canada with +the Maritime Provinces and Newfoundland into a single +dominion. Each of the six provinces would have its own +parliament under a lieutenant-governor, while there would +also be a central parliament under a governor-general. +Carleton forwarded the suggestion to the home government; +but he nowhere committed himself to any very definite +scheme. His own preference was for keeping the existing +province of Quebec a little longer, then dividing it, +and afterwards drawing in the other provinces. The chief +justice preferred to make a constitution. The governor +preferred to let it grow. The home government's preference +could not be stated better than in Grenville's dispatch +to Carleton of the 20th of October 1789: 'The general +object is to assimilate the constitution to that of Great +Britain as nearly as the difference arising from the +manners of the People and from the present situation of +the Province will admit. ... Attention is due to the +prejudices and habits of the French Inhabitants and every +caution should be used to continue to them the enjoyment +of those civil and religious Rights which were secured +to them by the Capitulation or which have since been +granted by the liberal and enlightened spirit of the +British Government.' Except for its rather too +self-righteous conclusion this confidential announcement +really is an admirable statement of the 'liberal and +enlightened' views which prevailed at Westminster. + +The bill, postponed in 1790, was introduced by Pitt +himself in the House of Commons on the 7th of March 1791. +Sixteen days later Adam Lymburner, a representative +merchant of Quebec, whom Carleton described as 'a quiet, +decent man, not unfriendly to the administration,' pleaded +for hours before the committee of the House of Commons +against the division of the province. All the +English-speaking minority in the prospective province of +Lower Canada were afraid of being swamped by the +French-Canadian vote, and so of being hampered in liberty +and trade. The London merchants naturally backed Lymburner. +Fox opposed the bill as not being liberal enough. Burke +flared up into the speech which led to his final breach +with Fox. Pitt, the pilot who was to weather far greater +storms in the years to come, eventually got the bill +through both Houses with substantial majorities. On the +14th of May it became law. Quebec and Ontario were parted +for good, notwithstanding the legislative union of fifty +years later. + +The Canada Act, or, as it is better known, the +Constitutional Act, cut off Upper Canada. Lower Canada +was now the old Quebec reduced to its right size, endowed +with clarified laws and a brand-new parliament, and made +as acceptable as possible to the English-speaking minority +without any injustice to the vastly greater French +majority. Quebec, Three Rivers, Montreal, and Sorel got +each two members in the new parliament, an allotment +which ensured a certain representation of the 'British' +merchants. The franchise was the same in both provinces: +in the country parts a forty-shilling freehold or its +equivalent, and in the towns either a five-pound annual +ownership value or twice that for a tenant. The Crown +gave up all taxation except commercial duties, which were +to be applied solely for the benefit of the provinces. +Lands outside the seigneuries were to be in free and +common socage, while seigneurial tenure itself could be +converted into freehold on petition. One-seventh of the +Crown lands was reserved for the endowment of the Church +of England. The Crown kept all rights of veto and +appointment. The legislatures were small in membership. +The Upper Houses could be made hereditary; though the +actual tenure was never more than for life during good +behaviour. Carleton favoured the hereditary principle +whenever it could be applied with advantage. But he knew +the ups and downs of colonial fortunes too well to believe +that Canada was ready for any such experiment. + +No one dreamt of having what is now known as responsible +government, that is, an executive sitting in the legislature +and responsible to the legislature for its acts. Nor was +the greatest of all parliamentary powers--the power of +the purse--given outright. This, however, was owing to +simple force of circumstances and not to any desire of +abridging the liberties of the people. The fact is that +at this time eighty per cent of the total civil expenditure +had to be paid by the home government. It is frequently +ignored that the mother country paid most of Canada's +bills till long after the War of 1812, that she paid +nearly all the naval and military accounts for longer +still, and that she has borne far more than her own share +of the common defence down to the present day. + +The new constitution came into force on the 26th of +December 1791; and, for the first time, Upper and Lower +Canada had the right to elect their own representatives. +Assemblies, of course, were nothing new in British North +America. Nova Scotia had an assembly in 1758, the year +that Louisbourg was taken. Prince Edward Island had one +in 1773, the year before the Quebec Act was passed. New +Brunswick had one in 1786, the year Carleton began his +second term. But assemblies still had all the charm of +novelty in 'Canada proper.' Perhaps it would be more +appropriate to say that Upper Canada experienced more +charm than novelty while Lower Canada experienced more +novelty than charm. The Anglo-Canadians in all five +provinces were used to parliaments in America. Their +ancestors had been used to them for centuries in England. +So the little parliament of Upper Canada at Newark passed +as many bills in five weeks as that of Lower Canada passed +in seven months. The fact that there were fifty members +in the Assembly at Quebec, while there were only half as +many in both chambers at Newark, doubtless had something +to do with it. But the fact that the Quebec parliament +was an innovation, while the one at Newark was a simple +development, had very much more. + +There is no need to follow the course of legislation in +any of the five provinces. As most of the civil and +practically all the naval and military expenditure had +to be met by the Imperial Treasury, and as Canada was +five parts and no whole from her own parliamentary point +of view, the legislation required for a grand total of +two hundred and fifty thousand people could not be of +the national kind. But at Quebec the scene, the setting, +and the unheard-of innovation itself all give a special +interest to every detail of the opening ceremony on the +17th of December 1792. + +Carleton was in England, so the Speech from the Throne +was read by the lieutenant-governor, Major-General Sir +Alured Clarke. Half of the Upper House and two-thirds of +the Lower were French Canadians. A French-Canadian member +was nominated for the speakership and elected unanimously. +Both races were for the most part represented by members +whose official title of 'Honourable Gentlemen' was not +at all a misnomer. The French members of the Assembly +were half distrustful both of it and of themselves. But +they knew how to add grace and dignity to a very notable +occasion. The old Bishop's Palace served as the Houses +of Parliament and so continued for many years to come. +It was a solid rather than a stately pile. But it stood +on a commanding site at the head of Mountain Hill between +the Grand Battery and the Chateau St Louis. Every one +was in uniform or in what corresponded to court dress. +Round the throne stood many officers in their red and +gold, conspicuous among them the Duke of Kent. In front +sat the Executive and Legislative Councillors, corresponding +to the modern cabinet ministers and senators. Their roll, +as well as the Assembly's, bore many names that recalled +the glories of the old regime--St Ours, Longueuil, de +Lanaudiere, Boucherville, de Salaberry, de Lotbiniere, +and many more. The Council chamber was crowded in every +part long before the governor arrived. 'The Ladies +introduced into the House' were 'without Hat, Cloak, or +Bonnet,' the 'Doorkeeper of His Majesty's Council' having +taken good care to see them 'leave the same in the Great +Committee Room previous to their Introduction.' 'The +Ladies attached to His Excellency's Suite' were admitted +'within the railing or body of the House' and 'accommodated +with the seats of the members as far as possible.' +Outwardly it was all very much the same in principle as +the opening of any other British parliament--the escort, +guard, and band, the royal salute, the brilliant staff, +the scarlet cloth of state, the few and quiet members of +the Upper House, the many of the Lower, jostling each +other to get a good place near Mr Speaker at the bar, +the radiant ladies, the crowded galleries corniced with +inquiring faces and craned necks, the Gentlemen Ushers +and their quaint bows, the Speech from the Throne and +the occasional lifting of His Excellency's hat, the +retiring in full state; and then the ebbing away of all +the sightseers, their eddying currents of packed humanity +in the halls and passages, the porch, the door, the +emptying street. But inwardly what a world of difference! +For here was the first British parliament in which +legislators of foreign birth and blood and language were +shaping British laws as British subjects. + +In September 1793 Carleton returned from his two years' +absence and was welcomed more warmly than ever. Quebec +blazed with illuminations. The streets swarmed with eager +crowds. The first session of the first parliament had +been better than any one had dared to hope for. There +was a general tendency to give the new constitution a +fair trial; and all classes looked to Carleton to make +the harmony that had been attained both permanent and +universal. Dr Jacob Mountain, first Anglican bishop of +Quebec, also arrived shortly afterwards and was warmly +greeted by the Roman Catholic prelate, who embraced him, +saying, 'It's time you came to shepherd your own flock.' +Mountain was statesman and churchman in one. He had been +chosen by the elder Pitt to be the younger's tutor and +then chosen by the younger to be his private secretary. The +fact that the Anglican bishop of Quebec was then and for +many years afterwards a sort of Canadian chaplain-general +to the Imperial troops and that most of the leading +officials and leading Loyalists belonged to the Church +of England made him a personage of great importance. It +was fortunate that, as in the case of Inglis down in +Halifax, the choice could not have fallen on a better +man or on one who knew better how to win the esteem of +communions other than his own. This same year (1793) died +William Smith, full of honours. But the next year his +excellent successor arrived in the person of William +Osgoode, the new chief justice, an eminent English lawyer +who had served for two years as chief justice of Upper +Canada and whose name is commemorated in Osgoode Hall, +Toronto. He had come out on the distinct understanding +that no fees were to be attached to his office, only a +definite salary. This was a great triumph for Carleton, +who certainly practised what he preached. + +So far, so good. But the third conspicuous new arrival, +John Graves Simcoe, lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, +who had come out the year before, was a great deal less +to Carleton's liking. Simcoe was a good officer who threw +himself heart and soul into the work of settling the new +province. He won the affectionate regard of his people +and is gratefully remembered by their posterity. But he +was too exclusively of his own province in his civil and +military outlook and was disposed to ignore Carleton as +his official chief. Moreover, he was appointed in spite +of Carleton's strongly expressed preference for Sir John +Johnson, who, to all appearances, was the very man for +the post. Sir William Johnson, the first baronet, had +been the great British leader of the Indians and a person +of much consequence throughout America. His son John +inherited many of his good qualities, thoroughly understood +the West and its problems, was a devoted Loyalist all +through the Revolution, when he raised the King's Royal +Regiment of New York, and would have been second only to +Carleton himself in the eyes of all Canadians, old and +new. But the government thought his private interests +too great for his public duty--an excellent general +principle, though misapplied in this particular case. At +any rate, Simcoe came instead, and the friction began at +once. Simcoe's commission clearly made him subordinate +to Carleton. Yet Simcoe made appointments without consulting +his superior and argued the point after he had been +brought to book. He communicated directly with the home +government over his superior's head and was not rebuked +by the minister to whom he wrote--Henry Dundas, afterwards +first Viscount Melville. Dundas, indeed, was half inclined +to snub Carleton. Simcoe desired to establish military +posts wherever he thought they would best promote immediate +settlement, a policy which would tend to sap both the +government's resources and the self-reliance of the +settlers. He also wished to fix the capital at London +instead of York, now Toronto, and to make York instead +of Kingston the naval base for Lake Ontario. Thus the +friction continued. At length Carleton wrote to the Duke +of Portland, Pitt's home secretary, saying: 'All command, +civil and military, being thus disorganized and without +remedy, your Grace will, I hope, excuse my anxiety for +the arrival of any successor, who may have authority +sufficient to restore order, lest these insubordinations +should extend to mutiny among the troops and sedition +among the people.' That was in November 1795. The +government, however, took no decisive action, and next +year both Carleton and Simcoe left Canada for ever. + +When this unfortunate quarrel began (1793) Canada was in +grave danger of being attacked by both the French and +the American republics. The danger, however, had been +greatly lessened by Jay's Treaty of 1794 and was to be +still further lessened (1796) by the transfer of the +Western Posts to the United States and by the presidential +election which gave the Federal party a new lease of +power, though no longer under Washington. Had Carleton +remained in Canada these felicitous events would have +offered him a unique opportunity of strengthening the +friendly ties between the British and the Americans in +a way which might have saved some trouble later on. But +that was not to be. + +To understand the dangers which threatened Canada during +the last three years of Carleton's rule we must go back +to February 1793, when revolutionary France declared war +on England and there then began that titanic struggle +which only ended twenty-two years later on the field of +Waterloo. The Americans were divided into two parties, +one disposed to be friendly towards Great Britain, the +other unfriendly. The names these parties then bore must +not be confused with those borne by their political +offspring at the present day. The Federals, progenitors +of the present Republicans, formed the friendly party +under Washington, Hamilton, and Jay. The Republicans, +progenitors of the present Democrats, formed the unfriendly +party under Jefferson, Madison, and Randolph. The Federals +were in power, the Republicans in opposition. When the +Republicans got into power in 1801 under Jefferson they +pursued their anti-British policy till they finally +brought on the War of 1812 under the presidency of Madison. +The strength of the peace party lay in the North; that +of the war party lay in the South. The peaceful Federals, +now that Independence had been gained, were in favour of +meeting the amicable British government half-way. When +Pitt came into power in 1783 he at once held out the +olive branch. Now, ten years later, the more far-seeing +statesmen on both sides were preparing to confirm the +new friendship in the practical form of Jay's Treaty, +which put the United States into what is at present known +as a most-favoured-nation position with regard to British +trade and commerce. Moreover, Washington and his Northern +Federals much preferred a British Canada to a French one, +while Jefferson and the Southern Republicans thought any +stick was good enough to beat the British dog with. + +The Jeffersonians eagerly seized on the reports of a +speech which Carleton made to the Miamis, who lived just +south of Detroit, and used it to the utmost as a means +of stirring up anti-British feeling. Carleton had said: +'You are witnesses that we have acted in the most peaceable +manner and borne the language and conduct of the United +States with patience. But I believe our patience is almost +exhausted.' Applied to the vexed questions of the Western +Posts, of the lawless ways of the exterminating American +pioneers, and of the infinitely worse jobbing politicians +behind them, this language was mildness itself. But in +view of the high statesmanship of Washington and his +government it was injudicious. All the same, Dundas, more +especially because he was a cabinet minister, was even +more injudicious when he adopted a tone of reproof towards +Carleton, whose great services, past and present, entitled +him to unusual respect and confidence. The negotiations +for Jay's Treaty were then in progress in London, and +Jefferson saw his chance of injuring both the American +and British governments by magnifying Carleton's speech +into an 'unwarrantable outrage.' He also hoped that an +Indian war would upset the treaty and bring on a British +war as well. And the prospect did look encouragingly +black in the West, where the American general Wayne was +ready waiting south of Lake Erie, while the trade in +scalps was unusually brisk. Forty dollars was the regular +market price for an ordinary Indian's scalp. But as much +as a thousand was offered for Simon Girty's in the hope +of getting that inconvenient British scout put quickly +out of the way. Nearer home Jefferson and his band of +demagogues had other arguments as well. The Federal North +would suffer most by war, while the Republican South +might use war as a means of repudiating all the debts +she owed to Englishmen. This would have been a very +different thing from the insolvency of the Continental +Congress during the Revolution. It was dire want, not +financial infamy, that made the Revolutionary paper money +'not worth a Continental.' But it would have been sheer +theft for the Jeffersonian South to have made its honest +obligations 'rotten as a Pennsylvanian bond.' + +The wild French-Revolutionary rage that swept through +the South now fanned the flame and made the sparks fly +over into Canada. In April 1793 a fiery Red Republican, +named Genet, landed at Charleston as French minister to +the United States and made a triumphal progress to +Philadelphia. Nobody bothered about the fundamental +differences between the French and American revolutions. +France and England were going to war and that was enough. +Genet was one of those 'impossibles' whom revolutions +throw into ridiculous power. When he began his campaign +the Republican South was at his feet. Planters and +legislators donned caps of liberty and danced themselves +so crazy over the rights of abstract man that they had +no enthusiasm left for such concrete instances as Loyalists, +Englishmen, and their own plantation slaves. Then Genet +made his next step in the new diplomacy by fitting out +French privateers in American harbours and seizing British +vessels in American waters. This brought Washington down +on him at once. Then he lost his head completely, abused +everybody, including Jefferson, and retired from public +life as an American citizen, being afraid to go home. + +Genet's absurd career was short, but very meteoric while +it lasted, and full of anti-British mischief-making. His +agents were everywhere; and his successor, Adet, carried +on the underground agitation with equal zeal and more +astuteness. Vermont offered an excellent base of operations. +Finding that its British proclivities had not produced +the Chambly canal for its trade with the St Lawrence, it +had become more violently anti-British than ever before +and even proposed taking Canada single-handed. This time +its new policy remained at fever heat for over three +years and only cooled down when a British man-of-war +captured the incongruously named _Olive Branch_, in which +Ira Allen was trying to run the blockade from Ostend with +twenty thousand muskets and other arms which he represented +as being solely for the annual drill of the Vermont +militia. Thus Carleton had to watch the raging South, +the dangerous West, and bellicose Vermont, all together, +besides taking whatever measures he could against the +swarms of secret enemies within the gates. The American +immigrants who wanted 'property not liberty' were ready +enough for a change of flag whenever it suited them. But +they were few compared with the mass of French Canadians +who were being stirred into disaffection. The seigneurs, +the clergy, and the very few enlightened people of other +classes had no desire for being conquered by a regicide +France or an obliterating American Republic. But many of +the habitants and of the uneducated in the towns lent a +willing ear to those who promised them all kinds of +liberty and property put together. + +The danger was all the greater because it was no longer +one foreigner intriguing against another, as in 1775, but +French against British and class against class. Some of the +appeals were still ridiculous. The habitants found themselves +credited with an unslakable thirst for higher education. +They were promised 'free' maritime intercommunication +between the Old World and the New, a wonderful extension +of representative institutions, and much more to the same +effect, universal revolutionary brotherhood included. +But when Frenchmen came promising fleets and armies, when +these emissaries were backed by French Canadians who had +left home for good reasons after the troubles of 1775, +and when the habitants were positively assured by all +these credible witnesses that France and the United States +were going to drive the British out of Canada and make +a heaven on earth for all who would turn against Carleton, +then there really was something that sensible men could +believe. Everything for nothing--or next to nothing. Only +turn against the British and the rest would be easy. No +more tithes to the cures, no more seigneurial dues, no +more taxes to a government which put half the money in +its own pocket and sent the other half to the king, who +spent it buying palaces and crowns. + +'Nothing is too absurd for them to believe, wrote Carleton, +who felt all the old troubles of 1775 coming back in a +greatly aggravated form. He lost no time in vain regrets, +however, but got a militia bill through parliament, +improved the defences of Quebec, and issued a proclamation +enjoining all good subjects to find out, report, and +seize every sedition-monger they could lay their hands +on. An attempt to embody two thousand militiamen by ballot +was a dead failure. The few English-speaking militiamen +required came forward 'with alacrity.' The habitants hung +back or broke into riotous mobs. The ordinary habitant +could hardly be blamed. He saw little difference between +one kind of English-speaking people and another. So he +naturally thought it best to be on the side of the +prospective winners, especially when they persuaded him +that he would get back everything taken from him by 'the +infamous Quebec Act.' There really was no way whatever +of getting him to see the truth under these circumstances. +The mere fact that his condition had improved so much +under British rule made him all the readier to cry for +the Franco-American moon. Things presently went from bad +to worse. A glowing, bombastic address from 'The Free +French to their Canadian Brothers' (who of course were +'slaves') was even read out at more than one church door. +Then the Quebec Assembly unanimously passed an Alien Act +in May 1794, and suspected characters began to find that +two could play at the game. This stringent act was not +passed a day too soon. By its provisions the Habeas Corpus +Act could be suspended or suppressed and the strongest +measures taken against sedition in every form. Monk, the +attorney-general, reported that 'It is astonishing to +find the same savagery exhibited here as in France.' The +habitants and lower class of townsfolk had beers well +worked up 'to follow France and the United States by +destroying a throne which was the seat of hypocrisy, +imposture, despotism, greed, cruelty' and all the other +deadly sins. The first step was to be the assassination +of all obnoxious officials and leading British patriots +the minute the promised invasion began to prove successful. + +No war came. And, as we have seen already, Carleton's +last year, 1796, was more peaceful than his first. But +even then the external dangers made the governor-general's +post a very trying one, especially when internal troubles +were equally rife. Thus Carleton never enjoyed a single +day without its anxious moments till, old and growing +weary, though devoted as ever, he finally left Quebec on +the 9th of July. This was the second occasion on which +he had been forced to resign by unfair treatment at the +hands of those who should have been his best support. It +was infinitely worse the first time, when he was stabbed +in the back by that shameless political assassin, Lord +George Germain. But the second was also inexcusable +because there could be no doubt whatever as to which of +the incompatibles should have left his post--the replaceable +Simcoe or the irreplaceable Carleton. Yet as H.M.S. +_Active_ rounded Point Levy, and the great stronghold of +Quebec faded from his view, Carleton had at least the +satisfaction of knowing that he had been the principal +saviour of one British Canada and the principal founder +of another. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +'NUNC DIMITTIS' +1796-1808 + +Our tale is told. + +The _Active_ was wrecked on the island of Anticosti, +where the estuary of the St Lawrence joins the Gulf. No +lives were lost, and the Carletons reached Perce in Gaspe +quite safely in a little coasting vessel. Then a ship +came round from Halifax and sailed the family over to +England at the end of September, just thirty years after +Carleton had come out to Canada to take up a burden of +oversea governance such as no other viceroy, in any part +of the world-encircling British Empire, has ever borne +so long. + +He lived to become a wonderful link with the past. When +he died at home in England he was in the sixty-seventh +year of his connection with the Army and in the eighty-fifth +of his age. More than any other man of note he brought +the days of Marlborough into touch with those of Wellington, +though a century lay between. At the time he received +his first commission most of the senior officers were +old Marlburians. At the time of his death Nelson had +already won Trafalgar, Napoleon had already been emperor +of the French for nearly three years, and Wellington had +already begun the great Peninsular campaigns. Carleton's +own life thus constitutes a most remarkable link between +two very different eras of Imperial history. But he and +his wife together constitute a still more remarkable link +between two eras of Canadian history which are still +farther apart. At first sight it seems almost impossible +that he, who was the trusted friend o Wolfe, and she, +who learned deportment at Versailles in the reign of +Louis Quinze, should together make up a living link +between 1690, when Frontenac saved Quebec from the American +Colonials under Phips, and 1867, when the new Dominion +was proclaimed there. But it is true. Carleton, born in +the first quarter of the eighteenth century, knew several +old men who had served at the Battle of the Boyne, which +was fought three months before Frontenac sent his defiance +to Phips 'from the mouth of my cannon.' Carleton's wife, +living far on into the second quarter of the nineteenth +century, knew several rising young men who saw the Dominion +of Canada well started on its great career. + +All Carleton's sons went into the Army and all died on +active service. The fourth was killed in 1814 at +Bergen-op-Zoom carrying the same sword that Carleton +himself had used there sixty-seven years before. A picture +of the first siege of Bergen-op-Zoom hangs in the +dining-room of the family seat at Greywell Hill to remind +successive generations of their martial ancestors. But +no Carleton needs to be reminded of a man's first duty +at the call to arms. The present holder of the Dorchester +estates and title is a woman. But her son and heir went +straight to the front with the cavalry of the first +British army corps to take the field in Belgium during +the Great World War of 1914. + +Carleton spent most of his last twelve years at Kempshot +near Basingstoke because he kept his stud there and horses +were his chief delight. But he died at Stubbings, his +place near Maidenhead beside the silver Thames, on the +10th of November 1808. + +Thus, after an unadventurous youth and early manhood, he +spent his long maturity steering the ship of state through +troublous seas abroad; then passed life's evening in the +quiet haven of his home. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + +The Seigneurs and the Loyalists, both closely associated +with Carleton's Canadian career, are treated in two +volumes of the present Series: _The Seigneurs of Old +Canada_ and _The United Empire Loyalists_. Two other +volumes also provide profitable reading: _The War Chief +of the Six Nations: A Chronicle of Brant_, the Indian +leader who was to Carleton's day what Tecumseh was to +Brock's, and _The War Chief of the Ottawas: A Chronicle +of the Pontiac War_. + +Only one life of Carleton has been written, _Lord +Dorchester_, by A. G. Bradley (1907). The student should +also consult _John Graves Simcoe_, by Duncan Campbell +Scott (1905), _Sir Frederick Haldimand_, by Jean McIlwraith +(1904), and _A History of Canada from 1763 to 1812_ by +Sir Charles Lucas. Carleton is the leading character in +the first half of the third volume of _Canada and its +Provinces_, which, being the work of different authors, +throws light on his character from several different +British points of view as well as from several different +kinds of evidence. Kingsford's _History of Canada_, +volumes iv to vii, treats the period in considerable +detail. Justin Smith's two volumes, _Our Struggle for +the Fourteenth Colony_, is the work of a most painstaking +American scholar who had already produced an excellent +account of _Arnold's March from Cambridge to Quebec_, in +which, for the first time, _Arnold's Journal_ was printed +word for word. _Arnold's Expedition to Quebec_, by J. +Codman, is another careful work. These are the complements +of the British books mentioned above, as they emphasize +the American point of view and draw more from American +than from British sources of original information. The +unfortunate defect of _Our Struggle for the Fourteenth +Colony_ is that the author's efforts to be sprightly at +all costs tend to repel the serious student, while his +very thoroughness itself repels the merely casual reader. + +So many absurd or perverting mistakes are still made +about the life and times of Carleton, and a full +understanding of his career is of such vital importance +to Canadian history, that no accounts given in the general +run of books--including many so-called 'standard +works'--should be accepted without reference to the +original authorities. Justin Smith's books, cited above, +have useful lists of authorities; though there is no +discrimination between documents of very different value. +The original British diaries kept during Montgomery and +Arnold's beleaguerment have been published by the Literary +and Historical Society of Quebec in two volumes, at the +end of which there is a very useful bibliography showing +the whereabouts of the actual manuscripts of these and +many other documents in English, French, and German. In +addition to the American and British diarists who wrote +in English there were several prominent French Canadians +and German officers who kept most interesting journals +which are still extant. The Dominion Archives at Ottawa +possess an immense mass of originals, facsimiles, and +verbatim copies of every kind, including maps and +illustrations. The Dominion Archivist, Dr Doughty, has +himself edited, in collaboration with Professor Shortt, +all the _Documents relating to the Constitutional History +of Canada from 1759 to 1791_. + +The present Chronicle is based on the original evidence +of both sides. + + + +END + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Father of British Canada: A +Chronicle of Carleton, by William Wood + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10044 *** diff --git a/10044-h/10044-h.htm b/10044-h/10044-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9cf804b --- /dev/null +++ b/10044-h/10044-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,4546 @@ +<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?> + +<!DOCTYPE html + PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd" > + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta content="pg2html (binary v0.17)" name="linkgenerator" /> + <title> + The Father of British Canada, by William Wood + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .75em; margin-bottom: .75em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%; text-align: justify; font-size: 80%; font-style: italic;} + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + .xx-small {font-size: 60%;} + .x-small {font-size: 75%;} + .small {font-size: 85%;} + .large {font-size: 115%;} + .x-large {font-size: 130%;} + .indent5 { margin-left: 5%;} + .indent10 { margin-left: 10%;} + .indent15 { margin-left: 15%;} + .indent20 { margin-left: 20%;} + .indent25 { margin-left: 25%;} + .indent30 { margin-left: 30%;} + .indent35 { margin-left: 35%;} + .indent40 { margin-left: 40%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {position: absolute; right: 1%; font-size: 0.6em; + font-variant: normal; font-style: normal; + text-align: right; background-color: #FFFACD; + border: 1px solid; padding: 0.3em;text-indent: 0em;} + .side { float: left; font-size: 75%; width: 15%; padding-left: 0.8em; + border-left: dashed thin; text-align: left; + text-indent: 0; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; + font-weight: bold; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: solid 1px;} + .head { float: left; font-size: 90%; width: 98%; padding-left: 0.8em; + border-left: dashed thin; text-align: center; + text-indent: 0; font-weight: bold; font-style: italic; + font-weight: bold; color: black; background: #eeeeee; border: solid 1px;} + p.pfirst, p.noindent {text-indent: 0} + span.dropcap { float: left; margin: 0 0.1em 0 0; line-height: 0.8 } + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} +</style> + </head> + <body> +<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10044 ***</div> + <div style="height: 8em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + THE FATHER OF BRITISH CANADA + </h1> + <h2> + A Chronicle of Carleton + </h2> + <h3> + CHRONICLES OF CANADA + </h3> + <h2> + Edited by George M. Wrong and H. H. Langton + </h2> + <h3> + In thirty-two volumes + </h3> + <h4> + Volume 12 + </h4> + <h2> + By William Wood + </h2> + <h4> + Toronto, 1916 + </h4> + <hr /> + <p> + <b>CONTENTS</b> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I — GUY CARLETON </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II — GENERAL MURRAY </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III — GOVERNOR CARLETON </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV — INVASION </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V — BELEAGUERMENT </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI — DELIVERANCE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII — THE COUNTERSTROKE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII — GUARDING THE LOYALISTS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX — FOUNDING MODERN CANADA </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X — 'NUNC DIMITTIS' </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0011"> BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I — GUY CARLETON + </h2> + <h3> + 1724-1759 + </h3> + <p> + Guy Carleton, first Baron Dorchester, was born at Strabane, County Tyrone, + on the 3rd of September 1724, the anniversary of Cromwell's two great + victories and death. He came of a very old family of English country + gentlemen which had migrated to Ireland in the seventeenth century and + intermarried with other Anglo-Irish families equally devoted to the + service of the British Crown. Guy's father was Christopher Carleton of + Newry in County Down. His mother was Catherine Ball of County Donegal. His + father died comparatively young; and, when he was himself fifteen, his + mother married the rector of Newry, the Reverend Thomas Skelton, whose + influence over the six step-children of the household worked wholly for + their good. + </p> + <p> + At eighteen Guy received his first commission as ensign in the 25th Foot, + then known as Lord Rothes' regiment and now as the King's Own Scottish + Borderers. At twenty-three he fought gallantly at the siege of + Bergen-op-Zoom. Four years later (1751) he was a lieutenant in the + Grenadier Guards. He was one of those quiet men whose sterling value is + appreciated only by the few till some crisis makes it stand forth before + the world at large. Pitt, Wolfe, and George II all recognized his solid + virtues. At thirty he was still some way down the list of lieutenants in + the Grenadiers, while Wolfe, two years his junior in age, had been four + years in command of a battalion with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. Yet + he had long been 'my friend Carleton' to Wolfe, he was soon to become one + of 'Pitt's Young Men,' and he was enough of a 'coming man' to incur the + king's displeasure. He had criticized the Hanoverians; and the king never + forgave him. The third George 'gloried in the name of Englishman.' But the + first two were Hanoverian all through. And for an English guardsman to + disparage the Hanoverian army was considered next door to lese-majeste. + </p> + <p> + Lady Dorchester burnt all her husband's private papers after his death in + 1808; so we have lost some of the most intimate records concerning him. + But 'grave Carleton' appears so frequently in the letters of his friend + Wolfe that we can see his character as a young man in almost any aspect + short of self-revelation. The first reference has nothing to do with + affairs of state. In 1747 Wolfe, aged twenty, writing to Miss Lacey, an + English girl in Brussels, and signing himself 'most sincerely your friend + and admirer,' says: 'I was doing the greatest injustice to the dear girls + to admit the least doubt of their constancy. Perhaps with respect to + ourselves there may be cause of complaint. Carleton, I'm afraid, is a + recent example of it.' From this we may infer that Carleton was less + 'grave' as a young man than Wolfe found him later on. Six years afterwards + Wolfe strongly recommended him for a position which he had himself been + asked to fill, that of military tutor to the young Duke of Richmond, who + was to get a company in Wolfe's own regiment. Writing home from Paris in + 1753 Wolfe tells his mother that the duke 'wants some skilful man to + travel with him through the Low Countries and into Lorraine. I have + proposed my friend Carleton, whom Lord Albemarle approves of.' Lord + Albemarle was the British ambassador to France; so Carleton got the post + and travelled under the happiest auspices, while learning the frontier on + which the Belgian, French, and British allies were to fight the Germans in + the Great World War of 1914. It was during this military tour of fortified + places that Carleton acquired the engineering skill which a few years + later proved of such service to the British cause in Canada. + </p> + <p> + In 1754 George Washington, at that time a young Virginian officer of only + twenty-two, fired the first shot in what presently became the world-wide + Seven Years' War. The immediate result was disastrous to the British arms; + and Washington had to give up the command of the Ohio by surrendering Fort + Necessity to the French on—of all dates—the 4th of July! In + 1755 came Braddock's defeat. In 1756 Montcalm arrived in Canada and won + his first victory at Oswego. In 1757 Wolfe distinguished himself by + formulating the plan which, if properly executed, would have prevented the + British fiasco at Rochefort on the coast of France. But Carleton remained + as undistinguished as before. He simply became lieutenant-colonel + commanding the 72nd Foot, now the Seaforth Highlanders. In 1758 his chance + appeared to have come at last. Amherst had asked for his services at + Louisbourg. But the king had neither forgotten nor forgiven the remarks + about the Hanoverians, and so refused point-blank, to Wolfe's 'very great + grief and disappointment... It is a public loss Carleton's not going.' + Wolfe's confidence in Carleton, either as a friend or as an officer, was + stronger than ever. Writing to George Warde, afterwards the famous cavalry + leader, he said: 'Accidents may happen in the family that may throw my + little affairs into disorder. Carleton is so good as to say he will give + what help is in his power. May I ask the same favour of you, my oldest + friend?' Writing to Lord George Sackville, of whom we shall hear more than + enough at the crisis of Carleton's career Wolfe said: 'Amherst will tell + you his opinion of Carleton, by which you will probably be better + convinced of our loss.' Again, 'We want grave Carleton for every purpose + of the war.' And yet again, after the fall of Louisbourg: 'If His Majesty + had thought proper to let Carleton come with us as engineer it would have + cut the matter much shorter and we might now be ruining the walls of + Quebec and completing the conquest of New France.' A little later on Wolfe + blazes out with indignation over Carleton's supersession by a junior. 'Can + Sir John Ligonier (the commander-in-chief) allow His Majesty to remain + unacquainted with the merit of that officer, and can he see such a mark of + displeasure without endeavouring to soften or clear the matter up a + little? A man of honour has the right to expect the protection of his + Colonel and of the Commander of the troops, and he can't serve without it. + If I was in Carleton's place I wouldn't stay an hour in the Army after + being aimed at and distinguished in so remarkable a manner.' But Carleton + bided his time. + </p> + <p> + At the beginning of 1759 Wolfe was appointed to command the army destined + to besiege Quebec. He immediately submitted Carleton's name for + appointment as quartermaster-general. Pitt and Ligonier heartily approved. + But the king again refused. Ligonier went back a second time to no + purpose. Pitt then sent him in for the third time, saying, in a tone meant + for the king to overhear: 'Tell His Majesty that in order to render the + General [Wolfe] completely responsible for his conduct he should be made, + as far as possible, inexcusable if he should fail; and that whatever an + officer entrusted with such a service of confidence requests ought + therefore to be granted.' The king then consented. Thus began Carleton's + long, devoted, and successful service for Canada, the Empire, and the + Crown. + </p> + <p> + Early in this memorable Empire Year of 1759 he sailed with Wolfe and + Saunders from Spithead. On the 30th of April the fleet rendezvoused at + Halifax, where Admiral Durell, second-in-command to Saunders, had spent + the winter with a squadron intended to block the St Lawrence directly + navigation opened in the spring. Durell was a good commonplace officer, + but very slow. He had lost many hands from sickness during a particularly + cold season, and he was not enterprising enough to start cruising round + Cabot Strait before the month of May. Saunders, greatly annoyed by this + delay, sent him off with eight men-of-war on the 5th of May. Wolfe gave + him seven hundred soldiers under Carleton. These forces were sufficient to + turn back, capture, or destroy the twenty-three French merchantmen which + were then bound for Quebec with supplies and soldiers as reinforcements + for Montcalm. But the French ships were a week ahead of Durell; and, when + he landed Carleton at Isle-aux-Coudres on the 28th of May, the last of the + enemy's transports had already discharged her cargo at Quebec, sixty miles + above. + </p> + <p> + Isle-aux-Coudres, so named by Jacques Cartier in 1535, was a point of + great strategic importance; for it commanded the only channel then used. + It was the place Wolfe had chosen for his winter quarters, that is, in + case of failure before Quebec and supposing he was not recalled. None but + a particularly good officer would have been appointed as its first + commandant. Carleton spent many busy days here preparing an advanced base + for the coming siege, while the subsequently famous Captain Cook was + equally busy 'a-sounding of the channell of the Traverse' which the fleet + would have to pass on its way to Quebec. Some of Durell's ships destroyed + the French 'long-shore batteries near this Traverse, at the lower end of + the island of Orleans, while the rest kept ceaseless watch to seaward, + anxiously scanning the offing, day after day, to make out the colours of + the first fleet up. No one knew what the French West India fleet would do; + and there was a very disconcerting chance that it might run north and slip + into the St Lawrence, ahead of Saunders, in the same way as the French + reinforcements had just slipped in ahead of Durell. Presently, at the + first streak of dawn on the 23rd of June, a strong squadron was seen + advancing rapidly under a press of sail. Instantly the officers of the + watch called all hands up from below. The boatswains' whistles shrilled + across the water as the seamen ran to quarters and cleared the decks for + action. Carleton's camp was equally astir. The guards turned out. The + bugles sounded. The men fell in and waited. Then the flag-ship signalled + ashore that the strangers had just answered correctly in private code that + all was well and that Wolfe and Saunders were aboard. + </p> + <p> + Next to Wolfe himself Carleton was the busiest man in the army throughout + the siege of Quebec. In addition to his arduous and very responsible + duties as quartermaster-general, he acted as inspector of engineers and as + a special-service officer for work of an exceptionally confidential + nature. As quartermaster-general he superintended the supply and transport + branches. Considering that the army was operating in a devastated hostile + country, a thousand miles away from its bases at Halifax and Louisbourg, + and that the interaction of the different services—naval and + military, Imperial and Colonial—required adjustment to a nicety at + every turn, it was wonderful that so much was done so well with means + which were far from being adequate. War prices of course ruled in the + British camp. But they compared very favourably with the famine prices in + Quebec, where most 'luxuries' soon became unobtainable at any price. There + were no canteen or camp-follower scandals under Carleton. Then, as now, + every soldier had a regulation ration of food and a regulation allowance + for his service kit. But 'extras' were always acceptable. The price-list + of these 'extras' reads strangely to modern ears. But, under the + circumstances, it was not exorbitant, and it was slightly tempered by + being reckoned in Halifax currency of four dollars to the pound instead of + five. The British Tommy Atkins of that and many a later day thought Canada + a wonderful country for making money go a long way when he could buy a pot + of beer for twopence and get back thirteen pence Halifax currency as + change for his English shilling. Beef and ham ran from ninepence to a + shilling a pound. Mutton was a little dearer. Salt butter was eightpence + to one-and-threepence. Cheese was tenpence; potatoes from five to ten + shillings a bushel. 'A reasonable loaf of good soft Bread' cost sixpence. + Soap was a shilling a pound. Tea was prohibitive for all but the officers. + 'Plain Green Tea and very Badd' was fifteen shillings, 'Couchon' twenty + shillings, 'Hyson' thirty. Leaf tobacco was tenpence a pound, roll + one-and-tenpence, snuff two-and-threepence. Sugar was a shilling to + eighteen pence. Lemons were sixpence apiece. The non-intoxicating 'Bad + Sproos Beer' was only twopence a quart and helped to keep off scurvy. Real + beer, like wine and spirits, was more expensive. 'Bristol Beer' was + eighteen shillings a dozen, 'Bad malt Drink from Hellifax' ninepence a + quart. Rum and claret were eight shillings a gallon each, port and Madeira + ten and twelve respectively. The term 'Bad' did not then mean noxious, but + only inferior. It stood against every low-grade article in the price-list. + No goods were over-classified while Carleton was quartermaster-general. + </p> + <p> + The engineers were under-staffed, under-manned, and overworked. There were + no Royal Engineers as a permanent and comprehensive corps till the time of + Wellington. Wolfe complained bitterly and often of the lack of men and + materials for scientific siege work. But he 'relied on Carleton' to good + purpose in this respect as well as in many others. In his celebrated + dispatch to Pitt he mentions Carleton twice. It was Carleton whom he sent + to seize the west end of the island of Orleans, so as to command the basin + of Quebec, and Carleton whom he sent to take prisoners and gather + information at Pointe-aux-Trembles, twenty miles above the city. Whether + or not he revealed the whole of his final plan to Carleton is probably + more than we shall ever know, since Carleton's papers were destroyed. But + we do know that he did not reveal it to any one else, not even to his + three brigadiers, Monckton, Townshend, and Murray. + </p> + <p> + Carleton was wounded in the head during the Battle of the Plains; but soon + returned to duty. Wolfe showed his confidence in him to the last. + Carleton's was the only name mentioned twice in the will which Wolfe + handed over to Jervis, the future Lord St Vincent, the night before the + battle. 'I leave to Colonel Oughton, Colonel Carleton, Colonel Howe, and + Colonel Warde a thousand pounds each.' 'All my books and papers, both here + and in England, I leave to Colonel Carleton.' Wolfe's mother, who died + five years later, showed the same confidence by appointing Carleton her + executor. + </p> + <p> + With the fall of Quebec in 1759 Carleton disappears from the Canadian + scene till 1766. But so many pregnant events happened in Canada during + these seven years, while so few happened in his own career, that it is + much more important for us to follow her history than his biography. + </p> + <p> + In 1761 he was wounded at the storming of Port Andro during the attack on + Belle Isle off the west coast of France. In 1762 he was wounded at Havana + in the West Indies. After that he enjoyed four years of quietness at home. + Then came the exceedingly difficult task of guiding Canada through twelve + years of turbulent politics and most subversive war. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II — GENERAL MURRAY + </h2> + <h3> + 1759-1766 + </h3> + <p> + Both armies spent a terrible winter after the Battle of the Plains. There + was better shelter for the French in Montreal than for the British among + the ruins of Quebec. But in the matter of food the positions were + reversed. Nevertheless the French gallantly refused the truce offered them + by Murray, who had now succeeded Wolfe. They were determined to make a + supreme effort to regain Quebec in the spring; and they were equally + determined that the habitants should not be free to supply the British + with provisions. + </p> + <p> + In spite of the state of war, however, the French and British officers, + even as prisoners and captors, began to make friends. They had found each + other foemen worthy of their steel. A distinguished French officer, the + Comte de Malartic, writing to Levis, Montcalm's successor, said: 'I cannot + speak too highly of General Murray, although he is our enemy.' Murray, on + his part, was equally loud and generous in his praise of the French. The + Canadian seigneurs found fellow-gentlemen among the British officers. The + priests and nuns of Quebec found many fellow-Catholics among the Scottish + and Irish troops, and nothing but courteous treatment from the soldiers of + every rank and form of religion. Murray directed that 'the compliment of + the hat' should be paid to all religious processions. The Ursuline nuns + knitted long stockings for the bare-legged Highlanders when the winter + came on, and presented each Scottish officer with an embroidered St + Andrew's Cross on the 30th of November, St Andrew's Day. The whole + garrison won the regard of the town by giving up part of their rations for + the hungry poor; while the habitants from the surrounding country + presently began to find out that the British were honest to deal with and + most humane, though sternly just, as conquerors. + </p> + <p> + In the following April Levis made his desperate throw for victory; and + actually did succeed in defeating Murray outside the walls of Quebec. But + the British fleet came up in May; and that summer three British armies + converged on Montreal, where the last doomed remnants of French power on + the St Lawrence stood despairingly at bay. When Levis found his two + thousand effective French regulars surrounded by eight times as many + British troops he had no choice but to lay down the arms of France for + ever. On the 8th of September 1760 his gallant little army was included in + the Capitulation of Montreal, by which the whole of Canada passed into the + possession of the British Crown. + </p> + <p> + Great Britain had a different general idea for each one of the four + decades which immediately followed the conquest of Canada. In the sixties + the general idea was to kill refractory old French ways with a double dose + of new British liberty and kindness, so that Canada might gradually become + the loyal fourteenth colony of the Empire in America. But the fates were + against this benevolent scheme. The French Canadians were firmly wedded to + their old ways of life, except in so far as the new liberty enabled them + to throw off irksome duties and restraints, while the new English-speaking + 'colonists' were so few, and mostly so bad, that they became the cause of + endless discord where harmony was essential. In the seventies the idea was + to restore the old French-Canadian life so as not only to make Canada + proof against the disaffection of the Thirteen Colonies but also to make + her a safe base of operations against rebellious Americans. In the + eighties the great concern of the government was to make a harmonious + whole out of two very widely differing parts—the long-settled French + Canadians and the newly arrived United Empire Loyalists. In the nineties + each of these parts was set to work out its own salvation under its own + provincial constitution. + </p> + <p> + Carleton's is the only personality which links together all four decades—the + would-be American sixties, the French-Canadian seventies, the + Anglo-French-Canadian eighties, and the bi-constitutional nineties—though, + as mentioned already, Murray ruled Canada for the first seven years, + 1759-66. + </p> + <p> + James Murray, the first British governor of Canada, was a younger son of + the fourth Lord Elibank. He was just over forty, warm-hearted and + warm-tempered, an excellent French scholar, and every inch a soldier. He + had been a witness for the defence of Mordaunt at the court-martial held + to try the authors of the Rochefort fiasco in 1757. Wolfe, who was a + witness on the other side, referred to him later on as 'my old antagonist + Murray.' But Wolfe knew a good man when he saw one and gave his full + confidence to his 'old antagonist' both at Louisbourg and Quebec. Murray + was not born under a lucky star. He saw three defeats in three successive + wars. He began his service with the abortive attack on pestilential + Cartagena, where Wolfe's father was present as adjutant-general. In + mid-career he lost the battle of Ste Foy. [Footnote: See The Winning of + Canada, chap. viii. See also, for the best account of this battle and + other events of the year between Wolfe's victory and the surrender of + Montreal, The Fall of Canada, by George M. Wrong. Oxford, 1914.] And his + active military life ended with his surrender of Minorca in 1782. But he + was greatly distinguished for honour and steadfastness on all occasions. + An admiring contemporary described him as a model of all the military + virtues except prudence. But he had more prudence and less genius than his + admirer thought; and he showed a marked talent for general government. The + problem before him was harder than his superiors could believe. He was + expected to prepare for assimilation some sixty-five thousand 'new + subjects' who were mostly alien in religion and wholly alien in every + other way. But, for the moment, this proved the least of his many + difficulties because no immediate results were required. + </p> + <p> + While the war went on in Europe Canada remained nominally a part of the + enemy's dominions, and so, of course, was subject to military rule. Sir + Jeffery Amherst, the British commander-in-chief in America, took up his + headquarters in New York. Under him Murray commanded Canada from Quebec. + Under Murray, Colonel Burton commanded the district of Three Rivers while + General Gage commanded the district of Montreal, which then extended to + the western wilds. [Footnote: See The War Chief of the Ottawas, chap. + iii.] + </p> + <p> + Murray's first great trouble arose in 1761. It was caused by an outrageous + War Office order that fourpence a day should be stopped from the soldiers + to pay for the rations they had always got free. Such gross injustice, + coming in time of war and applied to soldiers who richly deserved reward, + made the veterans 'mad with rage.' Quebec promised to be the scene of a + wild mutiny. Murray, like all his officers, thought the stoppage nothing + short of robbery. But he threw himself into the breach. He assembled the + officers and explained that they must die to the last man rather than + allow the mutineers a free hand. He then held a general parade at which he + ordered the troops to march between two flag-poles on pain of instant + death, promising to kill with his own hands the first man who refused. He + added that he was ready to hear and forward any well-founded complaint, + but that, since insubordination had been openly threatened, he would + insist on subordination being publicly shown. Then, amid tense silence, he + gave the word of command—Quick, March!—while every officer + felt his trigger. To the immense relief of all concerned the men stepped + off, marched straight between the flags and back to quarters, tamed. The + criminal War Office blunder was rectified and peace was restored in the + ranks. + </p> + <p> + 'Murray's Report' of 1762 gives us a good view of the Canada of that day + and shows the attitude of the British towards their new possession. Canada + had been conquered by Great Britain, with some help from the American + colonies, for three main reasons: first, to strike a death-blow at French + dominion in America; secondly, to increase the opportunities of British + seaborne trade; and, thirdly, to enlarge the area available for British + settlement. When Murray was instructed to prepare a report on Canada he + had to keep all this in mind; for the government wished to satisfy the + public both at home and in the colonies. He had to examine the military + strength of the country and the disposition of its population in case of + future wars with France. He had to satisfy the natural curiosity of men + like the London merchants. And he had to show how and where + English-speaking settlers could go in and make Canada not only a British + possession but the fourteenth British colony in North America. Burton and + Gage were also instructed to report about their own districts of Three + Rivers and Montreal. The documents they prepared were tacked on to + Murray's. By June 1762 the work was completed and sent on to Amherst, who + sent it to England in ample time to be studied there before the opening of + the impending negotiations for peace. + </p> + <p> + Murray was greatly concerned about the military strength of Quebec, then, + as always, the key of Canada. Like the unfortunate Montcalm he found the + walls of Quebec badly built, badly placed, and falling into ruins, and he + thought they could not be defended by three thousand men against 'a well + conducted Coup-de-main.' He proposed to crown Cape Diamond with a proper + citadel, which would overawe the disaffected in Quebec itself and defend + the place against an outside enemy long enough to let a British fleet come + up to its relief. The rest of the country was defended by little garrisons + at Three Rivers and Montreal as well as by several small detachments + distributed among the trading-posts where the white men and the red met in + the depths of the western wilderness. + </p> + <p> + The relations between the British garrison and the French Canadians were + so excellent that what Gage reported from Montreal might be taken as + equally true of the rest of the country: 'The Soldiers live peaceably with + the Inhabitants and they reciprocally acquire an affection for each + other.' The French Canadians numbered sixty-five thousand altogether, + exclusive of the fur traders and coureurs de bois. Barely fifteen thousand + lived in the three little towns of Quebec, Montreal, and Three Rivers; + while over fifty thousand lived in the country. Nearly all the officials + had gone back to France. The three classes of greatest importance were the + seigneurs, the clergy, and the habitants. The lawyers were not of much + account; the petty commercial classes of less account still. The coureurs + de bois and other fur traders formed an important link between the savage + and the civilized life of the country. + </p> + <p> + Apart from furs the trade of Canada was contemptibly small in the eyes of + men like the London merchants. But the opportunity of fostering all the + fur trade that could be carried down the St Lawrence was very well worth + while; and if there was no other existing trade worth capturing there + seemed to be some kinds worth creating. Murray held out well-grounded + hopes of the fisheries and forests. 'A Most immense Cod Fishery can be + established in the River and Gulph of St Lawrence. A rich tract of country + on the South Side of the Gulph will be settled and improved, and a port or + ports furnished with every material requisite to repair ships.' He then + went on to enumerate the other kinds of fishery, the abundance of whales, + seals, and walruses in the Gulf, and of salmon up all the tributary + rivers. Burton recommends immediate attention to the iron mines behind + Three Rivers. All the governors expatiate on the vast amount of forest + wealth and remind the home government that under the French regime the + king, when making out patents for the seigneurs, reserved the right of + taking wood for ship-building and fortifications from any of the + seigneuries. Agriculture was found to be in a very backward state. The + habitants would raise no more than they required for their own use and for + a little local trade. But the fault was attributed to the gambling + attractions of the fur trade, to the bad governmental system, and to the + frequent interruptions of the corvee, a kind of forced labour which was + meant to serve the public interest, but which Bigot and other thievish + officials always turned to their own private advantage. On the whole, the + reports were most encouraging in the prospects they held out to honest + labour, trade, and government. + </p> + <p> + While Murray and his lieutenants had been collecting information for their + reports the home government had been undergoing many changes for the + worse. The master-statesman Pitt had gone out of power and the back-stairs + politician Bute had come in. Pitt's 'bloody and expensive war'—the + war that more than any other, laid the foundations of the present British + Empire—was to be ended on any terms the country could be persuaded + to bear. Thus the end of the Seven Years' War, or, as the British part of + it was more correctly called, the 'Maritime War,' was no more glorious in + statesmanship than its beginning had been in arms. But the spirit of its + mighty heart still lived on in the Empire's grateful memories of Pitt and + quickened the English-speaking world enough to prevent any really + disgraceful surrender of the hard-won fruits of victory. + </p> + <p> + The Treaty of Paris, signed on the 10th of February 1763, and the king's + proclamation, published in October, were duly followed by the inauguration + of civil government in Canada. The incompetent Bute, anxious to get Pitt + out of the way, tried to induce him to become the first British governor + of the new colony. Even Bute probably never dared to hope that Pitt would + actually go out to Canada. But he did hope to lower his prestige by making + him the holder of a sinecure at home. However this may be, Pitt, mightiest + of all parliamentary ministers of war, refused to be made either a jobber + or an exile; whereupon Murray's position was changed from a military + command into that of 'Governor and Captain-General.' + </p> + <p> + The changes which ensued in the laws of Canada were heartily welcomed so + far as the adoption of the humaner criminal code of England was concerned. + The new laws relating to debtor and creditor also gave general + satisfaction, except, as we shall presently see, when they involved + imprisonment for debt. But the tentative efforts to introduce English + civil law side by side with the old French code resulted in great + confusion and much discontent. The land laws had become so unworkable + under this dual system that they had to be left as they were. A Court of + Common Pleas was set up specially for the benefit of the French Canadians. + If either party demanded a jury one had to be sworn in; and French + Canadians were to be jurors on equal terms with 'the King's Old Subjects.' + The Roman Catholic Church was to be completely tolerated but not in any + way established. Lord Egremont, in giving the king's instructions to + Murray, reminded him that the proviso in the Treaty of Paris—as far + as the Laws of Great Britain permit—should govern his action + whenever disputes arose. It must be remembered that the last Jacobite + rising was then a comparatively recent affair, and that France was equally + ready to upset either the Protestant succession in England or the British + regime in Canada. + </p> + <p> + The Indians were also an object of special solicitude in the royal + proclamation. 'The Indians who live under our Protection should not be + molested in the possession of such parts of our Dominions and Territories + as, not having been ceded to or purchased by Us, are reserved to them.' + The home government was far in advance of the American colonists in its + humane attitude towards the Indians. The common American attitude then and + long afterwards —indeed, up to a time well within living memory—was + that Indians were a kind of human vermin to be exterminated without mercy, + unless, of course, more money was to be made out of them alive. The result + was an endless struggle along the ever-receding frontier of the West. And + just at this particular time the 'Conspiracy of Pontiac' had brought about + something like a real war. The story of this great effort of the Indians + to stem the encroachments of the exterminating colonists is told in + another chronicle of the present Series. [Footnote: The War Chief of the + Ottawas.] The French traders in the West undoubtedly had a hand in + stirring up the Indians. Pontiac, a sort of Indian Napoleon, was + undoubtedly cruel as well as crafty. And the Indians undoubtedly fought + just as the ancestors of the French and British used to fight when they + were at the corresponding stage of social evolution. But the mere fact + that so many jealously distinct tribes united in this common cause proves + how much they all must have suffered at the hands of the colonists. + </p> + <p> + While Pontiac's war continued in the West Murray had to deal with a + political war in Canada which rose to its height in 1764. The king's + proclamation of the previous October had 'given express Power to our + Governor that, so soon as the state and circumstances of the said Colony + will admit thereof, he shall call a General Assembly in such manner and + form as is used in those Colonies and Provinces in America which are under + our immediate government.' The intention of establishing parliamentary + institutions was, therefore, perfectly clear. But it was equally clear + that the introduction of such institutions was to depend on + 'circumstances,' and it is well to remember here that these + 'circumstances' were not held to warrant the opening of a Canadian + parliament till 1792. Now, the military government had been a great + success. There was every reason to suppose that civil government by a + governor and council would be the next best thing. And it was quite + certain that calling a 'General Assembly' at once would defeat the very + ends which such bodies are designed to serve. More than ninety-nine per + cent of the population were dead against an assembly which none of them + understood and all distrusted. On the other hand, the clamorous minority + of less than one per cent were in favour only of a parliament from which + the majority should be rigorously excluded, even, if possible, as voters. + The immense majority comprised the entire French-Canadian community. The + absurdly small minority consisted mostly of Americanized camp-following + traders, who, having come to fish in troubled waters, naturally wanted the + laws made to suit poachers. The British garrison, the governing officials, + and the very few other English-speaking people of a more enlightened class + all looked down on the rancorous minority. The whole question resolved + itself into this: should Canada be handed over to the licensed + exploitation of a few hundred low-class camp-followers, who had done + nothing to win her for the British Empire, who were despised by those who + had, and who promised to be a dangerous thorn in the side of the new + colony? + </p> + <p> + What this ridiculous minority of grab-alls really wanted was not a + parliament but a rump. Many a representative assembly has ended in a rump, + The grab-alls wished to begin with one and stop there. It might be + supposed that such pretensions would defeat themselves. But there was a + twofold difficulty in the way of getting the truth understood by the + English-speaking public on both sides of the Atlantic. In the first place, + the French Canadians were practically dumb to the outside world. In the + second, the vociferous rumpites had the ear of some English and more + American commercial people who were not anxious to understand; while the + great mass of the general public were inclined to think, if they ever + thought at all, that parliamentary government must mean more liberty for + every one concerned. + </p> + <p> + A singularly apt commentary on the pretensions of the camp-followers is + supplied by the famous, or infamous, 'Presentment of the Grand Jury of + Quebec' in October 1764. The moving spirits of this precious jury were + aspirants to membership in the strictly exclusive, rumpish little + parliament of their own seeking. The signatures of the French-Canadian + members were obtained by fraud, as was subsequently proved by a sworn + official protestation. The first presentment tells its own tale, as it + refers to the only courts in which French-Canadian lawyers were allowed to + plead. 'The great number of inferior Courts are tiresome, litigious, and + expensive to this poor Colony.' Then came a hit at the previous military + rule—'That Decrees of the military Courts may be amended [after + having been confirmed by legal ordinance] by allowing Appeals if the + matter decided exceed Ten Pounds,' which would put it out of the reach of + the 'inferior Courts' and into the clutches of 'the King's Old Subjects.' + But the gist of it all was contained in the following: 'We represent that + as the Grand Jury must be considered at present as the only Body + representative of the Colony, ... We propose that the Publick Accounts be + laid before the Grand Jury at least twice a year.' That the grand jury was + to be purged of all its French-Canadian members is evident from the + addendum slipped in behind their backs. This addendum is a fine specimen + of verbose invective against 'the Church of Rome,' the Pope, Bulls, + Briefs, absolutions, etc., the empanelling 'en Grand and petty Jurys' of + 'papist or popish Recusants Convict,' and so on. + </p> + <p> + The 'Presentment of the Grand Jury' was presently followed by The Humble + Petition of Your Majesty's most faithful and loyal Subjects, British + Merchants and Traders, in behalf of Themselves and their fellow Subjects, + Inhabitants of Your Majesty's Province of Quebec. 'Their fellow Subjects' + did not, of course, include any 'papist or popish Recusants Convict.' + Among the 'Grievances and Distresses' enumerated were 'the oppressive and + severely felt Military government,' the inability to 'reap the fruit of + our Industry' under such a martinet as Murray, who, in one paragraph, is + accused of 'suppressing dutyfull Remonstrances in Silence' and, in the + next, of 'treating them with a Rage and Rudeness of Language and Demeanor + as dishonourable to the Trust he holds of Your Majesty as painfull to + Those who suffer from it.' Finally, the petitioners solemnly warn His + Majesty that their 'Lives in the Province are so very unhappy that we must + be under the Necessity of removing from it, unless timely prevented by a + Removal of the present Governor.' + </p> + <p> + In forwarding this document Murray poured out the vials of his wrath on + 'the Licentious Fanaticks Trading here,' while he boldly championed the + cause of the French Canadians, 'a Race, who, could they be indulged with a + few priveledges which the Laws of England deny to Roman Catholicks at + home, would soon get the better of every National Antipathy to their + Conquerors and become the most faithful and most useful set of Men in this + American Empire.' + </p> + <p> + While these charges and counter-charges were crossing the Atlantic + another, and much more violent, trouble came to a head. As there were no + barracks in Canada billeting was a necessity. It was made as little + burdensome as possible and the houses of magistrates were specially + exempt. This, however, did not prevent the magistrates from baiting the + military whenever they got the chance. Fines, imprisonments, and other + sentences, out of all proportion to the offence committed, were heaped on + every redcoat in much the same way as was then being practised in Boston + and other hotbeds of disaffection. The redcoats had done their work in + ridding America of the old French menace. They were doing it now in + ridding the colonies of the last serious menace from the Indians. And so + the colonists, having no further use for them, began trying to make the + land they had delivered too hot to hold them. There were, of course, + exceptions; and the American colonists had some real as well as pretended + grievances. But wantonly baiting the redcoats had already become a most + discreditable general practice. + </p> + <p> + Montreal was most in touch with the disaffected people to the south. It + also had a magistrate of the name of Walker, the most rancorous of all the + disaffected magistrates in Canada. This Walker, well mated with an equally + rancorous wife, was the same man who entertained Benjamin Franklin and the + other commissioners sent by Congress into Canada in 1776, the year in + which both the American Republic and a truly British Canada were born. He + would not have been flattered could he have seen the entry Franklin made + about him and his wife in a diary which is still extant. The gist of it + was that wherever the Walkers might be they would soon set the place by + the ears. Walker, of course, was foremost in the persecution of the + redcoats; and he eagerly seized his opportunity when an officer was + billeted in a house where a brother magistrate happened to be living as a + lodger. Under such circumstances the magistrate could not claim exemption. + But this made no difference either to him or to Walker. Captain Payne, the + gentleman whose presence enraged these boors, was seized and thrown into + gaol. The chief justice granted a writ of habeas corpus. But the mischief + was done and resentment waxed high. The French-Canadian seigneurs + sympathized with Payne, which added fuel to the magisterial flame; and + Murray, scenting danger, summoned the whole bench down to Quebec. + </p> + <p> + But before this bench of bumbles started some masked men seized Walker in + his own house and gave him a good sound thrashing. Unfortunately they + spoilt the fair reprisal by cutting off his ear. That very night the news + had run round Montreal and made a start for Boston and Quebec. Feeling ran + high; and higher still when, a few weeks later, the civil magistrates + vented their rage on several redcoats by imposing sentences exceeding even + the utmost limits of their previous vindictive action. Montreal became + panic-stricken lest the soldiers, baited past endurance, should break out + in open violence. Murray drove up, post-haste, from Quebec, ordered the + affected regiment to another station, reproved the offending magistrates, + and re-established public confidence. Official and private rewards were + offered to any witnesses who would identify Walker's assailants. But in + vain. The smouldering fire burst out again under Carleton. But the mystery + was never cleared up. + </p> + <p> + Things had now come to a crisis. The London merchants, knowing nothing + about the internal affairs of Canada, backed the petition of the Quebec + traders, who were quite unworthy of such support from men of real business + probity and knowledge. The magisterial faction in Canada advertised their + side of the case all over the colonies and in any sympathetic quarter they + could find in England. The seigneurs sent home a warm defence of Murray; + and Murray himself sent Cramahe, a very able Swiss officer in the British + Army. The home government thus had plenty of contradictory evidence before + it in 1765. The result was that Murray was called home in 1766, rather in + a spirit of open-minded and sympathetic inquiry into his conduct than with + any idea of censuring him. He never returned to Canada. But as he held the + titular governorship for some time longer, and as he was afterwards + employed in positions of great responsibility and trust, the verdict of + the home authorities was clearly given in his favour. + </p> + <p> + The troublous year of 1764 saw another innovation almost as revolutionary, + compared with the old regime, as the introduction of civil government + itself. This was the issue of the first newspaper in Canada, where, + indeed, it was also the first printed thing of any kind. Nova Scotia had + produced an earlier paper, the Halifax Gazette, which lived an + intermittent life from 1752 to 1800. But no press had ever been allowed in + New France. The few documents that required printing had always been done + in the mother country. Brown and Gilmore, two Philadelphians, were thus + undertaking a pioneer business when they announced that 'Our Design is, in + case we are fortunate enough to succeed, early in this spring to settle in + this City [Quebec] in the capacity of Printers, and forthwith to publish a + weekly newspaper in French and English.' The Quebec Gazette, which first + appeared on the 21st of the following June, has continued to the present + time, though it is now a daily and is known as the Quebec Chronicle. + Centenarian papers are not common in any country; and those that have + lived over a century and a half are very few indeed. So the Quebec + Chronicle, which is the second surviving senior in America, is also among + the great press seniors of the world. + </p> + <p> + The original number is one of the curiosities of journalism. The + publishers felt tolerably sure of having what was then considered a good + deal of recent news for their three hundred readers during the open + season. But, knowing that the supply would be both short and stale in + winter, they held out prospects of a Canadian Tatler or Spectator, + without, however, being rash enough to promise a supply of Addisons and + Steeles. Their announcement makes curious reading at the present day. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Rigour of Winter preventing the arrival of ships + from Europe, and in a great measure interrupting + the ordinary intercourse with the Southern Provinces, + it will be necessary, in a paper designed for General + Perusal, and Publick Utility, to provide some things + of general Entertainment, independent of foreign + intelligence: we shall therefore, on such occasions, + present our Readers with such Originals, both in + Prose and Verse, as will please the FANCY and + instruct the JUDGMENT. And here we beg leave to observe + that we shall have nothing so much at heart as the + support of VIRTUE and MORALITY and the noble cause of + LIBERTY. The refined amusements of LITERATURE, and + the pleasing veins of well pointed wit, shall also be + considered as necessary to this collection; interspersed + with chosen pieces, and curious essays, extracted from + the most celebrated authors; So that, blending PHILOSOPHY + with POLITICKS, HISTORY, &c., the youth of both sexes + will be improved and persons of all ranks agreeably + and usefully entertained. And upon the whole we will + labour to attain to all the exactness that so much + variety will permit, and give as much variety as will + consist with a reasonable exactness. And as this part + of our project cannot be carried into execution without + the correspondence of the INGENIOUS, we shall take + all opportunities of acknowledging our obligations, + to those who take the trouble of furnishing any matter + which shall tend to entertainment or instruction. Our + Intentions to please the Whole, without offence to + any Individual, will be better evinced by our practice, + than by writing volumes on the subject. This one thing + we beg may be believed, that PARTY PREJUDICE, or + PRIVATE SCANDAL, will never find a place in this PAPER. +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III — GOVERNOR CARLETON + </h2> + <h3> + 1766-1774 + </h3> + <p> + The twelve years of Carleton's first administration naturally fall into + three distinct periods of equal length. During the first he was busily + employed settling as many difficulties as he could, examining the general + state of the country, and gradually growing into the change that was + developing in the minds of the home government, the change, that is, from + the Americanizing sixties to the French-Canadian seventies. During the + second period he was in England, helping to shape the famous Quebec Act. + During the third he was defending Canada from American attack and aiding + the British counterstroke by every means in his power. + </p> + <p> + On the 22nd of September 1766 Carleton arrived at Quebec and began his + thirty years' experience as a Canadian administrator by taking over the + government from Colonel Irving, who had held it since Murray's departure + in the spring. Irving had succeeded Murray simply because he happened to + be the senior officer present at the time. Carleton himself was + technically Murray's lieutenant till 1768. But neither of these facts + really affected the course of Canadian history. + </p> + <p> + The Council, the magistrates, and the traders each presented. the new + governor with an address containing the usual professions of loyal + devotion. Carleton remarked in his dispatch that these separate addresses, + and the marked absence of any united address, showed how much the + population was divided. He also noted that a good many of the + English-speaking minority had objected to the addresses on account of + their own opposition to the Stamp Act, and that there had been some broken + heads in consequence. Troubles enough soon engaged his anxious attention—troubles + over the Indian trade, the rights and wrongs of the Canadian Jesuits, the + wounded dignity of some members of the Council, and the still smouldering + and ever mysterious Walker affair. + </p> + <p> + The strife between Canada and the Thirteen Colonies over the Indian trade + of the West remained the same in principle as under the old regime. The + Conquest had merely changed the old rivalry between two foreign powers + into one between two widely differing British possessions; and this, + because of the general unrest among the Americans, made the competition + more bitter, if possible, than ever. + </p> + <p> + The Jesuits pressed their claims for recognition, for their original + estates, and for compensation. But their order had fallen on evil days all + over the world. It was not popular even in Canada. And the arrangement was + that while the existing members were to be treated with every + consideration the Society itself was to be allowed to die out. + </p> + <p> + The offended councillors went so far as to present Carleton with a + remonstrance which Irving himself had the misfortune to sign. Carleton had + consulted some members on points with which they were specially + acquainted. The members who had not been consulted thereupon protested to + Irving, who assured them that Carleton must have done so by accident, not + design. But when Carleton received a joint letter in which they said, 'As + you are pleased to signifye to Us by Coll. Irving that it was accident, + & not Intention,' he at once replied: 'As Lieutenant Colonel Irving + has signified to you that the Part of my Conduct you think worthy of your + Reprehension happened by Accident let him explain his reasons for so + doing. He had no authority from me.' Carleton then went on to say that he + would consult any 'Men of Good Sense, Truth, Candour, and Impartial + Justice' whenever he chose, no matter whether they were councillors or + not. + </p> + <p> + The Walker affair, which now broke out again, was much more serious than + the storm in the Council's teacup. It agitated the whole of Canada and + threatened to range the population of Montreal and Quebec into two + irreconcilable factions, the civil and the military. For the whole of the + two years since Murray had been called upon to deal with it cleverly + presented versions of Walker's views had been spread all over the colonies + and worked into influential Opposition circles in England. The invectives + against the redcoats and their friends the seigneurs were of the usual + abusive type. But they had an unusually powerful effect at that particular + time in the Thirteen Colonies as well as in what their authors hoped to + make a Fourteenth Colony after a fashion of their own; and they looked + plausible enough to mislead a good many moderate men in the mother country + too. Walker's case was that he had an actual witness, as to the identity + of his assailants, in the person of McGovoch, a discharged soldier, who + laid information against one civilian, three British officers, and the + celebrated French-Canadian leader, La Corne de St Luc. All the accused + were arrested in their beds in Montreal and thrown into the common gaol. + Walker objected to bail on the plea that his life would be in danger if + they were allowed at large. He also sought to postpone the trial in order + to punish the accused as much as possible, guilty or innocent. But William + Hey, the chief justice, an able and upright man, would consent to + postponement only on condition that bail should be allowed; so the trial + proceeded. When the grand jury threw out the case against one of the + prisoners Walker let loose such a flood of virulent abuse that moderate + men were turned against him. In the end all the accused were honourably + acquitted, while McGovoch, who was proved to have been a false witness + from the first, was convicted of perjury. Carleton remained absolutely + impartial all through, and even dismissed Colonel Irving and another + member of the Council for heading a petition on behalf of the military + prisoners. + </p> + <p> + The Walker affair was an instance of a bad case in which the law at last + worked well. But there were many others in which it did not. What with the + Coutume de Paris, which is still quoted in the province of Quebec; the + other complexities of the old French law; the doubtful meanings drawn from + the capitulation, the treaty, the proclamation, and the various + ordinances; the instinctive opposition between the French Canadians and + the English-speaking civilians; and, finally, what with the portents of + subversive change that were already beginning to overshadow all America,—what + with all this and more, Carleton found himself faced with a problem which + no man could have solved to the satisfaction of every one concerned. Each + side in a lawsuit took whatever amalgam of French and English codes was + best for its own argument. But, generally speaking, the ingrained feeling + of the French Canadians was against any change of their own laws that was + not visibly and immediately beneficial to their own particular interests. + Moreover, the use of the unknown English language, the worthlessness of + the rapacious English-speaking magistrates, and the detested innovation of + imprisonment for debt, all combined to make every part of English civil + law hated simply because it happened to be English and not French. The + home authorities were anxious to find some workable compromise. In 1767 + Carleton exchanged several important dispatches with them; and in 1768 + they sent out Maurice Morgan to study and report, after consultation with + the chief justice and 'other well instructed persons.' Morgan was an + indefatigable and clear-sighted man who deserves to be gratefully + remembered by both races; for he was a good friend both to the French + Canadians before the Quebec Act and to the United Empire Loyalists just + before their great migration, when he was Carleton's secretary at New + York. In 1769 the official correspondence entered the 'secret and + confidential' stage with a dispatch from the home government to Carleton + suggesting a House of Representatives to which, practically speaking, the + towns would send Protestant members and the country districts Roman + Catholics. + </p> + <p> + In 1770 Carleton sailed for England. He carried a good deal of hard-won + experience with him, both on this point and on many others. He went home + with a strong opinion not only against an assembly but against any + immediate attempts at Anglicization in any form. The royal instructions + that had accompanied his commission as 'Captain-General and + Governor-in-chief' in 1768 contained directions for establishing the + Church of England with a view to converting the whole population to its + tenets later on. But no steps had been taken, and, needless to say, the + French Canadians remained as Roman Catholic as ever. + </p> + <p> + An increasingly important question, soon to overshadow all others, was + defence. In April 1768 Carleton had proposed the restoration of the + seigneurial militia system. 'All the Lands here are held of His Majesty's + Castle of St Lewis [the governor's official residence in Quebec]. The Oath + which the Vassals [seigneurs] take is very Solemn and Binding. They are + obliged to appear in Arms for the King's defence, in case his Province is + attacked.' Carleton pointed out that a hundred men of the Canadian + seigneurial families were being kept on full pay in France, ready to + return and raise the Canadians at the first opportunity. 'On the other + hand, there are only about seventy of these officers in Canada who have + been in the French service. Not one of them has been given a commission in + the King's [George's] Service, nor is there One who, from any motive + whatever, is induced to support His Government.' The few French Canadians + raised for Pontiac's war had of course been properly paid during the + continuance of their active service. But they had been disbanded like mere + militia afterwards, without either gratuities or half-pay for the + officers. This naturally made the class from which officers were drawn + think that no career was open to them under the Union Jack and turned + their thoughts towards France, where their fellows were enjoying full pay + without a break. + </p> + <p> + What made this the more serious was the weakness of the regular garrisons, + all of which, put together, numbered only 1,627 men. Carleton calculated + that about five hundred of 'the King's Old Subjects' were capable of + bearing arms; though most of them were better at talking than fighting. He + had nothing but contempt for 'the flimsy wall round Montreal,' and relied + little more on the very defective works at Quebec. Thus with all his + wonderful equanimity, 'grave Carleton' left Canada with no light heart + when he took six months' leave of absence in 1770; and he would have been + more anxious still if he could have foreseen that his absence was to be + prolonged to no less than four years. + </p> + <p> + He had, however, two great satisfactions. He was represented at Quebec by + a most steadfast lieutenant, the quiet, alert, discreet, and determined + Cramahe; and he was leaving Canada after having given proof of a + disinterestedness which was worthy of the elder Pitt himself. When Pitt + became Paymaster-General of England he at once declined to use the two + chief perquisites of his office, the interest on the government balance + and the half per cent commission on foreign subsidies, though both were + regarded as a kind of indirect salary. When Carleton became governor of + Canada he at once issued a proclamation abolishing all the fees and + perquisites attached to his position and explained his action to the home + authorities in the following words: 'There is a certain appearance of + dirt, a sort of meanness, in exacting fees on every occasion. I think it + necessary for the King's service that his representative should be thought + unsullied.' Murray, who had accepted the fees, at first took umbrage. But + Carleton soon put matters straight with him. The fact was that fees, and + even certain perquisites, were no dishonour to receive, as they nearly + always formed a recognized part, and often the whole, of a perfectly legal + salary. But fees and perquisites could be abused; and they did lead to + misunderstandings, even when they were not abused; while fixed salaries + were free from both objections. So Carleton, surrounded by shamelessly + rapacious magistrates and the whole vile camp-following gang, as well as + by French Canadians who had suffered from the robberies of Bigot and his + like, decided to sacrifice everything but his indispensable fixed salary + in order that even the most malicious critics could not bring any + accusation, however false, against the man who represented Britain and her + king. + </p> + <p> + An interesting personal interlude, which was not without considerable + effect on Canadian history, took place in the middle of Carleton's four + years' stay in England. He was forty-eight and still a bachelor. Tradition + whispers that these long years of single life were the result of a + disappointing love affair with Jane Carleton, a pretty cousin, when both + he and she were young. However that may be, he now proposed to Lady Anne + Howard, whose father, the Earl of Effingham, was one of his greatest + friends. But he was doomed to a second, though doubtless very minor, + disappointment. Lady Anne, who probably looked on 'grave Carleton' as a + sort of amiable, middle-aged uncle, had fallen in love with his nephew, + whom she presently married, and with whom she afterwards went out to + Canada, where her husband served under the rejected uncle himself. What + added spice to this peculiar situation was the fact that Carleton actually + married the younger sister of the too-youthful Lady Anne. When Lady Anne + rejoined her sister and their bosom friend, Miss Seymour, after the + disconcerting interview with Carleton, she explained her tears by saying + they were due to her having been 'obliged to refuse the best man on + earth.' 'The more fool you!' answered the younger sister, Lady Maria, then + just eighteen, 'I only wish he had given me the chance!' There, for the + time, the matter ended. Carleton went back to his official duties in + furtherance of the Quebec Act. His nephew and the elder sister made mutual + love. Lady Maria held her tongue. But Miss Seymour had not forgotten; and + one day she mustered up courage to tell Carleton the story of 'the more + fool you!' This decided him to act at once. He proposed; was accepted; and + lived happily married for the rest of his long life. Lady Maria was small, + fair-haired, and blue-eyed, which heightened her girlish appearance when, + like Madame de Champlain, she came out to Canada with a husband more than + old enough to be her father. But she had been brought up at Versailles. + She knew all the aristocratic graces of the old regime. And her slight, + upright figure—erect as any soldier's to her dying day—almost + matched her husband's stalwart form in dignity of carriage. + </p> + <p> + The Quebec Act of 1774—the Magna Charta of the French-Canadian race—finally + passed the House of Lords on the 18th of June. The general idea of the Act + was to reverse the unsuccessful policy of ultimate assimilation with the + other American colonies by making Canada a distinctly French-Canadian + province. The Maritime Provinces, with a population of some thirty + thousand, were to be as English as they chose. But a greatly enlarged + Quebec, with a population of ninety thousand, and stretching far into the + unsettled West, was to remain equally French-Canadian; though the rights + of what it was then thought would be a perpetual English-speaking minority + were to be safeguarded in every reasonable way. The whole country between + the American colonies and the domains of the Hudson's Bay Company was + included in this new Quebec, which comprised the southern half of what is + now the Newfoundland Labrador, practically the whole of the modern + provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and all the western lands between the + Ohio and the Great Lakes as far as the Mississippi, that is, the modern + American states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. + </p> + <p> + The Act gave Canada the English criminal code. It recognized most of the + French civil law, including the seigneurial tenure of land. Roman + Catholics were given 'the free Exercise' of their religion, 'subject to + the King's Supremacy' as defined 'by an Act made in the First Year of + Queen Elizabeth,' which Act, with a magnificently prophetic outlook on the + future British Empire, was to apply to 'all the Dominions and Countries + which then did, or thereafter should, belong to the Imperial Crown.' The + Roman Catholic clergy were authorized to collect 'their accustomed Dues + and Rights' from members of their own communion. The new oath of + allegiance to the Crown was silent about differences of religion, so that + Roman Catholics might take it without question. The clergy and seigneurs + were thus restored to an acknowledged leadership in church and state. + Those who wanted a parliament were distinctly told that 'It is at present + inexpedient to call an Assembly,' and that a Council of from seventeen to + twenty-three members, all appointed by the Crown, would attend to local + government and have power to levy taxes for roads and public buildings + only. Lands held 'in free and common socage' were to be dealt with by the + laws of England, as was all property which could be freely willed away. A + possible establishment of the Church of England was provided for but never + put in operation. + </p> + <p> + In some ways the Act did, in other ways it did not, fulfil the objects of + its framers. It was undoubtedly a generous concession to the leading + French Canadians. It did help to keep Canada both British and Canadian. + And it did open the way for what ought to have been a crushing attack on + the American revolutionary forces. But it was not, and neither it nor any + other Act could possibly have been, at that late hour, completely + successful. It conciliated the seigneurs and the parochial clergy. But it + did not, and it could not, also conciliate the lesser townsfolk and the + habitants. For the last fourteen years the habitants had been gradually + drifting away from their former habits of obedience and former obligations + towards their leaders in church and state. The leaders had lost their old + followers. The followers had found no new leaders of their own. + </p> + <p> + Naturally enough, there was great satisfaction among the seigneurs and the + clergy, with a general feeling among government supporters, both in + England and Canada, that the best solution of a very refractory problem + had been found at last. On the other hand, the Opposition in England, + nearly every one in the American colonies, and the great majority of + English-speaking people in Newfoundland, the Maritime Provinces, and + Canada itself were dead against the Act; while the habitants, resenting + the privileges already reaffirmed in favour of the seigneurs and clergy, + and suspicious of further changes in the same unwelcome direction, were + neutral at the best and hostile at the worst. + </p> + <p> + The American colonists would have been angered in any case. But when they + saw Canada proper made as unlike a 'fourteenth colony' as could be, and + when they also saw the gates of the coveted western lands closed against + them by the same detested Act—the last of the 'five intolerable + acts' to which they most objected—their fury knew no bounds. They + cursed the king, the pope, and the French Canadians with as much violence + as any temporal or spiritual rulers had ever cursed heretics and rebels. + The 'infamous and tyrannical ministry' in England was accused of + 'contemptible subservience' to the 'bloodthirsty, idolatrous, and + hypocritical creed' of the French Canadians. To think that people whose + religion had spread 'murder, persecution, and revolt throughout the world' + were to be entrenched along the St Lawrence was bad enough. But to see + Crown protection given to the Indian lands which the Americans considered + their own western 'birthright' was infinitely worse. Was the king of + England to steal the valley of the Mississippi in the same way as the king + of France? + </p> + <p> + It is easy to be wise after the event and hard to follow any counsel of + perfection. But it must always be a subject of keen, if unavailing, regret + that the French Canadians were not guaranteed their own way of life, + within the limits of the modern province of Quebec, immediately after the + capitulation of Montreal in 1760. They would then have entered the British + Empire, as a whole people, on terms which they must all have understood to + be exceedingly generous from any conquering power, and which they would + have soon found out to be far better than anything they had experienced + under the government of France. In return for such unexampled generosity + they might have become convinced defenders of the only flag in the world + under which they could possibly live as French Canadians. Their relations + to each other, to the rest of a changing Canada, and to the Empire would + have followed the natural course of political evolution, with the burning + questions of language, laws, and religion safely removed from general + controversy in after years. The rights of the English-speaking minority + could, of course, have been still better safeguarded under this system + than under the distracting series of half-measures which took its place. + There should have been no question of a parliament in the immediate + future. Then, with the peopling of Ontario by the United Empire Loyalists + and the growth of the Maritime Provinces on the other side, Quebec could + have entered Carleton's proposed Confederation in the nineties to her own + and every one else's best advantage. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, the delay of fourteen years after the Capitulation of + 1760 and the unwarrantable extension of the provincial boundaries were + cardinal errors of the most disastrous kind. The delay, filled with a + futile attempt at mistaken Americanization, bred doubts and dissensions + not only between the two races but between the different kinds of French + Canadians. When the hour of trial came disintegration had already gone too + far. The mistake about the boundaries was equally bad. The western wilds + ought to have been administered by a lieutenant-governor under the + supervision of a governor-general. Even leasing them for a short term of + years to the Hudson's Bay Company would have been better than annexing + them to a preposterous province of Quebec. The American colonists would + have doubtless objected to either alternative. But both could have been + defended on sound principles of administration; while the sudden invasion + of a new and inflated Quebec into the colonial hinterlands was little less + than a declaration of war. The whole problem bristled with enormous + difficulties, and the circumstances under which it had to be faced made an + ideal solution impossible. But an earlier Quebec Act, without its + outrageous boundary clause, would have been well worth the risk of + passing; for the delay led many French Canadians to suppose, however + falsely, that the Empire's need might always be their opportunity; and + this idea, however repugnant to their best minds and better feelings, has + persisted among their extreme particularists until the present day. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV — INVASION + </h2> + <h3> + 1775 + </h3> + <p> + Carleton's first eight years as governor of Canada were almost entirely + occupied with civil administration. The next four were equally occupied + with war; so much so, indeed, that the Quebec Act could not be put in + force on the 1st of May 1775, as provided for in the Act itself, but only + bit by bit much later on. There was one short session of the new + Legislative Council, which opened on the 17th of August. But all men's + minds were even then turned towards the Montreal frontier, whence the + American invasion threatened to overspread the whole country and make this + opening session the last that might ever be held. Most of the members were + soon called away from the council-chamber to the field. No further session + could be held either that year or the next; and Carleton was obliged to + nominate the judges himself. The fifteen years of peace were over, and + Canada had once more become an object of contention between two fiercely + hostile forces. + </p> + <p> + The War of the American Revolution was a long and exceedingly complicated + struggle; and its many varied fortunes naturally had a profound effect on + those of Canada. But Canada was directly engaged in no more than the first + three campaigns, when the Americans invaded her in 1775 and '76, and when + the British used her as the base from which to invade the new American + Republic in 1777. These first three campaigns formed a purely civil war + within the British Empire. On each side stood three parties. Opponents + were ranged against each other in the mother country, in the Thirteen + Colonies, and in Canada. In the mother country the king and his party + government were ranged against the Opposition and all who held radical or + revolutionary views. Here the strife was merely political. But in the + Thirteen Colonies the forces of the Crown were ranged against the forces + of the new Continental Congress. The small minority of colonists who were + afterwards known as the United Empire Loyalists sided with the Crown. A + majority sided with the Congress. The rest kept as selfishly neutral as + they could. Among the English-speaking civilians in Canada, many of whom + were now of a much better class than the original camp-followers, the + active loyalists comprised only the smaller half. The larger half sided + with the Americans, as was only natural, seeing that most of them were + immigrants from the Thirteen Colonies. But by no means all these + sympathizers were ready for a fight. Among the French Canadians the + loyalists included very few besides the seigneurs, the clergy, and a + handful of educated people in Montreal, Three Rivers, and Quebec. The mass + of the habitants were more or less neutral. But many of them were + anti-British at first, while most of them were anti-American afterwards. + </p> + <p> + Events moved quickly in 1775. On the 19th of April the 'shot heard round + the world' was fired at Lexington in Massachusetts. On the 1st of May, the + day appointed for the inauguration of the Quebec Act, the statue of the + king in Montreal was grossly defaced and hung with a cross, a necklace of + potatoes, and a placard bearing the inscription, Here's the Canadian Pope + and English Fool—Voila le Pape du Canada et le sot Anglais. Large + rewards were offered for the detection of the culprits; but without avail. + Excitement ran high and many an argument ended with a bloody nose. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile three Americans were plotting an attack along the old line of + Lake Champlain. Two of them were outlaws from the colony of New York, + which was then disputing with the neighbouring colony of New Hampshire the + possession of the lawless region in which all three had taken refuge and + which afterwards became Vermont. Ethan Allen, the gigantic leader of the + wild Green Mountain Boys, had a price on his head. Seth Warner, his + assistant, was an outlaw of a somewhat humbler kind. Benedict Arnold, the + third invader, came from Connecticut. He was a horse-dealer carrying on + business with Quebec and Montreal as well as the West Indies. He was just + thirty-four; an excellent rider, a dead shot, a very fair sailor, and + captain of a crack militia company. Immediately after the affair at + Lexington he had turned out his company, reinforced by undergraduates from + Yale, had seized the New Haven powder magazine and marched over to + Cambridge, where the Massachusetts Committeemen took such a fancy to him + that they made him a colonel on the spot, with full authority to raise men + for an immediate attack on Ticonderoga. The opportunity seemed too good to + be lost; though the Continental Congress was not then in favour of + attacking Canada, as its members hoped to see the Canadians throw off the + yoke of empire on their own account. The British posts on Lake Champlain + were absurdly undermanned. Ticonderoga contained two hundred cannon, but + only forty men, none of whom expected an attack. Crown Point had only a + sergeant and a dozen men to watch its hundred and thirteen pieces. Fort + George, at the head of Lake George, was no better off; and nothing more + had been done to man the fortifications at St Johns on the Richelieu, + where there was an excellent sloop as well as many cannon in charge of the + usual sergeant's guard. This want of preparation was no fault of + Carleton's. He had frequently reported home on the need of more men. Now + he had less than a thousand regulars to defend the whole country: and not + another man was to arrive till the spring of next year. When Gage was hard + pressed for reinforcements at Boston in the autumn of 1774 Carleton had + immediately sent him two excellent battalions that could ill be spared + from Canada. But when Carleton himself made a similar request, in the + autumn of 1775, Admiral Graves, to his lasting dishonour, refused to sail + up to Quebec so late as October. + </p> + <p> + The first moves of the three Americans smacked strongly of a well-staged + extravaganza in which the smart Yankees never failed to score off the + dunderheaded British. The Green Mountain Boys assembled on the east side + of the lake. Spies walked in and out of Ticonderoga, exactly opposite, and + reported to Ethan Allen that the commandant and his whole garrison of + forty unsuspecting men would make an easy prey. Allen then sent eighty men + down to Skenesborough (now Whitehall) at the southern end of the lake, to + take the tiny post there and bring back boats for the crossing on the 10th + of May. Then Arnold turned up with his colonel's commission, but without + the four hundred men it authorized him to raise. Allen, however, had made + himself a colonel too, with Warner as his second-in-command. So there were + no less than three colonels for two hundred and thirty men. Arnold claimed + the command by virtue of his Massachusetts commission. But the Green + Mountain Boys declared they would follow no colonels but their own; and so + Arnold, after being threatened with arrest, was appointed something like + chief of the staff, on the understanding that he would make himself + generally useful with the boats. This appointment was made at dawn on the + 10th of May, just as the first eighty men were advancing to the attack + after crossing over under cover of night. The British sentry's musket + missed fire; whereupon he and the guard were rushed, while the rest of the + garrison were surprised in their beds. Ethan Allen, who knew the fort + thoroughly, hammered on the commandant's door and summoned him to + surrender 'In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress!' + The astonished commandant, seeing that resistance was impossible, put on + his dressing-gown and paraded his disarmed garrison as prisoners of war. + Seth Warner presently arrived with the rest of Allen's men and soon became + the hero of Crown Point, which he took with the whole of its thirteen men + and a hundred and thirteen cannon. Then Arnold had his own turn, in + command of an expedition against the sergeant's guard, cannon, stores, + fort, and sloop at St Johns on the Richelieu, all of which he captured in + the same absurdly simple way. When he came sailing back the three + victorious commanders paraded all their men and fired off many straggling + fusillades of joy. In the meantime the Continental Congress at + Philadelphia, with a delightful touch of unconscious humour, was gravely + debating the following resolution, which was passed on the 1st of June: + That no Expedition or Incursion ought to be undertaken or made, by any + Colony or body of Colonists, against or into Canada. + </p> + <p> + The same Congress, however, found reasons enough for changing its mind + before the month of May was out. The British forces in Canada had already + begun to move towards the threatened frontier. They had occupied and + strengthened St Johns. And the Americans were beginning to fear lest the + command of Lake Champlain might again fall into British hands. On the 27th + of May the Congress closed the phase of individual raids and inaugurated + the phase of regular invasion by commissioning General Schuyler to 'pursue + any measures in Canada that may have a tendency to promote the peace and + security of these Colonies.' Philip Schuyler was a distinguished member of + the family whose head had formulated the 'Glorious Enterprize' of + conquering New France in 1689. [Footnote: See, in this Series, The + Fighting Governor.] So it was quite in line with the family tradition for + him to be under orders to 'take possession of St Johns, Montreal, and any + other parts of the country,' provided always, adds the cautious Congress, + that 'General Schuyler finds it practicable, and that it will not be + disagreeable to the Canadians.' + </p> + <p> + A few days later Arnold was trying to get a colonelcy from the Convention + of New York, whose members just then happened to be thinking of giving + commissions to his rivals, the leaders of the Green Mountain Boys, while, + to make the complication quite complete, these Boys themselves had every + intention of electing officers on their own account. In the meantime + Connecticut, determined not to be forestalled by either friend or foe, + ordered a thousand men to Ticonderoga and commissioned a general called + Wooster to command them. Thus early were sown the seeds of those + dissensions between Congress troops and Colony troops which nearly drove + Washington mad. + </p> + <p> + Schuyler reached Ticonderoga in mid-July and assumed his position as + Congressional commander-in-chief. Unfortunately for the good of the + service he had only a few hundred men with him; so Wooster, who had a + thousand, thought himself the bigger general of the two. The Connecticut + men followed Wooster's lead by jeering at Schuyler's men from New York; + while the Vermonters added to the confusion by electing Seth Warner + instead of Ethan Allen. In mid-August a second Congressional general + arrived, making three generals and half a dozen colonels for less than + fifteen hundred troops. This third general was Richard Montgomery, an + ardent rebel of thirty-eight, who had been a captain in the British Army. + He had sold his commission, bought an estate on the Hudson, and married a + daughter of the Livingstons. The Livingstons headed the Anglo-American + revolutionists in the colony of New York as the Schuylers headed the + Knickerbocker Dutch. One of them was very active on the rebel side in + Montreal and was soon to take the field at the head of the American + 'patriots' in Canada. Montgomery was brother to the Captain Montgomery of + the 43rd who was the only British officer to disgrace himself during + Wolfe's Quebec campaign, which he did by murdering his French-Canadian + prisoners at Chateau Richer because they had fought disguised as Indians. + [Footnote: See The Passing of New France, p. 118.] Richard Montgomery was + a much better man than his savage brother; though, as the sequel proves, + he was by no means the perfect hero his American admirers would have the + world believe. His great value at Ticonderoga was his professional + knowledge and his ardour in the cause he had espoused. His presence + 'changed the spirit of the camp.' It sadly needed change. 'Such a set of + pusillanimous wretches never were collected' is his own description in a + despairing letter to his wife. The 'army,' in fact, was all parts and no + whole, and all the parts were mere untrained militia. Moreover, the spirit + of the 'town meeting' ruled the camp. Even a battery could not be moved + without consulting a council of war. Schuyler, though far more phlegmatic + than Montgomery, agreed with him heartily about this and many other + exasperating points. 'If Job had been a general in my situation, his + memory had not been so famous for patience.' + </p> + <p> + Worn out by his worries, Schuyler fell ill and was sent to command the + base at Albany. Montgomery then succeeded to the command of the force + destined for the front. The plan of invasion approved by Washington was, + first, to sweep the line of the Richelieu by taking St Johns and Chambly, + then to take Montreal, next to secure the line of the St Lawrence, and + finally to besiege Quebec. Montgomery's forces were to carry out all the + preliminary parts alone. But Arnold was to join him at Quebec after + advancing across country from the Kennebec to the Chaudiere with a flying + column of Virginians and New Englanders. + </p> + <p> + Carleton opened the melancholy little session of the new Legislative + Council at Quebec on the very day Montgomery arrived at Ticonderoga—the + 17th of August. When he closed it, to take up the defence of Canada, the + prospect was already black enough, though it grew blacker still as time + went on. Immediately on hearing the news of Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and + St Johns at the end of May he had sent every available man from Quebec to + Montreal, whence Colonel Templer had already sent off a hundred and forty + men to St Johns, while calling for volunteers to follow. The seigneurial + class came forward at once. But all attempts to turn out the militia en + masse proved utterly futile. Fourteen years of kindly British rule had + loosened the old French bonds of government and the habitants were no + longer united as part of one people with the seigneurs and the clergy. The + rebels had been busy spreading insidious perversions of the belated Quebec + Act, poisoning the minds of the habitants against the British government, + and filling their imaginations with all sorts of terrifying doubts. The + habitants were ignorant, credulous, and suspicious to the last degree. The + most absurd stories obtained ready credence and ran like wildfire through + the province. Seven thousand Russians were said to be coming up the St + Lawrence—whether as friends or foes mattered nothing compared with + the awful fact that they were all outlandish bogeys. Carleton was said to + have a plan for burning alive every habitant he could lay his hands on. + Montgomery's thousand were said to be five thousand, with many more to + follow. And later on, when Arnold's men came up the Kennebec, it was + satisfactorily explained to most of the habitants that it was no good + resisting dead-shot riflemen who were bullet-proof themselves. Carleton + issued proclamations. The seigneurs waved their swords. The clergy + thundered from their pulpits. But all in vain. Two months after the + American exploits on Lake Champlain Carleton gave a guinea to the sentry + mounted in his honour by the local militia colonel, M. de Tonnancour, + because this man was the first genuine habitant he had yet seen armed in + the whole district of Three Rivers. What must Carleton have felt when the + home government authorized him to raise six thousand of His Majesty's + loyal French-Canadian subjects for immediate service and informed him that + the arms and equipment for the first three thousand were already on the + way to Canada! Seven years earlier it might still have been possible to + raise French-Canadian counterparts of those Highland regiments which Wolfe + had recommended and Pitt had so cordially approved. Carleton himself had + recommended this excellent scheme at the proper time. But, though the home + government even then agreed with him, they thought such a measure would + raise more parliamentary and public clamour than they could safely face. + The chance once lost was lost for ever. + </p> + <p> + Carleton had done what he could to keep the enemy at arm's length from + Montreal by putting every available man into Chambly and St Johns. He knew + nothing of Arnold's force till it actually reached Quebec in November. + Quebec was thought secure for the time being, and so was left with a + handful of men under Cramahe. Montreal had a few regulars and a hundred + 'Royal Emigrants,' mostly old Highlanders who had settled along the New + York frontier after the Conquest. For the rest, it had many American and a + few British sympathizers ready to fly at each others' throats and a good + many neutrals ready to curry favour with the winners. Sorel was a mere + post without any effective garrison. Chambly was held by only eighty men + under Major Stopford. But its strong stone fort was well armed and quite + proof against anything except siege artillery; while its little garrison + consisted of good regulars who were well provisioned for a siege. The mass + of Carleton's little force was at St Johns under Major Preston, who had + 500 men of the 7th and 26th (Royal Fusiliers and Cameronians), 80 gunners, + and 120 volunteers, mostly French-Canadian gentlemen. Preston was an + excellent officer, and his seven hundred men were able to give a very good + account of themselves as soldiers. But the fort was not nearly so strong + as the one at Chambly; it had no natural advantages of position; and it + was short of both stores and provisions. + </p> + <p> + The three successive steps for Montgomery to take were St Johns, Chambly, + and Montreal. But the natural order of events was completely upset by that + headstrong Yankee, Ethan Allen, who would have his private war at + Montreal, and by that contemptible British officer, Major Stopford, who + would not defend Chambly. Montgomery laid siege to St Johns on the 18th of + September, but made no substantial progress for more than a month. He + probably had no use for Allen at anything like a regular siege. So Allen + and a Major Brown went on to 'preach politicks' and concert a rising with + men like Livingston and Walker. Livingston, as we have seen already, + belonged to a leading New York family which was very active in the rebel + cause; and Livingston, Walker, Allen, and Brown would have made a + dangerous anti-British combination if they could only have worked + together. But they could not. Livingston hurried off to join Montgomery + with four hundred 'patriots' who served their cause fairly well till the + invasion was over. Walker had no military qualities whatever. So Allen and + Brown were left to their own disunited devices. Montreal seemed an easy + prey. It had plenty of rebel sympathizers. Nearly all the surrounding + habitants were either neutrals or inclined to side with the Americans, + though not as fighting men. Carleton's order to bring in all the ladders, + so as to prevent an escalade of the walls, had met with general opposition + and evasion. Nothing seemed wanting but a good working plan. + </p> + <p> + Brown, or possibly Allen himself, then hit upon the idea of treating + Montreal very much as Allen had treated Ticonderoga. In any case Allen + jumped at it. He jumped so far, indeed, that he forestalled Brown, who + failed to appear at the critical moment. Thus, on the 24th of September, + Allen found himself alone at Long Point with a hundred and twenty men in + face of three times as many under the redoubtable Major Carden, a skilled + veteran who had won Wolfe's admiration years before. Carden's force + included thirty regulars, two hundred and forty militiamen, and some + Indians, probably not over a hundred strong. The militia were mostly of + the seigneurial class with a following of habitants and townsmen of both + French and British blood. Carden broke Allen's flanks rounded up his + centre, and won the little action easily, though at the expense of his own + most useful life. Allen was very indignant at being handcuffed and marched + off like a common prisoner after having made himself a colonel twice over. + But Carleton had no respect for self-commissioned officers and had no + soldiers to spare for guarding dangerous rebels. So he shipped Allen off + to England, where that eccentric warrior was confined in Pendennis Castle + near Falmouth in Cornwall. + </p> + <p> + This affair, small as it was, revived British hopes in Montreal and + induced a few more militiamen and Indians to come forward. But within a + month more was lost at Chambly than had been gained at Montreal. On the + 18th of October a small American detachment attacked Chambly with two + little field-guns and induced it to surrender on the 20th. If ever an + officer deserved to be shot it was Major Stopford, who tamely surrendered + his well-armed and well-provided fort to an insignificant force, after a + flimsy resistance of only thirty-six hours, without even taking the + trouble to throw his stores into the river that flowed beside his strong + stone walls. The news of this disgraceful surrender, diligently spread by + rebel sympathizers, frightened the Indians away from St Johns, thus + depriving Major Preston, the commandant, of his best couriers at the very + worst time. But the evil did not stop there; for nearly all the few + French-Canadian militiamen whom the more distant seigneurs had been able + to get under arms deserted en masse, with many threats against any one who + should try to turn them out again. + </p> + <p> + Chambly is only a short day's march from Montreal to the west and St Johns + to the south; so its capture meant that St Johns was entirely cut off from + the Richelieu to the north and dangerously exposed to being cut off from + Montreal as well. Its ample stores and munitions of war were a priceless + boon to Montgomery, who now redoubled his efforts to take St Johns. But + Preston held out bravely for the remainder of the month, while Carleton + did his best to help him. A fortnight earlier Carleton had arrested that + firebrand, Walker, who had previously refused to leave the country, though + Carleton had given him the chance of doing so. Mrs Walker, as much a rebel + as her husband, interviewed Carleton and noted in her diary that he 'said + many severe Things in very soft & Polite Termes.' Carleton was firm. + Walker's actions, words, and correspondence all proved him a dangerous + rebel whom no governor could possibly leave at large without breaking his + oath of office. Walker, who had himself caused so many outrageous arrests, + now not only resisted the legal arrest of his own person, but fired on the + little party of soldiers who had been sent to bring him into Montreal. The + soldiers then began to burn him out; whereupon he carried his wife to a + window from which the soldiers rescued her. He then surrendered and was + brought into Montreal, where the sight of him as a prisoner made a + considerable impression on the waverers. + </p> + <p> + A few hundred neighbouring militiamen were scraped together. Every one of + the handful of regulars who could be spared was turned out. And Carleton + set off to the relief of St Johns. But Seth Warner's Green Mountain Boys, + reinforced by many more sharpshooters, prevented Carleton from landing at + Longueuil, opposite Montreal. The remaining Indians began to slink away. + The French-Canadian militiamen deserted fast—'thirty or forty of a + night.' There were not two hundred regulars available for a march across + country. And on the 30th Carleton was forced to give up in despair. Within + the week St Johns surrendered with 688 men, who were taken south as + prisoners of war. Preston had been completely cut off and threatened with + starvation as well. So when he destroyed everything likely to be needed by + the enemy he had done all that could be expected of a brave and capable + commander. + </p> + <p> + It was the 3rd of November when St Johns surrendered. Ten days later + Montgomery occupied Montreal and Arnold landed at Wolfe's Cove just above + Quebec. The race for the possession of Quebec had been a very close one. + The race for the capture of Carleton was to be closer still. And on the + fate of either depended the immediate, and perhaps the ultimate, fate of + Canada. + </p> + <p> + The race for Quebec had been none the less desperate because the British + had not known of the danger from the south till after Arnold had suddenly + emerged from the wilds of Maine and was well on his way to the mouth of + the Chaudiere, which falls into the St Lawrence seven miles above the + city. Arnold's subsequent change of sides earned him the execration of the + Americans. But there can be no doubt whatever that if he had got through + in time to capture Quebec he would have become a national hero of the + United States. He had the advantage of leading picked men; though nearly + three hundred faint-hearts did turn back half-way. But, even with picked + men, his feat was one of surpassing excellence. His force went in eleven + hundred strong. It came out, reduced by desertion as well as by almost + incredible hardships, with barely seven hundred. It began its toilsome + ascent of the Kennebec towards the end of September, carrying six weeks' + supplies in the bad, hastily built boats or on the men's backs. Daniel + Morgan and his Virginian riflemen led the way. Aaron Burr was present as a + young volunteer. The portages were many and trying. The settlements were + few at first and then wanting altogether. Early in October the drenched + portagers were already sleeping in their frozen clothes. The boats began + to break up. Quantities of provisions were lost. Soon there was scarcely + anything left but flour and salt pork. It took nearly a fortnight to get + past the Great Carrying Place, in sight of Mount Bigelow. Rock, bog, and + freezing slime told on the men, some of whom began to fall sick. Then came + the chain of ponds leading into Dead River. Then the last climb up to the + height-of-land beyond which lay the headwaters of the Chaudiere, which + takes its rise in Lake Megantic. + </p> + <p> + There were sixty miles to go beyond the lake, and a badly broken sixty + miles they were, before the first settlement of French Canadians could be + reached. There was no trail. Provisions were almost at an end. Sickness + increased. The sick began to die. 'And what was it all for? A chance to + get killed! The end of the march was Quebec —impregnable!' On the + 24th of October Arnold, with fifteen other men, began 'a race against + time, a race against starvation' by pushing on ahead in a desperate effort + to find food. Within a week he had reached the first settlement, after + losing three of his five boats with everything in them. Three days later, + and not one day too soon, the French Canadians met his seven hundred + famishing men with a drove of cattle and plenty of provisions. The rest of + the way was toilsome enough. But it seemed easy by comparison. The + habitants were friendly, but very shy about enlisting, in spite of + Washington's invitation to 'range yourselves under the standard of general + liberty.' The Indians were more responsive, and nearly fifty joined on + their own terms. By the 8th of November Arnold was marching down the south + shore of the St Lawrence, from the Chaudiere to Point Levis, in full view + of Quebec. He had just received a dispatch ten days old from Montgomery by + which he learned that St Johns was expected to fall immediately and that + Schuyler was no longer with the army at the front. But he could not tell + when the junction of forces would be made; and he saw at once that Quebec + was on the alert because every boat had been either destroyed or taken + over to the other side. + </p> + <p> + The spring and summer had been anxious times enough in Quebec. But the + autumn was a great deal worse. Bad news kept coming down from Montreal. + The disaffected got more and more restless and began 'to act as though no + opposition might be shown the rebel forces.' And in October it did seem as + if nothing could be done to stop the invaders. There were only a few + hundred militiamen that could be depended on. The regulars, under Colonel + Maclean, had gone up to help Carleton on the Montreal frontier. The + fortifications were in no state to stand a siege. But Cramahe was full of + steadfast energy. He had mustered the French-Canadian militia on September + 11, the very day Arnold was leaving Cambridge in Massachusetts for his + daring march against Quebec. These men had answered the call far better in + the city of Quebec than anywhere else. There was also a larger proportion + of English-speaking loyalists here than in Montreal. But no transports + brought troops up the St Lawrence from Boston or the mother country, and + no vessel brought Carleton down. The loyalists were, however, encouraged + by the presence of two small men-of-war, one of which, the Hunter, had + been the guide-ship for Wolfe's boat the night before the Battle of the + Plains. Some minor reinforcements also kept arriving: veterans from the + border settlements and a hundred and fifty men from Newfoundland. On the + 3rd of November, the day St Johns surrendered to Montgomery, an + intercepted dispatch had warned Cramahe of Arnold's approach and led him + to seize all the boats on the south shore opposite Quebec. This was by no + means his first precaution. He had sent some men forty miles up the + Chaudiere as soon as the news of the raids on Lake Champlain and St Johns + had arrived at the end of May. Thus, though neither of them had + anticipated such a bolt from the blue, both Carleton and Cramahe had taken + all the reasonable means within their most restricted power to provide + against unforeseen contingencies. + </p> + <p> + Arnold's chance of surprising Quebec had been lost ten days before he was + able to cross the St Lawrence; and when the habitants on the south shore + were helping his men to make scaling-ladders the British garrison on the + north had already become too strong for him. But he was indefatigable in + collecting boats and canoes at the mouth of the Chaudiere, and at other + points higher up than Cramahe's men had reached when on their mission of + destruction or removal, and he was as capable as ever when, on the + pitch-black night of the 13th, he led his little flotilla through the gap + between the two British men-of-war, the Hunter and the Lizard. The next + day he marched across the Plains of Abraham and saluted Quebec with three + cheers. But meanwhile Colonel Maclean, who had set out to help Carleton at + Montreal and turned back on hearing the news of St Johns, had slipped into + Quebec on the 12th. So Arnold found himself with less than seven hundred + effectives against the eleven hundred British who were now behind the + walls. After vainly summoning the city to surrender he retired to + Pointe-aux-Trembles, more than twenty miles up the north shore of the St + Lawrence, there to await the arrival of the victorious Montgomery. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Montgomery was racing for Carleton and Carleton was racing for + Quebec. Montgomery's advance-guard had hurried on to Sorel, at the mouth + of the Richelieu, forty-five miles below Montreal, to mount guns that + would command the narrow channel through which the fugitive governor would + have to pass on his way to Quebec. They had ample time to set the trap; + for an incessant nor'-easter blew up the St Lawrence day after day and + held Carleton fast in Montreal, while, only a league away, Montgomery's + main body was preparing to cross over. Escape by land was impossible, as + the Americans held Berthier, on the north shore, and had won over the + habitants, all the way down from Montreal, on both sides of the river. At + last, on the afternoon of the 11th, the wind shifted. Immediately a single + cannon-shot was fired, a bugle sounded the fall in! and 'the whole + military establishment' of Montreal formed up in the barrack square—one + hundred and thirty officers and men, all told. Carleton, 'wrung to the + soul,' as one of his officers wrote home, came on parade 'firm, unshaken, + and serene.' The little column then marched down to the boats through + shuttered streets of timid neutrals and scowling rebels. The few loyalists + who came to say good-bye to Carleton at the wharf might well have thought + it was the last handshake they would ever get from a British + 'Captain-General and Governor-in-chief' as they saw him step aboard in the + dreary dusk of that November afternoon. And if he and they had known the + worst they might well have thought their fate was sealed; for neither of + them then knew that both sides of the St Lawrence were occupied in force + at two different places on the perilous way to Quebec. + </p> + <p> + The little flotilla of eleven vessels got safely down to within a few + miles of Sorel, when one grounded and delayed the rest till the wind + failed altogether at noon on the 12th. The next three days it blew + upstream without a break. No progress could be made as there was no room + to tack in the narrow passages opposite Sorel. On the third day an + American floating battery suddenly appeared, firing hard. Behind it came a + boat with a flag of truce and the following summons from Colonel Easton, + who commanded Montgomery's advance-guard at Sorel: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + SIR,—By this you will learn that General Montgomery + is in Possession of the Fortress Montreal. You are + very sensible that I am in Possession at this Place, + and that, from the strength of the United Colonies on + both sides your own situation is Rendered Very + disagreeable. I am therefore induced to make you the + following Proposal, viz.:—That if you will Resign + your Fleet to me Immediately, without destroying the + Effects on Board, You and Your men shall be used with + due civility, together with women & Children on Board. + To this I shall expect Your direct and Immediate + answer. Should you Neglect You will Cherefully take + the Consequences which will follow. +</pre> + <p> + Carleton was surprised: and well he might be. He had not supposed that + Montgomery's men were in any such commanding position. But, like Cramahe + at Quebec, he refused to answer; whereupon Easton's batteries opened both + from the south shore and from Isle St Ignace. Carleton's heaviest gun was + a 9-pounder; while Easton had four 12-pounders, one of them mounted on a + rowing battery that soon forced the British to retreat. The skipper of the + schooner containing the powder magazine wanted to surrender on the spot, + especially when he heard that the Americans were getting some hot shot + ready for him. But Carleton retreated upstream, twelve miles above Sorel, + to Lavaltrie, just above Berthier on the north shore, where, on attempting + to land, he was driven back by some Americans and habitants. Next morning, + the 16th, a fateful day for Canada, the same Major Brown who had failed + Ethan Allen at Montreal came up with a flag of truce to propose that + Carleton should send an officer to see for himself how well all chance of + escape had now been cut off. The offer was accepted; and Brown explained + the situation from the rebel point of view. 'This is my small battery; + and, even if you should chance to escape, I have a grand battery at the + mouth of the Sorel [Richelieu] which will infallibly sink all of your + vessels. Wait a little till you see the 32-pounders that are now within + half-a-mile.' There was a good deal of Yankee bluff in this warning, + especially as the 32-pounders could not be mounted in time. But the + British officer seemed perfectly satisfied that the way was completely + blocked; and so the Americans felt sure that Carleton would surrender the + following day. + </p> + <p> + Carleton, however, was not the man to give in till the very last; and one + desperate chance still remained. His flotilla was doomed. But he might + still get through alone without it. One of the French-Canadian skippers, + better known as 'Le Tourte' or 'Wild Pigeon' than by his own name of + Bouchette because of his wonderfully quick trips, was persuaded to make + the dash for freedom. So Carleton, having ordered Prescott, his + second-in-command, not to surrender the flotilla before the last possible + moment, arranged for his own escape in a whaleboat. It was with infinite + precaution that he made his preparations, as the enemy, though confident + of taking him, were still on the alert to prevent such a prize from + slipping through their fingers. He dressed like a habitant from head to + foot, putting on a tasselled bonnet rouge and an etoffe du pays (grey + homespun) suit of clothes, with a red sash and bottes sauvages like Indian + moccasins. Then the whaleboat was quietly brought alongside. The crew got + in and plied their muffled oars noiselessly down to the narrow passage + between Isle St Ignace and the Isle du Pas, where they shipped the oars + and leaned over the side to paddle past the nearest battery with the palms + of their hands. It was a moment of breathless excitement; for the hope of + Canada was in their keeping and no turning back was possible. But the + American sentries saw no furtive French Canadians gliding through that + dark November night and heard no suspicious noises above the regular + ripple of the eddying island current. One tense half-hour and all was + over, The oars were run out again; the men gave way with a will; and Three + Rivers was safely reached in the morning. + </p> + <p> + Here Carleton met Captain Napier, who took him aboard the armed ship Fell, + in which he continued his journey to Quebec. He was practically safe + aboard the Fell; for Arnold had neither an army strong enough to take + Quebec nor any craft big enough to fight a ship. But the flotilla above + Sorel was doomed. After throwing all its powder into the St Lawrence it + surrendered on the 19th, the very day Carleton reached Quebec. The + astonished Americans were furious when they found that Carleton had + slipped through their fingers after all. They got Prescott, whom they + hated; and they released Walker, whom Carleton was taking as a prisoner to + Quebec. But no friends and foes like Walker and Prescott could make up for + the loss of Carleton, who was the heart as well as the head of Canada at + bay. + </p> + <p> + The exultation of the British more than matched the disappointment of the + Americans. Thomas Ainslie, collector of customs and captain of militia at + Quebec, only expressed the feelings of all his fellow-loyalists when he + made the following entry in the extremely accurate diary he kept + throughout those troublous times: + </p> + <p> + 'On the 19th (a Happy Day for Quebec!), to the unspeakable joy of the + friends of the Government, and to the utter Dismay of the abettors of + Sedition and Rebellion, General Carleton arrived in the Fell, arm'd ship, + accompanied by an arm'd schooner. We saw our Salvation in his Presence.' + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V — BELEAGUERMENT + </h2> + <h3> + 1775-1776 + </h3> + <p> + When Carleton finally turned at bay within the walls of Quebec the British + flag waved over less than a single one out of the more than a million + square miles that had so recently been included within the boundaries of + Canada. The landward walls cut off the last half-mile of the tilted + promontory which rises three hundred feet above the St Lawrence but only + one hundred above the valley of the St Charles. This promontory is just a + thousand yards wide where the landward walls run across it, and not much + wider across the world-famous Heights and Plains of Abraham, which then + covered the first two miles beyond. The whole position makes one of + Nature's strongholds when the enemy can be kept at arm's length. But + Carleton had no men to spare for more than the actual walls and the narrow + little strip of the Lower Town between the base of the cliff and the St + Lawrence. So the enemy closed in along the Heights' and among the suburbs, + besides occupying any point of vantage they chose across the St Lawrence + or St Charles. + </p> + <p> + The walls were by no means fit to stand a siege, a fact which Carleton had + frequently reported. But, as the Americans had neither the men nor the + material for a regular siege, they were obliged to confine themselves to a + mere beleaguerment, with the chance of taking Quebec by assault. One of + Carleton's first acts was to proclaim that every able-bodied man refusing + to bear arms was to leave the town within four days. But, though this had + the desired effect of clearing out nearly all the dangerous rebels, the + Americans still believed they had enough sympathizers inside to turn the + scale of victory if they could only manage to take the Lower Town, with + all its commercial property and shipping, or gain a footing anywhere + within the walls. + </p> + <p> + There were five thousand souls left in Quebec, which was well provisioned + for the winter. The women, children, and men unfit to bear arms numbered + three thousand. The 'exempts' amounted to a hundred and eighty. As there + was a growing suspicion about many of these last, Carleton paraded them + for medical examination at the beginning of March, when, a good deal more + than half were found quite fit for duty. These men had been malingering + all winter in order to skulk out of danger; so he treated them with + extreme leniency in only putting them on duty as a 'company of Invalids.' + But the slur stuck fast. The only other exceptions to the general + efficiency were a very few instances of cowardice and many more of + slackness. The militia order-books have repeated entries about men who + turned up late for even important duties as well as about others whose + authorized substitutes were no better than themselves. But it should be + remembered that, as a whole, the garrison did exceedingly good service and + that all the malingerers and serious delinquents together did not amount + to more than a tenth of its total, which is a small proportion for such a + mixed body. + </p> + <p> + The effective strength at the beginning of the siege was eighteen hundred + of all ranks. Only one hundred of these belonged to the regular British + garrison in Canada—a few staff-officers, twenty-two men of the Royal + Artillery, and seventy men of the 7th Royal Fusiliers, a regiment which + was to be commanded in Quebec sixteen years later by Queen Victoria's + father, the Duke of Kent. The Fusiliers and two hundred and thirty 'Royal + Emigrants' were formed into a little battalion under Colonel Maclean, a + first-rate officer and Carleton's right-hand man in action. 'His Majesty's + Royal Highland Regiment of Emigrants,' which subsequently became the 84th + Foot, now known as the 2nd York and Lancaster, was hastily raised in 1775 + from the Highland veterans who had settled in the American colonies after + the Peace of 1763. Maclean's two hundred and thirty were the first men he + could get together in time to reach Quebec. The only other professional + fighters were four hundred blue-jackets and thirty-five marines of H.M.SS. + Lizard and Hunter, who were formed into a naval battalion under their own + officers, Captains Hamilton and McKenzie, Hamilton being made a + lieutenant-colonel and McKenzie a major while doing duty ashore. Fifty + masters and mates of trading vessels were enrolled in the same battalion. + The whole of the shipping was laid up for the winter in the Cul de Sac, + which alone made the Lower Town a prize worth taking. The 'British + Militia' mustered three hundred and thirty, the 'Canadian Militia' five + hundred and forty-three. These two corps included practically all the + official and business classes in Quebec and formed nearly half the total + combatants. Some of them took no pay and were not bound to service beyond + the neighbourhood of Quebec, thus being very much like the Home Guards + raised all over Canada and the rest of the Empire during the Great World + War of 1914. All the militia wore dark green coats with buff waistcoats + and breeches. The total of eighteen hundred was completed by a hundred and + twenty 'artificers,' that is, men who would now belong to the Engineers, + Ordnance, and Army Service Corps. As the composition of this garrison has + been so often misrepresented, it may be as well to state distinctly that + the past or present regulars of all kinds, soldiers and sailors together, + numbered eight hundred and the militia and other non-regulars a thousand. + The French Canadians, very few of whom were or had been regulars, formed + less than a third of the whole. + </p> + <p> + Montgomery and Arnold had about the same total number of men. Sometimes + there were more, sometimes less. But what made the real difference, and + what really turned the scale, was that the Americans had hardly any + regulars and that their effectives rarely averaged three-quarters of their + total strength. The balance was also against them in the matter of + armament. For, though Morgan's Virginians had many more rifles than were + to be found among the British, the Americans in general were not so well + off for bayonets and not so well able to use those they had; while the + artillery odds were still more against them. Carleton's artillery was not + of the best. But it was better than that of the Americans. He decidedly + overmatched them in the combined strength of all kinds of ordnance—cannons, + carronades, howitzers, mortars, and swivels. Cannons and howitzers fired + shot and shell at any range up to the limit then reached, between two and + three miles. Carronades were on the principle of a gigantic shotgun, + firing masses of bullets with great effect at very short ranges—less + than that of a long musket-shot, then reckoned at two hundred yards. The + biggest mortars threw 13-inch 224-lb shells to a great distance. But their + main use was for high-angle fire, such as that from the suburb of St Roch + under the walls of Quebec. Swivels were the smallest kind of ordnance, + firing one-, two-, or three-pound balls at short or medium ranges. They + were used at convenient points to stop rushes, much like modern + machine-guns. + </p> + <p> + Thanks chiefly to Cramahe, the defences were not nearly so 'ruinous' as + Arnold at first had thought them. The walls, however useless against the + best siege artillery, were formidable enough against irregular troops and + makeshift batteries; while the warehouses and shipping in the Lower Town + were protected by two stockades, one straight under Cape Diamond, the + other at the corner where the Lower Town turns into the valley of the St + Charles. The first was called the Pres-de-Ville, the second the + Sault-au-Matelot. The shipping was open to bombardment from the Levis + shore. But the Americans had no guns to spare for this till April. + </p> + <p> + Montgomery's advance was greatly aided by the little flotilla which Easton + had captured at Sorel. Montgomery met Arnold at Pointe-aux-Trembles, + twenty miles above Quebec, on the 2nd of December and supplied his little + half-clad force with the British uniforms taken at St Johns and Chambly. + He was greatly pleased with the magnificent physique of Arnold's men, the + fittest of an originally well-picked lot. He still had some 'pusillanimous + wretches' among his own New Yorkers, who resented the air of superiority + affected by Arnold's New Englanders and Morgan's Virginians. He felt a + well-deserved confidence in Livingston and some of the English-speaking + Canadian 'patriots' whom Livingston had brought into his camp before St + Johns in September. But he began to feel more and more doubtful about the + French Canadians, most of whom began to feel more and more doubtful about + themselves. On the 6th he arrived before Quebec and took up his quarters + in Holland House, two miles beyond the walls, at the far end of the Plains + of Abraham. The same day he sent Carleton the following summons: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + SIR;—Notwithstanding the personal ill-treatment I + have received at your hands—notwithstanding your + cruelty to the unhappy Prisoners you have taken, the + feelings of humanity induce me to have recourse to + this expedient to save you from the Destruction which + hangs over you. Give me leave, Sir, to assure you that + I am well acquainted with your situation. A great + extent of works, in their nature incapable of defence, + manned with a motley crew of sailors, the greatest + part our friends; of citizens, who wish to see us + within their walls, & a few of the worst troops who + ever stiled themselves Soldiers. The impossibility of + relief, and the certain prospect of wanting every + necessary of life, should your opponents confine their + operations to a simple Blockade, point out the absurdity + of resistance. Such is your situation! I am at the + head of troops accustomed to Success, confident of + the righteousness of the cause they are engaged in, + inured to danger, & so highly incensed at your + inhumanity, illiberal abuse, and the ungenerous means + employed to prejudice them in the mind of the Canadians + that it is with difficulty I restrain them till my + Batteries are ready from assaulting your works, which + afford them a fair opportunity of ample vengeance and + just retaliation. Firing upon a flag of truce, hitherto + unprecedented, even among savages, prevents my taking + the ordinary mode of communicating my sentiments. + However, I will at any rate acquit my conscience. + Should you persist in an unwarrantable defence, the + consequences be upon your own head. Beware of destroying + stores of any kind, Publick or Private, as you have + done at Montreal and in Three Rivers—If you do, by + Heaven, there will be no mercy shown. +</pre> + <p> + Though Montgomery wrote bunkum like the common politician of that and many + a later age, he was really a brave soldier. What galled him into fury was + 'grave Carleton's' quiet refusal to recognize either him or any other + rebel commander as the accredited leader of a hostile army. It certainly + must have been exasperating for the general of the Continental Congress to + be reduced to such expedients as tying a grandiloquent ultimatum to an + arrow and shooting it into the beleaguered town. The charge of firing on + flags of truce was another instance of 'talking for Buncombe.' Carleton + never fired on any white flag. But he always sent the same answer: that he + could hold no communication with any rebels unless they came to implore + the king's pardon. This, of course, was an aggravation of his offensive + calmness in the face of so much revolutionary rage. To individual rebels + of all sorts he was, if anything, over-indulgent. He would not burn the + suburbs of Quebec till the enemy forced him to it, though many of the + houses that gave the Americans the best cover belonged to rebel Canadians. + He went out of his way to be kind to all prisoners, especially if sick or + wounded. And it was entirely owing to his restraining influence that the + friendly Indians had not raided the border settlements of New England + during the summer. Nor was he animated only by the very natural desire of + bringing back rebellious subjects to what he thought their true + allegiance, as his subsequent actions amply proved. He simply acted with + the calm dignity and impartial justice which his position required. + </p> + <p> + Three days before Christmas the bombardment began in earnest. The + non-combatants soon found, to their equal amazement and delight, that a + good many shells did very little damage if fired about at random. But news + intended to make their flesh creep came in at the same time, and probably + had more effect than the shells on the weak-kneed members of the + community. Seven hundred scaling-ladders, no quarter if Carleton persisted + in holding out, and a prophecy attributed to Montgomery that he would eat + his Christmas dinner either in Quebec or in Hell—these were some of + the blood-curdling items that came in by petticoat or arrow post. One of + the most active purveyors of all this bombast was Jerry Duggan, a Canadian + 'patriot' barber now become a Continental major. + </p> + <p> + But there was a serious side. Deserters and prisoners, as well as British + adherents who had escaped, all began to tell the same tale, though with + many variations. Montgomery was evidently bent on storming the walls the + first dark night. His own orders showed it. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + HEAD QUARTERS, HOLLAND HOUSE. + Near Quebec, 15th Decr. 1755. + + The General having in vain offered the most favourable + terms of accommodation to the Governor of Quebec, & + having taken every possible step to prevail on the + inhabitants to desist from seconding him in his wild + scheme of defending the Town—for the speedy reduction + of the only hold possessed by the Ministerial Troops + in this Province—The soldiers, flushed with continual + success, confident of the justice of their cause, & + relying on that Providence which has uniformly protected + them, will advance with alacrity to the attack of + works incapable of being defended by the wretched + Garrison posted behind them, consisting of Sailors + unacquainted with the use of arms, of Citizens incapable + of Soldiers' duty, & of a few miserable Emigrants. + The General is confident that a vigorous & spirited + attack must be attended with success. The Troops shall + have the effects of the Governor, Garrison, & of such + as have been active in misleading the Inhabitants & + distressing the friends of liberty, equally divided + among them, except the 100th share out of the whole, + which shall be at the disposal of the General to be + given to such soldiers as distinguished themselves by + their activity & bravery, to be sold at public auction: + the whole to be conducted as soon as the City is in + our hands and the inhabitants disarmed. +</pre> + <p> + It was a week after these orders had been written before the first + positive news of the threatened assault was brought into town by an + escaped British prisoner who, strangely enough, bore the name of Wolfe. + Wolfe's escape naturally caused a postponement of Montgomery's design and + a further council of war. Unlike most councils of war this one was full of + fight. Three feints were to be made at different points while the real + attack was to be driven home at Cape Diamond. But just after this decision + had been reached two rebel Montrealers came down and, in another debate, + carried the day for another plan. These men, Antell and Price, were really + responsible for the final plan, which, like its predecessor, did not meet + with Montgomery's approval. Montgomery wanted to make a breach before + trying the walls. But he was no more than the chairman of a committee; and + this egregious committee first decided to storm the unbroken walls and + then changed to an attack on the Lower Town only. Antell was Montgomery's + engineer. Price was a red-hot agitator. Both were better at politics than + soldiering. Their argument was that if the Lower Town could be taken the + Quebec militia would force Carleton to surrender in order to save the + warehouses, shipping, and other valuable property along the waterfront, + and that even if Carleton held out in debate he would soon be brought to + his knees by the Americans, who would march through the gates, which were + to be opened by the 'patriots' inside. + </p> + <p> + Another week passed; and Montgomery had not eaten his Christmas dinner + either in Quebec or in the other place. But both sides knew the crisis + must be fast approaching; for the New Yorkers had sworn that they would + not stay a minute later than the end of the year, when their term of + enlistment was up. Thus every day that passed made an immediate assault + more likely, as Montgomery had to strike before his own men left him. Yet + New Year's Eve itself began without the sign of an alarm. + </p> + <p> + Carleton had been sleeping in his clothes at the Recollets', night after + night, so that he might be first on parade at the general rendezvous on + the Place d'Armes, which stood near the top of Mountain Hill, the only + road between the Upper and the Lower Town. Officers and men off duty had + been following his example; and every one was ready to turn out at a + moment's notice. + </p> + <p> + A north-easterly snowstorm was blowing furiously, straight up the St + Lawrence, making Quebec a partly seen blur to the nearest American patrols + and the Heights of Abraham a wild sea of whirling drifts to the nearest + British sentries. One o'clock passed, and nothing stirred. But when two + o'clock struck at Holland House Montgomery rose and began to put the + council's plan in operation. The Lower Town was to be attacked at both + ends. The Pres-de-Ville barricade was to be carried by Montgomery and the + Sault-au-Matelot by Arnold, while Livingston was to distract Carleton's + attention as much as possible by making a feint against the landward + walls, where the British still expected the real attack. Livingston's + Canadian fighting 'patriots' waded through the drifts, against the storm, + across the Plains, and took post close in on the far side of Cape Diamond, + only eighty yards from the same walls that were to have been stormed some + days before. Jerry Duggan's parasitic Canadian 'patriots' took post in the + suburb of St John and thence round to Palace Gate. Montgomery led his own + column straight to Wolfe's Cove, whence he marched in along the narrow + path between the cliff and the St Lawrence till he reached the spot at the + foot of Cape Diamond just under the right of Livingston's line. Arnold, + whose quarters were in the valley of the St Charles, took post in St Roch, + with a mortar battery to fire against the walls and a column of men to + storm the Sault-au-Matelot. Livingston's and Jerry Duggan's whole command + numbered about four hundred men, Montgomery's five hundred, Arnold's six. + The opposing totals were fifteen hundred Americans against seventeen + hundred British. There was considerable risk of confusion between friend + and foe, as most of the Americans, especially Arnold's men, wore captured + British uniforms with nothing to distinguish them but odds and ends of + their former kits and a sort of paper hatband bearing the inscription + Liberty or Death. + </p> + <p> + A little after four the sentries on the walls at Cape Diamond saw lights + flashing about in front of them and were just going to call the guard when + Captain Malcolm Fraser of the Royal Emigrants came by on his rounds and + saw other lights being set out in regular order like lamps in a street. He + instantly turned out the guards and pickets. The drums beat to arms. Every + church bell in the city pealed forth its alarm into that wild night. The + bugles blew. The men off duty swarmed on to the Place d'Armes, where + Carleton, calm and intrepid as ever, took post with the general reserve + and waited. There was nothing for him to do just yet. Everything that + could have been foreseen had already been amply provided for; and in his + quiet confidence his followers found their own. + </p> + <p> + Towards five o'clock two green rockets shot up from Montgomery's position + beside the Anse des Meres under Cape Diamond. This was the signal for + attack. Montgomery's column immediately struggled on again along the path + leading round the foot of the Cape towards the Pres-de-Ville barricade. + Livingston's serious 'patriots' on the top of the Cape changed their + dropping shots into a hot fire against the walls; while Jerry Duggan's + little mob of would-be looters shouted and blazed away from safer cover in + the suburbs of St John and St Roch. Arnold's mortars pitched shells all + over the town; while his storming-party advanced towards the + Sault-au-Matelot barricade. Carleton, naturally anxious about the landward + walls, sent some of the British militia to reinforce the men at Cape + Diamond, which, as he knew, Montgomery considered the best point of + attack. The walls lower down did not seem to be in any danger from Jerry + Duggan's 'patriots,' whose noisy demonstration was at once understood to + be nothing but an empty feint. The walls facing the St Charles were well + manned and well gunned by the naval battalion. Those facing the St + Lawrence, though weak in themselves, were practically impregnable, as the + cliffs could not be scaled by any formed body. The Lower Town, however, + was by no means so safe, in spite of its two barricades. The general + uproar was now so great that Carleton could not distinguish the firing + there from what was going on elsewhere. But it was at these two points + that the real attack was rapidly developing. + </p> + <p> + The first decisive action took place at Pres-de-Ville. The guard there + consisted of fifty men—John Coffin, who was a merchant of Quebec, + Sergeant Hugh McQuarters of the Royal Artillery, Captain Barnsfair, a + merchant skipper, with fifteen mates and skippers like himself, and thirty + French Canadians under Captain Chabot and Lieutenant Picard. These fifty + men had to guard a front of only as many feet. On their right Cape Diamond + rose almost sheer. On their left raged the stormy St Lawrence. They had a + tiny block-house next to the cliff and four small guns on the barricade, + all double-charged with canister and grape. They had heard the dropping + shots on the top of the Cape for nearly an hour and had been quick to + notice the change to a regular hot fire. But they had no idea whether + their own post was to be attacked or not till they suddenly saw the head + of Montgomery's column halting within fifty paces of them. A man came + forward cautiously and looked at the barricade. The storm was in his face. + The defences were wreathed in whirling snow. And the men inside kept + silent as the grave. When he went back a little group stood for a couple + of minutes in hurried consultation. Then Montgomery waved his sword, + called out 'Come on, brave boys, Quebec is ours!' and led the charge. The + defenders let the Americans get about half-way before Barnsfair shouted + 'Fire!' Then the guns and muskets volleyed together, cutting down the + whole front of the densely massed column. Montgomery, his two + staff-officers, and his ten leading men were instantly killed. Some more + farther back were wounded. And just as the fifty British fired their + second round the rest of the five hundred Americans turned and ran in wild + confusion. + </p> + <p> + A few minutes later a man whose identity was never established came + running from the Lower Town to say that Arnold's men had taken the + Sault-au-Matelot barricade. If this was true it meant that the + Pres-de-Ville fifty would be caught between two fires. Some of them made + as if to run back and reach Mountain Hill before the Americans could cut + them off. But Coffin at once threatened to kill the first man to move; and + by the time an artillery officer had arrived with reinforcements perfect + order had been restored. This officer, finding he was not wanted there, + sent back to know where else he was to go, and received an answer telling + him to hurry to the Sault-au-Matelot. When he arrived there, less than + half a mile off, he found that desperate street fighting had been going on + for over an hour. + </p> + <p> + Arnold's advance had begun at the same time as Livingston's demonstration + and Montgomery's attack. But his task was very different and the time + required much longer. There were three obstacles to be overcome. First, + his men had to run the gauntlet of the fire from the bluejackets ranged + along the Grand Battery, which faced the St Charles at its mouth and + overlooked the narrow little street of Sous-le-Cap at a height of fifty or + sixty feet. Then they had to take the small advanced barricade, which + stood a hundred yards on the St Charles side of the actual + Sault-au-Matelot or Sailor's Leap, which is the north-easterly point of + the Quebec promontory and nearly a hundred feet high. Finally, they had to + round this point and attack the regular Sault-au-Matelot barricade. This + second barricade was about a hundred yards long, from the rock to the + river. It crossed Sault-au-Matelot Street and St Peter Street, which were + the same then as now. But it ended on a wharf half-way down the modern St + James Street, as the outer half of this street was then a natural strand + completely covered at high tide. It was much closer than the Pres-de-Ville + barricade was to Mountain Hill, at the top of which Carleton held his + general reserve ready in the Place d'Armes; and it was fairly strong in + material and armament. But it was at first defended by only a hundred men. + </p> + <p> + The American forlorn hope, under Captain Oswald, got past most of the + Grand Battery unscathed. But by the time the main body was following under + Morgan the British blue-jackets were firing down from the walls at less + than point-blank range. The driving snow, the clumps of bushes on the + cliff, and the little houses in the street below all gave the Americans + some welcome cover. But many of them were hit; while the gun they were + towing through the drifts on a sleigh stuck fast and had to be abandoned. + Captain Dearborn, the future commander-in-chief of the American army in + the War of 1812, noted in his diary that he 'met the wounded men very + thick' as he was bringing up the rear. When the forlorn hope reached the + advanced barricade Arnold halted it till the supports had come up. The + loss of the gun and the worrying his main body was receiving from the + sailors along the Grand Battery spoilt his original plan of smashing in + the barricade by shell fire while Morgan circled round its outer flank on + the ice of the tidal flats and took it in rear. So he decided on a frontal + attack. When he thought he had a fair chance he stepped to the front and + shouted, 'Now, boys, all together, rush!' But before he could climb the + barricade he was shot through the leg. For some time he propped himself up + against a house and, leaning on his rifle, continued encouraging his men, + who were soon firing through the port-holes as well as over the top. But + presently growing faint from loss of blood he had to be carried off the + field to the General Hospital on the banks of the St Charles. + </p> + <p> + The men now called out for a lead from Morgan, who climbed a ladder, + leaped the top, and fell under a gun inside. In another minute the whole + forlorn hope had followed him, while the main body came close behind. The + guard, not strong in numbers and weak in being composed of young + militiamen, gave way but kept on firing. 'Down with your arms if you want + quarter!' yelled Morgan, whose men were in overwhelming strength; and the + guard surrendered. A little way beyond, just under the bluff of the + Sault-au-Matelot, the British supports, many of whom were Seminary + students, also surrendered to Morgan, who at once pressed on, round the + corner of the Sault-au-Matelot, and halted in sight of the second or + regular barricade. What was to be done now? Where was Montgomery? How + strong was the barricade; and had it been reinforced? It could not be + turned because the cliff rose sheer on one flank while the icy St Lawrence + lashed the other. Had Morgan known that there were only a hundred men + behind it when he attacked its advanced barricade he might have pressed on + at all costs and carried it by assault. But it looked strong, there were + guns on its platforms, and it ran across two streets. His hurried council + of war over-ruled him, as Montgomery's council had over-ruled the original + plan of storming the walls; and so his men began a desultory fight in the + streets and from the houses. + </p> + <p> + This was fatal to American success. The original British hundred were + rapidly reinforced. The artillery officer who had found that he was not + needed at the Pres-de-Ville after Montgomery's defeat, and who had hurried + across the intervening half-mile, now occupied the corner houses, enlarged + the embrasures, and trained his guns on the houses occupied by the enemy. + Detachments of Fusiliers and Royal Emigrants also arrived, as did the + thirty-five masters and mates of merchant vessels who were not on guard + with Barnsfair at the Pres-de-Ville. Thus, what with soldiers, sailors, + and militiamen of both races, the main Sault-au-Matelot barricade was made + secure against being rushed like the outer one. But there was plenty of + fighting, with some confusion at close quarters caused by the British + uniforms which both sides were wearing. A Herculean sailor seized the + first ladder the Americans set against the barricade, hauled it up, and + set it against the window of a house out of the far end of which the enemy + were firing. Major Nairne and Lieutenant Dambourges of the Royal Emigrants + at once climbed in at the head of a storming-party and wild work followed + with the bayonet. All the Americans inside were either killed or captured. + Meanwhile a vigorous British nine-pounder had been turned on another house + they occupied. This house was likewise battered in, so that its surviving + occupants had to run into the street, where they were well plied with + musketry by the regulars and militiamen. The chance for a sortie then + seeming favourable, Lieutenant Anderson of the Navy headed his thirty-five + merchant mates and skippers in a rush along Sault-au-Matelot Street. But + his effort was premature. Morgan shot him dead, and Morgan's Virginians + drove the seamen back inside the barricade. + </p> + <p> + Carleton had of course kept in perfect touch with every phase of the + attack and defence; and now, fearing no surprise against the walls in the + growing daylight, had decided on taking Arnold's men in rear. To do this + he sent Captain Lawes of the Royal Engineers and Captain McDougall of the + Royal Emigrants with a hundred and twenty men out through Palace Gate. + This detachment had hardly reached the advanced barricade before they fell + in with the enemy's rearguard, which they took by complete surprise and + captured to a man. Leaving McDougall to secure these prisoners before + following on, Lawes pushed eagerly forward, round the corner of the + Sault-au-Matelot cliff, and, running in among the Americans facing the + main barricade, called out, 'You are all my prisoners!' 'No, we're not; + you're ours!' they answered. 'No, no,' replied Lawes, as coolly as if on + parade 'don't mistake yourselves, I vow to God you're mine!' 'But where + are your men?' asked the astonished Americans; and then Lawes suddenly + found that he was utterly alone! The roar of the storm and the work of + securing the prisoners on the far side of the advanced barricade had + prevented the men who should have followed him from understanding that + only a few were needed with McDougall. But Lawes put a bold face on it and + answered, 'O, Ho, make yourselves easy! My men are all round here and + they'll be with you in a twinkling.' He was then seized and disarmed. Some + of the Americans called out, 'Kill him! Kill him!' But a Major Meigs + protected him. The whole parley had lasted about ten minutes when + McDougall came running up with the missing men, released Lawes, and made + prisoners of the nearest Americans. Lawes at once stepped forward and + called on the rest to surrender. Morgan was for cutting his way through. A + few men ran round by the wharf and escaped on the tidal flats of the St + Charles. But, after a hurried consultation, the main body, including + Morgan, laid down their arms. This was decisive. The British had won the + fight. + </p> + <p> + The complete British loss in killed and wounded was wonderfully small, + only thirty, just one-tenth of the corresponding American loss, which was + large out of all proportion. Nearly half of the fifteen hundred Americans + had gone—over four hundred prisoners and about three hundred killed + and wounded. Nor were the mere numbers the most telling point about it; + for the worse half escaped—Livingston's Montreal 'patriots,' many of + whom had done very little fighting, Montgomery's time-expired New Yorkers, + most of whom wanted to go home, and Jerry Duggan's miscellaneous rabble, + all of whom wanted a maximum of plunder with a minimum of war. + </p> + <p> + The British victory was as nearly perfect as could have been desired. It + marked the turn of the tide in a desperate campaign which might have + resulted in the total loss of Canada. And it was of the greatest + significance and happiest augury because all the racial elements of this + new and vast domain had here united for the first time in defence of that + which was to be their common heritage. In Carleton's little garrison of + regulars and militia, of bluejackets, marines, and merchant seamen, there + were Frenchmen and French Canadians, there were Englishmen, Irishmen, + Scotsmen, Welshmen, Orcadians, and Channel Islanders, there were a few + Newfoundlanders, and there mere a good many of those steadfast Royal + Emigrants who may be fitly called the forerunners of the United Empire + Loyalists. Yet, in spite of this remarkable significance, no public + memorial of Carleton has ever been set up; and it was only in the + twentieth century that the Dominion first thought of commemorating his + most pregnant victory by placing tablets to mark the sites of the two + famous barricades. + </p> + <p> + As soon as things had quieted down within the walls Carleton sent out + search-parties to bring in the dead for decent burial and to see if any of + the wounded had been overlooked. James Thompson, the assistant engineer, + saw a frozen hand protruding from a snowdrift at Pres-de-Ville. It was + Montgomery's. The thirteen bodies were dug out and Thompson was ordered to + have a 'genteel coffin made for Mr Montgomery,' who was buried in the wall + just above St Louis Gate by the Anglican chaplain. Thompson kept + Montgomery's sword, which was given to the Livingston family more than a + century later. + </p> + <p> + The beleaguerment continued, in a half-hearted way, till the spring. The + Americans received various small reinforcements, which eventually brought + their total up to what it had been under Montgomery's command. But there + were no more assaults. Arnold grew dissatisfied and finally went to + Montreal; while Wooster, the new general, who arrived on the 1st of April, + was himself succeeded by Thomas, an ex-apothecary, on the 1st of May. The + suburb of St Roch was burnt down after the victory; so the American + snipers were bereft of some very favourite cover, and this, with other + causes, kept the bulk of the besiegers at an ineffective distance from the + walls. + </p> + <p> + The British garrison had certain little troubles of its own; for + discipline always tends to become irksome after a great effort. Carleton + was obliged to stop the retailing of spirits for fear the slacker men + would be getting out of hand. The guards and duties were made as easy as + possible, especially for the militia. But the 'snow-shovel parade' was an + imperative necessity. The winter was very stormy, and the drifts would + have frequently covered the walls and even the guns if they had not + promptly been dug out. The cold was also unusually severe. One early + morning in January an angry officer was asking a sentry why he hadn't + challenged him, when the sentry said, 'God bless your Honour! and I'm glad + you're come, for I'm blind!' Then it was found that his eyelids were + frozen fast together. + </p> + <p> + News came in occasionally from the outside world. There was intense + indignation among the garrison when they learned that the American + commanders in Montreal were imprisoning every Canadian officer who would + not surrender his commission. Such an unheard-of outrage was worthy of + Walker. But others must have thought of it; for Walker was now in + Philadelphia giving all the evidence he could against Prescott and other + British officers. Bad news for the rebels was naturally welcomed, + especially anything about their growing failure to raise troops in Canada. + On hearing of Montgomery's defeat the Continental Congress had passed a + resolution, addressed to the 'Inhabitants of Canada' declaring that 'we + will never abandon you to the unrelenting fury of your and our enemies.' + But there were no trained soldiers to back this up; and the raw militia, + though often filled with zeal and courage, could do nothing to redress the + increasingly adverse balance. In the middle of March the Americans sent in + a summons. But Carleton refused to receive it; and the garrison put a + wooden horse and a bundle of hay on the walls with a placard bearing the + inscription, 'When this horse has eaten this bunch of hay we will + surrender.' Some excellent practice made with 13-inch shells sent the + Americans flying from their new battery at Levis; and by the 17th of March + one of the several exultant British diarists, whose anonymity must have + covered an Irish name, was able to record that 'this, being St Patrick's + Day, the Governor, who is a true Hibernian, has requested the garrison to + put off keeping it till the 17th of May, when he promises, they shall be + enabled to do it properly, and with the usual solemnities.' + </p> + <p> + A fortnight later a plot concerted between the American prisoners and + their friends outside was discovered just in time. With tools supplied by + traitors they were to work their way out of their quarters, overpower the + guard at the nearest gate, set fire to the nearest houses in three + different streets, turn the nearest guns inwards on the town, and shout + 'Liberty for ever!' as an additional signal to the storming-party that was + to be waiting to confirm their success. Carleton seized the chance of + turning this scheme against the enemy. Three safe bonfires were set + ablaze. The marked guns were turned inwards and fired at the town with + blank charges. And the preconcerted shout was raised with a will. But the + besiegers never stirred. After this the Old-Countrymen among the + prisoners, who had taken the oath and enlisted in the garrison, were + disarmed and confined, while the rest were more strictly watched. + </p> + <p> + Two brave attempts were made by French Canadians to reach Quebec with + reinforcements, one headed by a seigneur, the other by a parish priest. + Carleton had sent word to M. de Beaujeu, seigneur of Crane Island, forty + miles below Quebec, asking him to see if he could cut off the American + detachment on the Levis shore. De Beaujeu raised three hundred and fifty + men. But Arnold sent over reinforcements. A habitant betrayed his + fellow-countrymen's advance-guard. A dozen French Canadians were then + killed or wounded while forty were taken prisoners; whereupon the rest + dispersed to their homes. The other attempt was made by Father Bailly, + whose little force of about fifty men was also betrayed. Entrapped in a + country-house these men fought bravely till nearly half their number had + been killed or wounded and the valiant priest had been mortally hit. They + then surrendered to a much stronger force which had lost more men than + they. + </p> + <p> + This was on the 6th of April, just before Arnold was leaving in disgust. + Wooster made an effort to use his new artillery to advantage by converging + the fire of three batteries, one close in on the Heights of Abraham, + another from across the mouth of the St Charles, and the third from Levis. + But the combination failed: the batteries were too light for the work and + overmatched by the guns on the walls, the practice was bad, and the effect + was nil. On the 3rd of May the new general, Thomas, an enterprising man, + tried a fireship, which was meant to destroy all the shipping in the Cul + de Sac. It came on, under full sail, in a very threatening manner. But the + crew lost their nerve at the critical moment, took to the boats too soon, + and forgot to lash the helm. The vessel immediately flew up into the wind + and, as the tidal stream was already changing, began to drift away from + the Cul de Sac just when she burst into flame. The result, as described by + an enthusiastic British diarist, was that 'she affoard'd a very pritty + prospect while she was floating down the River, every now & then + sending up Sky rackets, firing of Cannon or bursting of Shells, & so + continued till She disappear'd in the Channell.' + </p> + <p> + Three days later, on the 6th of May, when the beleaguerment had lasted + precisely five months, the sound of distant gunfire came faintly up the St + Lawrence with the first breath of the dawn wind from the east. The + sentries listened to make sure; then called the sergeants of the guards, + who sent word to the officers on duty, who, in their turn, sent word to + Carleton. By this time there could be no mistake. The breeze was + freshening; the sound was gradually nearing Quebec; and there could hardly + be room for doubting that it came from the vanguard of the British fleet. + The drums beat to arms, the church bells rang, the news flew round to + every household in Quebec; and before the tops of the Surprise frigate + were seen over the Point of Levy every battery was fully manned, every + battalion was standing ready on the Grand Parade, and every non-combatant + man, woman, and child was lining the seaward wall. The regulation shot was + fired across her bows as she neared the city; whereupon she fired three + guns to leeward, hoisted the private signal, and showed the Union Jack. + Then, at last, a cheer went up that told both friend and foe of British + victory and American defeat. By a strange coincidence the parole for this + triumphal day was St George, while the parole appointed for the victorious + New Year's Eve had been St Denis; so that the patron saints of France and + England happen to be associated with the two great days on which the + stronghold of Canada was saved by land and sea. + </p> + <p> + The same tide brought in two other men-of-war. Some soldiers of the 29th, + who were on board the Surprise, were immediately landed, together with the + marines from all three vessels. Carleton called for volunteers from the + militia to attack the Americans at once; and nearly every man, both of the + French- and of the English-speaking corps, stepped forward. There was joy + in every heart that the day for striking back had come at last. The + columns marched gaily through the gates and deployed into line at the + double on the Heights outside. The Americans fired a few hurried shots and + then ran for dear life, leaving their dinners cooking, and, in some cases, + even their arms behind them. The Plains were covered with flying enemies + and strewn with every sort of impediment to flight, from a cannon to a + loaf of bread. Quebec had been saved by British sea-power; and, with it, + the whole vast dominion of which it was the key. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI — DELIVERANCE + </h2> + <h3> + 1776 + </h3> + <p> + The Continental Congress had always been anxious to have delegates from + the Fourteenth Colony. But as these never came the Congress finally + decided to send a special commission to examine the whole civil and + military state of Canada and see what could be done. The news of + Montgomery's death and defeat was a very unwelcome surprise. But + reinforcements were being sent; the Canadians could surely be persuaded; + and a Congressional commission must be able to set things right. This + commission was a very strong one. Benjamin Franklin was the chairman. + Samuel Chase of Maryland and Charles Carroll of Carrollton were the other + members. Carroll's brother, the future archbishop of Baltimore, + accompanied them as a sort of ecclesiastical diplomatist. Franklin's + prestige and the fact that he was to set up a 'free' printing-press in + Montreal were to work wonders with the educated classes at once and with + the uneducated masses later on. Chase would appeal to all the reasonable + 'moderates.' Carroll, a great landlord and the nearest approach yet made + to an American millionaire, was expected to charm the Canadian noblesse; + while the fact that he and his exceedingly diplomatic brother were devout + Roman Catholics was thought to be by itself a powerful argument with the + clergy. + </p> + <p> + When they reached St Johns towards the end of April the commissioners sent + on a courier to announce their arrival and prepare for their proper + reception in Montreal. But the ferryman at Laprairie positively refused to + accept Continental paper money at any price; and it was only when a + 'Friend of Liberty' gave him a dollar in silver that he consented to cross + the courier over the St Lawrence. The same hitch occurred in Montreal, + where the same Friend of Liberty had to pay in silver before the + cab-drivers consented to accept a fare either from him or from the + commissioners. Even the name of Carroll of Carrollton was conjured with in + vain. The French Canadians remembered Bigot's bad French paper. Their + worst suspicions were being confirmed about the equally bad American + paper. So they demanded nothing but hard cash—argent dur. However, + the first great obstacle had been successfully overcome; and so, on the + strength of five borrowed silver dollars, the accredited commissioners of + the Continental Congress of the Thirteen Colonies made their state entry + into what they still hoped to call the Fourteenth Colony. But silver + dollars were scarce; and on the 1st of May the crestfallen commissioners + had to send the Congress a financial report which may best be summed up in + a pithy phrase which soon became proverbial—'Not worth a + Continental.' + </p> + <p> + On the 10th of May they heard the bad news from Quebec and increased the + panic among their Montreal sympathizers by hastily leaving the city lest + they should be cut off by a British man-of-war. Franklin foresaw the end + and left for Philadelphia accompanied by the Reverend John Carroll, whose + twelve days of disheartening experience with the leading French-Canadian + clergy had convinced him that they were impervious to any arguments or + blandishments emanating from the Continental Congress. It was a sad + disillusionment for the commissioners, who had expected to be settling the + affairs of a fourteenth colony instead of being obliged to leave the city + from which they were to have enlightened the people with a free press. In + their first angry ignorance they laid the whole blame on their unfortunate + army for its 'disgraceful flight' from Quebec. A week later, when Chase + and Charles Carroll ought to have known better, they were still assuring + the Congress that this 'shameful retreat' was 'the principal cause of all + the disorders' in the army; and even after the whole story ought to have + been understood neither they nor the Congress gave their army its proper + due. But, as a matter of fact, the American position had become untenable + the moment the British fleet began to threaten the American line of + communication with Montreal. For the rest, the American volunteers, all + things considered, had done very well indeed. Arnold's march was a truly + magnificent feat. Morgan's men had fought with great courage at the + Sault-au-Matelot. And though Montgomery's assault might well have been + better planned and executed, we must remember that the good plan, which + had been rejected, was the military one, while the bad plan, which had + been adopted, was concocted by mere politicians. Nor were 'all the + disorders' so severely condemned by the commissioners due to the army + alone. Far from it, indeed. The root of 'all the disorders' lay in the + fact that a makeshift government was obliged to use makeshift levies for + an invasion which required a regular army supported by a fleet. + </p> + <p> + On the 19th of May another disaster happened, this time above Montreal. + The Congress had not felt strong enough to attack the western posts. So + Captain Forster of the 8th Foot, finding that he was free to go elsewhere, + had come down from Oswegatchie (the modern Ogdensburg) with a hundred + whites and two hundred Indians and made prisoners of four hundred and + thirty Americans at the Cedars, about thirty miles up the St Lawrence from + Montreal. Forster was a very good officer. Butterfield, the American + commander, was a very bad one. And that made all the difference. After two + days of feeble and misdirected defence Butterfield surrendered three + hundred and fifty men. The other eighty were reinforcements who walked + into the trap next day. Forster now had four American prisoners for every + white soldier of his own; while Arnold was near by, having come up from + Sorel to Lachine with a small but determined force. So Forster, carefully + pointing out to his prisoners their danger if the Indians should be + reinforced and run wild, offered them their freedom on condition that they + should be regarded as being exchanged for an equal number of British + prisoners in American hands. This was agreed to and never made a matter of + dispute afterwards. But the second article Butterfield accepted was a + stipulation that, while the released British were to be free to fight + again, the released Americans were not; and it was over this point that a + bitter controversy raged. The British authorities maintained that all the + terms were binding because they had been accepted by an officer + commissioned by the Congress. The Congress maintained that the disputed + article was obtained by an unfair threat of an Indian massacre and that it + was so one-sided as to be good for nothing but repudiation. + </p> + <p> + 'The Affair at the Cedars' thus became a sorely vexed question. In itself + it would have died out among later and more important issues if it had not + been used as a torch to fire American public opinion at a time when the + Congress was particularly anxious to make the Thirteen Colonies as + anti-British as possible. Most of Forster's men were Indians. He had + reminded Butterfield how dangerous an increasing number of Indians might + become. Butterfield was naturally anxious to prove that he had yielded + only to overwhelming odds and horrifying risks. Americans in general were + ready to believe anything bad about the Indians and the British. The + temptation and the opportunity seemed made for each other. And so a quite + imaginary Indian massacre conveniently appeared in the American news of + the day and helped to form the kind of public opinion which was ardently + desired by the party of revolt. + </p> + <p> + The British evidence in this and many another embittering dispute about + the Indians need not be cited, since the following items of American + evidence do ample justice to both sides. In the spring of 1775 the + Massachusetts Provincial Congress sent Samuel Kirkland to exhort the + Iroquois 'to whet their hatchet and be prepared to defend our liberties + and lives'; while Ethan Allen asked the Indians round Vermont to treat him + 'like a brother and ambush the regulars.' In 1776 the Continental Congress + secretly resolved 'that it is highly expedient to engage the Indians in + the service of the United Colonies.' This was before the members knew + about the Affair at the Cedars. A few days later Washington was secretly + authorized to raise two thousand Indians; while agents were secretly sent + 'to engage the Six Nations in our Interest, on the best terms that can be + procured.' Within three weeks of this secret arrangement the Declaration + of Independence publicly accused the king of trying 'to bring on the + inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages.' Four days + after this public accusation the Congress gave orders for raising Indians + along 'the Penobscot, the St John, and in Nova Scotia'; and an entry to + that effect was made in its Secret Journal. Yet, before the month was out, + the same Congress publicly appealed to 'The People of Ireland' in the + following words: 'The wild and barbarous savages of the wilderness have + been solicited by gifts to take up the hatchet against us, and instigated + to deluge our settlements with the blood of defenceless women and + children.' + </p> + <p> + The American defeats at Quebec and at the Cedars completely changed the + position of the two remaining commissioners. They had expected to control + a victorious advance. They found themselves the highest authority present + with a disastrous retreat. Thereupon they made blunder after blunder. + Public interest and parliamentary control are the very life of armies and + navies in every country which enjoys the blessings of self-government. But + civilian interference is death. Yet Chase and Carroll practically + abolished rank in the disintegrating army by becoming an open court of + appeal to every junior with a grievance or a plan. There never was an + occasion on which military rule was more essential in military matters. + Yet, though they candidly admitted that they had 'neither abilities nor + inclination' to command, these wretched misrulers tried to do their duty + both to the Congress and the army by turning the camp into a sort of town + meeting where the best orders had no chance whatever against the loudest + 'sentiments.' They had themselves found the root of all evil in the + retreat from Quebec. Their army, like every impartial critic, found it in + 'the Commissioners and the smallpox'—with the commissioners easily + first. The smallpox had been bad enough at Quebec. It became far worse at + Sorel. There were few doctors, fewer medicines, and not a single hospital. + The reinforcements melted away with the army they were meant to + strengthen. Famine threatened both, even in May. Finally the commissioners + left for home at the end of the month. But even their departure could no + longer make the army's burden light enough to bear. + </p> + <p> + Thomas, the ex-apothecary, who did his best to stem the adverse tide of + trouble, caught the smallpox, became blind, and died at the beginning of + June. Sullivan, the fourth commander in less than half a year, having + determined that one more effort should be made, arrived at Sorel with new + battalions after innumerable difficulties by the way. He was led to + believe that Carleton's reinforcements had come from Nova Scotia, not from + England; and this encouraged him to push on farther. He was naturally of a + very sanguine temper; and Thompson, his second-in-command, heartily + approved of the dash. The new troops cheered up and thought of taking + Quebec itself. But, after getting misled by their guide, floundering about + in bottomless bogs, and losing a great deal of very precious time, they + found Three Rivers defended by entrenchments, superior numbers, and the + vanguard of the British fleet. Nevertheless they attacked bravely on the + 8th of June. But, taken in front and flank by well-drilled regulars and + well-handled men-of-war, they presently broke and fled. Every avenue of + escape was closed as they wandered about the woods and bogs. But Carleton, + who came up from Quebec after the battle was all over, purposely opened + the way to Sorel. He had done his best to win the hearts of his prisoners + at Quebec and had succeeded so well that when they returned to Crown Point + they were kept away from the rest of the American army lest their account + of his kindness should affect its anti-British zeal. Now that he was in + overwhelming force he thought he saw an even better chance of earning + gratitude from rebels and winning converts to the loyal side by a still + greater act of clemency. + </p> + <p> + The battle of Three Rivers was the last action fought on Canadian soil. + The American army retreated to Sorel and up the Richelieu to St Johns, + where it was joined by Arnold, who had just evacuated Montreal. Most of + the Friends of Liberty in Canada fled either with or before their beaten + forces. So, like the ebbing of a whole river system, the main and + tributary streams of fugitives drew south towards Lake Champlain. The + neutral French Canadians turned against them at once; though not to the + extent of making an actual attack. The habitant cared nothing for the + incomprehensible constitutionalities over which different kinds of British + foreigners were fighting their exasperating civil war. But he did know + what the king's big fleet and army meant. He did begin to feel that his + own ways of life were safer with the loyal than with the rebel side. And + he quite understood that he had been forced to give a good deal for + nothing ever since the American commissioners had authorized their + famishing army to commandeer his supplies and pay him with their worthless + 'Continentals.' + </p> + <p> + From St Johns the worn-out Americans crawled homewards in stray, exhausted + parties, dropping fast by the way as they went. 'I did not look into a hut + or a tent,' wrote a horrified observer, 'in which I did not find a dead or + dying man.' Disorganization became so complete that no exact returns were + ever made up. But it is known that over ten thousand armed men crossed + into Canada from first to last and that not far short of half this total + either found their death beyond the line or brought it back with them to + Lake Champlain. + </p> + <p> + It was on what long afterwards became Dominion Day—the 1st of July—that + the ruined American forces reassembled at Crown Point, having abandoned + all hope of making Canada the Fourteenth Colony. Three days later the + disappointed Thirteen issued the Declaration of Independence which + virtually proclaimed that Canadians and Americans should thenceforth live + a separate life. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII — THE COUNTERSTROKE + </h2> + <h3> + 1776-1778 + </h3> + <p> + Six thousand British troops, commanded by Burgoyne, and four thousand + Germans, commanded by Baron Riedesel, had arrived at Quebec before the + battle of Three Rivers. Quebec itself had then been left to the care of a + German garrison under a German commandant, 'that excellent man, Colonel + Baum,' while the great bulk of the army had marched up the St Lawrence, as + we have seen already. Such a force as this new one of Carleton's was + expected to dismay the rebel colonies. And so, to a great extent, it did. + With a much larger force in the colonies themselves the king was + confidently expected to master his unruly subjects, no matter how much + they proclaimed their independence. The Loyalists were encouraged. The + trimmers prepared to join them. Only those steadfast Americans who held + their cause dearer than life itself were still determined to venture all. + But they formed the one party that really knew its own mind. This gave + them a great advantage over the king's party, which, hampered at every + turn by the opposition in the mother country, was never quite sure whether + it ought to strike hard or gently in America. + </p> + <p> + On one point, however, everybody was agreed. The command of Lake Champlain + was essential to whichever side would hold its own. The American forces at + Crown Point might be too weak for the time being. But Arnold knew that + even ten thousand British soldiers could not overrun the land without a + naval force to help them. So he got together a flotilla which had + everything its own way during the time that Carleton was laboriously + building a rival flotilla on the Richelieu with a very scanty supply of + ship-wrights and materials. Arnold, moreover, could devote his whole + attention to the work, makeshift as it had to be; while Carleton was + obliged to keep moving about the province in an effort to bring it into + some sort of order after the late invasion. Throughout the summer the + British army held the line of the Richelieu all the way south as far as + Isle-aux-Noix, very near the lake and the line. But Carleton's flotilla + could not set sail from St Johns till October 5, by which time the main + body of his army was concentrated round Pointe-au-Fer, at the northern end + of the lake, ninety miles north of the American camp at Crown Point. + </p> + <p> + It was a curious situation for a civil and military governor to be + hoisting his flag as a naval commander-in-chief, however small the fleet + might be. But it is commonly ignored that, down to the present day, the + governor-general of Canada is appointed 'Vice-Admiral of the Same' in his + commissions from the Crown. Carleton of course carried expert naval + officers with him and had enough professional seamen to work the vessels + and lay the guns. But, though Captain Pringle manoeuvred the flotilla and + Lieutenant Dacre handled the flagship Carleton, the actual command + remained in Carleton's own hands. The capital ship (and the only real + square-rigged 'ship') of this Lilliputian fleet was Pringle's Inflexible, + which had been taken up the Richelieu in sections and hauled past the + portages with immense labour before reaching St Johns, whence there is a + clear run upstream to Lake Champlain. The Inflexible carried thirty guns, + mostly 12-pounders, and was an overmatch for quite the half of Arnold's + decidedly weaker flotilla. The Lady Maria was a sort of sister ship to the + Carleton. The little armada was completed by a 'gondola' with six + 9-pounders, by twenty gunboats and four longboats, each carrying a single + piece, and by many small craft used as transports. + </p> + <p> + On the 11th of October Carleton's whole naval force was sailing south when + one of Arnold's vessels was seen making for Valcour Island, a few miles + still farther south on the same, or western, side of Lake Champlain. + Presently the Yankee ran ashore on the southern end of the island, where + she was immediately attacked by some British small craft while the + Inflexible sailed on. Then, to the intense disgust of the Inflexible's + crew, Arnold's complete flotilla was suddenly discovered drawn up in a + masterly position between the mainland and the island. It was too late for + the Inflexible to beat back now. But the rest of Carleton's flotilla + turned in to the attack. Arnold's flanks rested on the island and the + mainland. His rear could be approached only by beating back against a bad + wind all the way round the outside of Valcour Island; and, even if this + manoeuvre could have been performed, the British attack on his rear from + the north could have been made only in a piecemeal way, because the + channel was there at its narrowest, with a bad obstruction in the middle. + So, for every reason, a frontal attack from the south was the one way of + closing with him. The fight was furious while it lasted and seemingly + decisive when it ended. Arnold's best vessel, the Royal Savage, which he + had taken at St Johns the year before, was driven ashore and captured. The + others were so severely mauled that when the victorious British anchored + their superior force in line across Arnold's front there seemed to be no + chance for him to escape the following day. But that night he performed an + even more daring and wonderful feat than Bouchette had performed the year + before when paddling Carleton through the American lines among the islands + opposite Sorel. Using muffled sweeps, with consummate skill he slipped all + his remaining vessels between the mainland and the nearest British + gunboat, and was well on his way to Crown Point before his escape had been + discovered. Next day Carleton chased south. The day after he destroyed the + whole of the enemy's miniature sea-power as a fighting force. But the only + three serviceable vessels got away; while Arnold burnt everything else + likely to fall into British hands. So Carleton had no more than his own + reduced flotilla to depend on when he occupied Crown Point. + </p> + <p> + A vexed question, destined to form part of a momentous issue, now arose. + Should Ticonderoga be attacked at once or not? It commanded the only + feasible line of march from Montreal to New York; and no force from Canada + could therefore attack the new republic effectively without taking it + first. But the season was late. The fort was strong, well gunned, and well + manned. Carleton's reconnaissance convinced him that he could have little + chance of reducing it quickly, if at all, with the means at hand, + especially as the Americans had supplies close by at Lake George, while he + was now a hundred miles south of his base. A winter siege was impossible. + Sufficient supplies could never be brought through the dense, + snow-encumbered bush, all the way from Canada, even if the long and + harassing line of communications had not been everywhere open to American + attack. Moreover, Carleton's army was in no way prepared for a midwinter + campaign, even if it could have been supplied with food and warlike + stores. So he very sensibly turned his back on Lake Champlain until the + following year. + </p> + <p> + That was the gayest winter Quebec had seen since Montcalm's first season, + twenty years before. Carleton had been knighted for his services and was + naturally supposed to be the chosen leader for the next campaign. The ten + thousand troops gave confidence to the loyalists and promised success for + the coming campaign. The clergy were getting their disillusioned + parishioners back to the fold beneath the Union Jack; while Jean Ba'tis'e + himself was fain to admit that his own ways of life and the money he got + for his goods were very much safer with les Angla's than with the + revolutionists, whom he called les Bastonna's because most trade between + Quebec and the Thirteen Colonies was carried on by vessels hailing from + the port of Boston. The seigneurs were delighted. They still hoped for + commissions as regulars, which too few of them ever received; and they + were charmed with the little viceregal court over which Lady Maria + Carleton, despite her youthful two-and-twenty summers, presided with a + dignity inherited from the premier ducal family of England and brought to + the acme of conventional perfection by her intimate experience of + Versailles. On New Year's Eve Carleton gave a public fete, a state dinner, + and a ball to celebrate the anniversary of the British victory over + Montgomery and Arnold. The bishop held a special thanksgiving and made all + notorious renegades do open penance. Nothing seemed wanting to bring the + New Year in under the happiest auspices since British rule began. + </p> + <p> + But, quite unknown to Carleton, mischief was brewing in the Colonial + Office of that unhappy government which did so many stupid things and got + the credit for so many more. In 1775 the well-meaning Earl of Dartmouth + was superseded by Lord George Germain, who continued the mismanagement of + colonial affairs for seven disastrous years. Few characters have abused + civil and military positions more than the man who first, as a British + general, disgraced the noble name of Sackville on the battlefield of + Minden in 1759, and then, as a cabinet minister, disgraced throughout + America the plebeian one of Germain, which he took in 1770 with a suitable + legacy attached to it. His crime at Minden was set down by the thoughtless + public to sheer cowardice. But Sackville was no coward. He had borne + himself with conspicuous gallantry at Fontenoy. He was admired, before + Minden, by two very brave soldiers, Wolfe and the Duke of Cumberland. And + he afterwards fought a famous duel with as much sang-froid as any one + would care to see. His real crime at Minden was admirably exposed by the + court-martial which found him 'guilty of having disobeyed the orders of + Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, whom he was by his commission bound to obey + as commander-in-chief, according to the rules of war.' This court also + found him 'unfit to serve his Majesty in any military capacity whatever'; + and George II directed that the following 'remarks' should be added when + the sentence was read out on parade to every regiment in the service: 'It + is his Majesty's pleasure that the above sentence be given out in public + orders, not only in Britain, but in America, and in every quarter of the + globe where British troops happen to be, so that all officers, being + convinced that neither high birth nor great employments can shelter + offences of such a nature, and seeing they are subject to censures worse + than death to a man who has any sense of honour, may avoid the fatal + consequences arising from disobedience of orders.' + </p> + <p> + This seemed to mark the end of Sackville's sinister career. But when + George II died and George III began to reign, with a very different set of + men to help him, the bad general reappeared as an equally bad politician. + Haughty, cantankerous, and self-opinionated to the last degree, Germain, + who had many perverse abilities fitting him for the meaner side of party + politics, was appointed to the post for which he was least qualified just + when Canada and the Thirteen Colonies most needed a master mind. Worse + still, he cherished a contemptible grudge against Carleton for having + refused to turn out a good officer and put in a bad one who happened to be + a pampered favourite. At first, however, Carleton was allowed to do his + best. But in the summer of 1776 Germain restricted Carleton's command to + Canada and put Burgoyne, a junior officer, in command of the army destined + to make the counterstroke. The ship bearing this malicious order had to + put back; so it was not till the middle of May 1777 that Carleton was + disillusioned by its arrival as well as by a second and still more + exasperating dispatch accusing him of neglect of duty for not having taken + Ticonderoga in November and thus prevented Washington from capturing the + Hessians at Trenton. The physical impossibility of a winter siege, the + three hundred miles of hostile country between Trenton and Ticonderoga, + and the fact that the other leading British general, Howe, had thirty + thousand troops in the Colonies, while Carleton had only ten thousand with + which to hold Canada that year and act as ordered next year, all went for + nothing when Germain found a chance to give a good stab in the back. + </p> + <p> + On May 20 Carleton wrote a pungent reply, pointing out the utter + impossibility of following up his victory on Lake Champlain by carrying + out Germain's arm-chair plan of operations in the middle of winter. 'I + regard it as a particular blessing that your Lordship's dispatch did not + arrive in due time.' As for the disaster at Trenton, he 'begs to inform + his Lordship' that if Howe's thirty thousand men had been properly used + the Hessians could never have been taken, 'though all the rebels from + Ticonderoga had reinforced Mr Washington's army.' Moreover, 'I never could + imagine why, if troops so far south [as Howe's] found it necessary to go + into winter quarters, your Lordship could possibly expect troops so far + north to continue their operations.' A week later Carleton wrote again and + sent in his resignation. 'Finding that I can no longer be of use, under + your Lordship's administration ... I flatter myself I shall obtain the + king's permission to return home this fall. ... I shall embark with great + satisfaction, still entertaining the ardent wish that, after my departure, + the dignity of the Crown in this unfortunate Province may not appear + beneath your Lordship's concern.' + </p> + <p> + Burgoyne had spent the winter in London and had arrived at Quebec about + the same time as Germain's dispatches. He had loyally represented + Carleton's plans at headquarters. But he did not know America and he was + not great enough to see the weak points in the plan which Germain proposed + to carry out with wholly inadequate means. + </p> + <p> + There was nothing wrong with the actual idea of this plan. Washington, + Carleton, and every other leading man on either side saw perfectly well + that the British army ought to cut the rebels in two by holding the direct + line from Montreal to New York throughout the coming campaign of 1777. + Given the irresistible British command of the sea, fifty thousand troops + were enough. The general idea was that half of these should hold the + four-hundred-mile line of the Richelieu, Lake Champlain, and the Hudson, + while the other half seized strategic points elsewhere and still further + divided the American forces. But the troops employed were ten thousand + short of the proper number. Many of them were foreign mercenaries. And the + generals were not the men to smash the enemy at all costs. They were ready + to do their duty. But their affinities were rather with the opposition, + which was against the war, than with the government, which was for it. + Howe was a strong Whig. Burgoyne became a follower of Fox. Clinton had + many Whig connections. Cornwallis voted against colonial taxation. To make + matters worse, the government itself wavered between out-and-out war and + some sort of compromise both with its political opponents at home and its + armed opponents in America. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances Carleton was in favour of a modified plan. + Ticonderoga had been abandoned by the Americans and occupied by the + British as Burgoyne marched south. Carleton's idea was to use it as a base + of operations against New England, while Howe's main body struck at the + main body of the rebels and broke them up as much as possible. Germain + however, was all for the original plan. So Burgoyne set off for the + Hudson, expecting to get into touch with Howe at Albany. But Germain, in + his haste to leave town for a holiday, forgot to sign Howe's orders at the + proper time; and afterwards forgot them altogether. So Howe, pro-American + in politics and temporizer in the field, manoeuvred round his own + headquarters at New York until October, when he sailed south to + Philadelphia. Receiving no orders from Germain, and having no initiative + of his own, he had made no attempt to hold the line of the Hudson all the + way north to Albany, where he could have met Burgoyne and completed the + union of the forces which would have cut the Colonies in two. Meanwhile + Burgoyne, ignorant of Germain's neglect and Howe's futilities, was + struggling to his fate at Saratoga, north of Albany. He had been receiving + constant aid from Carleton's scanty resources, though Carleton knew full + well that the sending of any aid beyond the limits of the province exposed + him to personal ruin in case of a reverse in Canada. But it was all in + vain; and, on the 17th of October, Burgoyne—much more sinned against + than sinning—laid down his arms. The British garrison immediately + evacuated Ticonderoga and retired to St Johns, thus making Carleton's + position fairly safe in Canada. But Germain, only too glad to oust him, + had now notified him that Haldimand, the new governor, was on the point of + sailing for Quebec. Haldimand, to his great credit, had asked to have his + own appointment cancelled when he heard of Germain's shameful attitude + towards Carleton, and had only consented to go after being satisfied that + Carleton really wished to come home. The exchange, however, was not to + take place that year. Contrary winds blew Haldimand back; and so Canada + had to remain under the best of all possible governors in spite of + Germain. + </p> + <p> + Germain had provoked Carleton past endurance both by his public blunders + and by his private malice. Even in 1776 there was hate on one side, + contempt on the other. When Germain had blamed Carleton for not carrying + out the idiotic winter siege of Ticonderoga, Carleton, in his official + reply, 'could only suppose' that His Lordship had acted 'in other places + with such great wisdom that, without our assistance, the rebels must + immediately be compelled to lay down their arms and implore the King's + mercy.' After that Germain had murder in his heart to the bitter end of + Carleton's rule. Carleton had frequently reported the critical state of + affairs in Canada. 'There is nothing to fear from the Canadians so long as + things are in a state of prosperity; nothing to hope from them when in + distress. There are some of them who are guided by sentiments of honour. + The multitude is influenced by hope of gain or fear of punishment.' The + recent invasion had proved this up to the hilt. Then welcome reaction + began. The defeat of the invaders, the arrival of Burgoyne's army, and the + efforts of the seigneurs and the clergy had considerably brightened the + prospects of the British cause in Canada. The partial mobilization of the + militia which followed Burgoyne's surrender was not, indeed, a great + success. But it was far better than the fiasco of two years before. There + was also a corresponding improvement in civil life. The judges whom + Carleton had been obliged to appoint in haste all proved at leisure the + wisdom of his choice; and there seemed to be every chance that other + nominees would be equally fit for their positions, because the Quebec Act, + which annulled every appointment made before it came into force, opened + the way for the exclusion of bad officials and the inclusion of the good. + </p> + <p> + But the chance of perverting this excellent intention was too much for + Germain, who succeeded in foisting one worthless nominee after another on + the province just as Carleton was doing his best to heal old sores. One of + the worst cases was that of Livius, a low-down, money-grubbing German + Portuguese, who ousted the future Master of the Rolls; Sir William Grant, + a man most admirably fitted to interpret the laws of Canada with + knowledge, sympathy, and absolute impartiality. Livius as chief justice + was more than Carleton could stand in silence. This mongrel lawyer had + picked up all the Yankee vices without acquiring any of the countervailing + Yankee virtues. He was 'greedy of power, more greedy of gain, imperious + and impetuous in his temper, but learned in the ways and eloquence of the + New England provinces, and valuing himself particularly on his knowledge + of how to manage governors.' He had been sent by Germain 'to administer + justice to the Canadians when he understands neither their laws, manners, + customs, nor language.' Other like nominees followed, 'characters + regardless of the public tranquility but zealous to pay court to a + powerful minister and—provided they can obtain advantages—unconcerned + should the means of obtaining them prove ruinous to the King's service.' + These pettifoggers so turned and twisted the law about for the sake of + screwing out the maximum of fees that Carleton pointedly refused to + appoint Livius as a member of the Legislative Council. Livius then laid + his case before the Privy Council in England. But this great court of + ultimate appeal pronounced such a damning judgment on his gross + pretensions that even Germain could not prevent his final dismissal from + all employment under the Crown. + </p> + <p> + Wounded in the house of those who should have been his friends, thwarted + in every measure of his self-sacrificing rule, Carleton served on + devotedly through six weary months of 1778—the year in which a + vindictive government of Bourbon France became the first of the several + foreign enemies who made the new American republic an accomplished fact by + taking sides in a British civil war. His burden was now far more than any + man could bear. Yet he closed his answer to Germain's parting shot with + words which are as noble as his deeds: + </p> + <p> + 'I have long looked out for the arrival of a successor. Happy at last to + learn his near approach, I resign the important commands with which I have + been entrusted into hands less obnoxious to your Lordship. Thus, for the + King's service, as willingly I lay them down as, for his service, I took + them up.' + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII — GUARDING THE LOYALISTS + </h2> + <h3> + 1782-1783 + </h3> + <p> + Burgoyne's surrender marked the turning of the tide against the British + arms. True, the three campaigns of purely civil war, begun in 1775, had + reached no decisive result. True also that the Independence declared in + 1776 had no apparent chance of becoming an accomplished fact. But 1777 was + the fatal year for all that. The long political strife in England, the + gross mismanagement of colonial affairs under Germain, and the shameful + blunders that made Saratoga possible, all combined to encourage foreign + powers to take the field against the king's incompetent and distracted + ministry. France, Spain, and Holland joined the Americans in arms; while + Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, and all the German seaboard countries + formed the Armed Neutrality of the North. This made stupendous odds—no + less than ten to one. First of the ten came the political opposition at + home, which, in regard to the American rebellion itself, was at least + equal to the most powerful enemy abroad. Next came the four enemies in + arms: the American rebels, France, Spain, and Holland. Finally came the + five armed neutrals, all ready to use their navies on the slightest + provocation. + </p> + <p> + From this it may be seen that not one-half, perhaps not a quarter, of all + the various forces that won the Revolutionary war were purely American. + Nor were the Americans and their allies together victorious over the + mother country, but only over one sorely hampered party in it. Yet, from + the nature of the case, the Americans got much more than the lion's share + of the spoils, while, even in their own eyes, they seemed to have gained + honour and glory in the same proportion. The last real campaign was fought + in 1781 and ended with the British surrender at Yorktown. From that time + on peace was in the air. The unfortunate ministry, now on the eve of + political defeat at home, were sick of civil war and only too anxious for + a chance of uniting all parties against the foreign foes. But they had + first to settle with the Americans, who had considered themselves an + independent sovereign power for the last five years and who were + determined to make the most of England's difficulties. No darker New + Year's Day had ever dawned on any cabinet than that of 1782 on North's. In + spite of his change from repression to conciliation, and in spite of + dismissing Germain to the House of Lords with an ill-earned peerage, Lord + North found his majority dwindling away. At last, on the 20th of March, he + resigned. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile every real statesman in either party had felt that the crisis + required the master-hand of Carleton. With Germain, the empire-wrecker, + gone, Carleton would doubtless have served under any cabinet, for no + government could have done without him. But his actual commission came + through the Rockingham administration on the 4th of April. After three + quiet years of retirement at his country seat in Hampshire he was again + called upon to face a situation of extreme difficulty. For once, with a + wisdom rare enough in any age and almost unknown in that one, the + government gave him a free hand and almost unlimited powers. The only + questions over which he had no final power were those of making treaties. + He was appointed 'General and Commander-in-chief of all His Majesty's + forces within the Colonies lying in the Atlantic Ocean, from Nova Scotia + to the Floridas, and inclusive of Newfoundland and Canada should they be + attacked.' He was also appointed commissioner for executing the terms of + any treaty that might be made; and his instructions contained two passages + which bore eloquent witness to the universal confidence reposed in him. + 'It is impossible to judge of the precise situation at so great a + distance' and 'His Majesty's affairs are so situated that further + deliberations give way to instant decision. We are satisfied that whatever + inconveniences may arise they will be compensated by the presence of a + commander-in-chief of whose discretion, conduct, and ability His Majesty + has long entertained the highest opinion.' Thus the great justifier of + British rule beyond the seas arrived in New York on the 9th of May 1782 + with at least some hope of reconciling enough Americans to turn the scale + before it was too late. + </p> + <p> + For three months the prospect, though worse than he had anticipated, did + not seem utterly hopeless. It had been considerably brightened by Rodney's + great victory over the French fleet which was on its way to attack + Jamaica. But an unfortunate incident happened to be exasperating Loyalists + and revolutionists at this very time. Some revolutionists had killed a + Loyalist named Philip White, apparently out of pure hate. Some Loyalists, + under Captain Lippincott, then seized and hanged Joshua Huddy, a captain + in the Congress militia, out of sheer revenge. A paper left pinned on + Huddy's breast bore the inscription: 'Up goes Huddy for Philip White.' + Washington then demanded that Lippincott should be delivered up; and, on + Carleton's refusal, chose a British prisoner by lot instead. The lot fell + on a young Lieutenant Asgill of the Guards, whose mother appealed to the + king and queen of France and to their powerful minister, Vergennes. The + American Congress wanted blood for blood, which would have led to an + endless vendetta. But Vergennes pointed out that Asgill, a youth of + nineteen, was as much a prisoner of the king of France as of the + Continental Congress. At this the Congress gnashed its teeth, but had to + give way. + </p> + <p> + While the Asgill affair was still running its course, and embittering + Loyalists and rebels more than ever, Carleton was suddenly informed that + the government had decided to grant complete independence. This was more + than he could stand; and he at once asked to be recalled. He had been all + for honourable reconciliation from the first. He had been particularly + kind to his American prisoners in Canada and had purposely refrained from + annihilating the American army after the battle of Three Rivers. But he + was not prepared for independence. Nor had he been sent out with this + ostensible object in view. His official instructions were to inform the + Americans that 'the most liberal sentiments had taken root in the nation, + and that the narrow policy of monopoly was totally extinguished.' Now he + was called upon to surrender without having tried either his arms or his + diplomacy. With British sea-power beginning to reassert its age-long + superiority over all possible rivals, with practically all constitutional + points of dispute conceded to the revolutionists, and with the certain + knowledge that by no means the majority of all Americans were absolute + anti-British out-and-outers, he thought it no time to dismember the + Empire. His Intelligence Department had been busily collecting information + which seems surprising enough as we read it over to-day, but which was + based on the solid facts of that unhappy time. One member of the + Continental Congress was anxious to know what would become of the American + army if reconciliation should be effected on the understanding that there + would be no more imperial taxation or customs duty—would it become + part of the Imperial Army, or what? + </p> + <p> + But speculation on all such contingencies was suddenly cut short by the + complete change of policy at home. The idea was to end the civil war that + had divided the Empire and to concentrate on the foreign war that at least + united the people of Great Britain. No matter at what cost this policy had + now to be carried out; and Carleton was the only man that every one would + trust to do it. So, sacrificing his own feelings and convictions, he made + the best of an exceedingly bad business. He had to safeguard the prisoners + and Loyalists while preparing to evacuate the few remaining footholds of + British power in the face of an implacable foe. At the same time he had to + watch every other point in North America and keep in touch with his + excellent naval colleague, Admiral Digby, lest his own rear might be + attacked by the three foreign enemies of England. He was even ordered off + to the West Indies in the autumn. But counter-orders fortunately arrived + before he could start. Thus, surrounded by enemies in front and rear and + on both flanks, he spent the seven months between August and the following + March. + </p> + <p> + At the end of March 1783 news arrived that the preliminary treaty of peace + had been signed. The final treaty was not signed till his fifty-ninth + birthday, the 3rd of the following September. The signature of the + preliminaries simplified the naval and military situation. But it made the + situation of the Loyalists worse than ever. Compared with them the + prisoners of war had been most highly favoured from the first. And yet the + British prisoners had little to thank the Congress for. That they were + badly fed and badly housed was not always the fault of the Americans. But + that political favourites and underlings were allowed to prey on them was + an inexcusable disgrace. When a prisoner complained, he was told it was + the fault of the British government which would not pay for his keep! This + answer, so contrary to all the accepted usages of war, which reserve such + payments till after the conclusion of peace, was no empty gibe; for when, + some time before the preliminaries had been signed, the British and + American commissioners met to effect an exchange of prisoners, the + Americans began by claiming the immediate payment of what the British + prisoners had cost them. This of course broke up the meeting at once. In + the meantime the German prisoners in British pay were offered their + freedom at eighty dollars a head. Then farmers came forward to buy up + these prisoners at this price. But the farmers found competitors in the + recruiting sergeants, who urged the Germans, with only too much truth, not + to become 'the slaves of farmers' but to follow 'the glorious trade of + war' against their employers, the British government. To their honour be + it said, these Germans kept faith with the British, much to the surprise + of the Americans, who, like many modern writers, could not understand that + these foreign mercenaries took a professional pride in carrying out a + sworn contract, even when it would pay them better to break it. The + British prisoners were not put up for sale in the same way. But money sent + to them had a habit of disappearing on the road—one item mentioned + by Carleton amounted to six thousand pounds. + </p> + <p> + If such was the happy lot of prisoners during the war, what was the + wretched lot of Loyalists after the treaty of peace? The words of one of + the many petitions sent in to Carleton will suggest the answer. 'If we + have to encounter this inexpressible misfortune we beg consideration for + our lives, fortunes, and property, and not by mere terms of treaty.' What + this means cannot be appreciated unless we fully realize how strong the + spirit of hate and greed had grown, and why it had grown so strong. + </p> + <p> + The American Revolution had not been provoked by oppression, violence, and + massacre. The 'chains and slavery' of revolutionary orators was only a + figure of speech. The real causes were constitutional and personal; and + the actual crux of the question was one of payment for defence. Of course + there were many other causes at work. The social, religious, and political + grudges with which so many emigrants had left the mother country had not + been forgotten and were now revived. Commercial restrictions, however well + they agreed with the spirit of the age, were galling to such keen traders. + And the mere difference between colonies and motherland had produced + misunderstandings on both sides. But the main provocative cause was + Imperial taxation for local defence. The Thirteen Colonies could not have + held their own by land or sea, much less could they have conquered their + French rivals, without the Imperial forces, which, indeed, had done by far + the greater part of the fighting. How was the cost to be shared between + the mother country and themselves? The colonies had not been asked to pay + more than their share. The point was whether they could be taxed at all by + the Imperial government when they had no representation in the Imperial + parliament. The government said Yes. The colonies and the opposition at + home said No. As the colonies would not pay of their own accord, and as + the government did not see why they should be parasites on the armed + strength of the mother country, parliament proceeded to tax them. They + then refused to pay under compulsion; and a complete deadlock ensued. + </p> + <p> + The personal factors in this perhaps insoluble problem were still more + refractory than the constitutional. All the great questions of peace and + war and other foreign relations were settled by the mother country, which + was the only sovereign power and which alone possessed the force to make + any British rights respected. The Americans supplied subordinate means and + so became subordinate men when they and the Imperial forces worked + together. This, to use a homely phrase, made their leaders feel out of it. + Everything that breeds trouble between militiamen and regulars, colonials + and mother-countrymen, fanned the flame of colonial resentment till the + leaders were able to set their followers on fire. It was a leaders' + rebellion: there was no maddening cruelty or even oppression such as those + which have produced so many revolutions elsewhere. It was a leaders' + victory: there was no general feeling that death or independence were the + only alternatives from the first. But as the fight went on, and Loyalists + and revolutionists grew more and more bitter towards one another, the + revolutionary followers found the same cause for hating the Loyalists as + their leaders had found for hating the government. Many of the Loyalists + belonged to the well-educated and well-to-do classes. So the envy and + greed of the revolutionary followers were added to the personal and + political rage of their leaders. + </p> + <p> + The British government had done its best for the Loyalists in the treaty + of peace and had urged Carleton, who needed no urging in such a cause, to + do his best as well. But the treaty was made with the Congress; and the + Congress had no authority over the internal affairs of the thirteen new + states, each one of which could do as it liked with its own envied and + detested Loyalists. The revolutionists wanted some tangible spoils. The + safety of peace had made the trimmers equally 'patriotic' and equally + clamorous. So the confiscation of Loyalist property soon became the order + of the day. + </p> + <p> + It was not the custom of that age to confiscate private property simply + because the owners were on the losing side, still less to confiscate it + under local instead of national authority. But need, greed, and resentment + were stronger than any scruples. Need was the weakest, resentment the + strongest of all the animating motives. The American army was in rags and + its pay greatly in arrears while the British forces under Carleton were + fed, clothed, and paid in the regular way. But it was the passionate + resentment of the revolutionists that perverted this exasperating + difference into another 'intolerable wrong.' Washington was above such + meaner measures. But when he said the Loyalists were only fit for suicide, + and when Adams, another future president, said they ought to be hanged, it + is little wonder that lesser men thought the time had come for legal + looting. Those Loyalists who best understood the temper of their late + fellow-countrymen left at once. They were right. Even to be a woman was no + protection against confiscation in the case of Mary Phillips, + sister-in-law to Beverley Robinson, a well-known Loyalist who settled in + New Brunswick after the Revolution. Her case was not nearly so hard as + many another. But her historic love-affair makes it the most romantic. + Eight-and-twenty years before this General Braddock had marched to death + and defeat beside the Monongahela with two handsome and gallant young + aides-de-camp, Washington and Morris. Both fell in love with bewitching + Mary Phillips. But, while Washington left her fancy-free, Morris won her + heart and hand. Now that the strife was no longer against a foreign foe + but between two British parties, the former aides-de-camp found themselves + rivals in arms as well as love; for Colonel Morris was Carleton's + right-hand man in all that concerned the Loyalists, being the official + head of the department of Claims and Succour: + </p> + <p> + Morris, Morgan, and Carleton were the three busiest men in New York. Forty + thick manuscript volumes still show Maurice Morgan's assiduous work as + Carleton's confidential secretary. But Morris had the more heart-breaking + duty of the three, with no relief, day after sorrow-laden day, from the + anguishing appeals of Loyalist widows, orphans, and other ruined refugees. + No sooner had the dire news arrived that peace had been made with the + Congress, and that each of the thirteen United States was free to show + uncovenanted mercies towards its own Loyalists, than the exodus began. + Five thousand five hundred and ninety-three Loyalists sailed for Halifax + in the first convoy on the 17th of April with a strong recommendation from + Carleton to Governor Parr of Nova Scotia. 'Many of these are of the first + families and born to the fairest possessions. I therefore beg that you + will have them properly considered.' Shipping was scarce; for the + hostility of the whole foreign naval world had made enormous demands on + the British navy and mercantile marine. So six thousand Loyalists had to + march overland to join Carleton's vessels at New York, some of them from + as far south as Charlottesville, Virginia. They were carefully shepherded + by Colonel Alured Clarke, of whom we shall hear again. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Carleton and Washington had exchanged the usual compliments on + the conclusion of peace and had met each other on the 6th of May at + Tappan, where they discussed the exchange of prisoners. By the terms of + the treaty the British were to evacuate New York, their last foothold in + the new republic, with all practicable dispatch; so, as summer changed + into autumn, the Congress became more and more impatient to see the last + of them. But Carleton would not go without the Loyalists, whose many + tributary streams of misery were still flowing into New York. In + September, when the treaty of peace was ratified in Europe, the Congress + asked Carleton point-blank to name the date of his own departure. But he + replied that this was impossible and that the more the Loyalists were + persecuted the longer he would be obliged to stay. The correspondence + between him and the Congress teems with complaints and explanations. The + Americans were very anxious lest the Loyalists should take away any goods + and chattels not their own, particularly slaves. Carleton was disposed to + consider slaves as human beings, though slavery was still the law in the + British oversea dominions, and so the Americans felt uneasy lest he might + discriminate between their slaves and other chattels. Reams of the + Carleton papers are covered with descriptive lists of claimed and + counter-claimed niggers—Julius Caesars, Jupiters, Venuses, Dianas, + and so on, who were either 'stout wenches' and 'likely fellows' or + 'incurably lazy' and 'old worn-outs.' + </p> + <p> + Perhaps, when a slave wished to remain British, and his case was nicely + balanced between the claimants and the counter-claimants, Carleton was a + little inclined to give him the benefit of the doubt. But with other forms + of disputed property he was too severe to please all Loyalists. A typical + case of restitution in Canada will show how differently the two + governments viewed the rights of private property. Mercier and Halsted, + two Quebec rebels, owned a wharf and the frame of a warehouse in 1775. It + was Arnold's intercepted letter to Mercier that gave Carleton's + lieutenant, Cramahe, the first warning of danger from the south. Halsted + was Major Caldwell's miller at the time and took advantage of his position + to give his employer's flour to Arnold's army, in which he served as + commissary throughout the siege. Just after the peace of 1783 Mercier and + Halsted laid claim to their former property, which they had abandoned for + eight years and on which the government had meanwhile built a provision + store, making use of the original frame. The case was complicated by many + details too long for notice here. But the British government finally gave + the two rebels the original property, plus thirteen years' rent, less the + cost of government works erected in the meantime. All the documents are + still in Quebec. + </p> + <p> + Property was troublesome enough. But people were worse. And Carleton's + difficulties increased as the autumn wore on. The first great harrying of + the Loyalists drove more than thirty thousand from their homes; and about + twenty-five thousand of these embarked at New York. Then there were the + remnants of twenty Loyalist corps to pension, settle, or employ. There + were also the British prisoners to receive, besides ten thousand German + mercenaries. Add to all this the regular garrison and the general + oversight of every British interest in North America, from the Floridas to + Labrador, remember the implacable enemy in front, and we may faintly + imagine what Carleton had to do before he could report that 'His Majesty's + troops and such remaining Loyalists as chose to emigrate were successfully + withdrawn on the 25th [of November] without the smallest circumstance of + irregularity.' + </p> + <p> + Thus ended one of the greatest acts in the drama of the British Empire, + the English-speaking peoples, or the world; and thus, for the second time, + Carleton, now in his sixtieth year, apparently ended his own long service + in America. He had left Canada, after saving her from obliteration, + because, so long as he remained her governor, the war minister at home + remained her enemy. He had then returned to serve in New York, and had + stayed there to the bitter end, because there was no other man whom the + new government would trust to command the rearguard of the Empire in + retreat. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX — FOUNDING MODERN CANADA + </h2> + <h3> + 1786-1796 + </h3> + <p> + Carleton now enjoyed two years of uninterrupted peace at his country seat + in England. His active career seemed to have closed at last. He had no + taste for party politics. He was not anxious to fill any position of civil + or military trust, even if it had been pressed upon him. And he had said + farewell to America for good and all when he had left New York. Though as + full of public spirit as before and only just turned sixty, he bid fair to + spend the rest of his life as an English country gentleman. His young wife + was well contented with her lot. His manly boys promised to become worthy + followers of the noble profession of arms. And the overseeing of his + little estate occupied his time very pleasantly indeed. Like most healthy + Englishmen he was devoted to horses, and, unlike some others, he was very + successful with his thoroughbreds. + </p> + <p> + He had first bought a place near Maidenhead, beside the Thames, which is + nowhere lovelier than in that sylvan neighbourhood. Then he bought the + present family seat of Greywill Hill near the little village of Odiham in + Hampshire. As an ex-governor and commander-in-chief, a county magnate, a + personage of great importance to the Empire, and the one victorious + British general in the unhappy American war, he had more than earned a + peerage. But it was not till 1786, on the eve of his sixty-second + birthday, and at a time when his services were urgently required again, + that he received it. Needless to say this peerage had nothing whatever to + do with his acceptance of another self-sacrificing duty. It was not given + till several months after he had promised to return to Canada; and he + would certainly have refused it if it had been held out to him as an + inducement to go there. He became Baron Dorchester and was granted the not + very extravagant addition to his income of a thousand pounds a year + payable during four lives, his own, his wife's, and those of his two + eldest sons. His elevation to the House of Lords met with the almost + unanimous approval of his fellow-peers, in marked contrast to the open + hostility they had shown towards his old enemy, Lord George Germain, when + that vile wrecker had been 'kicked upstairs' among them. The Carleton + motto, crest, and supporters are all most appropriate. The crest is a + strong right arm with the hand clenched firmly on an arrow. The motto is + Quondam his vicimus armis—We used to conquer with these arms. The + supporters are two beavers, typifying Canada, while their respective + collars, one a naval the other a military coronet, show how her British + life was won and saved and has been kept. + </p> + <p> + Carleton was a man of great reserve and self-control. But his kindly + nature must have responded to the cordial welcome which he received on his + return to Quebec in October 1786. It was not without reason that the + people of Canada rejoiced to have him back as their leader. All that the + Indians imagined the Great White Father to be towards themselves he was in + reality towards both red man and white. Stern, when the occasion forced + him to be stern, just in all his dealings between man and man, dignified + and courteous in all his ways, a soldier through every inch of his + stalwart six feet, he was a ruler with whom no one ever dreamt of taking + liberties. But neither did any deserving one in trouble ever hesitate to + lay the most confidential case before him in the full assurance that his + head and heart were at the service of all committed to his care. And no + other governor, before his time or since, ever inspired his followers with + such a firm belief that all would turn out for the best so long as he was + in command. + </p> + <p> + This power of inspiring confidence was now badly needed. Everything in + Canada was still provisional. Owing to the war the Quebec Act of 1774 had + never been thoroughly enforced. Then, when the war was over, the Loyalists + arrived and completely changed the circumstances which the act had been + designed to meet. The next constitution, the Canada Act of 1791, was of a + very different character. During the seventeen years between these two + constitutions all that could be done was to make the best of a very + confusing state of flux. Not that the Quebec Act was a dead letter—far + from it—but simply that it could not go beyond restoring the + privileges of the French-Canadian priests and seigneurs within the area + then effectively occupied by the French-Canadian race. Carleton, as we + have seen, had faced its problem for the first four years. Haldimand had + carried on the government under its provisions for the following six. + Hamilton and Hope, successive lieutenant-governors, had bridged the two + years between Haldimand's retirement and Carleton's second appointment. + Now Carleton was to pick up the threads and make what he could of the + tangled skein for the next five years. Haldimand had not been popular with + either of the two chief parties into which the leading French Canadians + were divided. The seigneurs had nothing like the same regard for a Swiss + soldier of fortune that they had for aristocratic British commanders like + Murray and Carleton. The clergy also preferred these Anglicans to such a + strong Swiss Protestant. The habitants and agitators, who were far less + favourable to the new regime, had passionately resented Haldimand's + firmness at times of crisis. But, despite all this French-Canadian animus, + he was not such an absolute martinet as some writers would have us think. + The war with France and with the American Revolutionists required strong + government in Canada; while the influx of Loyalists had introduced an + entirely new set of most perplexing circumstances. On the whole, Haldimand + had done very well in spite of many personal and public drawbacks; and it + was through no special fault of his, nor yet of Hope's, that the threads + which Carleton picked up formed such a perversely tangled skein. + </p> + <p> + The troubles that now dogged the great conciliator's every step were of + all kinds—racial, religious, social, political, military, + diplomatic, legal. The confusion resulting from the intermixture of French + and English civil laws had become a great deal more confounded since he + had left Canada eight years before. The old proportions of races and + religions to each other had changed most disturbingly. The Loyalists were + of quite a different social class from the English-speaking immigrants of + earlier days. They wanted a parliament, public schools, and many other + things new to the country; and they were the sort of people who had a + right to have them. The problem of defence was always a vexed one with the + inadequate military forces at hand and the insuperable difficulties + concerning the militia. The British still held the Western forts pending + the settlement of the frontier and the execution of the treaty of peace in + full. This naturally annoyed the American government and gave Carleton + endless trouble. But more serious still was the ceaseless western march of + the American backwoodsmen, who were everywhere in conflict with the + Indians. The Indians, in their turn, were confused between the British and + Americans under the new conditions. They and their ever-receding rights + and territories had not been mentioned in the treaty. But, seeing that + they would be better off under British than under American rule, they were + inclined to take sides accordingly. There were now no openly hostile sides + to take. But, for all that, the British posts in the hinterland looked + like weak little islands which might be suddenly engulfed in the sea of + Indian troubles raging round them. Then, at the other end of the British + line, there were the three maritime provinces to watch over. New Brunswick + had been divided off from Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island had been + taken from the direct supervision of the home authorities and placed under + the command of the new governor at Quebec. Thus Carleton had to deal + directly with everything that happened from the far West to Gaspe, while + dealing indirectly with the three maritime provinces and all the troubles + that proved too much for their own lieutenant-governors. There was no + chance of concentrating on one thing at a time. Nothing would wait. The + governor had to watch the writhing tangle as a whole during every minute + he devoted to any one kinked and knotted thread. + </p> + <p> + Fortunately there were some good men in office on both sides of the + Atlantic. Lords Sydney and Grenville, the two cabinet ministers with whom + Carleton had most to do, were both sensible and sympathetic. Years + afterwards Grenville, the favourite cousin of Pitt, became the colleague + of Fox at the head of the celebrated 'Ministry of All the Talents.' Hope + was an acceptable lieutenant-governor, and his successor, Sir Alured + Clarke, was better still. Francois Bailly, the coadjutor Roman Catholic + bishop of Quebec, who had gone to England as French tutor to Carleton's + children, was a most enlightened cleric. So too was Charles Inglis, the + Anglican bishop of Nova Scotia, appointed in 1787. He was the first + Canadian bishop of the Anglican communion and his diocese comprised the + whole of British North America. William Smith, the new chief justice, was + as different from Carleton's last chief justice, Livius, as angels are + from devils. Smith had been an excellent chief justice of his native New + York in the old colonial days, and, like Inglis, was a very ardent + Loyalist. He respected all reasonable French-Canadian peculiarities. But + he favoured the British-Constitutional way of 'broadening down from + precedent to precedent' rather than the French way of referring to a + supposedly infallible written regulation. We shall soon meet him as a + far-seeing statesman. But he well deserves an honoured place in Canadian + history for his legal services alone. To him, more than to any other man, + is due the nicely balanced adjustments which eventually harmonized the + French and English codes into a body of laws adapted to the extraordinary + circumstances of the province of Quebec. + </p> + <p> + Besides the committee on laws Carleton had nominated three other active + committees of his council, one on police, another on education, and a + third on trade and commerce. The police committee was of the usual kind + and dealt with usual problems in the usual way. But the education + committee brought out all the vexed questions of French and English, + Protestant and Roman Catholic, progressive and reactionary. Strangely + enough, the sharpest personal controversy was that between Hubert, the + Roman Catholic bishop of Quebec, and his coadjutor Bailly. Hubert + enumerated all the institutions already engaged in educational work and + suggested that 'rest and be thankful' was the only proper attitude for the + committee to assume. But Bailly very neatly pointed out that his respected + superior's real opinions could not be those attributed to him over his own + signature because they were at variance with the facts. Hubert had said + that the cures were spreading education with most commendable zeal, had + repudiated the base insinuation that only three or four people in each + parish could read and write, and had wound up by thinking that while there + was so much land to clear the farmers would do better to keep their sons + at home than send them to a university, where they would be under + professors so 'unprejudiced' as to have no definite views on religion. + Bailly argued that the bishop could not mean what these words seemed to + imply, as the logical conclusion would be to wait till Canada was cleared + right up to the polar circle. In the end the committee made three very + sanguine recommendations: a free common school in every parish, a + secondary school in every town or district, and an absolutely + non-sectarian central university. This educational ladder was never set + up. There was nothing to support either end of it. The financial side was + one difficulty. The Jesuits' estates were intended to be made over into + educational endowments under government control. But Amherst's claim that + they had been granted to him in 1760 was not settled for forty years; and + by that time all chance of carrying out the committee's intentions was + seen to be hopeless. + </p> + <p> + Commerce was another burning question and one of much more immediate + concern. In 1791 the united populations of all the provinces amounted to + only a quarter of a million, of whom at least one-half were French + Canadians. Quebec and Montreal had barely ten thousand citizens apiece. + But the commercial classes, mostly English-speaking, had greatly increased + in numbers, ability, and social standing. The camp-following gangs of + twenty years before had now either disappeared or sunk down to their + appropriate level. So petitions from the 'British merchants' required and + received much more consideration than formerly. The Loyalists had not yet + had time to start in business. All their energies were needed in hewing + out their future homes. But two parts of the American Republic, Vermont + and Kentucky, were very anxious to do business with the British at any + reasonable price. Some of their citizens were even ready for a change of + allegiance if the terms were only good enough. Vermont wanted a 'free + trade' outlet to the St Lawrence by way of the Richelieu. The rapids + between St Johns and Chambly lay in British territory. But Vermont was + ready to join in building a canal and would even become British to make + sure. The old Green Mountain Boys had changed their tune. Ethan Allen + himself had buried the hatchet and, like his brother, become Carleton's + friendly correspondent. He frankly explained that what Vermonters really + wanted was 'property not liberty' and added that they would stand no + coercion from the American government. About the same time Kentucky was + bent on getting an equally 'free trade' outlet to the Gulf of Mexico by + way of the Mississippi. The fact that France Spain, the British Empire, + and the United States might all be involved in war over it did not trouble + the conspirators in the least. The central authority of the new Republic + was still weak. The individual states were still ready to fly asunder. + Federal taxation was greatly feared. Anything that savoured of federal + interference with state rights was passionately resented. The general + spirit of the westerners was that of the exploiting pioneer in a virgin + wilderness—a law unto itself alone. There were various plans for + opening the coveted Mississippi. One was to join Spain. Another was to + seize New Orleans, turn out the French, and bring in the British. Then, to + make the plot complete, the French minister to the United States was + asking permission to make a tour through Canada at the very time when + Carleton was sending home reams of documents bearing on the impending + troubles. The letters exchanged on this subject are perfect models of + politeness. But Carleton's answer was an emphatic No. + </p> + <p> + Foreign complications were thickening fast. The French Revolution had + already begun, though its effect was not yet felt in Canada. The American + government was anxiously watching its refractory states, while an + anti-British political party was making headway in the South. As if this + was not enough to engage whatever attention Carleton had to spare from the + internal affairs of Canada, he suddenly heard that the Spaniards had been + seizing British vessels trading to a British post on Vancouver Island. + [Footnote: See Pioneers of the Pacific Coast in this Series.] This Nootka + Affair, which nearly brought on a war with Spain in 1790, was settled in + London and Madrid. But the threat of war added to Carleton's anxieties. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the governor was busily employed with an immigration problem. It + was desirable that the English-speaking immigrants should settle on the + land with the least possible friction between them and the French + Canadians. The French Canadians differed among themselves. But no such + differences brought them any closer to their new neighbours on questions + of land settlement. The French had granted lands in seigneuries. The + British would hear of nothing but free and common socage. French farms + were measured by the arpent and were staked out in long and narrow + oblongs. British farms were measured by the acre and staked out 'on the + square.' Language, laws, religion, manners and customs, ways of life, were + also different. So there was hardly any intermixture of settlements. The + French Canadians remained where they were. Most of the new Anglo-Canadians + settled in the Maritime Provinces or moved west into what is now Ontario. + A few settled in rural Quebec on lands outside the line of seigneuries. + The Eastern Townships, that part of the province lying east of the + Richelieu and nearest the American frontier, absorbed many English, Irish, + and Scots, as well as a good many Americans who were attracted by cheap + land. Ontario, or Upper Canada, received still more Americans, who were to + be a thorn in the side of the British during the War of 1812. + </p> + <p> + But Carleton's work comprised much more than this. There were the Church + of England, the Post Office, a refractory lieutenant-governor down in + Prince Edward Island, two royal visitors, and many other distracting + matters. The only Anglican see thus far established was at Halifax; but + the bishop there had authority over the whole country and the government + intended to establish the Church of England in Canada and endow it. The + Presbyterians also petitioned for the establishment of the Scottish + Church. The fortunes or misfortunes of the Clergy Reserves belong to + another chapter of Canadian history. But the root of their good or evil + was planted in the time of Carleton. The postal service was surrounded by + enormous difficulties—the vast extent of wild country, the few + towns, the long winters, the poverty of the people. The question of the + winter port was even then a live one between St John and Halifax. Each of + these towns asserted its advantages and promised twelve trips a year and + connection with Quebec overland by means of walking postmen till a bush + road should be cut from Quebec to the sea. In Prince Edward Island the old + lieutenant-governor, Walter Patterson, declined to make way for the new + one, Edmund Fanning. In the end Patterson gave up the contest. But the + incident, trivial as it now appears, shows what a governor-general had to + face in the early days when each province had queer little ways of its + own. Patterson had no precise official reason. But he said he could not go + home to answer charges he did not understand and leave an island which had + been his very successful hobby for so many years! The people sided with + him so vigorously that time had to be given them to cool down before the + transfer could be peaceably effected. + </p> + <p> + A judge whose court is in perpetual session or a commander whose + inadequate forces are continually surrounded by prospective enemies has + little time for the amenities of purely social life. So Carleton generally + left his young consort to rule the viceregal court at the Chateau St Louis + with a perfect blend of London and Versailles. Two Princes of the Blood, + however, demanded more than the usual attention from the governor. Prince + William Henry, afterwards King William IV, was the first member of the + Royal Family to set foot in the New World when he arrived in H.M.S. + Pegasus in 1787. He was the proverbial jolly Jack Tar, extremely affable + to everybody; and he quickly won golden opinions from all who met him, + except perhaps from Lady Dorchester and sundry would-be partners for his + duty dances. Philippe Aubert de Gaspe and other privileged chroniclers + record with slightly shocked delight how often he would break loose from + Lady Dorchester's designing care, long before she thought it right for him + to do so, and 'command' his partners for their pretty faces instead of by + precedence. At Sorel the people were so carried away by their enthusiasm + that they insisted on changing the name of their little town to William + Henry. Happily this name never took root in public sentiment and the old + one soon came back to stay. + </p> + <p> + The second member of the Royal Family to come to Canada was Prince Edward, + Duke of Kent, fourth son of George III, father of Queen Victoria and + grandfather of Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught, who became the first + royal governor-general in 1911, exactly a hundred and twenty years later. + The Duke of Kent would have gladly returned to Quebec as governor-general, + and the people would have gladly welcomed him. But he was not a favourite + with the government at home, and so he never came. There was no doubt + about his being a popular favourite in Quebec during the three years he + spent there as colonel of the 7th Fusiliers. Nor has he been forgotten to + the present day. Kent House is still the name of his quarters in the town + as well as of his country residence at Montmorency Falls seven miles away, + while the only new opening ever made in the walls is called Kent Gate. + </p> + <p> + The duke made fast friends with several of the seigneurial families, more + especially with the de Salaberrys, whose manor-house at Beauport stood + half-way between Montmorency and Quebec and not far from Montcalm's + headquarters in 1759. The de Salaberrys were a military family. All the + sons went into the Army and one became the hero of Chateauguay in the War + of 1812. But the duke mixed freely with many other people than the local + aristocracy. He was young, high-spirited, and loved adventure, as was + proved by his subsequent gallantry at Martinique. He was also fond of + driving round incognito, a habit which on at least one occasion obliged + him to put his skill at boxing to good use. This was at Charlesbourg, a + village near Quebec, where he was watching the fun at the first election + ever held. Perhaps, from a meticulously constitutional point of view, the + scene of a hotly contested election was not quite the place for Princes of + the Blood. But, however that might be, when the duke saw two electors + pommelling a third, who happened to be a friend of his, he dashed in to + the rescue and floored both of them with a neatly planted right and left. + One of these men, who lived to see King Edward VII arrive in 1860, as + Prince of Wales, always took the greatest pride in telling successive + generations of voters how Queen Victoria's father had knocked him down. + </p> + <p> + Like his brother before him the duke was very fond of dancing, and kept + many a reluctant senior and many a tired-out chaperone up till all hours + at the grand ball given in honour of his twenty-fourth birthday. Also like + his brother he was inclined to reduce his duty dances to a minimum, much + to Lady Dorchester's dismay. She had gone home with her husband for two + years shortly after the duke's arrival. But she had seen enough of him, + and was to see enough again on her return, to make her regret the good old + times of more exacting ceremony. To her dying day, half a century later, + she kept up a prodigious stateliness of manner. Before meals she expected + the whole company to assemble and remain standing till she had made her + royal progress through the room. She was a living anachronism for many + years before her death, with her high-heeled, gold-buttoned, + scarlet-coloured shoes, her Marie-Antoinette coiffure raised high above + her head and interlaced with ribbons, her elaborately gorgeous dress, her + intricate array of ornaments, and her long, jet-black, official-looking + cane. But she was no anachronism to herself; for she still lived in the + light of other days, in the fondly remembered times when, as the + vice-reine of the Chateau St Louis, she helped her consort to settle nice + points of etiquette and maintain a dignity befitting His Majesty's chosen + representative. How did the seigneurs rank among themselves and with the + leading English-speaking people? Who were to dance in the state minuet? + Should dancing cease when the bishops came in, and for how long? Was that + curtsy dropped quite low enough to her viceregal self, and did that + debutante offer her blushing cheek in quite the proper way to Carleton + when he graciously gave her the presentation kiss? How immeasurably far + away it all seems now, that stately little court where the echoes of a + dead Versailles lived on for seven years after the fall of the Bastille! + And yet there is still one citizen o Quebec whose early partners were + chaperoned by ladies who had danced the minuet with Lord and Lady + Dorchester. + </p> + <p> + The two royal visits were not without their political significance—using + the word political in its larger meaning. But the three years between them—that + is, 1788-89-90—formed the really pregnant time of constitutional + development, when the Canada Act of 1791 was taking shape in the minds of + its chief authors —Carleton and Smith in Canada, Grenville and Pitt + in England. The Loyalists and the English-speaking merchants of Quebec and + Montreal took good care to make themselves heard at every stage of the + proceedings. Most French Canadians would have preferred to be left without + the suspected blessings of a parliament. The clergy and seigneurs wished + for a continuance of the Quebec Act, and the habitants wanted they knew + not what, provided it would enable them to get more and give less. The + English-speaking people, on the other hand, were all for a parliament. But + they differed widely as to what kind of parliament would suit their + purpose best. As a rule they acquiesced, with a more or less bad grace, in + the necessity of admitting French Canadians on the same terms as + themselves. If Canada, without the Maritime Provinces, should be taken as + a whole then the French Canadians would only be in a moderate majority. + If, however, two provinces, Upper Canada and Lower Canada, were to be + erected, then the English-speaking minority in Lower Canada would be + outvoted three or four to one. + </p> + <p> + There was a third alternative: no less than the establishment of a regular + Dominion of British North America in 1790, a step which might have saved + much trouble between that time and the Confederation of 1867. William + Smith was its strongest advocate, Carleton its most cautious and judicious + supporter. The chief justice was in favour of federating Upper and Lower + Canada with the Maritime Provinces and Newfoundland into a single + dominion. Each of the six provinces would have its own parliament under a + lieutenant-governor, while there would also be a central parliament under + a governor-general. Carleton forwarded the suggestion to the home + government; but he nowhere committed himself to any very definite scheme. + His own preference was for keeping the existing province of Quebec a + little longer, then dividing it, and afterwards drawing in the other + provinces. The chief justice preferred to make a constitution. The + governor preferred to let it grow. The home government's preference could + not be stated better than in Grenville's dispatch to Carleton of the 20th + of October 1789: 'The general object is to assimilate the constitution to + that of Great Britain as nearly as the difference arising from the manners + of the People and from the present situation of the Province will admit. + ... Attention is due to the prejudices and habits of the French + Inhabitants and every caution should be used to continue to them the + enjoyment of those civil and religious Rights which were secured to them + by the Capitulation or which have since been granted by the liberal and + enlightened spirit of the British Government.' Except for its rather too + self-righteous conclusion this confidential announcement really is an + admirable statement of the 'liberal and enlightened' views which prevailed + at Westminster. + </p> + <p> + The bill, postponed in 1790, was introduced by Pitt himself in the House + of Commons on the 7th of March 1791. Sixteen days later Adam Lymburner, a + representative merchant of Quebec, whom Carleton described as 'a quiet, + decent man, not unfriendly to the administration,' pleaded for hours + before the committee of the House of Commons against the division of the + province. All the English-speaking minority in the prospective province of + Lower Canada were afraid of being swamped by the French-Canadian vote, and + so of being hampered in liberty and trade. The London merchants naturally + backed Lymburner. Fox opposed the bill as not being liberal enough. Burke + flared up into the speech which led to his final breach with Fox. Pitt, + the pilot who was to weather far greater storms in the years to come, + eventually got the bill through both Houses with substantial majorities. + On the 14th of May it became law. Quebec and Ontario were parted for good, + notwithstanding the legislative union of fifty years later. + </p> + <p> + The Canada Act, or, as it is better known, the Constitutional Act, cut off + Upper Canada. Lower Canada was now the old Quebec reduced to its right + size, endowed with clarified laws and a brand-new parliament, and made as + acceptable as possible to the English-speaking minority without any + injustice to the vastly greater French majority. Quebec, Three Rivers, + Montreal, and Sorel got each two members in the new parliament, an + allotment which ensured a certain representation of the 'British' + merchants. The franchise was the same in both provinces: in the country + parts a forty-shilling freehold or its equivalent, and in the towns either + a five-pound annual ownership value or twice that for a tenant. The Crown + gave up all taxation except commercial duties, which were to be applied + solely for the benefit of the provinces. Lands outside the seigneuries + were to be in free and common socage, while seigneurial tenure itself + could be converted into freehold on petition. One-seventh of the Crown + lands was reserved for the endowment of the Church of England. The Crown + kept all rights of veto and appointment. The legislatures were small in + membership. The Upper Houses could be made hereditary; though the actual + tenure was never more than for life during good behaviour. Carleton + favoured the hereditary principle whenever it could be applied with + advantage. But he knew the ups and downs of colonial fortunes too well to + believe that Canada was ready for any such experiment. + </p> + <p> + No one dreamt of having what is now known as responsible government, that + is, an executive sitting in the legislature and responsible to the + legislature for its acts. Nor was the greatest of all parliamentary powers—the + power of the purse—given outright. This, however, was owing to + simple force of circumstances and not to any desire of abridging the + liberties of the people. The fact is that at this time eighty per cent of + the total civil expenditure had to be paid by the home government. It is + frequently ignored that the mother country paid most of Canada's bills + till long after the War of 1812, that she paid nearly all the naval and + military accounts for longer still, and that she has borne far more than + her own share of the common defence down to the present day. + </p> + <p> + The new constitution came into force on the 26th of December 1791; and, + for the first time, Upper and Lower Canada had the right to elect their + own representatives. Assemblies, of course, were nothing new in British + North America. Nova Scotia had an assembly in 1758, the year that + Louisbourg was taken. Prince Edward Island had one in 1773, the year + before the Quebec Act was passed. New Brunswick had one in 1786, the year + Carleton began his second term. But assemblies still had all the charm of + novelty in 'Canada proper.' Perhaps it would be more appropriate to say + that Upper Canada experienced more charm than novelty while Lower Canada + experienced more novelty than charm. The Anglo-Canadians in all five + provinces were used to parliaments in America. Their ancestors had been + used to them for centuries in England. So the little parliament of Upper + Canada at Newark passed as many bills in five weeks as that of Lower + Canada passed in seven months. The fact that there were fifty members in + the Assembly at Quebec, while there were only half as many in both + chambers at Newark, doubtless had something to do with it. But the fact + that the Quebec parliament was an innovation, while the one at Newark was + a simple development, had very much more. + </p> + <p> + There is no need to follow the course of legislation in any of the five + provinces. As most of the civil and practically all the naval and military + expenditure had to be met by the Imperial Treasury, and as Canada was five + parts and no whole from her own parliamentary point of view, the + legislation required for a grand total of two hundred and fifty thousand + people could not be of the national kind. But at Quebec the scene, the + setting, and the unheard-of innovation itself all give a special interest + to every detail of the opening ceremony on the 17th of December 1792. + </p> + <p> + Carleton was in England, so the Speech from the Throne was read by the + lieutenant-governor, Major-General Sir Alured Clarke. Half of the Upper + House and two-thirds of the Lower were French Canadians. A French-Canadian + member was nominated for the speakership and elected unanimously. Both + races were for the most part represented by members whose official title + of 'Honourable Gentlemen' was not at all a misnomer. The French members of + the Assembly were half distrustful both of it and of themselves. But they + knew how to add grace and dignity to a very notable occasion. The old + Bishop's Palace served as the Houses of Parliament and so continued for + many years to come. It was a solid rather than a stately pile. But it + stood on a commanding site at the head of Mountain Hill between the Grand + Battery and the Chateau St Louis. Every one was in uniform or in what + corresponded to court dress. Round the throne stood many officers in their + red and gold, conspicuous among them the Duke of Kent. In front sat the + Executive and Legislative Councillors, corresponding to the modern cabinet + ministers and senators. Their roll, as well as the Assembly's, bore many + names that recalled the glories of the old regime—St Ours, + Longueuil, de Lanaudiere, Boucherville, de Salaberry, de Lotbiniere, and + many more. The Council chamber was crowded in every part long before the + governor arrived. 'The Ladies introduced into the House' were 'without + Hat, Cloak, or Bonnet,' the 'Doorkeeper of His Majesty's Council' having + taken good care to see them 'leave the same in the Great Committee Room + previous to their Introduction.' 'The Ladies attached to His Excellency's + Suite' were admitted 'within the railing or body of the House' and + 'accommodated with the seats of the members as far as possible.' Outwardly + it was all very much the same in principle as the opening of any other + British parliament—the escort, guard, and band, the royal salute, + the brilliant staff, the scarlet cloth of state, the few and quiet members + of the Upper House, the many of the Lower, jostling each other to get a + good place near Mr Speaker at the bar, the radiant ladies, the crowded + galleries corniced with inquiring faces and craned necks, the Gentlemen + Ushers and their quaint bows, the Speech from the Throne and the + occasional lifting of His Excellency's hat, the retiring in full state; + and then the ebbing away of all the sightseers, their eddying currents of + packed humanity in the halls and passages, the porch, the door, the + emptying street. But inwardly what a world of difference! For here was the + first British parliament in which legislators of foreign birth and blood + and language were shaping British laws as British subjects. + </p> + <p> + In September 1793 Carleton returned from his two years' absence and was + welcomed more warmly than ever. Quebec blazed with illuminations. The + streets swarmed with eager crowds. The first session of the first + parliament had been better than any one had dared to hope for. There was a + general tendency to give the new constitution a fair trial; and all + classes looked to Carleton to make the harmony that had been attained both + permanent and universal. Dr Jacob Mountain, first Anglican bishop of + Quebec, also arrived shortly afterwards and was warmly greeted by the + Roman Catholic prelate, who embraced him, saying, 'It's time you came to + shepherd your own flock.' Mountain was statesman and churchman in one. He + had been chosen by the elder Pitt to be the younger's tutor and then + chosen by the younger to be his private secretary. The fact that the + Anglican bishop of Quebec was then and for many years afterwards a sort of + Canadian chaplain-general to the Imperial troops and that most of the + leading officials and leading Loyalists belonged to the Church of England + made him a personage of great importance. It was fortunate that, as in the + case of Inglis down in Halifax, the choice could not have fallen on a + better man or on one who knew better how to win the esteem of communions + other than his own. This same year (1793) died William Smith, full of + honours. But the next year his excellent successor arrived in the person + of William Osgoode, the new chief justice, an eminent English lawyer who + had served for two years as chief justice of Upper Canada and whose name + is commemorated in Osgoode Hall, Toronto. He had come out on the distinct + understanding that no fees were to be attached to his office, only a + definite salary. This was a great triumph for Carleton, who certainly + practised what he preached. + </p> + <p> + So far, so good. But the third conspicuous new arrival, John Graves + Simcoe, lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, who had come out the year + before, was a great deal less to Carleton's liking. Simcoe was a good + officer who threw himself heart and soul into the work of settling the new + province. He won the affectionate regard of his people and is gratefully + remembered by their posterity. But he was too exclusively of his own + province in his civil and military outlook and was disposed to ignore + Carleton as his official chief. Moreover, he was appointed in spite of + Carleton's strongly expressed preference for Sir John Johnson, who, to all + appearances, was the very man for the post. Sir William Johnson, the first + baronet, had been the great British leader of the Indians and a person of + much consequence throughout America. His son John inherited many of his + good qualities, thoroughly understood the West and its problems, was a + devoted Loyalist all through the Revolution, when he raised the King's + Royal Regiment of New York, and would have been second only to Carleton + himself in the eyes of all Canadians, old and new. But the government + thought his private interests too great for his public duty—an + excellent general principle, though misapplied in this particular case. At + any rate, Simcoe came instead, and the friction began at once. Simcoe's + commission clearly made him subordinate to Carleton. Yet Simcoe made + appointments without consulting his superior and argued the point after he + had been brought to book. He communicated directly with the home + government over his superior's head and was not rebuked by the minister to + whom he wrote—Henry Dundas, afterwards first Viscount Melville. + Dundas, indeed, was half inclined to snub Carleton. Simcoe desired to + establish military posts wherever he thought they would best promote + immediate settlement, a policy which would tend to sap both the + government's resources and the self-reliance of the settlers. He also + wished to fix the capital at London instead of York, now Toronto, and to + make York instead of Kingston the naval base for Lake Ontario. Thus the + friction continued. At length Carleton wrote to the Duke of Portland, + Pitt's home secretary, saying: 'All command, civil and military, being + thus disorganized and without remedy, your Grace will, I hope, excuse my + anxiety for the arrival of any successor, who may have authority + sufficient to restore order, lest these insubordinations should extend to + mutiny among the troops and sedition among the people.' That was in + November 1795. The government, however, took no decisive action, and next + year both Carleton and Simcoe left Canada for ever. + </p> + <p> + When this unfortunate quarrel began (1793) Canada was in grave danger of + being attacked by both the French and the American republics. The danger, + however, had been greatly lessened by Jay's Treaty of 1794 and was to be + still further lessened (1796) by the transfer of the Western Posts to the + United States and by the presidential election which gave the Federal + party a new lease of power, though no longer under Washington. Had + Carleton remained in Canada these felicitous events would have offered him + a unique opportunity of strengthening the friendly ties between the + British and the Americans in a way which might have saved some trouble + later on. But that was not to be. + </p> + <p> + To understand the dangers which threatened Canada during the last three + years of Carleton's rule we must go back to February 1793, when + revolutionary France declared war on England and there then began that + titanic struggle which only ended twenty-two years later on the field of + Waterloo. The Americans were divided into two parties, one disposed to be + friendly towards Great Britain, the other unfriendly. The names these + parties then bore must not be confused with those borne by their political + offspring at the present day. The Federals, progenitors of the present + Republicans, formed the friendly party under Washington, Hamilton, and + Jay. The Republicans, progenitors of the present Democrats, formed the + unfriendly party under Jefferson, Madison, and Randolph. The Federals were + in power, the Republicans in opposition. When the Republicans got into + power in 1801 under Jefferson they pursued their anti-British policy till + they finally brought on the War of 1812 under the presidency of Madison. + The strength of the peace party lay in the North; that of the war party + lay in the South. The peaceful Federals, now that Independence had been + gained, were in favour of meeting the amicable British government + half-way. When Pitt came into power in 1783 he at once held out the olive + branch. Now, ten years later, the more far-seeing statesmen on both sides + were preparing to confirm the new friendship in the practical form of + Jay's Treaty, which put the United States into what is at present known as + a most-favoured-nation position with regard to British trade and commerce. + Moreover, Washington and his Northern Federals much preferred a British + Canada to a French one, while Jefferson and the Southern Republicans + thought any stick was good enough to beat the British dog with. + </p> + <p> + The Jeffersonians eagerly seized on the reports of a speech which Carleton + made to the Miamis, who lived just south of Detroit, and used it to the + utmost as a means of stirring up anti-British feeling. Carleton had said: + 'You are witnesses that we have acted in the most peaceable manner and + borne the language and conduct of the United States with patience. But I + believe our patience is almost exhausted.' Applied to the vexed questions + of the Western Posts, of the lawless ways of the exterminating American + pioneers, and of the infinitely worse jobbing politicians behind them, + this language was mildness itself. But in view of the high statesmanship + of Washington and his government it was injudicious. All the same, Dundas, + more especially because he was a cabinet minister, was even more + injudicious when he adopted a tone of reproof towards Carleton, whose + great services, past and present, entitled him to unusual respect and + confidence. The negotiations for Jay's Treaty were then in progress in + London, and Jefferson saw his chance of injuring both the American and + British governments by magnifying Carleton's speech into an 'unwarrantable + outrage.' He also hoped that an Indian war would upset the treaty and + bring on a British war as well. And the prospect did look encouragingly + black in the West, where the American general Wayne was ready waiting + south of Lake Erie, while the trade in scalps was unusually brisk. Forty + dollars was the regular market price for an ordinary Indian's scalp. But + as much as a thousand was offered for Simon Girty's in the hope of getting + that inconvenient British scout put quickly out of the way. Nearer home + Jefferson and his band of demagogues had other arguments as well. The + Federal North would suffer most by war, while the Republican South might + use war as a means of repudiating all the debts she owed to Englishmen. + This would have been a very different thing from the insolvency of the + Continental Congress during the Revolution. It was dire want, not + financial infamy, that made the Revolutionary paper money 'not worth a + Continental.' But it would have been sheer theft for the Jeffersonian + South to have made its honest obligations 'rotten as a Pennsylvanian + bond.' + </p> + <p> + The wild French-Revolutionary rage that swept through the South now fanned + the flame and made the sparks fly over into Canada. In April 1793 a fiery + Red Republican, named Genet, landed at Charleston as French minister to + the United States and made a triumphal progress to Philadelphia. Nobody + bothered about the fundamental differences between the French and American + revolutions. France and England were going to war and that was enough. + Genet was one of those 'impossibles' whom revolutions throw into + ridiculous power. When he began his campaign the Republican South was at + his feet. Planters and legislators donned caps of liberty and danced + themselves so crazy over the rights of abstract man that they had no + enthusiasm left for such concrete instances as Loyalists, Englishmen, and + their own plantation slaves. Then Genet made his next step in the new + diplomacy by fitting out French privateers in American harbours and + seizing British vessels in American waters. This brought Washington down + on him at once. Then he lost his head completely, abused everybody, + including Jefferson, and retired from public life as an American citizen, + being afraid to go home. + </p> + <p> + Genet's absurd career was short, but very meteoric while it lasted, and + full of anti-British mischief-making. His agents were everywhere; and his + successor, Adet, carried on the underground agitation with equal zeal and + more astuteness. Vermont offered an excellent base of operations. Finding + that its British proclivities had not produced the Chambly canal for its + trade with the St Lawrence, it had become more violently anti-British than + ever before and even proposed taking Canada single-handed. This time its + new policy remained at fever heat for over three years and only cooled + down when a British man-of-war captured the incongruously named Olive + Branch, in which Ira Allen was trying to run the blockade from Ostend with + twenty thousand muskets and other arms which he represented as being + solely for the annual drill of the Vermont militia. Thus Carleton had to + watch the raging South, the dangerous West, and bellicose Vermont, all + together, besides taking whatever measures he could against the swarms of + secret enemies within the gates. The American immigrants who wanted + 'property not liberty' were ready enough for a change of flag whenever it + suited them. But they were few compared with the mass of French Canadians + who were being stirred into disaffection. The seigneurs, the clergy, and + the very few enlightened people of other classes had no desire for being + conquered by a regicide France or an obliterating American Republic. But + many of the habitants and of the uneducated in the towns lent a willing + ear to those who promised them all kinds of liberty and property put + together. + </p> + <p> + The danger was all the greater because it was no longer one foreigner + intriguing against another, as in 1775, but French against British and + class against class. Some of the appeals were still ridiculous. The + habitants found themselves credited with an unslakable thirst for higher + education. They were promised 'free' maritime intercommunication between + the Old World and the New, a wonderful extension of representative + institutions, and much more to the same effect, universal revolutionary + brotherhood included. But when Frenchmen came promising fleets and armies, + when these emissaries were backed by French Canadians who had left home + for good reasons after the troubles of 1775, and when the habitants were + positively assured by all these credible witnesses that France and the + United States were going to drive the British out of Canada and make a + heaven on earth for all who would turn against Carleton, then there really + was something that sensible men could believe. Everything for nothing—or + next to nothing. Only turn against the British and the rest would be easy. + No more tithes to the cures, no more seigneurial dues, no more taxes to a + government which put half the money in its own pocket and sent the other + half to the king, who spent it buying palaces and crowns. + </p> + <p> + 'Nothing is too absurd for them to believe, wrote Carleton, who felt all + the old troubles of 1775 coming back in a greatly aggravated form. He lost + no time in vain regrets, however, but got a militia bill through + parliament, improved the defences of Quebec, and issued a proclamation + enjoining all good subjects to find out, report, and seize every + sedition-monger they could lay their hands on. An attempt to embody two + thousand militiamen by ballot was a dead failure. The few English-speaking + militiamen required came forward 'with alacrity.' The habitants hung back + or broke into riotous mobs. The ordinary habitant could hardly be blamed. + He saw little difference between one kind of English-speaking people and + another. So he naturally thought it best to be on the side of the + prospective winners, especially when they persuaded him that he would get + back everything taken from him by 'the infamous Quebec Act.' There really + was no way whatever of getting him to see the truth under these + circumstances. The mere fact that his condition had improved so much under + British rule made him all the readier to cry for the Franco-American moon. + Things presently went from bad to worse. A glowing, bombastic address from + 'The Free French to their Canadian Brothers' (who of course were 'slaves') + was even read out at more than one church door. Then the Quebec Assembly + unanimously passed an Alien Act in May 1794, and suspected characters + began to find that two could play at the game. This stringent act was not + passed a day too soon. By its provisions the Habeas Corpus Act could be + suspended or suppressed and the strongest measures taken against sedition + in every form. Monk, the attorney-general, reported that 'It is + astonishing to find the same savagery exhibited here as in France.' The + habitants and lower class of townsfolk had beers well worked up 'to follow + France and the United States by destroying a throne which was the seat of + hypocrisy, imposture, despotism, greed, cruelty' and all the other deadly + sins. The first step was to be the assassination of all obnoxious + officials and leading British patriots the minute the promised invasion + began to prove successful. + </p> + <p> + No war came. And, as we have seen already, Carleton's last year, 1796, was + more peaceful than his first. But even then the external dangers made the + governor-general's post a very trying one, especially when internal + troubles were equally rife. Thus Carleton never enjoyed a single day + without its anxious moments till, old and growing weary, though devoted as + ever, he finally left Quebec on the 9th of July. This was the second + occasion on which he had been forced to resign by unfair treatment at the + hands of those who should have been his best support. It was infinitely + worse the first time, when he was stabbed in the back by that shameless + political assassin, Lord George Germain. But the second was also + inexcusable because there could be no doubt whatever as to which of the + incompatibles should have left his post—the replaceable Simcoe or + the irreplaceable Carleton. Yet as H.M.S. Active rounded Point Levy, and + the great stronghold of Quebec faded from his view, Carleton had at least + the satisfaction of knowing that he had been the principal saviour of one + British Canada and the principal founder of another. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X — 'NUNC DIMITTIS' + </h2> + <h3> + 1796-1808 + </h3> + <p> + Our tale is told. + </p> + <p> + The Active was wrecked on the island of Anticosti, where the estuary of + the St Lawrence joins the Gulf. No lives were lost, and the Carletons + reached Perce in Gaspe quite safely in a little coasting vessel. Then a + ship came round from Halifax and sailed the family over to England at the + end of September, just thirty years after Carleton had come out to Canada + to take up a burden of oversea governance such as no other viceroy, in any + part of the world-encircling British Empire, has ever borne so long. + </p> + <p> + He lived to become a wonderful link with the past. When he died at home in + England he was in the sixty-seventh year of his connection with the Army + and in the eighty-fifth of his age. More than any other man of note he + brought the days of Marlborough into touch with those of Wellington, + though a century lay between. At the time he received his first commission + most of the senior officers were old Marlburians. At the time of his death + Nelson had already won Trafalgar, Napoleon had already been emperor of the + French for nearly three years, and Wellington had already begun the great + Peninsular campaigns. Carleton's own life thus constitutes a most + remarkable link between two very different eras of Imperial history. But + he and his wife together constitute a still more remarkable link between + two eras of Canadian history which are still farther apart. At first sight + it seems almost impossible that he, who was the trusted friend o Wolfe, + and she, who learned deportment at Versailles in the reign of Louis + Quinze, should together make up a living link between 1690, when Frontenac + saved Quebec from the American Colonials under Phips, and 1867, when the + new Dominion was proclaimed there. But it is true. Carleton, born in the + first quarter of the eighteenth century, knew several old men who had + served at the Battle of the Boyne, which was fought three months before + Frontenac sent his defiance to Phips 'from the mouth of my cannon.' + Carleton's wife, living far on into the second quarter of the nineteenth + century, knew several rising young men who saw the Dominion of Canada well + started on its great career. + </p> + <p> + All Carleton's sons went into the Army and all died on active service. The + fourth was killed in 1814 at Bergen-op-Zoom carrying the same sword that + Carleton himself had used there sixty-seven years before. A picture of the + first siege of Bergen-op-Zoom hangs in the dining-room of the family seat + at Greywell Hill to remind successive generations of their martial + ancestors. But no Carleton needs to be reminded of a man's first duty at + the call to arms. The present holder of the Dorchester estates and title + is a woman. But her son and heir went straight to the front with the + cavalry of the first British army corps to take the field in Belgium + during the Great World War of 1914. + </p> + <p> + Carleton spent most of his last twelve years at Kempshot near Basingstoke + because he kept his stud there and horses were his chief delight. But he + died at Stubbings, his place near Maidenhead beside the silver Thames, on + the 10th of November 1808. + </p> + <p> + Thus, after an unadventurous youth and early manhood, he spent his long + maturity steering the ship of state through troublous seas abroad; then + passed life's evening in the quiet haven of his home. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0011" id="link2H_4_0011"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + </h2> + <p> + The Seigneurs and the Loyalists, both closely associated with Carleton's + Canadian career, are treated in two volumes of the present Series: The + Seigneurs of Old Canada and The United Empire Loyalists. Two other volumes + also provide profitable reading: The War Chief of the Six Nations: A + Chronicle of Brant, the Indian leader who was to Carleton's day what + Tecumseh was to Brock's, and The War Chief of the Ottawas: A Chronicle of + the Pontiac War. + </p> + <p> + Only one life of Carleton has been written, Lord Dorchester, by A. G. + Bradley (1907). The student should also consult John Graves Simcoe, by + Duncan Campbell Scott (1905), Sir Frederick Haldimand, by Jean McIlwraith + (1904), and A History of Canada from 1763 to 1812 by Sir Charles Lucas. + Carleton is the leading character in the first half of the third volume of + Canada and its Provinces, which, being the work of different authors, + throws light on his character from several different British points of + view as well as from several different kinds of evidence. Kingsford's + History of Canada, volumes iv to vii, treats the period in considerable + detail. Justin Smith's two volumes, Our Struggle for the Fourteenth + Colony, is the work of a most painstaking American scholar who had already + produced an excellent account of Arnold's March from Cambridge to Quebec, + in which, for the first time, Arnold's Journal was printed word for word. + Arnold's Expedition to Quebec, by J. Codman, is another careful work. + These are the complements of the British books mentioned above, as they + emphasize the American point of view and draw more from American than from + British sources of original information. The unfortunate defect of Our + Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony is that the author's efforts to be + sprightly at all costs tend to repel the serious student, while his very + thoroughness itself repels the merely casual reader. + </p> + <p> + So many absurd or perverting mistakes are still made about the life and + times of Carleton, and a full understanding of his career is of such vital + importance to Canadian history, that no accounts given in the general run + of books—including many so-called 'standard works'—should be + accepted without reference to the original authorities. Justin Smith's + books, cited above, have useful lists of authorities; though there is no + discrimination between documents of very different value. The original + British diaries kept during Montgomery and Arnold's beleaguerment have + been published by the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec in two + volumes, at the end of which there is a very useful bibliography showing + the whereabouts of the actual manuscripts of these and many other + documents in English, French, and German. In addition to the American and + British diarists who wrote in English there were several prominent French + Canadians and German officers who kept most interesting journals which are + still extant. The Dominion Archives at Ottawa possess an immense mass of + originals, facsimiles, and verbatim copies of every kind, including maps + and illustrations. The Dominion Archivist, Dr Doughty, has himself edited, + in collaboration with Professor Shortt, all the Documents relating to the + Constitutional History of Canada from 1759 to 1791. + </p> + <p> + The present Chronicle is based on the original evidence of both sides. + </p> + <h3> + END + </h3> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10044 ***</div> +</body> +</html> diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. 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Wrong and H. H. Langton] + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Father of British Canada: A Chronicle of Carleton + +Author: William Wood + +Release Date: November 11, 2003 [EBook #10044] +Last Updated: February 6, 2019 + + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FATHER OF BRITISH CANADA *** + + + + +Etext was produced by Gardner Buchanan + +HTML file produced by David Widger + + + + +</pre> + <div style="height: 8em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + THE FATHER OF BRITISH CANADA + </h1> + <h2> + A Chronicle of Carleton + </h2> + <h3> + CHRONICLES OF CANADA + </h3> + <h2> + Edited by George M. Wrong and H. H. Langton + </h2> + <h3> + In thirty-two volumes + </h3> + <h4> + Volume 12 + </h4> + <h2> + By William Wood + </h2> + <h4> + Toronto, 1916 + </h4> + <hr /> + <p> + <b>CONTENTS</b> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I — GUY CARLETON </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II — GENERAL MURRAY </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER III — GOVERNOR CARLETON </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV — INVASION </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V — BELEAGUERMENT </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI — DELIVERANCE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII — THE COUNTERSTROKE </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0008"> CHAPTER VIII — GUARDING THE LOYALISTS </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX — FOUNDING MODERN CANADA </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X — 'NUNC DIMITTIS' </a> + </p> + <p class="toc"> + <a href="#link2H_4_0011"> BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE </a> + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I — GUY CARLETON + </h2> + <h3> + 1724-1759 + </h3> + <p> + Guy Carleton, first Baron Dorchester, was born at Strabane, County Tyrone, + on the 3rd of September 1724, the anniversary of Cromwell's two great + victories and death. He came of a very old family of English country + gentlemen which had migrated to Ireland in the seventeenth century and + intermarried with other Anglo-Irish families equally devoted to the + service of the British Crown. Guy's father was Christopher Carleton of + Newry in County Down. His mother was Catherine Ball of County Donegal. His + father died comparatively young; and, when he was himself fifteen, his + mother married the rector of Newry, the Reverend Thomas Skelton, whose + influence over the six step-children of the household worked wholly for + their good. + </p> + <p> + At eighteen Guy received his first commission as ensign in the 25th Foot, + then known as Lord Rothes' regiment and now as the King's Own Scottish + Borderers. At twenty-three he fought gallantly at the siege of + Bergen-op-Zoom. Four years later (1751) he was a lieutenant in the + Grenadier Guards. He was one of those quiet men whose sterling value is + appreciated only by the few till some crisis makes it stand forth before + the world at large. Pitt, Wolfe, and George II all recognized his solid + virtues. At thirty he was still some way down the list of lieutenants in + the Grenadiers, while Wolfe, two years his junior in age, had been four + years in command of a battalion with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. Yet + he had long been 'my friend Carleton' to Wolfe, he was soon to become one + of 'Pitt's Young Men,' and he was enough of a 'coming man' to incur the + king's displeasure. He had criticized the Hanoverians; and the king never + forgave him. The third George 'gloried in the name of Englishman.' But the + first two were Hanoverian all through. And for an English guardsman to + disparage the Hanoverian army was considered next door to lese-majeste. + </p> + <p> + Lady Dorchester burnt all her husband's private papers after his death in + 1808; so we have lost some of the most intimate records concerning him. + But 'grave Carleton' appears so frequently in the letters of his friend + Wolfe that we can see his character as a young man in almost any aspect + short of self-revelation. The first reference has nothing to do with + affairs of state. In 1747 Wolfe, aged twenty, writing to Miss Lacey, an + English girl in Brussels, and signing himself 'most sincerely your friend + and admirer,' says: 'I was doing the greatest injustice to the dear girls + to admit the least doubt of their constancy. Perhaps with respect to + ourselves there may be cause of complaint. Carleton, I'm afraid, is a + recent example of it.' From this we may infer that Carleton was less + 'grave' as a young man than Wolfe found him later on. Six years afterwards + Wolfe strongly recommended him for a position which he had himself been + asked to fill, that of military tutor to the young Duke of Richmond, who + was to get a company in Wolfe's own regiment. Writing home from Paris in + 1753 Wolfe tells his mother that the duke 'wants some skilful man to + travel with him through the Low Countries and into Lorraine. I have + proposed my friend Carleton, whom Lord Albemarle approves of.' Lord + Albemarle was the British ambassador to France; so Carleton got the post + and travelled under the happiest auspices, while learning the frontier on + which the Belgian, French, and British allies were to fight the Germans in + the Great World War of 1914. It was during this military tour of fortified + places that Carleton acquired the engineering skill which a few years + later proved of such service to the British cause in Canada. + </p> + <p> + In 1754 George Washington, at that time a young Virginian officer of only + twenty-two, fired the first shot in what presently became the world-wide + Seven Years' War. The immediate result was disastrous to the British arms; + and Washington had to give up the command of the Ohio by surrendering Fort + Necessity to the French on—of all dates—the 4th of July! In + 1755 came Braddock's defeat. In 1756 Montcalm arrived in Canada and won + his first victory at Oswego. In 1757 Wolfe distinguished himself by + formulating the plan which, if properly executed, would have prevented the + British fiasco at Rochefort on the coast of France. But Carleton remained + as undistinguished as before. He simply became lieutenant-colonel + commanding the 72nd Foot, now the Seaforth Highlanders. In 1758 his chance + appeared to have come at last. Amherst had asked for his services at + Louisbourg. But the king had neither forgotten nor forgiven the remarks + about the Hanoverians, and so refused point-blank, to Wolfe's 'very great + grief and disappointment... It is a public loss Carleton's not going.' + Wolfe's confidence in Carleton, either as a friend or as an officer, was + stronger than ever. Writing to George Warde, afterwards the famous cavalry + leader, he said: 'Accidents may happen in the family that may throw my + little affairs into disorder. Carleton is so good as to say he will give + what help is in his power. May I ask the same favour of you, my oldest + friend?' Writing to Lord George Sackville, of whom we shall hear more than + enough at the crisis of Carleton's career Wolfe said: 'Amherst will tell + you his opinion of Carleton, by which you will probably be better + convinced of our loss.' Again, 'We want grave Carleton for every purpose + of the war.' And yet again, after the fall of Louisbourg: 'If His Majesty + had thought proper to let Carleton come with us as engineer it would have + cut the matter much shorter and we might now be ruining the walls of + Quebec and completing the conquest of New France.' A little later on Wolfe + blazes out with indignation over Carleton's supersession by a junior. 'Can + Sir John Ligonier (the commander-in-chief) allow His Majesty to remain + unacquainted with the merit of that officer, and can he see such a mark of + displeasure without endeavouring to soften or clear the matter up a + little? A man of honour has the right to expect the protection of his + Colonel and of the Commander of the troops, and he can't serve without it. + If I was in Carleton's place I wouldn't stay an hour in the Army after + being aimed at and distinguished in so remarkable a manner.' But Carleton + bided his time. + </p> + <p> + At the beginning of 1759 Wolfe was appointed to command the army destined + to besiege Quebec. He immediately submitted Carleton's name for + appointment as quartermaster-general. Pitt and Ligonier heartily approved. + But the king again refused. Ligonier went back a second time to no + purpose. Pitt then sent him in for the third time, saying, in a tone meant + for the king to overhear: 'Tell His Majesty that in order to render the + General [Wolfe] completely responsible for his conduct he should be made, + as far as possible, inexcusable if he should fail; and that whatever an + officer entrusted with such a service of confidence requests ought + therefore to be granted.' The king then consented. Thus began Carleton's + long, devoted, and successful service for Canada, the Empire, and the + Crown. + </p> + <p> + Early in this memorable Empire Year of 1759 he sailed with Wolfe and + Saunders from Spithead. On the 30th of April the fleet rendezvoused at + Halifax, where Admiral Durell, second-in-command to Saunders, had spent + the winter with a squadron intended to block the St Lawrence directly + navigation opened in the spring. Durell was a good commonplace officer, + but very slow. He had lost many hands from sickness during a particularly + cold season, and he was not enterprising enough to start cruising round + Cabot Strait before the month of May. Saunders, greatly annoyed by this + delay, sent him off with eight men-of-war on the 5th of May. Wolfe gave + him seven hundred soldiers under Carleton. These forces were sufficient to + turn back, capture, or destroy the twenty-three French merchantmen which + were then bound for Quebec with supplies and soldiers as reinforcements + for Montcalm. But the French ships were a week ahead of Durell; and, when + he landed Carleton at Isle-aux-Coudres on the 28th of May, the last of the + enemy's transports had already discharged her cargo at Quebec, sixty miles + above. + </p> + <p> + Isle-aux-Coudres, so named by Jacques Cartier in 1535, was a point of + great strategic importance; for it commanded the only channel then used. + It was the place Wolfe had chosen for his winter quarters, that is, in + case of failure before Quebec and supposing he was not recalled. None but + a particularly good officer would have been appointed as its first + commandant. Carleton spent many busy days here preparing an advanced base + for the coming siege, while the subsequently famous Captain Cook was + equally busy 'a-sounding of the channell of the Traverse' which the fleet + would have to pass on its way to Quebec. Some of Durell's ships destroyed + the French 'long-shore batteries near this Traverse, at the lower end of + the island of Orleans, while the rest kept ceaseless watch to seaward, + anxiously scanning the offing, day after day, to make out the colours of + the first fleet up. No one knew what the French West India fleet would do; + and there was a very disconcerting chance that it might run north and slip + into the St Lawrence, ahead of Saunders, in the same way as the French + reinforcements had just slipped in ahead of Durell. Presently, at the + first streak of dawn on the 23rd of June, a strong squadron was seen + advancing rapidly under a press of sail. Instantly the officers of the + watch called all hands up from below. The boatswains' whistles shrilled + across the water as the seamen ran to quarters and cleared the decks for + action. Carleton's camp was equally astir. The guards turned out. The + bugles sounded. The men fell in and waited. Then the flag-ship signalled + ashore that the strangers had just answered correctly in private code that + all was well and that Wolfe and Saunders were aboard. + </p> + <p> + Next to Wolfe himself Carleton was the busiest man in the army throughout + the siege of Quebec. In addition to his arduous and very responsible + duties as quartermaster-general, he acted as inspector of engineers and as + a special-service officer for work of an exceptionally confidential + nature. As quartermaster-general he superintended the supply and transport + branches. Considering that the army was operating in a devastated hostile + country, a thousand miles away from its bases at Halifax and Louisbourg, + and that the interaction of the different services—naval and + military, Imperial and Colonial—required adjustment to a nicety at + every turn, it was wonderful that so much was done so well with means + which were far from being adequate. War prices of course ruled in the + British camp. But they compared very favourably with the famine prices in + Quebec, where most 'luxuries' soon became unobtainable at any price. There + were no canteen or camp-follower scandals under Carleton. Then, as now, + every soldier had a regulation ration of food and a regulation allowance + for his service kit. But 'extras' were always acceptable. The price-list + of these 'extras' reads strangely to modern ears. But, under the + circumstances, it was not exorbitant, and it was slightly tempered by + being reckoned in Halifax currency of four dollars to the pound instead of + five. The British Tommy Atkins of that and many a later day thought Canada + a wonderful country for making money go a long way when he could buy a pot + of beer for twopence and get back thirteen pence Halifax currency as + change for his English shilling. Beef and ham ran from ninepence to a + shilling a pound. Mutton was a little dearer. Salt butter was eightpence + to one-and-threepence. Cheese was tenpence; potatoes from five to ten + shillings a bushel. 'A reasonable loaf of good soft Bread' cost sixpence. + Soap was a shilling a pound. Tea was prohibitive for all but the officers. + 'Plain Green Tea and very Badd' was fifteen shillings, 'Couchon' twenty + shillings, 'Hyson' thirty. Leaf tobacco was tenpence a pound, roll + one-and-tenpence, snuff two-and-threepence. Sugar was a shilling to + eighteen pence. Lemons were sixpence apiece. The non-intoxicating 'Bad + Sproos Beer' was only twopence a quart and helped to keep off scurvy. Real + beer, like wine and spirits, was more expensive. 'Bristol Beer' was + eighteen shillings a dozen, 'Bad malt Drink from Hellifax' ninepence a + quart. Rum and claret were eight shillings a gallon each, port and Madeira + ten and twelve respectively. The term 'Bad' did not then mean noxious, but + only inferior. It stood against every low-grade article in the price-list. + No goods were over-classified while Carleton was quartermaster-general. + </p> + <p> + The engineers were under-staffed, under-manned, and overworked. There were + no Royal Engineers as a permanent and comprehensive corps till the time of + Wellington. Wolfe complained bitterly and often of the lack of men and + materials for scientific siege work. But he 'relied on Carleton' to good + purpose in this respect as well as in many others. In his celebrated + dispatch to Pitt he mentions Carleton twice. It was Carleton whom he sent + to seize the west end of the island of Orleans, so as to command the basin + of Quebec, and Carleton whom he sent to take prisoners and gather + information at Pointe-aux-Trembles, twenty miles above the city. Whether + or not he revealed the whole of his final plan to Carleton is probably + more than we shall ever know, since Carleton's papers were destroyed. But + we do know that he did not reveal it to any one else, not even to his + three brigadiers, Monckton, Townshend, and Murray. + </p> + <p> + Carleton was wounded in the head during the Battle of the Plains; but soon + returned to duty. Wolfe showed his confidence in him to the last. + Carleton's was the only name mentioned twice in the will which Wolfe + handed over to Jervis, the future Lord St Vincent, the night before the + battle. 'I leave to Colonel Oughton, Colonel Carleton, Colonel Howe, and + Colonel Warde a thousand pounds each.' 'All my books and papers, both here + and in England, I leave to Colonel Carleton.' Wolfe's mother, who died + five years later, showed the same confidence by appointing Carleton her + executor. + </p> + <p> + With the fall of Quebec in 1759 Carleton disappears from the Canadian + scene till 1766. But so many pregnant events happened in Canada during + these seven years, while so few happened in his own career, that it is + much more important for us to follow her history than his biography. + </p> + <p> + In 1761 he was wounded at the storming of Port Andro during the attack on + Belle Isle off the west coast of France. In 1762 he was wounded at Havana + in the West Indies. After that he enjoyed four years of quietness at home. + Then came the exceedingly difficult task of guiding Canada through twelve + years of turbulent politics and most subversive war. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II — GENERAL MURRAY + </h2> + <h3> + 1759-1766 + </h3> + <p> + Both armies spent a terrible winter after the Battle of the Plains. There + was better shelter for the French in Montreal than for the British among + the ruins of Quebec. But in the matter of food the positions were + reversed. Nevertheless the French gallantly refused the truce offered them + by Murray, who had now succeeded Wolfe. They were determined to make a + supreme effort to regain Quebec in the spring; and they were equally + determined that the habitants should not be free to supply the British + with provisions. + </p> + <p> + In spite of the state of war, however, the French and British officers, + even as prisoners and captors, began to make friends. They had found each + other foemen worthy of their steel. A distinguished French officer, the + Comte de Malartic, writing to Levis, Montcalm's successor, said: 'I cannot + speak too highly of General Murray, although he is our enemy.' Murray, on + his part, was equally loud and generous in his praise of the French. The + Canadian seigneurs found fellow-gentlemen among the British officers. The + priests and nuns of Quebec found many fellow-Catholics among the Scottish + and Irish troops, and nothing but courteous treatment from the soldiers of + every rank and form of religion. Murray directed that 'the compliment of + the hat' should be paid to all religious processions. The Ursuline nuns + knitted long stockings for the bare-legged Highlanders when the winter + came on, and presented each Scottish officer with an embroidered St + Andrew's Cross on the 30th of November, St Andrew's Day. The whole + garrison won the regard of the town by giving up part of their rations for + the hungry poor; while the habitants from the surrounding country + presently began to find out that the British were honest to deal with and + most humane, though sternly just, as conquerors. + </p> + <p> + In the following April Levis made his desperate throw for victory; and + actually did succeed in defeating Murray outside the walls of Quebec. But + the British fleet came up in May; and that summer three British armies + converged on Montreal, where the last doomed remnants of French power on + the St Lawrence stood despairingly at bay. When Levis found his two + thousand effective French regulars surrounded by eight times as many + British troops he had no choice but to lay down the arms of France for + ever. On the 8th of September 1760 his gallant little army was included in + the Capitulation of Montreal, by which the whole of Canada passed into the + possession of the British Crown. + </p> + <p> + Great Britain had a different general idea for each one of the four + decades which immediately followed the conquest of Canada. In the sixties + the general idea was to kill refractory old French ways with a double dose + of new British liberty and kindness, so that Canada might gradually become + the loyal fourteenth colony of the Empire in America. But the fates were + against this benevolent scheme. The French Canadians were firmly wedded to + their old ways of life, except in so far as the new liberty enabled them + to throw off irksome duties and restraints, while the new English-speaking + 'colonists' were so few, and mostly so bad, that they became the cause of + endless discord where harmony was essential. In the seventies the idea was + to restore the old French-Canadian life so as not only to make Canada + proof against the disaffection of the Thirteen Colonies but also to make + her a safe base of operations against rebellious Americans. In the + eighties the great concern of the government was to make a harmonious + whole out of two very widely differing parts—the long-settled French + Canadians and the newly arrived United Empire Loyalists. In the nineties + each of these parts was set to work out its own salvation under its own + provincial constitution. + </p> + <p> + Carleton's is the only personality which links together all four decades—the + would-be American sixties, the French-Canadian seventies, the + Anglo-French-Canadian eighties, and the bi-constitutional nineties—though, + as mentioned already, Murray ruled Canada for the first seven years, + 1759-66. + </p> + <p> + James Murray, the first British governor of Canada, was a younger son of + the fourth Lord Elibank. He was just over forty, warm-hearted and + warm-tempered, an excellent French scholar, and every inch a soldier. He + had been a witness for the defence of Mordaunt at the court-martial held + to try the authors of the Rochefort fiasco in 1757. Wolfe, who was a + witness on the other side, referred to him later on as 'my old antagonist + Murray.' But Wolfe knew a good man when he saw one and gave his full + confidence to his 'old antagonist' both at Louisbourg and Quebec. Murray + was not born under a lucky star. He saw three defeats in three successive + wars. He began his service with the abortive attack on pestilential + Cartagena, where Wolfe's father was present as adjutant-general. In + mid-career he lost the battle of Ste Foy. [Footnote: See The Winning of + Canada, chap. viii. See also, for the best account of this battle and + other events of the year between Wolfe's victory and the surrender of + Montreal, The Fall of Canada, by George M. Wrong. Oxford, 1914.] And his + active military life ended with his surrender of Minorca in 1782. But he + was greatly distinguished for honour and steadfastness on all occasions. + An admiring contemporary described him as a model of all the military + virtues except prudence. But he had more prudence and less genius than his + admirer thought; and he showed a marked talent for general government. The + problem before him was harder than his superiors could believe. He was + expected to prepare for assimilation some sixty-five thousand 'new + subjects' who were mostly alien in religion and wholly alien in every + other way. But, for the moment, this proved the least of his many + difficulties because no immediate results were required. + </p> + <p> + While the war went on in Europe Canada remained nominally a part of the + enemy's dominions, and so, of course, was subject to military rule. Sir + Jeffery Amherst, the British commander-in-chief in America, took up his + headquarters in New York. Under him Murray commanded Canada from Quebec. + Under Murray, Colonel Burton commanded the district of Three Rivers while + General Gage commanded the district of Montreal, which then extended to + the western wilds. [Footnote: See The War Chief of the Ottawas, chap. + iii.] + </p> + <p> + Murray's first great trouble arose in 1761. It was caused by an outrageous + War Office order that fourpence a day should be stopped from the soldiers + to pay for the rations they had always got free. Such gross injustice, + coming in time of war and applied to soldiers who richly deserved reward, + made the veterans 'mad with rage.' Quebec promised to be the scene of a + wild mutiny. Murray, like all his officers, thought the stoppage nothing + short of robbery. But he threw himself into the breach. He assembled the + officers and explained that they must die to the last man rather than + allow the mutineers a free hand. He then held a general parade at which he + ordered the troops to march between two flag-poles on pain of instant + death, promising to kill with his own hands the first man who refused. He + added that he was ready to hear and forward any well-founded complaint, + but that, since insubordination had been openly threatened, he would + insist on subordination being publicly shown. Then, amid tense silence, he + gave the word of command—Quick, March!—while every officer + felt his trigger. To the immense relief of all concerned the men stepped + off, marched straight between the flags and back to quarters, tamed. The + criminal War Office blunder was rectified and peace was restored in the + ranks. + </p> + <p> + 'Murray's Report' of 1762 gives us a good view of the Canada of that day + and shows the attitude of the British towards their new possession. Canada + had been conquered by Great Britain, with some help from the American + colonies, for three main reasons: first, to strike a death-blow at French + dominion in America; secondly, to increase the opportunities of British + seaborne trade; and, thirdly, to enlarge the area available for British + settlement. When Murray was instructed to prepare a report on Canada he + had to keep all this in mind; for the government wished to satisfy the + public both at home and in the colonies. He had to examine the military + strength of the country and the disposition of its population in case of + future wars with France. He had to satisfy the natural curiosity of men + like the London merchants. And he had to show how and where + English-speaking settlers could go in and make Canada not only a British + possession but the fourteenth British colony in North America. Burton and + Gage were also instructed to report about their own districts of Three + Rivers and Montreal. The documents they prepared were tacked on to + Murray's. By June 1762 the work was completed and sent on to Amherst, who + sent it to England in ample time to be studied there before the opening of + the impending negotiations for peace. + </p> + <p> + Murray was greatly concerned about the military strength of Quebec, then, + as always, the key of Canada. Like the unfortunate Montcalm he found the + walls of Quebec badly built, badly placed, and falling into ruins, and he + thought they could not be defended by three thousand men against 'a well + conducted Coup-de-main.' He proposed to crown Cape Diamond with a proper + citadel, which would overawe the disaffected in Quebec itself and defend + the place against an outside enemy long enough to let a British fleet come + up to its relief. The rest of the country was defended by little garrisons + at Three Rivers and Montreal as well as by several small detachments + distributed among the trading-posts where the white men and the red met in + the depths of the western wilderness. + </p> + <p> + The relations between the British garrison and the French Canadians were + so excellent that what Gage reported from Montreal might be taken as + equally true of the rest of the country: 'The Soldiers live peaceably with + the Inhabitants and they reciprocally acquire an affection for each + other.' The French Canadians numbered sixty-five thousand altogether, + exclusive of the fur traders and coureurs de bois. Barely fifteen thousand + lived in the three little towns of Quebec, Montreal, and Three Rivers; + while over fifty thousand lived in the country. Nearly all the officials + had gone back to France. The three classes of greatest importance were the + seigneurs, the clergy, and the habitants. The lawyers were not of much + account; the petty commercial classes of less account still. The coureurs + de bois and other fur traders formed an important link between the savage + and the civilized life of the country. + </p> + <p> + Apart from furs the trade of Canada was contemptibly small in the eyes of + men like the London merchants. But the opportunity of fostering all the + fur trade that could be carried down the St Lawrence was very well worth + while; and if there was no other existing trade worth capturing there + seemed to be some kinds worth creating. Murray held out well-grounded + hopes of the fisheries and forests. 'A Most immense Cod Fishery can be + established in the River and Gulph of St Lawrence. A rich tract of country + on the South Side of the Gulph will be settled and improved, and a port or + ports furnished with every material requisite to repair ships.' He then + went on to enumerate the other kinds of fishery, the abundance of whales, + seals, and walruses in the Gulf, and of salmon up all the tributary + rivers. Burton recommends immediate attention to the iron mines behind + Three Rivers. All the governors expatiate on the vast amount of forest + wealth and remind the home government that under the French regime the + king, when making out patents for the seigneurs, reserved the right of + taking wood for ship-building and fortifications from any of the + seigneuries. Agriculture was found to be in a very backward state. The + habitants would raise no more than they required for their own use and for + a little local trade. But the fault was attributed to the gambling + attractions of the fur trade, to the bad governmental system, and to the + frequent interruptions of the corvee, a kind of forced labour which was + meant to serve the public interest, but which Bigot and other thievish + officials always turned to their own private advantage. On the whole, the + reports were most encouraging in the prospects they held out to honest + labour, trade, and government. + </p> + <p> + While Murray and his lieutenants had been collecting information for their + reports the home government had been undergoing many changes for the + worse. The master-statesman Pitt had gone out of power and the back-stairs + politician Bute had come in. Pitt's 'bloody and expensive war'—the + war that more than any other, laid the foundations of the present British + Empire—was to be ended on any terms the country could be persuaded + to bear. Thus the end of the Seven Years' War, or, as the British part of + it was more correctly called, the 'Maritime War,' was no more glorious in + statesmanship than its beginning had been in arms. But the spirit of its + mighty heart still lived on in the Empire's grateful memories of Pitt and + quickened the English-speaking world enough to prevent any really + disgraceful surrender of the hard-won fruits of victory. + </p> + <p> + The Treaty of Paris, signed on the 10th of February 1763, and the king's + proclamation, published in October, were duly followed by the inauguration + of civil government in Canada. The incompetent Bute, anxious to get Pitt + out of the way, tried to induce him to become the first British governor + of the new colony. Even Bute probably never dared to hope that Pitt would + actually go out to Canada. But he did hope to lower his prestige by making + him the holder of a sinecure at home. However this may be, Pitt, mightiest + of all parliamentary ministers of war, refused to be made either a jobber + or an exile; whereupon Murray's position was changed from a military + command into that of 'Governor and Captain-General.' + </p> + <p> + The changes which ensued in the laws of Canada were heartily welcomed so + far as the adoption of the humaner criminal code of England was concerned. + The new laws relating to debtor and creditor also gave general + satisfaction, except, as we shall presently see, when they involved + imprisonment for debt. But the tentative efforts to introduce English + civil law side by side with the old French code resulted in great + confusion and much discontent. The land laws had become so unworkable + under this dual system that they had to be left as they were. A Court of + Common Pleas was set up specially for the benefit of the French Canadians. + If either party demanded a jury one had to be sworn in; and French + Canadians were to be jurors on equal terms with 'the King's Old Subjects.' + The Roman Catholic Church was to be completely tolerated but not in any + way established. Lord Egremont, in giving the king's instructions to + Murray, reminded him that the proviso in the Treaty of Paris—as far + as the Laws of Great Britain permit—should govern his action + whenever disputes arose. It must be remembered that the last Jacobite + rising was then a comparatively recent affair, and that France was equally + ready to upset either the Protestant succession in England or the British + regime in Canada. + </p> + <p> + The Indians were also an object of special solicitude in the royal + proclamation. 'The Indians who live under our Protection should not be + molested in the possession of such parts of our Dominions and Territories + as, not having been ceded to or purchased by Us, are reserved to them.' + The home government was far in advance of the American colonists in its + humane attitude towards the Indians. The common American attitude then and + long afterwards —indeed, up to a time well within living memory—was + that Indians were a kind of human vermin to be exterminated without mercy, + unless, of course, more money was to be made out of them alive. The result + was an endless struggle along the ever-receding frontier of the West. And + just at this particular time the 'Conspiracy of Pontiac' had brought about + something like a real war. The story of this great effort of the Indians + to stem the encroachments of the exterminating colonists is told in + another chronicle of the present Series. [Footnote: The War Chief of the + Ottawas.] The French traders in the West undoubtedly had a hand in + stirring up the Indians. Pontiac, a sort of Indian Napoleon, was + undoubtedly cruel as well as crafty. And the Indians undoubtedly fought + just as the ancestors of the French and British used to fight when they + were at the corresponding stage of social evolution. But the mere fact + that so many jealously distinct tribes united in this common cause proves + how much they all must have suffered at the hands of the colonists. + </p> + <p> + While Pontiac's war continued in the West Murray had to deal with a + political war in Canada which rose to its height in 1764. The king's + proclamation of the previous October had 'given express Power to our + Governor that, so soon as the state and circumstances of the said Colony + will admit thereof, he shall call a General Assembly in such manner and + form as is used in those Colonies and Provinces in America which are under + our immediate government.' The intention of establishing parliamentary + institutions was, therefore, perfectly clear. But it was equally clear + that the introduction of such institutions was to depend on + 'circumstances,' and it is well to remember here that these + 'circumstances' were not held to warrant the opening of a Canadian + parliament till 1792. Now, the military government had been a great + success. There was every reason to suppose that civil government by a + governor and council would be the next best thing. And it was quite + certain that calling a 'General Assembly' at once would defeat the very + ends which such bodies are designed to serve. More than ninety-nine per + cent of the population were dead against an assembly which none of them + understood and all distrusted. On the other hand, the clamorous minority + of less than one per cent were in favour only of a parliament from which + the majority should be rigorously excluded, even, if possible, as voters. + The immense majority comprised the entire French-Canadian community. The + absurdly small minority consisted mostly of Americanized camp-following + traders, who, having come to fish in troubled waters, naturally wanted the + laws made to suit poachers. The British garrison, the governing officials, + and the very few other English-speaking people of a more enlightened class + all looked down on the rancorous minority. The whole question resolved + itself into this: should Canada be handed over to the licensed + exploitation of a few hundred low-class camp-followers, who had done + nothing to win her for the British Empire, who were despised by those who + had, and who promised to be a dangerous thorn in the side of the new + colony? + </p> + <p> + What this ridiculous minority of grab-alls really wanted was not a + parliament but a rump. Many a representative assembly has ended in a rump, + The grab-alls wished to begin with one and stop there. It might be + supposed that such pretensions would defeat themselves. But there was a + twofold difficulty in the way of getting the truth understood by the + English-speaking public on both sides of the Atlantic. In the first place, + the French Canadians were practically dumb to the outside world. In the + second, the vociferous rumpites had the ear of some English and more + American commercial people who were not anxious to understand; while the + great mass of the general public were inclined to think, if they ever + thought at all, that parliamentary government must mean more liberty for + every one concerned. + </p> + <p> + A singularly apt commentary on the pretensions of the camp-followers is + supplied by the famous, or infamous, 'Presentment of the Grand Jury of + Quebec' in October 1764. The moving spirits of this precious jury were + aspirants to membership in the strictly exclusive, rumpish little + parliament of their own seeking. The signatures of the French-Canadian + members were obtained by fraud, as was subsequently proved by a sworn + official protestation. The first presentment tells its own tale, as it + refers to the only courts in which French-Canadian lawyers were allowed to + plead. 'The great number of inferior Courts are tiresome, litigious, and + expensive to this poor Colony.' Then came a hit at the previous military + rule—'That Decrees of the military Courts may be amended [after + having been confirmed by legal ordinance] by allowing Appeals if the + matter decided exceed Ten Pounds,' which would put it out of the reach of + the 'inferior Courts' and into the clutches of 'the King's Old Subjects.' + But the gist of it all was contained in the following: 'We represent that + as the Grand Jury must be considered at present as the only Body + representative of the Colony, ... We propose that the Publick Accounts be + laid before the Grand Jury at least twice a year.' That the grand jury was + to be purged of all its French-Canadian members is evident from the + addendum slipped in behind their backs. This addendum is a fine specimen + of verbose invective against 'the Church of Rome,' the Pope, Bulls, + Briefs, absolutions, etc., the empanelling 'en Grand and petty Jurys' of + 'papist or popish Recusants Convict,' and so on. + </p> + <p> + The 'Presentment of the Grand Jury' was presently followed by The Humble + Petition of Your Majesty's most faithful and loyal Subjects, British + Merchants and Traders, in behalf of Themselves and their fellow Subjects, + Inhabitants of Your Majesty's Province of Quebec. 'Their fellow Subjects' + did not, of course, include any 'papist or popish Recusants Convict.' + Among the 'Grievances and Distresses' enumerated were 'the oppressive and + severely felt Military government,' the inability to 'reap the fruit of + our Industry' under such a martinet as Murray, who, in one paragraph, is + accused of 'suppressing dutyfull Remonstrances in Silence' and, in the + next, of 'treating them with a Rage and Rudeness of Language and Demeanor + as dishonourable to the Trust he holds of Your Majesty as painfull to + Those who suffer from it.' Finally, the petitioners solemnly warn His + Majesty that their 'Lives in the Province are so very unhappy that we must + be under the Necessity of removing from it, unless timely prevented by a + Removal of the present Governor.' + </p> + <p> + In forwarding this document Murray poured out the vials of his wrath on + 'the Licentious Fanaticks Trading here,' while he boldly championed the + cause of the French Canadians, 'a Race, who, could they be indulged with a + few priveledges which the Laws of England deny to Roman Catholicks at + home, would soon get the better of every National Antipathy to their + Conquerors and become the most faithful and most useful set of Men in this + American Empire.' + </p> + <p> + While these charges and counter-charges were crossing the Atlantic + another, and much more violent, trouble came to a head. As there were no + barracks in Canada billeting was a necessity. It was made as little + burdensome as possible and the houses of magistrates were specially + exempt. This, however, did not prevent the magistrates from baiting the + military whenever they got the chance. Fines, imprisonments, and other + sentences, out of all proportion to the offence committed, were heaped on + every redcoat in much the same way as was then being practised in Boston + and other hotbeds of disaffection. The redcoats had done their work in + ridding America of the old French menace. They were doing it now in + ridding the colonies of the last serious menace from the Indians. And so + the colonists, having no further use for them, began trying to make the + land they had delivered too hot to hold them. There were, of course, + exceptions; and the American colonists had some real as well as pretended + grievances. But wantonly baiting the redcoats had already become a most + discreditable general practice. + </p> + <p> + Montreal was most in touch with the disaffected people to the south. It + also had a magistrate of the name of Walker, the most rancorous of all the + disaffected magistrates in Canada. This Walker, well mated with an equally + rancorous wife, was the same man who entertained Benjamin Franklin and the + other commissioners sent by Congress into Canada in 1776, the year in + which both the American Republic and a truly British Canada were born. He + would not have been flattered could he have seen the entry Franklin made + about him and his wife in a diary which is still extant. The gist of it + was that wherever the Walkers might be they would soon set the place by + the ears. Walker, of course, was foremost in the persecution of the + redcoats; and he eagerly seized his opportunity when an officer was + billeted in a house where a brother magistrate happened to be living as a + lodger. Under such circumstances the magistrate could not claim exemption. + But this made no difference either to him or to Walker. Captain Payne, the + gentleman whose presence enraged these boors, was seized and thrown into + gaol. The chief justice granted a writ of habeas corpus. But the mischief + was done and resentment waxed high. The French-Canadian seigneurs + sympathized with Payne, which added fuel to the magisterial flame; and + Murray, scenting danger, summoned the whole bench down to Quebec. + </p> + <p> + But before this bench of bumbles started some masked men seized Walker in + his own house and gave him a good sound thrashing. Unfortunately they + spoilt the fair reprisal by cutting off his ear. That very night the news + had run round Montreal and made a start for Boston and Quebec. Feeling ran + high; and higher still when, a few weeks later, the civil magistrates + vented their rage on several redcoats by imposing sentences exceeding even + the utmost limits of their previous vindictive action. Montreal became + panic-stricken lest the soldiers, baited past endurance, should break out + in open violence. Murray drove up, post-haste, from Quebec, ordered the + affected regiment to another station, reproved the offending magistrates, + and re-established public confidence. Official and private rewards were + offered to any witnesses who would identify Walker's assailants. But in + vain. The smouldering fire burst out again under Carleton. But the mystery + was never cleared up. + </p> + <p> + Things had now come to a crisis. The London merchants, knowing nothing + about the internal affairs of Canada, backed the petition of the Quebec + traders, who were quite unworthy of such support from men of real business + probity and knowledge. The magisterial faction in Canada advertised their + side of the case all over the colonies and in any sympathetic quarter they + could find in England. The seigneurs sent home a warm defence of Murray; + and Murray himself sent Cramahe, a very able Swiss officer in the British + Army. The home government thus had plenty of contradictory evidence before + it in 1765. The result was that Murray was called home in 1766, rather in + a spirit of open-minded and sympathetic inquiry into his conduct than with + any idea of censuring him. He never returned to Canada. But as he held the + titular governorship for some time longer, and as he was afterwards + employed in positions of great responsibility and trust, the verdict of + the home authorities was clearly given in his favour. + </p> + <p> + The troublous year of 1764 saw another innovation almost as revolutionary, + compared with the old regime, as the introduction of civil government + itself. This was the issue of the first newspaper in Canada, where, + indeed, it was also the first printed thing of any kind. Nova Scotia had + produced an earlier paper, the Halifax Gazette, which lived an + intermittent life from 1752 to 1800. But no press had ever been allowed in + New France. The few documents that required printing had always been done + in the mother country. Brown and Gilmore, two Philadelphians, were thus + undertaking a pioneer business when they announced that 'Our Design is, in + case we are fortunate enough to succeed, early in this spring to settle in + this City [Quebec] in the capacity of Printers, and forthwith to publish a + weekly newspaper in French and English.' The Quebec Gazette, which first + appeared on the 21st of the following June, has continued to the present + time, though it is now a daily and is known as the Quebec Chronicle. + Centenarian papers are not common in any country; and those that have + lived over a century and a half are very few indeed. So the Quebec + Chronicle, which is the second surviving senior in America, is also among + the great press seniors of the world. + </p> + <p> + The original number is one of the curiosities of journalism. The + publishers felt tolerably sure of having what was then considered a good + deal of recent news for their three hundred readers during the open + season. But, knowing that the supply would be both short and stale in + winter, they held out prospects of a Canadian Tatler or Spectator, + without, however, being rash enough to promise a supply of Addisons and + Steeles. Their announcement makes curious reading at the present day. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + The Rigour of Winter preventing the arrival of ships + from Europe, and in a great measure interrupting + the ordinary intercourse with the Southern Provinces, + it will be necessary, in a paper designed for General + Perusal, and Publick Utility, to provide some things + of general Entertainment, independent of foreign + intelligence: we shall therefore, on such occasions, + present our Readers with such Originals, both in + Prose and Verse, as will please the FANCY and + instruct the JUDGMENT. And here we beg leave to observe + that we shall have nothing so much at heart as the + support of VIRTUE and MORALITY and the noble cause of + LIBERTY. The refined amusements of LITERATURE, and + the pleasing veins of well pointed wit, shall also be + considered as necessary to this collection; interspersed + with chosen pieces, and curious essays, extracted from + the most celebrated authors; So that, blending PHILOSOPHY + with POLITICKS, HISTORY, &c., the youth of both sexes + will be improved and persons of all ranks agreeably + and usefully entertained. And upon the whole we will + labour to attain to all the exactness that so much + variety will permit, and give as much variety as will + consist with a reasonable exactness. And as this part + of our project cannot be carried into execution without + the correspondence of the INGENIOUS, we shall take + all opportunities of acknowledging our obligations, + to those who take the trouble of furnishing any matter + which shall tend to entertainment or instruction. Our + Intentions to please the Whole, without offence to + any Individual, will be better evinced by our practice, + than by writing volumes on the subject. This one thing + we beg may be believed, that PARTY PREJUDICE, or + PRIVATE SCANDAL, will never find a place in this PAPER. +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III — GOVERNOR CARLETON + </h2> + <h3> + 1766-1774 + </h3> + <p> + The twelve years of Carleton's first administration naturally fall into + three distinct periods of equal length. During the first he was busily + employed settling as many difficulties as he could, examining the general + state of the country, and gradually growing into the change that was + developing in the minds of the home government, the change, that is, from + the Americanizing sixties to the French-Canadian seventies. During the + second period he was in England, helping to shape the famous Quebec Act. + During the third he was defending Canada from American attack and aiding + the British counterstroke by every means in his power. + </p> + <p> + On the 22nd of September 1766 Carleton arrived at Quebec and began his + thirty years' experience as a Canadian administrator by taking over the + government from Colonel Irving, who had held it since Murray's departure + in the spring. Irving had succeeded Murray simply because he happened to + be the senior officer present at the time. Carleton himself was + technically Murray's lieutenant till 1768. But neither of these facts + really affected the course of Canadian history. + </p> + <p> + The Council, the magistrates, and the traders each presented. the new + governor with an address containing the usual professions of loyal + devotion. Carleton remarked in his dispatch that these separate addresses, + and the marked absence of any united address, showed how much the + population was divided. He also noted that a good many of the + English-speaking minority had objected to the addresses on account of + their own opposition to the Stamp Act, and that there had been some broken + heads in consequence. Troubles enough soon engaged his anxious attention—troubles + over the Indian trade, the rights and wrongs of the Canadian Jesuits, the + wounded dignity of some members of the Council, and the still smouldering + and ever mysterious Walker affair. + </p> + <p> + The strife between Canada and the Thirteen Colonies over the Indian trade + of the West remained the same in principle as under the old regime. The + Conquest had merely changed the old rivalry between two foreign powers + into one between two widely differing British possessions; and this, + because of the general unrest among the Americans, made the competition + more bitter, if possible, than ever. + </p> + <p> + The Jesuits pressed their claims for recognition, for their original + estates, and for compensation. But their order had fallen on evil days all + over the world. It was not popular even in Canada. And the arrangement was + that while the existing members were to be treated with every + consideration the Society itself was to be allowed to die out. + </p> + <p> + The offended councillors went so far as to present Carleton with a + remonstrance which Irving himself had the misfortune to sign. Carleton had + consulted some members on points with which they were specially + acquainted. The members who had not been consulted thereupon protested to + Irving, who assured them that Carleton must have done so by accident, not + design. But when Carleton received a joint letter in which they said, 'As + you are pleased to signifye to Us by Coll. Irving that it was accident, + & not Intention,' he at once replied: 'As Lieutenant Colonel Irving + has signified to you that the Part of my Conduct you think worthy of your + Reprehension happened by Accident let him explain his reasons for so + doing. He had no authority from me.' Carleton then went on to say that he + would consult any 'Men of Good Sense, Truth, Candour, and Impartial + Justice' whenever he chose, no matter whether they were councillors or + not. + </p> + <p> + The Walker affair, which now broke out again, was much more serious than + the storm in the Council's teacup. It agitated the whole of Canada and + threatened to range the population of Montreal and Quebec into two + irreconcilable factions, the civil and the military. For the whole of the + two years since Murray had been called upon to deal with it cleverly + presented versions of Walker's views had been spread all over the colonies + and worked into influential Opposition circles in England. The invectives + against the redcoats and their friends the seigneurs were of the usual + abusive type. But they had an unusually powerful effect at that particular + time in the Thirteen Colonies as well as in what their authors hoped to + make a Fourteenth Colony after a fashion of their own; and they looked + plausible enough to mislead a good many moderate men in the mother country + too. Walker's case was that he had an actual witness, as to the identity + of his assailants, in the person of McGovoch, a discharged soldier, who + laid information against one civilian, three British officers, and the + celebrated French-Canadian leader, La Corne de St Luc. All the accused + were arrested in their beds in Montreal and thrown into the common gaol. + Walker objected to bail on the plea that his life would be in danger if + they were allowed at large. He also sought to postpone the trial in order + to punish the accused as much as possible, guilty or innocent. But William + Hey, the chief justice, an able and upright man, would consent to + postponement only on condition that bail should be allowed; so the trial + proceeded. When the grand jury threw out the case against one of the + prisoners Walker let loose such a flood of virulent abuse that moderate + men were turned against him. In the end all the accused were honourably + acquitted, while McGovoch, who was proved to have been a false witness + from the first, was convicted of perjury. Carleton remained absolutely + impartial all through, and even dismissed Colonel Irving and another + member of the Council for heading a petition on behalf of the military + prisoners. + </p> + <p> + The Walker affair was an instance of a bad case in which the law at last + worked well. But there were many others in which it did not. What with the + Coutume de Paris, which is still quoted in the province of Quebec; the + other complexities of the old French law; the doubtful meanings drawn from + the capitulation, the treaty, the proclamation, and the various + ordinances; the instinctive opposition between the French Canadians and + the English-speaking civilians; and, finally, what with the portents of + subversive change that were already beginning to overshadow all America,—what + with all this and more, Carleton found himself faced with a problem which + no man could have solved to the satisfaction of every one concerned. Each + side in a lawsuit took whatever amalgam of French and English codes was + best for its own argument. But, generally speaking, the ingrained feeling + of the French Canadians was against any change of their own laws that was + not visibly and immediately beneficial to their own particular interests. + Moreover, the use of the unknown English language, the worthlessness of + the rapacious English-speaking magistrates, and the detested innovation of + imprisonment for debt, all combined to make every part of English civil + law hated simply because it happened to be English and not French. The + home authorities were anxious to find some workable compromise. In 1767 + Carleton exchanged several important dispatches with them; and in 1768 + they sent out Maurice Morgan to study and report, after consultation with + the chief justice and 'other well instructed persons.' Morgan was an + indefatigable and clear-sighted man who deserves to be gratefully + remembered by both races; for he was a good friend both to the French + Canadians before the Quebec Act and to the United Empire Loyalists just + before their great migration, when he was Carleton's secretary at New + York. In 1769 the official correspondence entered the 'secret and + confidential' stage with a dispatch from the home government to Carleton + suggesting a House of Representatives to which, practically speaking, the + towns would send Protestant members and the country districts Roman + Catholics. + </p> + <p> + In 1770 Carleton sailed for England. He carried a good deal of hard-won + experience with him, both on this point and on many others. He went home + with a strong opinion not only against an assembly but against any + immediate attempts at Anglicization in any form. The royal instructions + that had accompanied his commission as 'Captain-General and + Governor-in-chief' in 1768 contained directions for establishing the + Church of England with a view to converting the whole population to its + tenets later on. But no steps had been taken, and, needless to say, the + French Canadians remained as Roman Catholic as ever. + </p> + <p> + An increasingly important question, soon to overshadow all others, was + defence. In April 1768 Carleton had proposed the restoration of the + seigneurial militia system. 'All the Lands here are held of His Majesty's + Castle of St Lewis [the governor's official residence in Quebec]. The Oath + which the Vassals [seigneurs] take is very Solemn and Binding. They are + obliged to appear in Arms for the King's defence, in case his Province is + attacked.' Carleton pointed out that a hundred men of the Canadian + seigneurial families were being kept on full pay in France, ready to + return and raise the Canadians at the first opportunity. 'On the other + hand, there are only about seventy of these officers in Canada who have + been in the French service. Not one of them has been given a commission in + the King's [George's] Service, nor is there One who, from any motive + whatever, is induced to support His Government.' The few French Canadians + raised for Pontiac's war had of course been properly paid during the + continuance of their active service. But they had been disbanded like mere + militia afterwards, without either gratuities or half-pay for the + officers. This naturally made the class from which officers were drawn + think that no career was open to them under the Union Jack and turned + their thoughts towards France, where their fellows were enjoying full pay + without a break. + </p> + <p> + What made this the more serious was the weakness of the regular garrisons, + all of which, put together, numbered only 1,627 men. Carleton calculated + that about five hundred of 'the King's Old Subjects' were capable of + bearing arms; though most of them were better at talking than fighting. He + had nothing but contempt for 'the flimsy wall round Montreal,' and relied + little more on the very defective works at Quebec. Thus with all his + wonderful equanimity, 'grave Carleton' left Canada with no light heart + when he took six months' leave of absence in 1770; and he would have been + more anxious still if he could have foreseen that his absence was to be + prolonged to no less than four years. + </p> + <p> + He had, however, two great satisfactions. He was represented at Quebec by + a most steadfast lieutenant, the quiet, alert, discreet, and determined + Cramahe; and he was leaving Canada after having given proof of a + disinterestedness which was worthy of the elder Pitt himself. When Pitt + became Paymaster-General of England he at once declined to use the two + chief perquisites of his office, the interest on the government balance + and the half per cent commission on foreign subsidies, though both were + regarded as a kind of indirect salary. When Carleton became governor of + Canada he at once issued a proclamation abolishing all the fees and + perquisites attached to his position and explained his action to the home + authorities in the following words: 'There is a certain appearance of + dirt, a sort of meanness, in exacting fees on every occasion. I think it + necessary for the King's service that his representative should be thought + unsullied.' Murray, who had accepted the fees, at first took umbrage. But + Carleton soon put matters straight with him. The fact was that fees, and + even certain perquisites, were no dishonour to receive, as they nearly + always formed a recognized part, and often the whole, of a perfectly legal + salary. But fees and perquisites could be abused; and they did lead to + misunderstandings, even when they were not abused; while fixed salaries + were free from both objections. So Carleton, surrounded by shamelessly + rapacious magistrates and the whole vile camp-following gang, as well as + by French Canadians who had suffered from the robberies of Bigot and his + like, decided to sacrifice everything but his indispensable fixed salary + in order that even the most malicious critics could not bring any + accusation, however false, against the man who represented Britain and her + king. + </p> + <p> + An interesting personal interlude, which was not without considerable + effect on Canadian history, took place in the middle of Carleton's four + years' stay in England. He was forty-eight and still a bachelor. Tradition + whispers that these long years of single life were the result of a + disappointing love affair with Jane Carleton, a pretty cousin, when both + he and she were young. However that may be, he now proposed to Lady Anne + Howard, whose father, the Earl of Effingham, was one of his greatest + friends. But he was doomed to a second, though doubtless very minor, + disappointment. Lady Anne, who probably looked on 'grave Carleton' as a + sort of amiable, middle-aged uncle, had fallen in love with his nephew, + whom she presently married, and with whom she afterwards went out to + Canada, where her husband served under the rejected uncle himself. What + added spice to this peculiar situation was the fact that Carleton actually + married the younger sister of the too-youthful Lady Anne. When Lady Anne + rejoined her sister and their bosom friend, Miss Seymour, after the + disconcerting interview with Carleton, she explained her tears by saying + they were due to her having been 'obliged to refuse the best man on + earth.' 'The more fool you!' answered the younger sister, Lady Maria, then + just eighteen, 'I only wish he had given me the chance!' There, for the + time, the matter ended. Carleton went back to his official duties in + furtherance of the Quebec Act. His nephew and the elder sister made mutual + love. Lady Maria held her tongue. But Miss Seymour had not forgotten; and + one day she mustered up courage to tell Carleton the story of 'the more + fool you!' This decided him to act at once. He proposed; was accepted; and + lived happily married for the rest of his long life. Lady Maria was small, + fair-haired, and blue-eyed, which heightened her girlish appearance when, + like Madame de Champlain, she came out to Canada with a husband more than + old enough to be her father. But she had been brought up at Versailles. + She knew all the aristocratic graces of the old regime. And her slight, + upright figure—erect as any soldier's to her dying day—almost + matched her husband's stalwart form in dignity of carriage. + </p> + <p> + The Quebec Act of 1774—the Magna Charta of the French-Canadian race—finally + passed the House of Lords on the 18th of June. The general idea of the Act + was to reverse the unsuccessful policy of ultimate assimilation with the + other American colonies by making Canada a distinctly French-Canadian + province. The Maritime Provinces, with a population of some thirty + thousand, were to be as English as they chose. But a greatly enlarged + Quebec, with a population of ninety thousand, and stretching far into the + unsettled West, was to remain equally French-Canadian; though the rights + of what it was then thought would be a perpetual English-speaking minority + were to be safeguarded in every reasonable way. The whole country between + the American colonies and the domains of the Hudson's Bay Company was + included in this new Quebec, which comprised the southern half of what is + now the Newfoundland Labrador, practically the whole of the modern + provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and all the western lands between the + Ohio and the Great Lakes as far as the Mississippi, that is, the modern + American states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. + </p> + <p> + The Act gave Canada the English criminal code. It recognized most of the + French civil law, including the seigneurial tenure of land. Roman + Catholics were given 'the free Exercise' of their religion, 'subject to + the King's Supremacy' as defined 'by an Act made in the First Year of + Queen Elizabeth,' which Act, with a magnificently prophetic outlook on the + future British Empire, was to apply to 'all the Dominions and Countries + which then did, or thereafter should, belong to the Imperial Crown.' The + Roman Catholic clergy were authorized to collect 'their accustomed Dues + and Rights' from members of their own communion. The new oath of + allegiance to the Crown was silent about differences of religion, so that + Roman Catholics might take it without question. The clergy and seigneurs + were thus restored to an acknowledged leadership in church and state. + Those who wanted a parliament were distinctly told that 'It is at present + inexpedient to call an Assembly,' and that a Council of from seventeen to + twenty-three members, all appointed by the Crown, would attend to local + government and have power to levy taxes for roads and public buildings + only. Lands held 'in free and common socage' were to be dealt with by the + laws of England, as was all property which could be freely willed away. A + possible establishment of the Church of England was provided for but never + put in operation. + </p> + <p> + In some ways the Act did, in other ways it did not, fulfil the objects of + its framers. It was undoubtedly a generous concession to the leading + French Canadians. It did help to keep Canada both British and Canadian. + And it did open the way for what ought to have been a crushing attack on + the American revolutionary forces. But it was not, and neither it nor any + other Act could possibly have been, at that late hour, completely + successful. It conciliated the seigneurs and the parochial clergy. But it + did not, and it could not, also conciliate the lesser townsfolk and the + habitants. For the last fourteen years the habitants had been gradually + drifting away from their former habits of obedience and former obligations + towards their leaders in church and state. The leaders had lost their old + followers. The followers had found no new leaders of their own. + </p> + <p> + Naturally enough, there was great satisfaction among the seigneurs and the + clergy, with a general feeling among government supporters, both in + England and Canada, that the best solution of a very refractory problem + had been found at last. On the other hand, the Opposition in England, + nearly every one in the American colonies, and the great majority of + English-speaking people in Newfoundland, the Maritime Provinces, and + Canada itself were dead against the Act; while the habitants, resenting + the privileges already reaffirmed in favour of the seigneurs and clergy, + and suspicious of further changes in the same unwelcome direction, were + neutral at the best and hostile at the worst. + </p> + <p> + The American colonists would have been angered in any case. But when they + saw Canada proper made as unlike a 'fourteenth colony' as could be, and + when they also saw the gates of the coveted western lands closed against + them by the same detested Act—the last of the 'five intolerable + acts' to which they most objected—their fury knew no bounds. They + cursed the king, the pope, and the French Canadians with as much violence + as any temporal or spiritual rulers had ever cursed heretics and rebels. + The 'infamous and tyrannical ministry' in England was accused of + 'contemptible subservience' to the 'bloodthirsty, idolatrous, and + hypocritical creed' of the French Canadians. To think that people whose + religion had spread 'murder, persecution, and revolt throughout the world' + were to be entrenched along the St Lawrence was bad enough. But to see + Crown protection given to the Indian lands which the Americans considered + their own western 'birthright' was infinitely worse. Was the king of + England to steal the valley of the Mississippi in the same way as the king + of France? + </p> + <p> + It is easy to be wise after the event and hard to follow any counsel of + perfection. But it must always be a subject of keen, if unavailing, regret + that the French Canadians were not guaranteed their own way of life, + within the limits of the modern province of Quebec, immediately after the + capitulation of Montreal in 1760. They would then have entered the British + Empire, as a whole people, on terms which they must all have understood to + be exceedingly generous from any conquering power, and which they would + have soon found out to be far better than anything they had experienced + under the government of France. In return for such unexampled generosity + they might have become convinced defenders of the only flag in the world + under which they could possibly live as French Canadians. Their relations + to each other, to the rest of a changing Canada, and to the Empire would + have followed the natural course of political evolution, with the burning + questions of language, laws, and religion safely removed from general + controversy in after years. The rights of the English-speaking minority + could, of course, have been still better safeguarded under this system + than under the distracting series of half-measures which took its place. + There should have been no question of a parliament in the immediate + future. Then, with the peopling of Ontario by the United Empire Loyalists + and the growth of the Maritime Provinces on the other side, Quebec could + have entered Carleton's proposed Confederation in the nineties to her own + and every one else's best advantage. + </p> + <p> + On the other hand, the delay of fourteen years after the Capitulation of + 1760 and the unwarrantable extension of the provincial boundaries were + cardinal errors of the most disastrous kind. The delay, filled with a + futile attempt at mistaken Americanization, bred doubts and dissensions + not only between the two races but between the different kinds of French + Canadians. When the hour of trial came disintegration had already gone too + far. The mistake about the boundaries was equally bad. The western wilds + ought to have been administered by a lieutenant-governor under the + supervision of a governor-general. Even leasing them for a short term of + years to the Hudson's Bay Company would have been better than annexing + them to a preposterous province of Quebec. The American colonists would + have doubtless objected to either alternative. But both could have been + defended on sound principles of administration; while the sudden invasion + of a new and inflated Quebec into the colonial hinterlands was little less + than a declaration of war. The whole problem bristled with enormous + difficulties, and the circumstances under which it had to be faced made an + ideal solution impossible. But an earlier Quebec Act, without its + outrageous boundary clause, would have been well worth the risk of + passing; for the delay led many French Canadians to suppose, however + falsely, that the Empire's need might always be their opportunity; and + this idea, however repugnant to their best minds and better feelings, has + persisted among their extreme particularists until the present day. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV — INVASION + </h2> + <h3> + 1775 + </h3> + <p> + Carleton's first eight years as governor of Canada were almost entirely + occupied with civil administration. The next four were equally occupied + with war; so much so, indeed, that the Quebec Act could not be put in + force on the 1st of May 1775, as provided for in the Act itself, but only + bit by bit much later on. There was one short session of the new + Legislative Council, which opened on the 17th of August. But all men's + minds were even then turned towards the Montreal frontier, whence the + American invasion threatened to overspread the whole country and make this + opening session the last that might ever be held. Most of the members were + soon called away from the council-chamber to the field. No further session + could be held either that year or the next; and Carleton was obliged to + nominate the judges himself. The fifteen years of peace were over, and + Canada had once more become an object of contention between two fiercely + hostile forces. + </p> + <p> + The War of the American Revolution was a long and exceedingly complicated + struggle; and its many varied fortunes naturally had a profound effect on + those of Canada. But Canada was directly engaged in no more than the first + three campaigns, when the Americans invaded her in 1775 and '76, and when + the British used her as the base from which to invade the new American + Republic in 1777. These first three campaigns formed a purely civil war + within the British Empire. On each side stood three parties. Opponents + were ranged against each other in the mother country, in the Thirteen + Colonies, and in Canada. In the mother country the king and his party + government were ranged against the Opposition and all who held radical or + revolutionary views. Here the strife was merely political. But in the + Thirteen Colonies the forces of the Crown were ranged against the forces + of the new Continental Congress. The small minority of colonists who were + afterwards known as the United Empire Loyalists sided with the Crown. A + majority sided with the Congress. The rest kept as selfishly neutral as + they could. Among the English-speaking civilians in Canada, many of whom + were now of a much better class than the original camp-followers, the + active loyalists comprised only the smaller half. The larger half sided + with the Americans, as was only natural, seeing that most of them were + immigrants from the Thirteen Colonies. But by no means all these + sympathizers were ready for a fight. Among the French Canadians the + loyalists included very few besides the seigneurs, the clergy, and a + handful of educated people in Montreal, Three Rivers, and Quebec. The mass + of the habitants were more or less neutral. But many of them were + anti-British at first, while most of them were anti-American afterwards. + </p> + <p> + Events moved quickly in 1775. On the 19th of April the 'shot heard round + the world' was fired at Lexington in Massachusetts. On the 1st of May, the + day appointed for the inauguration of the Quebec Act, the statue of the + king in Montreal was grossly defaced and hung with a cross, a necklace of + potatoes, and a placard bearing the inscription, Here's the Canadian Pope + and English Fool—Voila le Pape du Canada et le sot Anglais. Large + rewards were offered for the detection of the culprits; but without avail. + Excitement ran high and many an argument ended with a bloody nose. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile three Americans were plotting an attack along the old line of + Lake Champlain. Two of them were outlaws from the colony of New York, + which was then disputing with the neighbouring colony of New Hampshire the + possession of the lawless region in which all three had taken refuge and + which afterwards became Vermont. Ethan Allen, the gigantic leader of the + wild Green Mountain Boys, had a price on his head. Seth Warner, his + assistant, was an outlaw of a somewhat humbler kind. Benedict Arnold, the + third invader, came from Connecticut. He was a horse-dealer carrying on + business with Quebec and Montreal as well as the West Indies. He was just + thirty-four; an excellent rider, a dead shot, a very fair sailor, and + captain of a crack militia company. Immediately after the affair at + Lexington he had turned out his company, reinforced by undergraduates from + Yale, had seized the New Haven powder magazine and marched over to + Cambridge, where the Massachusetts Committeemen took such a fancy to him + that they made him a colonel on the spot, with full authority to raise men + for an immediate attack on Ticonderoga. The opportunity seemed too good to + be lost; though the Continental Congress was not then in favour of + attacking Canada, as its members hoped to see the Canadians throw off the + yoke of empire on their own account. The British posts on Lake Champlain + were absurdly undermanned. Ticonderoga contained two hundred cannon, but + only forty men, none of whom expected an attack. Crown Point had only a + sergeant and a dozen men to watch its hundred and thirteen pieces. Fort + George, at the head of Lake George, was no better off; and nothing more + had been done to man the fortifications at St Johns on the Richelieu, + where there was an excellent sloop as well as many cannon in charge of the + usual sergeant's guard. This want of preparation was no fault of + Carleton's. He had frequently reported home on the need of more men. Now + he had less than a thousand regulars to defend the whole country: and not + another man was to arrive till the spring of next year. When Gage was hard + pressed for reinforcements at Boston in the autumn of 1774 Carleton had + immediately sent him two excellent battalions that could ill be spared + from Canada. But when Carleton himself made a similar request, in the + autumn of 1775, Admiral Graves, to his lasting dishonour, refused to sail + up to Quebec so late as October. + </p> + <p> + The first moves of the three Americans smacked strongly of a well-staged + extravaganza in which the smart Yankees never failed to score off the + dunderheaded British. The Green Mountain Boys assembled on the east side + of the lake. Spies walked in and out of Ticonderoga, exactly opposite, and + reported to Ethan Allen that the commandant and his whole garrison of + forty unsuspecting men would make an easy prey. Allen then sent eighty men + down to Skenesborough (now Whitehall) at the southern end of the lake, to + take the tiny post there and bring back boats for the crossing on the 10th + of May. Then Arnold turned up with his colonel's commission, but without + the four hundred men it authorized him to raise. Allen, however, had made + himself a colonel too, with Warner as his second-in-command. So there were + no less than three colonels for two hundred and thirty men. Arnold claimed + the command by virtue of his Massachusetts commission. But the Green + Mountain Boys declared they would follow no colonels but their own; and so + Arnold, after being threatened with arrest, was appointed something like + chief of the staff, on the understanding that he would make himself + generally useful with the boats. This appointment was made at dawn on the + 10th of May, just as the first eighty men were advancing to the attack + after crossing over under cover of night. The British sentry's musket + missed fire; whereupon he and the guard were rushed, while the rest of the + garrison were surprised in their beds. Ethan Allen, who knew the fort + thoroughly, hammered on the commandant's door and summoned him to + surrender 'In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress!' + The astonished commandant, seeing that resistance was impossible, put on + his dressing-gown and paraded his disarmed garrison as prisoners of war. + Seth Warner presently arrived with the rest of Allen's men and soon became + the hero of Crown Point, which he took with the whole of its thirteen men + and a hundred and thirteen cannon. Then Arnold had his own turn, in + command of an expedition against the sergeant's guard, cannon, stores, + fort, and sloop at St Johns on the Richelieu, all of which he captured in + the same absurdly simple way. When he came sailing back the three + victorious commanders paraded all their men and fired off many straggling + fusillades of joy. In the meantime the Continental Congress at + Philadelphia, with a delightful touch of unconscious humour, was gravely + debating the following resolution, which was passed on the 1st of June: + That no Expedition or Incursion ought to be undertaken or made, by any + Colony or body of Colonists, against or into Canada. + </p> + <p> + The same Congress, however, found reasons enough for changing its mind + before the month of May was out. The British forces in Canada had already + begun to move towards the threatened frontier. They had occupied and + strengthened St Johns. And the Americans were beginning to fear lest the + command of Lake Champlain might again fall into British hands. On the 27th + of May the Congress closed the phase of individual raids and inaugurated + the phase of regular invasion by commissioning General Schuyler to 'pursue + any measures in Canada that may have a tendency to promote the peace and + security of these Colonies.' Philip Schuyler was a distinguished member of + the family whose head had formulated the 'Glorious Enterprize' of + conquering New France in 1689. [Footnote: See, in this Series, The + Fighting Governor.] So it was quite in line with the family tradition for + him to be under orders to 'take possession of St Johns, Montreal, and any + other parts of the country,' provided always, adds the cautious Congress, + that 'General Schuyler finds it practicable, and that it will not be + disagreeable to the Canadians.' + </p> + <p> + A few days later Arnold was trying to get a colonelcy from the Convention + of New York, whose members just then happened to be thinking of giving + commissions to his rivals, the leaders of the Green Mountain Boys, while, + to make the complication quite complete, these Boys themselves had every + intention of electing officers on their own account. In the meantime + Connecticut, determined not to be forestalled by either friend or foe, + ordered a thousand men to Ticonderoga and commissioned a general called + Wooster to command them. Thus early were sown the seeds of those + dissensions between Congress troops and Colony troops which nearly drove + Washington mad. + </p> + <p> + Schuyler reached Ticonderoga in mid-July and assumed his position as + Congressional commander-in-chief. Unfortunately for the good of the + service he had only a few hundred men with him; so Wooster, who had a + thousand, thought himself the bigger general of the two. The Connecticut + men followed Wooster's lead by jeering at Schuyler's men from New York; + while the Vermonters added to the confusion by electing Seth Warner + instead of Ethan Allen. In mid-August a second Congressional general + arrived, making three generals and half a dozen colonels for less than + fifteen hundred troops. This third general was Richard Montgomery, an + ardent rebel of thirty-eight, who had been a captain in the British Army. + He had sold his commission, bought an estate on the Hudson, and married a + daughter of the Livingstons. The Livingstons headed the Anglo-American + revolutionists in the colony of New York as the Schuylers headed the + Knickerbocker Dutch. One of them was very active on the rebel side in + Montreal and was soon to take the field at the head of the American + 'patriots' in Canada. Montgomery was brother to the Captain Montgomery of + the 43rd who was the only British officer to disgrace himself during + Wolfe's Quebec campaign, which he did by murdering his French-Canadian + prisoners at Chateau Richer because they had fought disguised as Indians. + [Footnote: See The Passing of New France, p. 118.] Richard Montgomery was + a much better man than his savage brother; though, as the sequel proves, + he was by no means the perfect hero his American admirers would have the + world believe. His great value at Ticonderoga was his professional + knowledge and his ardour in the cause he had espoused. His presence + 'changed the spirit of the camp.' It sadly needed change. 'Such a set of + pusillanimous wretches never were collected' is his own description in a + despairing letter to his wife. The 'army,' in fact, was all parts and no + whole, and all the parts were mere untrained militia. Moreover, the spirit + of the 'town meeting' ruled the camp. Even a battery could not be moved + without consulting a council of war. Schuyler, though far more phlegmatic + than Montgomery, agreed with him heartily about this and many other + exasperating points. 'If Job had been a general in my situation, his + memory had not been so famous for patience.' + </p> + <p> + Worn out by his worries, Schuyler fell ill and was sent to command the + base at Albany. Montgomery then succeeded to the command of the force + destined for the front. The plan of invasion approved by Washington was, + first, to sweep the line of the Richelieu by taking St Johns and Chambly, + then to take Montreal, next to secure the line of the St Lawrence, and + finally to besiege Quebec. Montgomery's forces were to carry out all the + preliminary parts alone. But Arnold was to join him at Quebec after + advancing across country from the Kennebec to the Chaudiere with a flying + column of Virginians and New Englanders. + </p> + <p> + Carleton opened the melancholy little session of the new Legislative + Council at Quebec on the very day Montgomery arrived at Ticonderoga—the + 17th of August. When he closed it, to take up the defence of Canada, the + prospect was already black enough, though it grew blacker still as time + went on. Immediately on hearing the news of Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and + St Johns at the end of May he had sent every available man from Quebec to + Montreal, whence Colonel Templer had already sent off a hundred and forty + men to St Johns, while calling for volunteers to follow. The seigneurial + class came forward at once. But all attempts to turn out the militia en + masse proved utterly futile. Fourteen years of kindly British rule had + loosened the old French bonds of government and the habitants were no + longer united as part of one people with the seigneurs and the clergy. The + rebels had been busy spreading insidious perversions of the belated Quebec + Act, poisoning the minds of the habitants against the British government, + and filling their imaginations with all sorts of terrifying doubts. The + habitants were ignorant, credulous, and suspicious to the last degree. The + most absurd stories obtained ready credence and ran like wildfire through + the province. Seven thousand Russians were said to be coming up the St + Lawrence—whether as friends or foes mattered nothing compared with + the awful fact that they were all outlandish bogeys. Carleton was said to + have a plan for burning alive every habitant he could lay his hands on. + Montgomery's thousand were said to be five thousand, with many more to + follow. And later on, when Arnold's men came up the Kennebec, it was + satisfactorily explained to most of the habitants that it was no good + resisting dead-shot riflemen who were bullet-proof themselves. Carleton + issued proclamations. The seigneurs waved their swords. The clergy + thundered from their pulpits. But all in vain. Two months after the + American exploits on Lake Champlain Carleton gave a guinea to the sentry + mounted in his honour by the local militia colonel, M. de Tonnancour, + because this man was the first genuine habitant he had yet seen armed in + the whole district of Three Rivers. What must Carleton have felt when the + home government authorized him to raise six thousand of His Majesty's + loyal French-Canadian subjects for immediate service and informed him that + the arms and equipment for the first three thousand were already on the + way to Canada! Seven years earlier it might still have been possible to + raise French-Canadian counterparts of those Highland regiments which Wolfe + had recommended and Pitt had so cordially approved. Carleton himself had + recommended this excellent scheme at the proper time. But, though the home + government even then agreed with him, they thought such a measure would + raise more parliamentary and public clamour than they could safely face. + The chance once lost was lost for ever. + </p> + <p> + Carleton had done what he could to keep the enemy at arm's length from + Montreal by putting every available man into Chambly and St Johns. He knew + nothing of Arnold's force till it actually reached Quebec in November. + Quebec was thought secure for the time being, and so was left with a + handful of men under Cramahe. Montreal had a few regulars and a hundred + 'Royal Emigrants,' mostly old Highlanders who had settled along the New + York frontier after the Conquest. For the rest, it had many American and a + few British sympathizers ready to fly at each others' throats and a good + many neutrals ready to curry favour with the winners. Sorel was a mere + post without any effective garrison. Chambly was held by only eighty men + under Major Stopford. But its strong stone fort was well armed and quite + proof against anything except siege artillery; while its little garrison + consisted of good regulars who were well provisioned for a siege. The mass + of Carleton's little force was at St Johns under Major Preston, who had + 500 men of the 7th and 26th (Royal Fusiliers and Cameronians), 80 gunners, + and 120 volunteers, mostly French-Canadian gentlemen. Preston was an + excellent officer, and his seven hundred men were able to give a very good + account of themselves as soldiers. But the fort was not nearly so strong + as the one at Chambly; it had no natural advantages of position; and it + was short of both stores and provisions. + </p> + <p> + The three successive steps for Montgomery to take were St Johns, Chambly, + and Montreal. But the natural order of events was completely upset by that + headstrong Yankee, Ethan Allen, who would have his private war at + Montreal, and by that contemptible British officer, Major Stopford, who + would not defend Chambly. Montgomery laid siege to St Johns on the 18th of + September, but made no substantial progress for more than a month. He + probably had no use for Allen at anything like a regular siege. So Allen + and a Major Brown went on to 'preach politicks' and concert a rising with + men like Livingston and Walker. Livingston, as we have seen already, + belonged to a leading New York family which was very active in the rebel + cause; and Livingston, Walker, Allen, and Brown would have made a + dangerous anti-British combination if they could only have worked + together. But they could not. Livingston hurried off to join Montgomery + with four hundred 'patriots' who served their cause fairly well till the + invasion was over. Walker had no military qualities whatever. So Allen and + Brown were left to their own disunited devices. Montreal seemed an easy + prey. It had plenty of rebel sympathizers. Nearly all the surrounding + habitants were either neutrals or inclined to side with the Americans, + though not as fighting men. Carleton's order to bring in all the ladders, + so as to prevent an escalade of the walls, had met with general opposition + and evasion. Nothing seemed wanting but a good working plan. + </p> + <p> + Brown, or possibly Allen himself, then hit upon the idea of treating + Montreal very much as Allen had treated Ticonderoga. In any case Allen + jumped at it. He jumped so far, indeed, that he forestalled Brown, who + failed to appear at the critical moment. Thus, on the 24th of September, + Allen found himself alone at Long Point with a hundred and twenty men in + face of three times as many under the redoubtable Major Carden, a skilled + veteran who had won Wolfe's admiration years before. Carden's force + included thirty regulars, two hundred and forty militiamen, and some + Indians, probably not over a hundred strong. The militia were mostly of + the seigneurial class with a following of habitants and townsmen of both + French and British blood. Carden broke Allen's flanks rounded up his + centre, and won the little action easily, though at the expense of his own + most useful life. Allen was very indignant at being handcuffed and marched + off like a common prisoner after having made himself a colonel twice over. + But Carleton had no respect for self-commissioned officers and had no + soldiers to spare for guarding dangerous rebels. So he shipped Allen off + to England, where that eccentric warrior was confined in Pendennis Castle + near Falmouth in Cornwall. + </p> + <p> + This affair, small as it was, revived British hopes in Montreal and + induced a few more militiamen and Indians to come forward. But within a + month more was lost at Chambly than had been gained at Montreal. On the + 18th of October a small American detachment attacked Chambly with two + little field-guns and induced it to surrender on the 20th. If ever an + officer deserved to be shot it was Major Stopford, who tamely surrendered + his well-armed and well-provided fort to an insignificant force, after a + flimsy resistance of only thirty-six hours, without even taking the + trouble to throw his stores into the river that flowed beside his strong + stone walls. The news of this disgraceful surrender, diligently spread by + rebel sympathizers, frightened the Indians away from St Johns, thus + depriving Major Preston, the commandant, of his best couriers at the very + worst time. But the evil did not stop there; for nearly all the few + French-Canadian militiamen whom the more distant seigneurs had been able + to get under arms deserted en masse, with many threats against any one who + should try to turn them out again. + </p> + <p> + Chambly is only a short day's march from Montreal to the west and St Johns + to the south; so its capture meant that St Johns was entirely cut off from + the Richelieu to the north and dangerously exposed to being cut off from + Montreal as well. Its ample stores and munitions of war were a priceless + boon to Montgomery, who now redoubled his efforts to take St Johns. But + Preston held out bravely for the remainder of the month, while Carleton + did his best to help him. A fortnight earlier Carleton had arrested that + firebrand, Walker, who had previously refused to leave the country, though + Carleton had given him the chance of doing so. Mrs Walker, as much a rebel + as her husband, interviewed Carleton and noted in her diary that he 'said + many severe Things in very soft & Polite Termes.' Carleton was firm. + Walker's actions, words, and correspondence all proved him a dangerous + rebel whom no governor could possibly leave at large without breaking his + oath of office. Walker, who had himself caused so many outrageous arrests, + now not only resisted the legal arrest of his own person, but fired on the + little party of soldiers who had been sent to bring him into Montreal. The + soldiers then began to burn him out; whereupon he carried his wife to a + window from which the soldiers rescued her. He then surrendered and was + brought into Montreal, where the sight of him as a prisoner made a + considerable impression on the waverers. + </p> + <p> + A few hundred neighbouring militiamen were scraped together. Every one of + the handful of regulars who could be spared was turned out. And Carleton + set off to the relief of St Johns. But Seth Warner's Green Mountain Boys, + reinforced by many more sharpshooters, prevented Carleton from landing at + Longueuil, opposite Montreal. The remaining Indians began to slink away. + The French-Canadian militiamen deserted fast—'thirty or forty of a + night.' There were not two hundred regulars available for a march across + country. And on the 30th Carleton was forced to give up in despair. Within + the week St Johns surrendered with 688 men, who were taken south as + prisoners of war. Preston had been completely cut off and threatened with + starvation as well. So when he destroyed everything likely to be needed by + the enemy he had done all that could be expected of a brave and capable + commander. + </p> + <p> + It was the 3rd of November when St Johns surrendered. Ten days later + Montgomery occupied Montreal and Arnold landed at Wolfe's Cove just above + Quebec. The race for the possession of Quebec had been a very close one. + The race for the capture of Carleton was to be closer still. And on the + fate of either depended the immediate, and perhaps the ultimate, fate of + Canada. + </p> + <p> + The race for Quebec had been none the less desperate because the British + had not known of the danger from the south till after Arnold had suddenly + emerged from the wilds of Maine and was well on his way to the mouth of + the Chaudiere, which falls into the St Lawrence seven miles above the + city. Arnold's subsequent change of sides earned him the execration of the + Americans. But there can be no doubt whatever that if he had got through + in time to capture Quebec he would have become a national hero of the + United States. He had the advantage of leading picked men; though nearly + three hundred faint-hearts did turn back half-way. But, even with picked + men, his feat was one of surpassing excellence. His force went in eleven + hundred strong. It came out, reduced by desertion as well as by almost + incredible hardships, with barely seven hundred. It began its toilsome + ascent of the Kennebec towards the end of September, carrying six weeks' + supplies in the bad, hastily built boats or on the men's backs. Daniel + Morgan and his Virginian riflemen led the way. Aaron Burr was present as a + young volunteer. The portages were many and trying. The settlements were + few at first and then wanting altogether. Early in October the drenched + portagers were already sleeping in their frozen clothes. The boats began + to break up. Quantities of provisions were lost. Soon there was scarcely + anything left but flour and salt pork. It took nearly a fortnight to get + past the Great Carrying Place, in sight of Mount Bigelow. Rock, bog, and + freezing slime told on the men, some of whom began to fall sick. Then came + the chain of ponds leading into Dead River. Then the last climb up to the + height-of-land beyond which lay the headwaters of the Chaudiere, which + takes its rise in Lake Megantic. + </p> + <p> + There were sixty miles to go beyond the lake, and a badly broken sixty + miles they were, before the first settlement of French Canadians could be + reached. There was no trail. Provisions were almost at an end. Sickness + increased. The sick began to die. 'And what was it all for? A chance to + get killed! The end of the march was Quebec —impregnable!' On the + 24th of October Arnold, with fifteen other men, began 'a race against + time, a race against starvation' by pushing on ahead in a desperate effort + to find food. Within a week he had reached the first settlement, after + losing three of his five boats with everything in them. Three days later, + and not one day too soon, the French Canadians met his seven hundred + famishing men with a drove of cattle and plenty of provisions. The rest of + the way was toilsome enough. But it seemed easy by comparison. The + habitants were friendly, but very shy about enlisting, in spite of + Washington's invitation to 'range yourselves under the standard of general + liberty.' The Indians were more responsive, and nearly fifty joined on + their own terms. By the 8th of November Arnold was marching down the south + shore of the St Lawrence, from the Chaudiere to Point Levis, in full view + of Quebec. He had just received a dispatch ten days old from Montgomery by + which he learned that St Johns was expected to fall immediately and that + Schuyler was no longer with the army at the front. But he could not tell + when the junction of forces would be made; and he saw at once that Quebec + was on the alert because every boat had been either destroyed or taken + over to the other side. + </p> + <p> + The spring and summer had been anxious times enough in Quebec. But the + autumn was a great deal worse. Bad news kept coming down from Montreal. + The disaffected got more and more restless and began 'to act as though no + opposition might be shown the rebel forces.' And in October it did seem as + if nothing could be done to stop the invaders. There were only a few + hundred militiamen that could be depended on. The regulars, under Colonel + Maclean, had gone up to help Carleton on the Montreal frontier. The + fortifications were in no state to stand a siege. But Cramahe was full of + steadfast energy. He had mustered the French-Canadian militia on September + 11, the very day Arnold was leaving Cambridge in Massachusetts for his + daring march against Quebec. These men had answered the call far better in + the city of Quebec than anywhere else. There was also a larger proportion + of English-speaking loyalists here than in Montreal. But no transports + brought troops up the St Lawrence from Boston or the mother country, and + no vessel brought Carleton down. The loyalists were, however, encouraged + by the presence of two small men-of-war, one of which, the Hunter, had + been the guide-ship for Wolfe's boat the night before the Battle of the + Plains. Some minor reinforcements also kept arriving: veterans from the + border settlements and a hundred and fifty men from Newfoundland. On the + 3rd of November, the day St Johns surrendered to Montgomery, an + intercepted dispatch had warned Cramahe of Arnold's approach and led him + to seize all the boats on the south shore opposite Quebec. This was by no + means his first precaution. He had sent some men forty miles up the + Chaudiere as soon as the news of the raids on Lake Champlain and St Johns + had arrived at the end of May. Thus, though neither of them had + anticipated such a bolt from the blue, both Carleton and Cramahe had taken + all the reasonable means within their most restricted power to provide + against unforeseen contingencies. + </p> + <p> + Arnold's chance of surprising Quebec had been lost ten days before he was + able to cross the St Lawrence; and when the habitants on the south shore + were helping his men to make scaling-ladders the British garrison on the + north had already become too strong for him. But he was indefatigable in + collecting boats and canoes at the mouth of the Chaudiere, and at other + points higher up than Cramahe's men had reached when on their mission of + destruction or removal, and he was as capable as ever when, on the + pitch-black night of the 13th, he led his little flotilla through the gap + between the two British men-of-war, the Hunter and the Lizard. The next + day he marched across the Plains of Abraham and saluted Quebec with three + cheers. But meanwhile Colonel Maclean, who had set out to help Carleton at + Montreal and turned back on hearing the news of St Johns, had slipped into + Quebec on the 12th. So Arnold found himself with less than seven hundred + effectives against the eleven hundred British who were now behind the + walls. After vainly summoning the city to surrender he retired to + Pointe-aux-Trembles, more than twenty miles up the north shore of the St + Lawrence, there to await the arrival of the victorious Montgomery. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Montgomery was racing for Carleton and Carleton was racing for + Quebec. Montgomery's advance-guard had hurried on to Sorel, at the mouth + of the Richelieu, forty-five miles below Montreal, to mount guns that + would command the narrow channel through which the fugitive governor would + have to pass on his way to Quebec. They had ample time to set the trap; + for an incessant nor'-easter blew up the St Lawrence day after day and + held Carleton fast in Montreal, while, only a league away, Montgomery's + main body was preparing to cross over. Escape by land was impossible, as + the Americans held Berthier, on the north shore, and had won over the + habitants, all the way down from Montreal, on both sides of the river. At + last, on the afternoon of the 11th, the wind shifted. Immediately a single + cannon-shot was fired, a bugle sounded the fall in! and 'the whole + military establishment' of Montreal formed up in the barrack square—one + hundred and thirty officers and men, all told. Carleton, 'wrung to the + soul,' as one of his officers wrote home, came on parade 'firm, unshaken, + and serene.' The little column then marched down to the boats through + shuttered streets of timid neutrals and scowling rebels. The few loyalists + who came to say good-bye to Carleton at the wharf might well have thought + it was the last handshake they would ever get from a British + 'Captain-General and Governor-in-chief' as they saw him step aboard in the + dreary dusk of that November afternoon. And if he and they had known the + worst they might well have thought their fate was sealed; for neither of + them then knew that both sides of the St Lawrence were occupied in force + at two different places on the perilous way to Quebec. + </p> + <p> + The little flotilla of eleven vessels got safely down to within a few + miles of Sorel, when one grounded and delayed the rest till the wind + failed altogether at noon on the 12th. The next three days it blew + upstream without a break. No progress could be made as there was no room + to tack in the narrow passages opposite Sorel. On the third day an + American floating battery suddenly appeared, firing hard. Behind it came a + boat with a flag of truce and the following summons from Colonel Easton, + who commanded Montgomery's advance-guard at Sorel: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + SIR,—By this you will learn that General Montgomery + is in Possession of the Fortress Montreal. You are + very sensible that I am in Possession at this Place, + and that, from the strength of the United Colonies on + both sides your own situation is Rendered Very + disagreeable. I am therefore induced to make you the + following Proposal, viz.:—That if you will Resign + your Fleet to me Immediately, without destroying the + Effects on Board, You and Your men shall be used with + due civility, together with women & Children on Board. + To this I shall expect Your direct and Immediate + answer. Should you Neglect You will Cherefully take + the Consequences which will follow. +</pre> + <p> + Carleton was surprised: and well he might be. He had not supposed that + Montgomery's men were in any such commanding position. But, like Cramahe + at Quebec, he refused to answer; whereupon Easton's batteries opened both + from the south shore and from Isle St Ignace. Carleton's heaviest gun was + a 9-pounder; while Easton had four 12-pounders, one of them mounted on a + rowing battery that soon forced the British to retreat. The skipper of the + schooner containing the powder magazine wanted to surrender on the spot, + especially when he heard that the Americans were getting some hot shot + ready for him. But Carleton retreated upstream, twelve miles above Sorel, + to Lavaltrie, just above Berthier on the north shore, where, on attempting + to land, he was driven back by some Americans and habitants. Next morning, + the 16th, a fateful day for Canada, the same Major Brown who had failed + Ethan Allen at Montreal came up with a flag of truce to propose that + Carleton should send an officer to see for himself how well all chance of + escape had now been cut off. The offer was accepted; and Brown explained + the situation from the rebel point of view. 'This is my small battery; + and, even if you should chance to escape, I have a grand battery at the + mouth of the Sorel [Richelieu] which will infallibly sink all of your + vessels. Wait a little till you see the 32-pounders that are now within + half-a-mile.' There was a good deal of Yankee bluff in this warning, + especially as the 32-pounders could not be mounted in time. But the + British officer seemed perfectly satisfied that the way was completely + blocked; and so the Americans felt sure that Carleton would surrender the + following day. + </p> + <p> + Carleton, however, was not the man to give in till the very last; and one + desperate chance still remained. His flotilla was doomed. But he might + still get through alone without it. One of the French-Canadian skippers, + better known as 'Le Tourte' or 'Wild Pigeon' than by his own name of + Bouchette because of his wonderfully quick trips, was persuaded to make + the dash for freedom. So Carleton, having ordered Prescott, his + second-in-command, not to surrender the flotilla before the last possible + moment, arranged for his own escape in a whaleboat. It was with infinite + precaution that he made his preparations, as the enemy, though confident + of taking him, were still on the alert to prevent such a prize from + slipping through their fingers. He dressed like a habitant from head to + foot, putting on a tasselled bonnet rouge and an etoffe du pays (grey + homespun) suit of clothes, with a red sash and bottes sauvages like Indian + moccasins. Then the whaleboat was quietly brought alongside. The crew got + in and plied their muffled oars noiselessly down to the narrow passage + between Isle St Ignace and the Isle du Pas, where they shipped the oars + and leaned over the side to paddle past the nearest battery with the palms + of their hands. It was a moment of breathless excitement; for the hope of + Canada was in their keeping and no turning back was possible. But the + American sentries saw no furtive French Canadians gliding through that + dark November night and heard no suspicious noises above the regular + ripple of the eddying island current. One tense half-hour and all was + over, The oars were run out again; the men gave way with a will; and Three + Rivers was safely reached in the morning. + </p> + <p> + Here Carleton met Captain Napier, who took him aboard the armed ship Fell, + in which he continued his journey to Quebec. He was practically safe + aboard the Fell; for Arnold had neither an army strong enough to take + Quebec nor any craft big enough to fight a ship. But the flotilla above + Sorel was doomed. After throwing all its powder into the St Lawrence it + surrendered on the 19th, the very day Carleton reached Quebec. The + astonished Americans were furious when they found that Carleton had + slipped through their fingers after all. They got Prescott, whom they + hated; and they released Walker, whom Carleton was taking as a prisoner to + Quebec. But no friends and foes like Walker and Prescott could make up for + the loss of Carleton, who was the heart as well as the head of Canada at + bay. + </p> + <p> + The exultation of the British more than matched the disappointment of the + Americans. Thomas Ainslie, collector of customs and captain of militia at + Quebec, only expressed the feelings of all his fellow-loyalists when he + made the following entry in the extremely accurate diary he kept + throughout those troublous times: + </p> + <p> + 'On the 19th (a Happy Day for Quebec!), to the unspeakable joy of the + friends of the Government, and to the utter Dismay of the abettors of + Sedition and Rebellion, General Carleton arrived in the Fell, arm'd ship, + accompanied by an arm'd schooner. We saw our Salvation in his Presence.' + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V — BELEAGUERMENT + </h2> + <h3> + 1775-1776 + </h3> + <p> + When Carleton finally turned at bay within the walls of Quebec the British + flag waved over less than a single one out of the more than a million + square miles that had so recently been included within the boundaries of + Canada. The landward walls cut off the last half-mile of the tilted + promontory which rises three hundred feet above the St Lawrence but only + one hundred above the valley of the St Charles. This promontory is just a + thousand yards wide where the landward walls run across it, and not much + wider across the world-famous Heights and Plains of Abraham, which then + covered the first two miles beyond. The whole position makes one of + Nature's strongholds when the enemy can be kept at arm's length. But + Carleton had no men to spare for more than the actual walls and the narrow + little strip of the Lower Town between the base of the cliff and the St + Lawrence. So the enemy closed in along the Heights' and among the suburbs, + besides occupying any point of vantage they chose across the St Lawrence + or St Charles. + </p> + <p> + The walls were by no means fit to stand a siege, a fact which Carleton had + frequently reported. But, as the Americans had neither the men nor the + material for a regular siege, they were obliged to confine themselves to a + mere beleaguerment, with the chance of taking Quebec by assault. One of + Carleton's first acts was to proclaim that every able-bodied man refusing + to bear arms was to leave the town within four days. But, though this had + the desired effect of clearing out nearly all the dangerous rebels, the + Americans still believed they had enough sympathizers inside to turn the + scale of victory if they could only manage to take the Lower Town, with + all its commercial property and shipping, or gain a footing anywhere + within the walls. + </p> + <p> + There were five thousand souls left in Quebec, which was well provisioned + for the winter. The women, children, and men unfit to bear arms numbered + three thousand. The 'exempts' amounted to a hundred and eighty. As there + was a growing suspicion about many of these last, Carleton paraded them + for medical examination at the beginning of March, when, a good deal more + than half were found quite fit for duty. These men had been malingering + all winter in order to skulk out of danger; so he treated them with + extreme leniency in only putting them on duty as a 'company of Invalids.' + But the slur stuck fast. The only other exceptions to the general + efficiency were a very few instances of cowardice and many more of + slackness. The militia order-books have repeated entries about men who + turned up late for even important duties as well as about others whose + authorized substitutes were no better than themselves. But it should be + remembered that, as a whole, the garrison did exceedingly good service and + that all the malingerers and serious delinquents together did not amount + to more than a tenth of its total, which is a small proportion for such a + mixed body. + </p> + <p> + The effective strength at the beginning of the siege was eighteen hundred + of all ranks. Only one hundred of these belonged to the regular British + garrison in Canada—a few staff-officers, twenty-two men of the Royal + Artillery, and seventy men of the 7th Royal Fusiliers, a regiment which + was to be commanded in Quebec sixteen years later by Queen Victoria's + father, the Duke of Kent. The Fusiliers and two hundred and thirty 'Royal + Emigrants' were formed into a little battalion under Colonel Maclean, a + first-rate officer and Carleton's right-hand man in action. 'His Majesty's + Royal Highland Regiment of Emigrants,' which subsequently became the 84th + Foot, now known as the 2nd York and Lancaster, was hastily raised in 1775 + from the Highland veterans who had settled in the American colonies after + the Peace of 1763. Maclean's two hundred and thirty were the first men he + could get together in time to reach Quebec. The only other professional + fighters were four hundred blue-jackets and thirty-five marines of H.M.SS. + Lizard and Hunter, who were formed into a naval battalion under their own + officers, Captains Hamilton and McKenzie, Hamilton being made a + lieutenant-colonel and McKenzie a major while doing duty ashore. Fifty + masters and mates of trading vessels were enrolled in the same battalion. + The whole of the shipping was laid up for the winter in the Cul de Sac, + which alone made the Lower Town a prize worth taking. The 'British + Militia' mustered three hundred and thirty, the 'Canadian Militia' five + hundred and forty-three. These two corps included practically all the + official and business classes in Quebec and formed nearly half the total + combatants. Some of them took no pay and were not bound to service beyond + the neighbourhood of Quebec, thus being very much like the Home Guards + raised all over Canada and the rest of the Empire during the Great World + War of 1914. All the militia wore dark green coats with buff waistcoats + and breeches. The total of eighteen hundred was completed by a hundred and + twenty 'artificers,' that is, men who would now belong to the Engineers, + Ordnance, and Army Service Corps. As the composition of this garrison has + been so often misrepresented, it may be as well to state distinctly that + the past or present regulars of all kinds, soldiers and sailors together, + numbered eight hundred and the militia and other non-regulars a thousand. + The French Canadians, very few of whom were or had been regulars, formed + less than a third of the whole. + </p> + <p> + Montgomery and Arnold had about the same total number of men. Sometimes + there were more, sometimes less. But what made the real difference, and + what really turned the scale, was that the Americans had hardly any + regulars and that their effectives rarely averaged three-quarters of their + total strength. The balance was also against them in the matter of + armament. For, though Morgan's Virginians had many more rifles than were + to be found among the British, the Americans in general were not so well + off for bayonets and not so well able to use those they had; while the + artillery odds were still more against them. Carleton's artillery was not + of the best. But it was better than that of the Americans. He decidedly + overmatched them in the combined strength of all kinds of ordnance—cannons, + carronades, howitzers, mortars, and swivels. Cannons and howitzers fired + shot and shell at any range up to the limit then reached, between two and + three miles. Carronades were on the principle of a gigantic shotgun, + firing masses of bullets with great effect at very short ranges—less + than that of a long musket-shot, then reckoned at two hundred yards. The + biggest mortars threw 13-inch 224-lb shells to a great distance. But their + main use was for high-angle fire, such as that from the suburb of St Roch + under the walls of Quebec. Swivels were the smallest kind of ordnance, + firing one-, two-, or three-pound balls at short or medium ranges. They + were used at convenient points to stop rushes, much like modern + machine-guns. + </p> + <p> + Thanks chiefly to Cramahe, the defences were not nearly so 'ruinous' as + Arnold at first had thought them. The walls, however useless against the + best siege artillery, were formidable enough against irregular troops and + makeshift batteries; while the warehouses and shipping in the Lower Town + were protected by two stockades, one straight under Cape Diamond, the + other at the corner where the Lower Town turns into the valley of the St + Charles. The first was called the Pres-de-Ville, the second the + Sault-au-Matelot. The shipping was open to bombardment from the Levis + shore. But the Americans had no guns to spare for this till April. + </p> + <p> + Montgomery's advance was greatly aided by the little flotilla which Easton + had captured at Sorel. Montgomery met Arnold at Pointe-aux-Trembles, + twenty miles above Quebec, on the 2nd of December and supplied his little + half-clad force with the British uniforms taken at St Johns and Chambly. + He was greatly pleased with the magnificent physique of Arnold's men, the + fittest of an originally well-picked lot. He still had some 'pusillanimous + wretches' among his own New Yorkers, who resented the air of superiority + affected by Arnold's New Englanders and Morgan's Virginians. He felt a + well-deserved confidence in Livingston and some of the English-speaking + Canadian 'patriots' whom Livingston had brought into his camp before St + Johns in September. But he began to feel more and more doubtful about the + French Canadians, most of whom began to feel more and more doubtful about + themselves. On the 6th he arrived before Quebec and took up his quarters + in Holland House, two miles beyond the walls, at the far end of the Plains + of Abraham. The same day he sent Carleton the following summons: + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + SIR;—Notwithstanding the personal ill-treatment I + have received at your hands—notwithstanding your + cruelty to the unhappy Prisoners you have taken, the + feelings of humanity induce me to have recourse to + this expedient to save you from the Destruction which + hangs over you. Give me leave, Sir, to assure you that + I am well acquainted with your situation. A great + extent of works, in their nature incapable of defence, + manned with a motley crew of sailors, the greatest + part our friends; of citizens, who wish to see us + within their walls, & a few of the worst troops who + ever stiled themselves Soldiers. The impossibility of + relief, and the certain prospect of wanting every + necessary of life, should your opponents confine their + operations to a simple Blockade, point out the absurdity + of resistance. Such is your situation! I am at the + head of troops accustomed to Success, confident of + the righteousness of the cause they are engaged in, + inured to danger, & so highly incensed at your + inhumanity, illiberal abuse, and the ungenerous means + employed to prejudice them in the mind of the Canadians + that it is with difficulty I restrain them till my + Batteries are ready from assaulting your works, which + afford them a fair opportunity of ample vengeance and + just retaliation. Firing upon a flag of truce, hitherto + unprecedented, even among savages, prevents my taking + the ordinary mode of communicating my sentiments. + However, I will at any rate acquit my conscience. + Should you persist in an unwarrantable defence, the + consequences be upon your own head. Beware of destroying + stores of any kind, Publick or Private, as you have + done at Montreal and in Three Rivers—If you do, by + Heaven, there will be no mercy shown. +</pre> + <p> + Though Montgomery wrote bunkum like the common politician of that and many + a later age, he was really a brave soldier. What galled him into fury was + 'grave Carleton's' quiet refusal to recognize either him or any other + rebel commander as the accredited leader of a hostile army. It certainly + must have been exasperating for the general of the Continental Congress to + be reduced to such expedients as tying a grandiloquent ultimatum to an + arrow and shooting it into the beleaguered town. The charge of firing on + flags of truce was another instance of 'talking for Buncombe.' Carleton + never fired on any white flag. But he always sent the same answer: that he + could hold no communication with any rebels unless they came to implore + the king's pardon. This, of course, was an aggravation of his offensive + calmness in the face of so much revolutionary rage. To individual rebels + of all sorts he was, if anything, over-indulgent. He would not burn the + suburbs of Quebec till the enemy forced him to it, though many of the + houses that gave the Americans the best cover belonged to rebel Canadians. + He went out of his way to be kind to all prisoners, especially if sick or + wounded. And it was entirely owing to his restraining influence that the + friendly Indians had not raided the border settlements of New England + during the summer. Nor was he animated only by the very natural desire of + bringing back rebellious subjects to what he thought their true + allegiance, as his subsequent actions amply proved. He simply acted with + the calm dignity and impartial justice which his position required. + </p> + <p> + Three days before Christmas the bombardment began in earnest. The + non-combatants soon found, to their equal amazement and delight, that a + good many shells did very little damage if fired about at random. But news + intended to make their flesh creep came in at the same time, and probably + had more effect than the shells on the weak-kneed members of the + community. Seven hundred scaling-ladders, no quarter if Carleton persisted + in holding out, and a prophecy attributed to Montgomery that he would eat + his Christmas dinner either in Quebec or in Hell—these were some of + the blood-curdling items that came in by petticoat or arrow post. One of + the most active purveyors of all this bombast was Jerry Duggan, a Canadian + 'patriot' barber now become a Continental major. + </p> + <p> + But there was a serious side. Deserters and prisoners, as well as British + adherents who had escaped, all began to tell the same tale, though with + many variations. Montgomery was evidently bent on storming the walls the + first dark night. His own orders showed it. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + HEAD QUARTERS, HOLLAND HOUSE. + Near Quebec, 15th Decr. 1755. + + The General having in vain offered the most favourable + terms of accommodation to the Governor of Quebec, & + having taken every possible step to prevail on the + inhabitants to desist from seconding him in his wild + scheme of defending the Town—for the speedy reduction + of the only hold possessed by the Ministerial Troops + in this Province—The soldiers, flushed with continual + success, confident of the justice of their cause, & + relying on that Providence which has uniformly protected + them, will advance with alacrity to the attack of + works incapable of being defended by the wretched + Garrison posted behind them, consisting of Sailors + unacquainted with the use of arms, of Citizens incapable + of Soldiers' duty, & of a few miserable Emigrants. + The General is confident that a vigorous & spirited + attack must be attended with success. The Troops shall + have the effects of the Governor, Garrison, & of such + as have been active in misleading the Inhabitants & + distressing the friends of liberty, equally divided + among them, except the 100th share out of the whole, + which shall be at the disposal of the General to be + given to such soldiers as distinguished themselves by + their activity & bravery, to be sold at public auction: + the whole to be conducted as soon as the City is in + our hands and the inhabitants disarmed. +</pre> + <p> + It was a week after these orders had been written before the first + positive news of the threatened assault was brought into town by an + escaped British prisoner who, strangely enough, bore the name of Wolfe. + Wolfe's escape naturally caused a postponement of Montgomery's design and + a further council of war. Unlike most councils of war this one was full of + fight. Three feints were to be made at different points while the real + attack was to be driven home at Cape Diamond. But just after this decision + had been reached two rebel Montrealers came down and, in another debate, + carried the day for another plan. These men, Antell and Price, were really + responsible for the final plan, which, like its predecessor, did not meet + with Montgomery's approval. Montgomery wanted to make a breach before + trying the walls. But he was no more than the chairman of a committee; and + this egregious committee first decided to storm the unbroken walls and + then changed to an attack on the Lower Town only. Antell was Montgomery's + engineer. Price was a red-hot agitator. Both were better at politics than + soldiering. Their argument was that if the Lower Town could be taken the + Quebec militia would force Carleton to surrender in order to save the + warehouses, shipping, and other valuable property along the waterfront, + and that even if Carleton held out in debate he would soon be brought to + his knees by the Americans, who would march through the gates, which were + to be opened by the 'patriots' inside. + </p> + <p> + Another week passed; and Montgomery had not eaten his Christmas dinner + either in Quebec or in the other place. But both sides knew the crisis + must be fast approaching; for the New Yorkers had sworn that they would + not stay a minute later than the end of the year, when their term of + enlistment was up. Thus every day that passed made an immediate assault + more likely, as Montgomery had to strike before his own men left him. Yet + New Year's Eve itself began without the sign of an alarm. + </p> + <p> + Carleton had been sleeping in his clothes at the Recollets', night after + night, so that he might be first on parade at the general rendezvous on + the Place d'Armes, which stood near the top of Mountain Hill, the only + road between the Upper and the Lower Town. Officers and men off duty had + been following his example; and every one was ready to turn out at a + moment's notice. + </p> + <p> + A north-easterly snowstorm was blowing furiously, straight up the St + Lawrence, making Quebec a partly seen blur to the nearest American patrols + and the Heights of Abraham a wild sea of whirling drifts to the nearest + British sentries. One o'clock passed, and nothing stirred. But when two + o'clock struck at Holland House Montgomery rose and began to put the + council's plan in operation. The Lower Town was to be attacked at both + ends. The Pres-de-Ville barricade was to be carried by Montgomery and the + Sault-au-Matelot by Arnold, while Livingston was to distract Carleton's + attention as much as possible by making a feint against the landward + walls, where the British still expected the real attack. Livingston's + Canadian fighting 'patriots' waded through the drifts, against the storm, + across the Plains, and took post close in on the far side of Cape Diamond, + only eighty yards from the same walls that were to have been stormed some + days before. Jerry Duggan's parasitic Canadian 'patriots' took post in the + suburb of St John and thence round to Palace Gate. Montgomery led his own + column straight to Wolfe's Cove, whence he marched in along the narrow + path between the cliff and the St Lawrence till he reached the spot at the + foot of Cape Diamond just under the right of Livingston's line. Arnold, + whose quarters were in the valley of the St Charles, took post in St Roch, + with a mortar battery to fire against the walls and a column of men to + storm the Sault-au-Matelot. Livingston's and Jerry Duggan's whole command + numbered about four hundred men, Montgomery's five hundred, Arnold's six. + The opposing totals were fifteen hundred Americans against seventeen + hundred British. There was considerable risk of confusion between friend + and foe, as most of the Americans, especially Arnold's men, wore captured + British uniforms with nothing to distinguish them but odds and ends of + their former kits and a sort of paper hatband bearing the inscription + Liberty or Death. + </p> + <p> + A little after four the sentries on the walls at Cape Diamond saw lights + flashing about in front of them and were just going to call the guard when + Captain Malcolm Fraser of the Royal Emigrants came by on his rounds and + saw other lights being set out in regular order like lamps in a street. He + instantly turned out the guards and pickets. The drums beat to arms. Every + church bell in the city pealed forth its alarm into that wild night. The + bugles blew. The men off duty swarmed on to the Place d'Armes, where + Carleton, calm and intrepid as ever, took post with the general reserve + and waited. There was nothing for him to do just yet. Everything that + could have been foreseen had already been amply provided for; and in his + quiet confidence his followers found their own. + </p> + <p> + Towards five o'clock two green rockets shot up from Montgomery's position + beside the Anse des Meres under Cape Diamond. This was the signal for + attack. Montgomery's column immediately struggled on again along the path + leading round the foot of the Cape towards the Pres-de-Ville barricade. + Livingston's serious 'patriots' on the top of the Cape changed their + dropping shots into a hot fire against the walls; while Jerry Duggan's + little mob of would-be looters shouted and blazed away from safer cover in + the suburbs of St John and St Roch. Arnold's mortars pitched shells all + over the town; while his storming-party advanced towards the + Sault-au-Matelot barricade. Carleton, naturally anxious about the landward + walls, sent some of the British militia to reinforce the men at Cape + Diamond, which, as he knew, Montgomery considered the best point of + attack. The walls lower down did not seem to be in any danger from Jerry + Duggan's 'patriots,' whose noisy demonstration was at once understood to + be nothing but an empty feint. The walls facing the St Charles were well + manned and well gunned by the naval battalion. Those facing the St + Lawrence, though weak in themselves, were practically impregnable, as the + cliffs could not be scaled by any formed body. The Lower Town, however, + was by no means so safe, in spite of its two barricades. The general + uproar was now so great that Carleton could not distinguish the firing + there from what was going on elsewhere. But it was at these two points + that the real attack was rapidly developing. + </p> + <p> + The first decisive action took place at Pres-de-Ville. The guard there + consisted of fifty men—John Coffin, who was a merchant of Quebec, + Sergeant Hugh McQuarters of the Royal Artillery, Captain Barnsfair, a + merchant skipper, with fifteen mates and skippers like himself, and thirty + French Canadians under Captain Chabot and Lieutenant Picard. These fifty + men had to guard a front of only as many feet. On their right Cape Diamond + rose almost sheer. On their left raged the stormy St Lawrence. They had a + tiny block-house next to the cliff and four small guns on the barricade, + all double-charged with canister and grape. They had heard the dropping + shots on the top of the Cape for nearly an hour and had been quick to + notice the change to a regular hot fire. But they had no idea whether + their own post was to be attacked or not till they suddenly saw the head + of Montgomery's column halting within fifty paces of them. A man came + forward cautiously and looked at the barricade. The storm was in his face. + The defences were wreathed in whirling snow. And the men inside kept + silent as the grave. When he went back a little group stood for a couple + of minutes in hurried consultation. Then Montgomery waved his sword, + called out 'Come on, brave boys, Quebec is ours!' and led the charge. The + defenders let the Americans get about half-way before Barnsfair shouted + 'Fire!' Then the guns and muskets volleyed together, cutting down the + whole front of the densely massed column. Montgomery, his two + staff-officers, and his ten leading men were instantly killed. Some more + farther back were wounded. And just as the fifty British fired their + second round the rest of the five hundred Americans turned and ran in wild + confusion. + </p> + <p> + A few minutes later a man whose identity was never established came + running from the Lower Town to say that Arnold's men had taken the + Sault-au-Matelot barricade. If this was true it meant that the + Pres-de-Ville fifty would be caught between two fires. Some of them made + as if to run back and reach Mountain Hill before the Americans could cut + them off. But Coffin at once threatened to kill the first man to move; and + by the time an artillery officer had arrived with reinforcements perfect + order had been restored. This officer, finding he was not wanted there, + sent back to know where else he was to go, and received an answer telling + him to hurry to the Sault-au-Matelot. When he arrived there, less than + half a mile off, he found that desperate street fighting had been going on + for over an hour. + </p> + <p> + Arnold's advance had begun at the same time as Livingston's demonstration + and Montgomery's attack. But his task was very different and the time + required much longer. There were three obstacles to be overcome. First, + his men had to run the gauntlet of the fire from the bluejackets ranged + along the Grand Battery, which faced the St Charles at its mouth and + overlooked the narrow little street of Sous-le-Cap at a height of fifty or + sixty feet. Then they had to take the small advanced barricade, which + stood a hundred yards on the St Charles side of the actual + Sault-au-Matelot or Sailor's Leap, which is the north-easterly point of + the Quebec promontory and nearly a hundred feet high. Finally, they had to + round this point and attack the regular Sault-au-Matelot barricade. This + second barricade was about a hundred yards long, from the rock to the + river. It crossed Sault-au-Matelot Street and St Peter Street, which were + the same then as now. But it ended on a wharf half-way down the modern St + James Street, as the outer half of this street was then a natural strand + completely covered at high tide. It was much closer than the Pres-de-Ville + barricade was to Mountain Hill, at the top of which Carleton held his + general reserve ready in the Place d'Armes; and it was fairly strong in + material and armament. But it was at first defended by only a hundred men. + </p> + <p> + The American forlorn hope, under Captain Oswald, got past most of the + Grand Battery unscathed. But by the time the main body was following under + Morgan the British blue-jackets were firing down from the walls at less + than point-blank range. The driving snow, the clumps of bushes on the + cliff, and the little houses in the street below all gave the Americans + some welcome cover. But many of them were hit; while the gun they were + towing through the drifts on a sleigh stuck fast and had to be abandoned. + Captain Dearborn, the future commander-in-chief of the American army in + the War of 1812, noted in his diary that he 'met the wounded men very + thick' as he was bringing up the rear. When the forlorn hope reached the + advanced barricade Arnold halted it till the supports had come up. The + loss of the gun and the worrying his main body was receiving from the + sailors along the Grand Battery spoilt his original plan of smashing in + the barricade by shell fire while Morgan circled round its outer flank on + the ice of the tidal flats and took it in rear. So he decided on a frontal + attack. When he thought he had a fair chance he stepped to the front and + shouted, 'Now, boys, all together, rush!' But before he could climb the + barricade he was shot through the leg. For some time he propped himself up + against a house and, leaning on his rifle, continued encouraging his men, + who were soon firing through the port-holes as well as over the top. But + presently growing faint from loss of blood he had to be carried off the + field to the General Hospital on the banks of the St Charles. + </p> + <p> + The men now called out for a lead from Morgan, who climbed a ladder, + leaped the top, and fell under a gun inside. In another minute the whole + forlorn hope had followed him, while the main body came close behind. The + guard, not strong in numbers and weak in being composed of young + militiamen, gave way but kept on firing. 'Down with your arms if you want + quarter!' yelled Morgan, whose men were in overwhelming strength; and the + guard surrendered. A little way beyond, just under the bluff of the + Sault-au-Matelot, the British supports, many of whom were Seminary + students, also surrendered to Morgan, who at once pressed on, round the + corner of the Sault-au-Matelot, and halted in sight of the second or + regular barricade. What was to be done now? Where was Montgomery? How + strong was the barricade; and had it been reinforced? It could not be + turned because the cliff rose sheer on one flank while the icy St Lawrence + lashed the other. Had Morgan known that there were only a hundred men + behind it when he attacked its advanced barricade he might have pressed on + at all costs and carried it by assault. But it looked strong, there were + guns on its platforms, and it ran across two streets. His hurried council + of war over-ruled him, as Montgomery's council had over-ruled the original + plan of storming the walls; and so his men began a desultory fight in the + streets and from the houses. + </p> + <p> + This was fatal to American success. The original British hundred were + rapidly reinforced. The artillery officer who had found that he was not + needed at the Pres-de-Ville after Montgomery's defeat, and who had hurried + across the intervening half-mile, now occupied the corner houses, enlarged + the embrasures, and trained his guns on the houses occupied by the enemy. + Detachments of Fusiliers and Royal Emigrants also arrived, as did the + thirty-five masters and mates of merchant vessels who were not on guard + with Barnsfair at the Pres-de-Ville. Thus, what with soldiers, sailors, + and militiamen of both races, the main Sault-au-Matelot barricade was made + secure against being rushed like the outer one. But there was plenty of + fighting, with some confusion at close quarters caused by the British + uniforms which both sides were wearing. A Herculean sailor seized the + first ladder the Americans set against the barricade, hauled it up, and + set it against the window of a house out of the far end of which the enemy + were firing. Major Nairne and Lieutenant Dambourges of the Royal Emigrants + at once climbed in at the head of a storming-party and wild work followed + with the bayonet. All the Americans inside were either killed or captured. + Meanwhile a vigorous British nine-pounder had been turned on another house + they occupied. This house was likewise battered in, so that its surviving + occupants had to run into the street, where they were well plied with + musketry by the regulars and militiamen. The chance for a sortie then + seeming favourable, Lieutenant Anderson of the Navy headed his thirty-five + merchant mates and skippers in a rush along Sault-au-Matelot Street. But + his effort was premature. Morgan shot him dead, and Morgan's Virginians + drove the seamen back inside the barricade. + </p> + <p> + Carleton had of course kept in perfect touch with every phase of the + attack and defence; and now, fearing no surprise against the walls in the + growing daylight, had decided on taking Arnold's men in rear. To do this + he sent Captain Lawes of the Royal Engineers and Captain McDougall of the + Royal Emigrants with a hundred and twenty men out through Palace Gate. + This detachment had hardly reached the advanced barricade before they fell + in with the enemy's rearguard, which they took by complete surprise and + captured to a man. Leaving McDougall to secure these prisoners before + following on, Lawes pushed eagerly forward, round the corner of the + Sault-au-Matelot cliff, and, running in among the Americans facing the + main barricade, called out, 'You are all my prisoners!' 'No, we're not; + you're ours!' they answered. 'No, no,' replied Lawes, as coolly as if on + parade 'don't mistake yourselves, I vow to God you're mine!' 'But where + are your men?' asked the astonished Americans; and then Lawes suddenly + found that he was utterly alone! The roar of the storm and the work of + securing the prisoners on the far side of the advanced barricade had + prevented the men who should have followed him from understanding that + only a few were needed with McDougall. But Lawes put a bold face on it and + answered, 'O, Ho, make yourselves easy! My men are all round here and + they'll be with you in a twinkling.' He was then seized and disarmed. Some + of the Americans called out, 'Kill him! Kill him!' But a Major Meigs + protected him. The whole parley had lasted about ten minutes when + McDougall came running up with the missing men, released Lawes, and made + prisoners of the nearest Americans. Lawes at once stepped forward and + called on the rest to surrender. Morgan was for cutting his way through. A + few men ran round by the wharf and escaped on the tidal flats of the St + Charles. But, after a hurried consultation, the main body, including + Morgan, laid down their arms. This was decisive. The British had won the + fight. + </p> + <p> + The complete British loss in killed and wounded was wonderfully small, + only thirty, just one-tenth of the corresponding American loss, which was + large out of all proportion. Nearly half of the fifteen hundred Americans + had gone—over four hundred prisoners and about three hundred killed + and wounded. Nor were the mere numbers the most telling point about it; + for the worse half escaped—Livingston's Montreal 'patriots,' many of + whom had done very little fighting, Montgomery's time-expired New Yorkers, + most of whom wanted to go home, and Jerry Duggan's miscellaneous rabble, + all of whom wanted a maximum of plunder with a minimum of war. + </p> + <p> + The British victory was as nearly perfect as could have been desired. It + marked the turn of the tide in a desperate campaign which might have + resulted in the total loss of Canada. And it was of the greatest + significance and happiest augury because all the racial elements of this + new and vast domain had here united for the first time in defence of that + which was to be their common heritage. In Carleton's little garrison of + regulars and militia, of bluejackets, marines, and merchant seamen, there + were Frenchmen and French Canadians, there were Englishmen, Irishmen, + Scotsmen, Welshmen, Orcadians, and Channel Islanders, there were a few + Newfoundlanders, and there mere a good many of those steadfast Royal + Emigrants who may be fitly called the forerunners of the United Empire + Loyalists. Yet, in spite of this remarkable significance, no public + memorial of Carleton has ever been set up; and it was only in the + twentieth century that the Dominion first thought of commemorating his + most pregnant victory by placing tablets to mark the sites of the two + famous barricades. + </p> + <p> + As soon as things had quieted down within the walls Carleton sent out + search-parties to bring in the dead for decent burial and to see if any of + the wounded had been overlooked. James Thompson, the assistant engineer, + saw a frozen hand protruding from a snowdrift at Pres-de-Ville. It was + Montgomery's. The thirteen bodies were dug out and Thompson was ordered to + have a 'genteel coffin made for Mr Montgomery,' who was buried in the wall + just above St Louis Gate by the Anglican chaplain. Thompson kept + Montgomery's sword, which was given to the Livingston family more than a + century later. + </p> + <p> + The beleaguerment continued, in a half-hearted way, till the spring. The + Americans received various small reinforcements, which eventually brought + their total up to what it had been under Montgomery's command. But there + were no more assaults. Arnold grew dissatisfied and finally went to + Montreal; while Wooster, the new general, who arrived on the 1st of April, + was himself succeeded by Thomas, an ex-apothecary, on the 1st of May. The + suburb of St Roch was burnt down after the victory; so the American + snipers were bereft of some very favourite cover, and this, with other + causes, kept the bulk of the besiegers at an ineffective distance from the + walls. + </p> + <p> + The British garrison had certain little troubles of its own; for + discipline always tends to become irksome after a great effort. Carleton + was obliged to stop the retailing of spirits for fear the slacker men + would be getting out of hand. The guards and duties were made as easy as + possible, especially for the militia. But the 'snow-shovel parade' was an + imperative necessity. The winter was very stormy, and the drifts would + have frequently covered the walls and even the guns if they had not + promptly been dug out. The cold was also unusually severe. One early + morning in January an angry officer was asking a sentry why he hadn't + challenged him, when the sentry said, 'God bless your Honour! and I'm glad + you're come, for I'm blind!' Then it was found that his eyelids were + frozen fast together. + </p> + <p> + News came in occasionally from the outside world. There was intense + indignation among the garrison when they learned that the American + commanders in Montreal were imprisoning every Canadian officer who would + not surrender his commission. Such an unheard-of outrage was worthy of + Walker. But others must have thought of it; for Walker was now in + Philadelphia giving all the evidence he could against Prescott and other + British officers. Bad news for the rebels was naturally welcomed, + especially anything about their growing failure to raise troops in Canada. + On hearing of Montgomery's defeat the Continental Congress had passed a + resolution, addressed to the 'Inhabitants of Canada' declaring that 'we + will never abandon you to the unrelenting fury of your and our enemies.' + But there were no trained soldiers to back this up; and the raw militia, + though often filled with zeal and courage, could do nothing to redress the + increasingly adverse balance. In the middle of March the Americans sent in + a summons. But Carleton refused to receive it; and the garrison put a + wooden horse and a bundle of hay on the walls with a placard bearing the + inscription, 'When this horse has eaten this bunch of hay we will + surrender.' Some excellent practice made with 13-inch shells sent the + Americans flying from their new battery at Levis; and by the 17th of March + one of the several exultant British diarists, whose anonymity must have + covered an Irish name, was able to record that 'this, being St Patrick's + Day, the Governor, who is a true Hibernian, has requested the garrison to + put off keeping it till the 17th of May, when he promises, they shall be + enabled to do it properly, and with the usual solemnities.' + </p> + <p> + A fortnight later a plot concerted between the American prisoners and + their friends outside was discovered just in time. With tools supplied by + traitors they were to work their way out of their quarters, overpower the + guard at the nearest gate, set fire to the nearest houses in three + different streets, turn the nearest guns inwards on the town, and shout + 'Liberty for ever!' as an additional signal to the storming-party that was + to be waiting to confirm their success. Carleton seized the chance of + turning this scheme against the enemy. Three safe bonfires were set + ablaze. The marked guns were turned inwards and fired at the town with + blank charges. And the preconcerted shout was raised with a will. But the + besiegers never stirred. After this the Old-Countrymen among the + prisoners, who had taken the oath and enlisted in the garrison, were + disarmed and confined, while the rest were more strictly watched. + </p> + <p> + Two brave attempts were made by French Canadians to reach Quebec with + reinforcements, one headed by a seigneur, the other by a parish priest. + Carleton had sent word to M. de Beaujeu, seigneur of Crane Island, forty + miles below Quebec, asking him to see if he could cut off the American + detachment on the Levis shore. De Beaujeu raised three hundred and fifty + men. But Arnold sent over reinforcements. A habitant betrayed his + fellow-countrymen's advance-guard. A dozen French Canadians were then + killed or wounded while forty were taken prisoners; whereupon the rest + dispersed to their homes. The other attempt was made by Father Bailly, + whose little force of about fifty men was also betrayed. Entrapped in a + country-house these men fought bravely till nearly half their number had + been killed or wounded and the valiant priest had been mortally hit. They + then surrendered to a much stronger force which had lost more men than + they. + </p> + <p> + This was on the 6th of April, just before Arnold was leaving in disgust. + Wooster made an effort to use his new artillery to advantage by converging + the fire of three batteries, one close in on the Heights of Abraham, + another from across the mouth of the St Charles, and the third from Levis. + But the combination failed: the batteries were too light for the work and + overmatched by the guns on the walls, the practice was bad, and the effect + was nil. On the 3rd of May the new general, Thomas, an enterprising man, + tried a fireship, which was meant to destroy all the shipping in the Cul + de Sac. It came on, under full sail, in a very threatening manner. But the + crew lost their nerve at the critical moment, took to the boats too soon, + and forgot to lash the helm. The vessel immediately flew up into the wind + and, as the tidal stream was already changing, began to drift away from + the Cul de Sac just when she burst into flame. The result, as described by + an enthusiastic British diarist, was that 'she affoard'd a very pritty + prospect while she was floating down the River, every now & then + sending up Sky rackets, firing of Cannon or bursting of Shells, & so + continued till She disappear'd in the Channell.' + </p> + <p> + Three days later, on the 6th of May, when the beleaguerment had lasted + precisely five months, the sound of distant gunfire came faintly up the St + Lawrence with the first breath of the dawn wind from the east. The + sentries listened to make sure; then called the sergeants of the guards, + who sent word to the officers on duty, who, in their turn, sent word to + Carleton. By this time there could be no mistake. The breeze was + freshening; the sound was gradually nearing Quebec; and there could hardly + be room for doubting that it came from the vanguard of the British fleet. + The drums beat to arms, the church bells rang, the news flew round to + every household in Quebec; and before the tops of the Surprise frigate + were seen over the Point of Levy every battery was fully manned, every + battalion was standing ready on the Grand Parade, and every non-combatant + man, woman, and child was lining the seaward wall. The regulation shot was + fired across her bows as she neared the city; whereupon she fired three + guns to leeward, hoisted the private signal, and showed the Union Jack. + Then, at last, a cheer went up that told both friend and foe of British + victory and American defeat. By a strange coincidence the parole for this + triumphal day was St George, while the parole appointed for the victorious + New Year's Eve had been St Denis; so that the patron saints of France and + England happen to be associated with the two great days on which the + stronghold of Canada was saved by land and sea. + </p> + <p> + The same tide brought in two other men-of-war. Some soldiers of the 29th, + who were on board the Surprise, were immediately landed, together with the + marines from all three vessels. Carleton called for volunteers from the + militia to attack the Americans at once; and nearly every man, both of the + French- and of the English-speaking corps, stepped forward. There was joy + in every heart that the day for striking back had come at last. The + columns marched gaily through the gates and deployed into line at the + double on the Heights outside. The Americans fired a few hurried shots and + then ran for dear life, leaving their dinners cooking, and, in some cases, + even their arms behind them. The Plains were covered with flying enemies + and strewn with every sort of impediment to flight, from a cannon to a + loaf of bread. Quebec had been saved by British sea-power; and, with it, + the whole vast dominion of which it was the key. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI — DELIVERANCE + </h2> + <h3> + 1776 + </h3> + <p> + The Continental Congress had always been anxious to have delegates from + the Fourteenth Colony. But as these never came the Congress finally + decided to send a special commission to examine the whole civil and + military state of Canada and see what could be done. The news of + Montgomery's death and defeat was a very unwelcome surprise. But + reinforcements were being sent; the Canadians could surely be persuaded; + and a Congressional commission must be able to set things right. This + commission was a very strong one. Benjamin Franklin was the chairman. + Samuel Chase of Maryland and Charles Carroll of Carrollton were the other + members. Carroll's brother, the future archbishop of Baltimore, + accompanied them as a sort of ecclesiastical diplomatist. Franklin's + prestige and the fact that he was to set up a 'free' printing-press in + Montreal were to work wonders with the educated classes at once and with + the uneducated masses later on. Chase would appeal to all the reasonable + 'moderates.' Carroll, a great landlord and the nearest approach yet made + to an American millionaire, was expected to charm the Canadian noblesse; + while the fact that he and his exceedingly diplomatic brother were devout + Roman Catholics was thought to be by itself a powerful argument with the + clergy. + </p> + <p> + When they reached St Johns towards the end of April the commissioners sent + on a courier to announce their arrival and prepare for their proper + reception in Montreal. But the ferryman at Laprairie positively refused to + accept Continental paper money at any price; and it was only when a + 'Friend of Liberty' gave him a dollar in silver that he consented to cross + the courier over the St Lawrence. The same hitch occurred in Montreal, + where the same Friend of Liberty had to pay in silver before the + cab-drivers consented to accept a fare either from him or from the + commissioners. Even the name of Carroll of Carrollton was conjured with in + vain. The French Canadians remembered Bigot's bad French paper. Their + worst suspicions were being confirmed about the equally bad American + paper. So they demanded nothing but hard cash—argent dur. However, + the first great obstacle had been successfully overcome; and so, on the + strength of five borrowed silver dollars, the accredited commissioners of + the Continental Congress of the Thirteen Colonies made their state entry + into what they still hoped to call the Fourteenth Colony. But silver + dollars were scarce; and on the 1st of May the crestfallen commissioners + had to send the Congress a financial report which may best be summed up in + a pithy phrase which soon became proverbial—'Not worth a + Continental.' + </p> + <p> + On the 10th of May they heard the bad news from Quebec and increased the + panic among their Montreal sympathizers by hastily leaving the city lest + they should be cut off by a British man-of-war. Franklin foresaw the end + and left for Philadelphia accompanied by the Reverend John Carroll, whose + twelve days of disheartening experience with the leading French-Canadian + clergy had convinced him that they were impervious to any arguments or + blandishments emanating from the Continental Congress. It was a sad + disillusionment for the commissioners, who had expected to be settling the + affairs of a fourteenth colony instead of being obliged to leave the city + from which they were to have enlightened the people with a free press. In + their first angry ignorance they laid the whole blame on their unfortunate + army for its 'disgraceful flight' from Quebec. A week later, when Chase + and Charles Carroll ought to have known better, they were still assuring + the Congress that this 'shameful retreat' was 'the principal cause of all + the disorders' in the army; and even after the whole story ought to have + been understood neither they nor the Congress gave their army its proper + due. But, as a matter of fact, the American position had become untenable + the moment the British fleet began to threaten the American line of + communication with Montreal. For the rest, the American volunteers, all + things considered, had done very well indeed. Arnold's march was a truly + magnificent feat. Morgan's men had fought with great courage at the + Sault-au-Matelot. And though Montgomery's assault might well have been + better planned and executed, we must remember that the good plan, which + had been rejected, was the military one, while the bad plan, which had + been adopted, was concocted by mere politicians. Nor were 'all the + disorders' so severely condemned by the commissioners due to the army + alone. Far from it, indeed. The root of 'all the disorders' lay in the + fact that a makeshift government was obliged to use makeshift levies for + an invasion which required a regular army supported by a fleet. + </p> + <p> + On the 19th of May another disaster happened, this time above Montreal. + The Congress had not felt strong enough to attack the western posts. So + Captain Forster of the 8th Foot, finding that he was free to go elsewhere, + had come down from Oswegatchie (the modern Ogdensburg) with a hundred + whites and two hundred Indians and made prisoners of four hundred and + thirty Americans at the Cedars, about thirty miles up the St Lawrence from + Montreal. Forster was a very good officer. Butterfield, the American + commander, was a very bad one. And that made all the difference. After two + days of feeble and misdirected defence Butterfield surrendered three + hundred and fifty men. The other eighty were reinforcements who walked + into the trap next day. Forster now had four American prisoners for every + white soldier of his own; while Arnold was near by, having come up from + Sorel to Lachine with a small but determined force. So Forster, carefully + pointing out to his prisoners their danger if the Indians should be + reinforced and run wild, offered them their freedom on condition that they + should be regarded as being exchanged for an equal number of British + prisoners in American hands. This was agreed to and never made a matter of + dispute afterwards. But the second article Butterfield accepted was a + stipulation that, while the released British were to be free to fight + again, the released Americans were not; and it was over this point that a + bitter controversy raged. The British authorities maintained that all the + terms were binding because they had been accepted by an officer + commissioned by the Congress. The Congress maintained that the disputed + article was obtained by an unfair threat of an Indian massacre and that it + was so one-sided as to be good for nothing but repudiation. + </p> + <p> + 'The Affair at the Cedars' thus became a sorely vexed question. In itself + it would have died out among later and more important issues if it had not + been used as a torch to fire American public opinion at a time when the + Congress was particularly anxious to make the Thirteen Colonies as + anti-British as possible. Most of Forster's men were Indians. He had + reminded Butterfield how dangerous an increasing number of Indians might + become. Butterfield was naturally anxious to prove that he had yielded + only to overwhelming odds and horrifying risks. Americans in general were + ready to believe anything bad about the Indians and the British. The + temptation and the opportunity seemed made for each other. And so a quite + imaginary Indian massacre conveniently appeared in the American news of + the day and helped to form the kind of public opinion which was ardently + desired by the party of revolt. + </p> + <p> + The British evidence in this and many another embittering dispute about + the Indians need not be cited, since the following items of American + evidence do ample justice to both sides. In the spring of 1775 the + Massachusetts Provincial Congress sent Samuel Kirkland to exhort the + Iroquois 'to whet their hatchet and be prepared to defend our liberties + and lives'; while Ethan Allen asked the Indians round Vermont to treat him + 'like a brother and ambush the regulars.' In 1776 the Continental Congress + secretly resolved 'that it is highly expedient to engage the Indians in + the service of the United Colonies.' This was before the members knew + about the Affair at the Cedars. A few days later Washington was secretly + authorized to raise two thousand Indians; while agents were secretly sent + 'to engage the Six Nations in our Interest, on the best terms that can be + procured.' Within three weeks of this secret arrangement the Declaration + of Independence publicly accused the king of trying 'to bring on the + inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages.' Four days + after this public accusation the Congress gave orders for raising Indians + along 'the Penobscot, the St John, and in Nova Scotia'; and an entry to + that effect was made in its Secret Journal. Yet, before the month was out, + the same Congress publicly appealed to 'The People of Ireland' in the + following words: 'The wild and barbarous savages of the wilderness have + been solicited by gifts to take up the hatchet against us, and instigated + to deluge our settlements with the blood of defenceless women and + children.' + </p> + <p> + The American defeats at Quebec and at the Cedars completely changed the + position of the two remaining commissioners. They had expected to control + a victorious advance. They found themselves the highest authority present + with a disastrous retreat. Thereupon they made blunder after blunder. + Public interest and parliamentary control are the very life of armies and + navies in every country which enjoys the blessings of self-government. But + civilian interference is death. Yet Chase and Carroll practically + abolished rank in the disintegrating army by becoming an open court of + appeal to every junior with a grievance or a plan. There never was an + occasion on which military rule was more essential in military matters. + Yet, though they candidly admitted that they had 'neither abilities nor + inclination' to command, these wretched misrulers tried to do their duty + both to the Congress and the army by turning the camp into a sort of town + meeting where the best orders had no chance whatever against the loudest + 'sentiments.' They had themselves found the root of all evil in the + retreat from Quebec. Their army, like every impartial critic, found it in + 'the Commissioners and the smallpox'—with the commissioners easily + first. The smallpox had been bad enough at Quebec. It became far worse at + Sorel. There were few doctors, fewer medicines, and not a single hospital. + The reinforcements melted away with the army they were meant to + strengthen. Famine threatened both, even in May. Finally the commissioners + left for home at the end of the month. But even their departure could no + longer make the army's burden light enough to bear. + </p> + <p> + Thomas, the ex-apothecary, who did his best to stem the adverse tide of + trouble, caught the smallpox, became blind, and died at the beginning of + June. Sullivan, the fourth commander in less than half a year, having + determined that one more effort should be made, arrived at Sorel with new + battalions after innumerable difficulties by the way. He was led to + believe that Carleton's reinforcements had come from Nova Scotia, not from + England; and this encouraged him to push on farther. He was naturally of a + very sanguine temper; and Thompson, his second-in-command, heartily + approved of the dash. The new troops cheered up and thought of taking + Quebec itself. But, after getting misled by their guide, floundering about + in bottomless bogs, and losing a great deal of very precious time, they + found Three Rivers defended by entrenchments, superior numbers, and the + vanguard of the British fleet. Nevertheless they attacked bravely on the + 8th of June. But, taken in front and flank by well-drilled regulars and + well-handled men-of-war, they presently broke and fled. Every avenue of + escape was closed as they wandered about the woods and bogs. But Carleton, + who came up from Quebec after the battle was all over, purposely opened + the way to Sorel. He had done his best to win the hearts of his prisoners + at Quebec and had succeeded so well that when they returned to Crown Point + they were kept away from the rest of the American army lest their account + of his kindness should affect its anti-British zeal. Now that he was in + overwhelming force he thought he saw an even better chance of earning + gratitude from rebels and winning converts to the loyal side by a still + greater act of clemency. + </p> + <p> + The battle of Three Rivers was the last action fought on Canadian soil. + The American army retreated to Sorel and up the Richelieu to St Johns, + where it was joined by Arnold, who had just evacuated Montreal. Most of + the Friends of Liberty in Canada fled either with or before their beaten + forces. So, like the ebbing of a whole river system, the main and + tributary streams of fugitives drew south towards Lake Champlain. The + neutral French Canadians turned against them at once; though not to the + extent of making an actual attack. The habitant cared nothing for the + incomprehensible constitutionalities over which different kinds of British + foreigners were fighting their exasperating civil war. But he did know + what the king's big fleet and army meant. He did begin to feel that his + own ways of life were safer with the loyal than with the rebel side. And + he quite understood that he had been forced to give a good deal for + nothing ever since the American commissioners had authorized their + famishing army to commandeer his supplies and pay him with their worthless + 'Continentals.' + </p> + <p> + From St Johns the worn-out Americans crawled homewards in stray, exhausted + parties, dropping fast by the way as they went. 'I did not look into a hut + or a tent,' wrote a horrified observer, 'in which I did not find a dead or + dying man.' Disorganization became so complete that no exact returns were + ever made up. But it is known that over ten thousand armed men crossed + into Canada from first to last and that not far short of half this total + either found their death beyond the line or brought it back with them to + Lake Champlain. + </p> + <p> + It was on what long afterwards became Dominion Day—the 1st of July—that + the ruined American forces reassembled at Crown Point, having abandoned + all hope of making Canada the Fourteenth Colony. Three days later the + disappointed Thirteen issued the Declaration of Independence which + virtually proclaimed that Canadians and Americans should thenceforth live + a separate life. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII — THE COUNTERSTROKE + </h2> + <h3> + 1776-1778 + </h3> + <p> + Six thousand British troops, commanded by Burgoyne, and four thousand + Germans, commanded by Baron Riedesel, had arrived at Quebec before the + battle of Three Rivers. Quebec itself had then been left to the care of a + German garrison under a German commandant, 'that excellent man, Colonel + Baum,' while the great bulk of the army had marched up the St Lawrence, as + we have seen already. Such a force as this new one of Carleton's was + expected to dismay the rebel colonies. And so, to a great extent, it did. + With a much larger force in the colonies themselves the king was + confidently expected to master his unruly subjects, no matter how much + they proclaimed their independence. The Loyalists were encouraged. The + trimmers prepared to join them. Only those steadfast Americans who held + their cause dearer than life itself were still determined to venture all. + But they formed the one party that really knew its own mind. This gave + them a great advantage over the king's party, which, hampered at every + turn by the opposition in the mother country, was never quite sure whether + it ought to strike hard or gently in America. + </p> + <p> + On one point, however, everybody was agreed. The command of Lake Champlain + was essential to whichever side would hold its own. The American forces at + Crown Point might be too weak for the time being. But Arnold knew that + even ten thousand British soldiers could not overrun the land without a + naval force to help them. So he got together a flotilla which had + everything its own way during the time that Carleton was laboriously + building a rival flotilla on the Richelieu with a very scanty supply of + ship-wrights and materials. Arnold, moreover, could devote his whole + attention to the work, makeshift as it had to be; while Carleton was + obliged to keep moving about the province in an effort to bring it into + some sort of order after the late invasion. Throughout the summer the + British army held the line of the Richelieu all the way south as far as + Isle-aux-Noix, very near the lake and the line. But Carleton's flotilla + could not set sail from St Johns till October 5, by which time the main + body of his army was concentrated round Pointe-au-Fer, at the northern end + of the lake, ninety miles north of the American camp at Crown Point. + </p> + <p> + It was a curious situation for a civil and military governor to be + hoisting his flag as a naval commander-in-chief, however small the fleet + might be. But it is commonly ignored that, down to the present day, the + governor-general of Canada is appointed 'Vice-Admiral of the Same' in his + commissions from the Crown. Carleton of course carried expert naval + officers with him and had enough professional seamen to work the vessels + and lay the guns. But, though Captain Pringle manoeuvred the flotilla and + Lieutenant Dacre handled the flagship Carleton, the actual command + remained in Carleton's own hands. The capital ship (and the only real + square-rigged 'ship') of this Lilliputian fleet was Pringle's Inflexible, + which had been taken up the Richelieu in sections and hauled past the + portages with immense labour before reaching St Johns, whence there is a + clear run upstream to Lake Champlain. The Inflexible carried thirty guns, + mostly 12-pounders, and was an overmatch for quite the half of Arnold's + decidedly weaker flotilla. The Lady Maria was a sort of sister ship to the + Carleton. The little armada was completed by a 'gondola' with six + 9-pounders, by twenty gunboats and four longboats, each carrying a single + piece, and by many small craft used as transports. + </p> + <p> + On the 11th of October Carleton's whole naval force was sailing south when + one of Arnold's vessels was seen making for Valcour Island, a few miles + still farther south on the same, or western, side of Lake Champlain. + Presently the Yankee ran ashore on the southern end of the island, where + she was immediately attacked by some British small craft while the + Inflexible sailed on. Then, to the intense disgust of the Inflexible's + crew, Arnold's complete flotilla was suddenly discovered drawn up in a + masterly position between the mainland and the island. It was too late for + the Inflexible to beat back now. But the rest of Carleton's flotilla + turned in to the attack. Arnold's flanks rested on the island and the + mainland. His rear could be approached only by beating back against a bad + wind all the way round the outside of Valcour Island; and, even if this + manoeuvre could have been performed, the British attack on his rear from + the north could have been made only in a piecemeal way, because the + channel was there at its narrowest, with a bad obstruction in the middle. + So, for every reason, a frontal attack from the south was the one way of + closing with him. The fight was furious while it lasted and seemingly + decisive when it ended. Arnold's best vessel, the Royal Savage, which he + had taken at St Johns the year before, was driven ashore and captured. The + others were so severely mauled that when the victorious British anchored + their superior force in line across Arnold's front there seemed to be no + chance for him to escape the following day. But that night he performed an + even more daring and wonderful feat than Bouchette had performed the year + before when paddling Carleton through the American lines among the islands + opposite Sorel. Using muffled sweeps, with consummate skill he slipped all + his remaining vessels between the mainland and the nearest British + gunboat, and was well on his way to Crown Point before his escape had been + discovered. Next day Carleton chased south. The day after he destroyed the + whole of the enemy's miniature sea-power as a fighting force. But the only + three serviceable vessels got away; while Arnold burnt everything else + likely to fall into British hands. So Carleton had no more than his own + reduced flotilla to depend on when he occupied Crown Point. + </p> + <p> + A vexed question, destined to form part of a momentous issue, now arose. + Should Ticonderoga be attacked at once or not? It commanded the only + feasible line of march from Montreal to New York; and no force from Canada + could therefore attack the new republic effectively without taking it + first. But the season was late. The fort was strong, well gunned, and well + manned. Carleton's reconnaissance convinced him that he could have little + chance of reducing it quickly, if at all, with the means at hand, + especially as the Americans had supplies close by at Lake George, while he + was now a hundred miles south of his base. A winter siege was impossible. + Sufficient supplies could never be brought through the dense, + snow-encumbered bush, all the way from Canada, even if the long and + harassing line of communications had not been everywhere open to American + attack. Moreover, Carleton's army was in no way prepared for a midwinter + campaign, even if it could have been supplied with food and warlike + stores. So he very sensibly turned his back on Lake Champlain until the + following year. + </p> + <p> + That was the gayest winter Quebec had seen since Montcalm's first season, + twenty years before. Carleton had been knighted for his services and was + naturally supposed to be the chosen leader for the next campaign. The ten + thousand troops gave confidence to the loyalists and promised success for + the coming campaign. The clergy were getting their disillusioned + parishioners back to the fold beneath the Union Jack; while Jean Ba'tis'e + himself was fain to admit that his own ways of life and the money he got + for his goods were very much safer with les Angla's than with the + revolutionists, whom he called les Bastonna's because most trade between + Quebec and the Thirteen Colonies was carried on by vessels hailing from + the port of Boston. The seigneurs were delighted. They still hoped for + commissions as regulars, which too few of them ever received; and they + were charmed with the little viceregal court over which Lady Maria + Carleton, despite her youthful two-and-twenty summers, presided with a + dignity inherited from the premier ducal family of England and brought to + the acme of conventional perfection by her intimate experience of + Versailles. On New Year's Eve Carleton gave a public fete, a state dinner, + and a ball to celebrate the anniversary of the British victory over + Montgomery and Arnold. The bishop held a special thanksgiving and made all + notorious renegades do open penance. Nothing seemed wanting to bring the + New Year in under the happiest auspices since British rule began. + </p> + <p> + But, quite unknown to Carleton, mischief was brewing in the Colonial + Office of that unhappy government which did so many stupid things and got + the credit for so many more. In 1775 the well-meaning Earl of Dartmouth + was superseded by Lord George Germain, who continued the mismanagement of + colonial affairs for seven disastrous years. Few characters have abused + civil and military positions more than the man who first, as a British + general, disgraced the noble name of Sackville on the battlefield of + Minden in 1759, and then, as a cabinet minister, disgraced throughout + America the plebeian one of Germain, which he took in 1770 with a suitable + legacy attached to it. His crime at Minden was set down by the thoughtless + public to sheer cowardice. But Sackville was no coward. He had borne + himself with conspicuous gallantry at Fontenoy. He was admired, before + Minden, by two very brave soldiers, Wolfe and the Duke of Cumberland. And + he afterwards fought a famous duel with as much sang-froid as any one + would care to see. His real crime at Minden was admirably exposed by the + court-martial which found him 'guilty of having disobeyed the orders of + Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, whom he was by his commission bound to obey + as commander-in-chief, according to the rules of war.' This court also + found him 'unfit to serve his Majesty in any military capacity whatever'; + and George II directed that the following 'remarks' should be added when + the sentence was read out on parade to every regiment in the service: 'It + is his Majesty's pleasure that the above sentence be given out in public + orders, not only in Britain, but in America, and in every quarter of the + globe where British troops happen to be, so that all officers, being + convinced that neither high birth nor great employments can shelter + offences of such a nature, and seeing they are subject to censures worse + than death to a man who has any sense of honour, may avoid the fatal + consequences arising from disobedience of orders.' + </p> + <p> + This seemed to mark the end of Sackville's sinister career. But when + George II died and George III began to reign, with a very different set of + men to help him, the bad general reappeared as an equally bad politician. + Haughty, cantankerous, and self-opinionated to the last degree, Germain, + who had many perverse abilities fitting him for the meaner side of party + politics, was appointed to the post for which he was least qualified just + when Canada and the Thirteen Colonies most needed a master mind. Worse + still, he cherished a contemptible grudge against Carleton for having + refused to turn out a good officer and put in a bad one who happened to be + a pampered favourite. At first, however, Carleton was allowed to do his + best. But in the summer of 1776 Germain restricted Carleton's command to + Canada and put Burgoyne, a junior officer, in command of the army destined + to make the counterstroke. The ship bearing this malicious order had to + put back; so it was not till the middle of May 1777 that Carleton was + disillusioned by its arrival as well as by a second and still more + exasperating dispatch accusing him of neglect of duty for not having taken + Ticonderoga in November and thus prevented Washington from capturing the + Hessians at Trenton. The physical impossibility of a winter siege, the + three hundred miles of hostile country between Trenton and Ticonderoga, + and the fact that the other leading British general, Howe, had thirty + thousand troops in the Colonies, while Carleton had only ten thousand with + which to hold Canada that year and act as ordered next year, all went for + nothing when Germain found a chance to give a good stab in the back. + </p> + <p> + On May 20 Carleton wrote a pungent reply, pointing out the utter + impossibility of following up his victory on Lake Champlain by carrying + out Germain's arm-chair plan of operations in the middle of winter. 'I + regard it as a particular blessing that your Lordship's dispatch did not + arrive in due time.' As for the disaster at Trenton, he 'begs to inform + his Lordship' that if Howe's thirty thousand men had been properly used + the Hessians could never have been taken, 'though all the rebels from + Ticonderoga had reinforced Mr Washington's army.' Moreover, 'I never could + imagine why, if troops so far south [as Howe's] found it necessary to go + into winter quarters, your Lordship could possibly expect troops so far + north to continue their operations.' A week later Carleton wrote again and + sent in his resignation. 'Finding that I can no longer be of use, under + your Lordship's administration ... I flatter myself I shall obtain the + king's permission to return home this fall. ... I shall embark with great + satisfaction, still entertaining the ardent wish that, after my departure, + the dignity of the Crown in this unfortunate Province may not appear + beneath your Lordship's concern.' + </p> + <p> + Burgoyne had spent the winter in London and had arrived at Quebec about + the same time as Germain's dispatches. He had loyally represented + Carleton's plans at headquarters. But he did not know America and he was + not great enough to see the weak points in the plan which Germain proposed + to carry out with wholly inadequate means. + </p> + <p> + There was nothing wrong with the actual idea of this plan. Washington, + Carleton, and every other leading man on either side saw perfectly well + that the British army ought to cut the rebels in two by holding the direct + line from Montreal to New York throughout the coming campaign of 1777. + Given the irresistible British command of the sea, fifty thousand troops + were enough. The general idea was that half of these should hold the + four-hundred-mile line of the Richelieu, Lake Champlain, and the Hudson, + while the other half seized strategic points elsewhere and still further + divided the American forces. But the troops employed were ten thousand + short of the proper number. Many of them were foreign mercenaries. And the + generals were not the men to smash the enemy at all costs. They were ready + to do their duty. But their affinities were rather with the opposition, + which was against the war, than with the government, which was for it. + Howe was a strong Whig. Burgoyne became a follower of Fox. Clinton had + many Whig connections. Cornwallis voted against colonial taxation. To make + matters worse, the government itself wavered between out-and-out war and + some sort of compromise both with its political opponents at home and its + armed opponents in America. + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances Carleton was in favour of a modified plan. + Ticonderoga had been abandoned by the Americans and occupied by the + British as Burgoyne marched south. Carleton's idea was to use it as a base + of operations against New England, while Howe's main body struck at the + main body of the rebels and broke them up as much as possible. Germain + however, was all for the original plan. So Burgoyne set off for the + Hudson, expecting to get into touch with Howe at Albany. But Germain, in + his haste to leave town for a holiday, forgot to sign Howe's orders at the + proper time; and afterwards forgot them altogether. So Howe, pro-American + in politics and temporizer in the field, manoeuvred round his own + headquarters at New York until October, when he sailed south to + Philadelphia. Receiving no orders from Germain, and having no initiative + of his own, he had made no attempt to hold the line of the Hudson all the + way north to Albany, where he could have met Burgoyne and completed the + union of the forces which would have cut the Colonies in two. Meanwhile + Burgoyne, ignorant of Germain's neglect and Howe's futilities, was + struggling to his fate at Saratoga, north of Albany. He had been receiving + constant aid from Carleton's scanty resources, though Carleton knew full + well that the sending of any aid beyond the limits of the province exposed + him to personal ruin in case of a reverse in Canada. But it was all in + vain; and, on the 17th of October, Burgoyne—much more sinned against + than sinning—laid down his arms. The British garrison immediately + evacuated Ticonderoga and retired to St Johns, thus making Carleton's + position fairly safe in Canada. But Germain, only too glad to oust him, + had now notified him that Haldimand, the new governor, was on the point of + sailing for Quebec. Haldimand, to his great credit, had asked to have his + own appointment cancelled when he heard of Germain's shameful attitude + towards Carleton, and had only consented to go after being satisfied that + Carleton really wished to come home. The exchange, however, was not to + take place that year. Contrary winds blew Haldimand back; and so Canada + had to remain under the best of all possible governors in spite of + Germain. + </p> + <p> + Germain had provoked Carleton past endurance both by his public blunders + and by his private malice. Even in 1776 there was hate on one side, + contempt on the other. When Germain had blamed Carleton for not carrying + out the idiotic winter siege of Ticonderoga, Carleton, in his official + reply, 'could only suppose' that His Lordship had acted 'in other places + with such great wisdom that, without our assistance, the rebels must + immediately be compelled to lay down their arms and implore the King's + mercy.' After that Germain had murder in his heart to the bitter end of + Carleton's rule. Carleton had frequently reported the critical state of + affairs in Canada. 'There is nothing to fear from the Canadians so long as + things are in a state of prosperity; nothing to hope from them when in + distress. There are some of them who are guided by sentiments of honour. + The multitude is influenced by hope of gain or fear of punishment.' The + recent invasion had proved this up to the hilt. Then welcome reaction + began. The defeat of the invaders, the arrival of Burgoyne's army, and the + efforts of the seigneurs and the clergy had considerably brightened the + prospects of the British cause in Canada. The partial mobilization of the + militia which followed Burgoyne's surrender was not, indeed, a great + success. But it was far better than the fiasco of two years before. There + was also a corresponding improvement in civil life. The judges whom + Carleton had been obliged to appoint in haste all proved at leisure the + wisdom of his choice; and there seemed to be every chance that other + nominees would be equally fit for their positions, because the Quebec Act, + which annulled every appointment made before it came into force, opened + the way for the exclusion of bad officials and the inclusion of the good. + </p> + <p> + But the chance of perverting this excellent intention was too much for + Germain, who succeeded in foisting one worthless nominee after another on + the province just as Carleton was doing his best to heal old sores. One of + the worst cases was that of Livius, a low-down, money-grubbing German + Portuguese, who ousted the future Master of the Rolls; Sir William Grant, + a man most admirably fitted to interpret the laws of Canada with + knowledge, sympathy, and absolute impartiality. Livius as chief justice + was more than Carleton could stand in silence. This mongrel lawyer had + picked up all the Yankee vices without acquiring any of the countervailing + Yankee virtues. He was 'greedy of power, more greedy of gain, imperious + and impetuous in his temper, but learned in the ways and eloquence of the + New England provinces, and valuing himself particularly on his knowledge + of how to manage governors.' He had been sent by Germain 'to administer + justice to the Canadians when he understands neither their laws, manners, + customs, nor language.' Other like nominees followed, 'characters + regardless of the public tranquility but zealous to pay court to a + powerful minister and—provided they can obtain advantages—unconcerned + should the means of obtaining them prove ruinous to the King's service.' + These pettifoggers so turned and twisted the law about for the sake of + screwing out the maximum of fees that Carleton pointedly refused to + appoint Livius as a member of the Legislative Council. Livius then laid + his case before the Privy Council in England. But this great court of + ultimate appeal pronounced such a damning judgment on his gross + pretensions that even Germain could not prevent his final dismissal from + all employment under the Crown. + </p> + <p> + Wounded in the house of those who should have been his friends, thwarted + in every measure of his self-sacrificing rule, Carleton served on + devotedly through six weary months of 1778—the year in which a + vindictive government of Bourbon France became the first of the several + foreign enemies who made the new American republic an accomplished fact by + taking sides in a British civil war. His burden was now far more than any + man could bear. Yet he closed his answer to Germain's parting shot with + words which are as noble as his deeds: + </p> + <p> + 'I have long looked out for the arrival of a successor. Happy at last to + learn his near approach, I resign the important commands with which I have + been entrusted into hands less obnoxious to your Lordship. Thus, for the + King's service, as willingly I lay them down as, for his service, I took + them up.' + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII — GUARDING THE LOYALISTS + </h2> + <h3> + 1782-1783 + </h3> + <p> + Burgoyne's surrender marked the turning of the tide against the British + arms. True, the three campaigns of purely civil war, begun in 1775, had + reached no decisive result. True also that the Independence declared in + 1776 had no apparent chance of becoming an accomplished fact. But 1777 was + the fatal year for all that. The long political strife in England, the + gross mismanagement of colonial affairs under Germain, and the shameful + blunders that made Saratoga possible, all combined to encourage foreign + powers to take the field against the king's incompetent and distracted + ministry. France, Spain, and Holland joined the Americans in arms; while + Russia, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, and all the German seaboard countries + formed the Armed Neutrality of the North. This made stupendous odds—no + less than ten to one. First of the ten came the political opposition at + home, which, in regard to the American rebellion itself, was at least + equal to the most powerful enemy abroad. Next came the four enemies in + arms: the American rebels, France, Spain, and Holland. Finally came the + five armed neutrals, all ready to use their navies on the slightest + provocation. + </p> + <p> + From this it may be seen that not one-half, perhaps not a quarter, of all + the various forces that won the Revolutionary war were purely American. + Nor were the Americans and their allies together victorious over the + mother country, but only over one sorely hampered party in it. Yet, from + the nature of the case, the Americans got much more than the lion's share + of the spoils, while, even in their own eyes, they seemed to have gained + honour and glory in the same proportion. The last real campaign was fought + in 1781 and ended with the British surrender at Yorktown. From that time + on peace was in the air. The unfortunate ministry, now on the eve of + political defeat at home, were sick of civil war and only too anxious for + a chance of uniting all parties against the foreign foes. But they had + first to settle with the Americans, who had considered themselves an + independent sovereign power for the last five years and who were + determined to make the most of England's difficulties. No darker New + Year's Day had ever dawned on any cabinet than that of 1782 on North's. In + spite of his change from repression to conciliation, and in spite of + dismissing Germain to the House of Lords with an ill-earned peerage, Lord + North found his majority dwindling away. At last, on the 20th of March, he + resigned. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile every real statesman in either party had felt that the crisis + required the master-hand of Carleton. With Germain, the empire-wrecker, + gone, Carleton would doubtless have served under any cabinet, for no + government could have done without him. But his actual commission came + through the Rockingham administration on the 4th of April. After three + quiet years of retirement at his country seat in Hampshire he was again + called upon to face a situation of extreme difficulty. For once, with a + wisdom rare enough in any age and almost unknown in that one, the + government gave him a free hand and almost unlimited powers. The only + questions over which he had no final power were those of making treaties. + He was appointed 'General and Commander-in-chief of all His Majesty's + forces within the Colonies lying in the Atlantic Ocean, from Nova Scotia + to the Floridas, and inclusive of Newfoundland and Canada should they be + attacked.' He was also appointed commissioner for executing the terms of + any treaty that might be made; and his instructions contained two passages + which bore eloquent witness to the universal confidence reposed in him. + 'It is impossible to judge of the precise situation at so great a + distance' and 'His Majesty's affairs are so situated that further + deliberations give way to instant decision. We are satisfied that whatever + inconveniences may arise they will be compensated by the presence of a + commander-in-chief of whose discretion, conduct, and ability His Majesty + has long entertained the highest opinion.' Thus the great justifier of + British rule beyond the seas arrived in New York on the 9th of May 1782 + with at least some hope of reconciling enough Americans to turn the scale + before it was too late. + </p> + <p> + For three months the prospect, though worse than he had anticipated, did + not seem utterly hopeless. It had been considerably brightened by Rodney's + great victory over the French fleet which was on its way to attack + Jamaica. But an unfortunate incident happened to be exasperating Loyalists + and revolutionists at this very time. Some revolutionists had killed a + Loyalist named Philip White, apparently out of pure hate. Some Loyalists, + under Captain Lippincott, then seized and hanged Joshua Huddy, a captain + in the Congress militia, out of sheer revenge. A paper left pinned on + Huddy's breast bore the inscription: 'Up goes Huddy for Philip White.' + Washington then demanded that Lippincott should be delivered up; and, on + Carleton's refusal, chose a British prisoner by lot instead. The lot fell + on a young Lieutenant Asgill of the Guards, whose mother appealed to the + king and queen of France and to their powerful minister, Vergennes. The + American Congress wanted blood for blood, which would have led to an + endless vendetta. But Vergennes pointed out that Asgill, a youth of + nineteen, was as much a prisoner of the king of France as of the + Continental Congress. At this the Congress gnashed its teeth, but had to + give way. + </p> + <p> + While the Asgill affair was still running its course, and embittering + Loyalists and rebels more than ever, Carleton was suddenly informed that + the government had decided to grant complete independence. This was more + than he could stand; and he at once asked to be recalled. He had been all + for honourable reconciliation from the first. He had been particularly + kind to his American prisoners in Canada and had purposely refrained from + annihilating the American army after the battle of Three Rivers. But he + was not prepared for independence. Nor had he been sent out with this + ostensible object in view. His official instructions were to inform the + Americans that 'the most liberal sentiments had taken root in the nation, + and that the narrow policy of monopoly was totally extinguished.' Now he + was called upon to surrender without having tried either his arms or his + diplomacy. With British sea-power beginning to reassert its age-long + superiority over all possible rivals, with practically all constitutional + points of dispute conceded to the revolutionists, and with the certain + knowledge that by no means the majority of all Americans were absolute + anti-British out-and-outers, he thought it no time to dismember the + Empire. His Intelligence Department had been busily collecting information + which seems surprising enough as we read it over to-day, but which was + based on the solid facts of that unhappy time. One member of the + Continental Congress was anxious to know what would become of the American + army if reconciliation should be effected on the understanding that there + would be no more imperial taxation or customs duty—would it become + part of the Imperial Army, or what? + </p> + <p> + But speculation on all such contingencies was suddenly cut short by the + complete change of policy at home. The idea was to end the civil war that + had divided the Empire and to concentrate on the foreign war that at least + united the people of Great Britain. No matter at what cost this policy had + now to be carried out; and Carleton was the only man that every one would + trust to do it. So, sacrificing his own feelings and convictions, he made + the best of an exceedingly bad business. He had to safeguard the prisoners + and Loyalists while preparing to evacuate the few remaining footholds of + British power in the face of an implacable foe. At the same time he had to + watch every other point in North America and keep in touch with his + excellent naval colleague, Admiral Digby, lest his own rear might be + attacked by the three foreign enemies of England. He was even ordered off + to the West Indies in the autumn. But counter-orders fortunately arrived + before he could start. Thus, surrounded by enemies in front and rear and + on both flanks, he spent the seven months between August and the following + March. + </p> + <p> + At the end of March 1783 news arrived that the preliminary treaty of peace + had been signed. The final treaty was not signed till his fifty-ninth + birthday, the 3rd of the following September. The signature of the + preliminaries simplified the naval and military situation. But it made the + situation of the Loyalists worse than ever. Compared with them the + prisoners of war had been most highly favoured from the first. And yet the + British prisoners had little to thank the Congress for. That they were + badly fed and badly housed was not always the fault of the Americans. But + that political favourites and underlings were allowed to prey on them was + an inexcusable disgrace. When a prisoner complained, he was told it was + the fault of the British government which would not pay for his keep! This + answer, so contrary to all the accepted usages of war, which reserve such + payments till after the conclusion of peace, was no empty gibe; for when, + some time before the preliminaries had been signed, the British and + American commissioners met to effect an exchange of prisoners, the + Americans began by claiming the immediate payment of what the British + prisoners had cost them. This of course broke up the meeting at once. In + the meantime the German prisoners in British pay were offered their + freedom at eighty dollars a head. Then farmers came forward to buy up + these prisoners at this price. But the farmers found competitors in the + recruiting sergeants, who urged the Germans, with only too much truth, not + to become 'the slaves of farmers' but to follow 'the glorious trade of + war' against their employers, the British government. To their honour be + it said, these Germans kept faith with the British, much to the surprise + of the Americans, who, like many modern writers, could not understand that + these foreign mercenaries took a professional pride in carrying out a + sworn contract, even when it would pay them better to break it. The + British prisoners were not put up for sale in the same way. But money sent + to them had a habit of disappearing on the road—one item mentioned + by Carleton amounted to six thousand pounds. + </p> + <p> + If such was the happy lot of prisoners during the war, what was the + wretched lot of Loyalists after the treaty of peace? The words of one of + the many petitions sent in to Carleton will suggest the answer. 'If we + have to encounter this inexpressible misfortune we beg consideration for + our lives, fortunes, and property, and not by mere terms of treaty.' What + this means cannot be appreciated unless we fully realize how strong the + spirit of hate and greed had grown, and why it had grown so strong. + </p> + <p> + The American Revolution had not been provoked by oppression, violence, and + massacre. The 'chains and slavery' of revolutionary orators was only a + figure of speech. The real causes were constitutional and personal; and + the actual crux of the question was one of payment for defence. Of course + there were many other causes at work. The social, religious, and political + grudges with which so many emigrants had left the mother country had not + been forgotten and were now revived. Commercial restrictions, however well + they agreed with the spirit of the age, were galling to such keen traders. + And the mere difference between colonies and motherland had produced + misunderstandings on both sides. But the main provocative cause was + Imperial taxation for local defence. The Thirteen Colonies could not have + held their own by land or sea, much less could they have conquered their + French rivals, without the Imperial forces, which, indeed, had done by far + the greater part of the fighting. How was the cost to be shared between + the mother country and themselves? The colonies had not been asked to pay + more than their share. The point was whether they could be taxed at all by + the Imperial government when they had no representation in the Imperial + parliament. The government said Yes. The colonies and the opposition at + home said No. As the colonies would not pay of their own accord, and as + the government did not see why they should be parasites on the armed + strength of the mother country, parliament proceeded to tax them. They + then refused to pay under compulsion; and a complete deadlock ensued. + </p> + <p> + The personal factors in this perhaps insoluble problem were still more + refractory than the constitutional. All the great questions of peace and + war and other foreign relations were settled by the mother country, which + was the only sovereign power and which alone possessed the force to make + any British rights respected. The Americans supplied subordinate means and + so became subordinate men when they and the Imperial forces worked + together. This, to use a homely phrase, made their leaders feel out of it. + Everything that breeds trouble between militiamen and regulars, colonials + and mother-countrymen, fanned the flame of colonial resentment till the + leaders were able to set their followers on fire. It was a leaders' + rebellion: there was no maddening cruelty or even oppression such as those + which have produced so many revolutions elsewhere. It was a leaders' + victory: there was no general feeling that death or independence were the + only alternatives from the first. But as the fight went on, and Loyalists + and revolutionists grew more and more bitter towards one another, the + revolutionary followers found the same cause for hating the Loyalists as + their leaders had found for hating the government. Many of the Loyalists + belonged to the well-educated and well-to-do classes. So the envy and + greed of the revolutionary followers were added to the personal and + political rage of their leaders. + </p> + <p> + The British government had done its best for the Loyalists in the treaty + of peace and had urged Carleton, who needed no urging in such a cause, to + do his best as well. But the treaty was made with the Congress; and the + Congress had no authority over the internal affairs of the thirteen new + states, each one of which could do as it liked with its own envied and + detested Loyalists. The revolutionists wanted some tangible spoils. The + safety of peace had made the trimmers equally 'patriotic' and equally + clamorous. So the confiscation of Loyalist property soon became the order + of the day. + </p> + <p> + It was not the custom of that age to confiscate private property simply + because the owners were on the losing side, still less to confiscate it + under local instead of national authority. But need, greed, and resentment + were stronger than any scruples. Need was the weakest, resentment the + strongest of all the animating motives. The American army was in rags and + its pay greatly in arrears while the British forces under Carleton were + fed, clothed, and paid in the regular way. But it was the passionate + resentment of the revolutionists that perverted this exasperating + difference into another 'intolerable wrong.' Washington was above such + meaner measures. But when he said the Loyalists were only fit for suicide, + and when Adams, another future president, said they ought to be hanged, it + is little wonder that lesser men thought the time had come for legal + looting. Those Loyalists who best understood the temper of their late + fellow-countrymen left at once. They were right. Even to be a woman was no + protection against confiscation in the case of Mary Phillips, + sister-in-law to Beverley Robinson, a well-known Loyalist who settled in + New Brunswick after the Revolution. Her case was not nearly so hard as + many another. But her historic love-affair makes it the most romantic. + Eight-and-twenty years before this General Braddock had marched to death + and defeat beside the Monongahela with two handsome and gallant young + aides-de-camp, Washington and Morris. Both fell in love with bewitching + Mary Phillips. But, while Washington left her fancy-free, Morris won her + heart and hand. Now that the strife was no longer against a foreign foe + but between two British parties, the former aides-de-camp found themselves + rivals in arms as well as love; for Colonel Morris was Carleton's + right-hand man in all that concerned the Loyalists, being the official + head of the department of Claims and Succour: + </p> + <p> + Morris, Morgan, and Carleton were the three busiest men in New York. Forty + thick manuscript volumes still show Maurice Morgan's assiduous work as + Carleton's confidential secretary. But Morris had the more heart-breaking + duty of the three, with no relief, day after sorrow-laden day, from the + anguishing appeals of Loyalist widows, orphans, and other ruined refugees. + No sooner had the dire news arrived that peace had been made with the + Congress, and that each of the thirteen United States was free to show + uncovenanted mercies towards its own Loyalists, than the exodus began. + Five thousand five hundred and ninety-three Loyalists sailed for Halifax + in the first convoy on the 17th of April with a strong recommendation from + Carleton to Governor Parr of Nova Scotia. 'Many of these are of the first + families and born to the fairest possessions. I therefore beg that you + will have them properly considered.' Shipping was scarce; for the + hostility of the whole foreign naval world had made enormous demands on + the British navy and mercantile marine. So six thousand Loyalists had to + march overland to join Carleton's vessels at New York, some of them from + as far south as Charlottesville, Virginia. They were carefully shepherded + by Colonel Alured Clarke, of whom we shall hear again. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Carleton and Washington had exchanged the usual compliments on + the conclusion of peace and had met each other on the 6th of May at + Tappan, where they discussed the exchange of prisoners. By the terms of + the treaty the British were to evacuate New York, their last foothold in + the new republic, with all practicable dispatch; so, as summer changed + into autumn, the Congress became more and more impatient to see the last + of them. But Carleton would not go without the Loyalists, whose many + tributary streams of misery were still flowing into New York. In + September, when the treaty of peace was ratified in Europe, the Congress + asked Carleton point-blank to name the date of his own departure. But he + replied that this was impossible and that the more the Loyalists were + persecuted the longer he would be obliged to stay. The correspondence + between him and the Congress teems with complaints and explanations. The + Americans were very anxious lest the Loyalists should take away any goods + and chattels not their own, particularly slaves. Carleton was disposed to + consider slaves as human beings, though slavery was still the law in the + British oversea dominions, and so the Americans felt uneasy lest he might + discriminate between their slaves and other chattels. Reams of the + Carleton papers are covered with descriptive lists of claimed and + counter-claimed niggers—Julius Caesars, Jupiters, Venuses, Dianas, + and so on, who were either 'stout wenches' and 'likely fellows' or + 'incurably lazy' and 'old worn-outs.' + </p> + <p> + Perhaps, when a slave wished to remain British, and his case was nicely + balanced between the claimants and the counter-claimants, Carleton was a + little inclined to give him the benefit of the doubt. But with other forms + of disputed property he was too severe to please all Loyalists. A typical + case of restitution in Canada will show how differently the two + governments viewed the rights of private property. Mercier and Halsted, + two Quebec rebels, owned a wharf and the frame of a warehouse in 1775. It + was Arnold's intercepted letter to Mercier that gave Carleton's + lieutenant, Cramahe, the first warning of danger from the south. Halsted + was Major Caldwell's miller at the time and took advantage of his position + to give his employer's flour to Arnold's army, in which he served as + commissary throughout the siege. Just after the peace of 1783 Mercier and + Halsted laid claim to their former property, which they had abandoned for + eight years and on which the government had meanwhile built a provision + store, making use of the original frame. The case was complicated by many + details too long for notice here. But the British government finally gave + the two rebels the original property, plus thirteen years' rent, less the + cost of government works erected in the meantime. All the documents are + still in Quebec. + </p> + <p> + Property was troublesome enough. But people were worse. And Carleton's + difficulties increased as the autumn wore on. The first great harrying of + the Loyalists drove more than thirty thousand from their homes; and about + twenty-five thousand of these embarked at New York. Then there were the + remnants of twenty Loyalist corps to pension, settle, or employ. There + were also the British prisoners to receive, besides ten thousand German + mercenaries. Add to all this the regular garrison and the general + oversight of every British interest in North America, from the Floridas to + Labrador, remember the implacable enemy in front, and we may faintly + imagine what Carleton had to do before he could report that 'His Majesty's + troops and such remaining Loyalists as chose to emigrate were successfully + withdrawn on the 25th [of November] without the smallest circumstance of + irregularity.' + </p> + <p> + Thus ended one of the greatest acts in the drama of the British Empire, + the English-speaking peoples, or the world; and thus, for the second time, + Carleton, now in his sixtieth year, apparently ended his own long service + in America. He had left Canada, after saving her from obliteration, + because, so long as he remained her governor, the war minister at home + remained her enemy. He had then returned to serve in New York, and had + stayed there to the bitter end, because there was no other man whom the + new government would trust to command the rearguard of the Empire in + retreat. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX — FOUNDING MODERN CANADA + </h2> + <h3> + 1786-1796 + </h3> + <p> + Carleton now enjoyed two years of uninterrupted peace at his country seat + in England. His active career seemed to have closed at last. He had no + taste for party politics. He was not anxious to fill any position of civil + or military trust, even if it had been pressed upon him. And he had said + farewell to America for good and all when he had left New York. Though as + full of public spirit as before and only just turned sixty, he bid fair to + spend the rest of his life as an English country gentleman. His young wife + was well contented with her lot. His manly boys promised to become worthy + followers of the noble profession of arms. And the overseeing of his + little estate occupied his time very pleasantly indeed. Like most healthy + Englishmen he was devoted to horses, and, unlike some others, he was very + successful with his thoroughbreds. + </p> + <p> + He had first bought a place near Maidenhead, beside the Thames, which is + nowhere lovelier than in that sylvan neighbourhood. Then he bought the + present family seat of Greywill Hill near the little village of Odiham in + Hampshire. As an ex-governor and commander-in-chief, a county magnate, a + personage of great importance to the Empire, and the one victorious + British general in the unhappy American war, he had more than earned a + peerage. But it was not till 1786, on the eve of his sixty-second + birthday, and at a time when his services were urgently required again, + that he received it. Needless to say this peerage had nothing whatever to + do with his acceptance of another self-sacrificing duty. It was not given + till several months after he had promised to return to Canada; and he + would certainly have refused it if it had been held out to him as an + inducement to go there. He became Baron Dorchester and was granted the not + very extravagant addition to his income of a thousand pounds a year + payable during four lives, his own, his wife's, and those of his two + eldest sons. His elevation to the House of Lords met with the almost + unanimous approval of his fellow-peers, in marked contrast to the open + hostility they had shown towards his old enemy, Lord George Germain, when + that vile wrecker had been 'kicked upstairs' among them. The Carleton + motto, crest, and supporters are all most appropriate. The crest is a + strong right arm with the hand clenched firmly on an arrow. The motto is + Quondam his vicimus armis—We used to conquer with these arms. The + supporters are two beavers, typifying Canada, while their respective + collars, one a naval the other a military coronet, show how her British + life was won and saved and has been kept. + </p> + <p> + Carleton was a man of great reserve and self-control. But his kindly + nature must have responded to the cordial welcome which he received on his + return to Quebec in October 1786. It was not without reason that the + people of Canada rejoiced to have him back as their leader. All that the + Indians imagined the Great White Father to be towards themselves he was in + reality towards both red man and white. Stern, when the occasion forced + him to be stern, just in all his dealings between man and man, dignified + and courteous in all his ways, a soldier through every inch of his + stalwart six feet, he was a ruler with whom no one ever dreamt of taking + liberties. But neither did any deserving one in trouble ever hesitate to + lay the most confidential case before him in the full assurance that his + head and heart were at the service of all committed to his care. And no + other governor, before his time or since, ever inspired his followers with + such a firm belief that all would turn out for the best so long as he was + in command. + </p> + <p> + This power of inspiring confidence was now badly needed. Everything in + Canada was still provisional. Owing to the war the Quebec Act of 1774 had + never been thoroughly enforced. Then, when the war was over, the Loyalists + arrived and completely changed the circumstances which the act had been + designed to meet. The next constitution, the Canada Act of 1791, was of a + very different character. During the seventeen years between these two + constitutions all that could be done was to make the best of a very + confusing state of flux. Not that the Quebec Act was a dead letter—far + from it—but simply that it could not go beyond restoring the + privileges of the French-Canadian priests and seigneurs within the area + then effectively occupied by the French-Canadian race. Carleton, as we + have seen, had faced its problem for the first four years. Haldimand had + carried on the government under its provisions for the following six. + Hamilton and Hope, successive lieutenant-governors, had bridged the two + years between Haldimand's retirement and Carleton's second appointment. + Now Carleton was to pick up the threads and make what he could of the + tangled skein for the next five years. Haldimand had not been popular with + either of the two chief parties into which the leading French Canadians + were divided. The seigneurs had nothing like the same regard for a Swiss + soldier of fortune that they had for aristocratic British commanders like + Murray and Carleton. The clergy also preferred these Anglicans to such a + strong Swiss Protestant. The habitants and agitators, who were far less + favourable to the new regime, had passionately resented Haldimand's + firmness at times of crisis. But, despite all this French-Canadian animus, + he was not such an absolute martinet as some writers would have us think. + The war with France and with the American Revolutionists required strong + government in Canada; while the influx of Loyalists had introduced an + entirely new set of most perplexing circumstances. On the whole, Haldimand + had done very well in spite of many personal and public drawbacks; and it + was through no special fault of his, nor yet of Hope's, that the threads + which Carleton picked up formed such a perversely tangled skein. + </p> + <p> + The troubles that now dogged the great conciliator's every step were of + all kinds—racial, religious, social, political, military, + diplomatic, legal. The confusion resulting from the intermixture of French + and English civil laws had become a great deal more confounded since he + had left Canada eight years before. The old proportions of races and + religions to each other had changed most disturbingly. The Loyalists were + of quite a different social class from the English-speaking immigrants of + earlier days. They wanted a parliament, public schools, and many other + things new to the country; and they were the sort of people who had a + right to have them. The problem of defence was always a vexed one with the + inadequate military forces at hand and the insuperable difficulties + concerning the militia. The British still held the Western forts pending + the settlement of the frontier and the execution of the treaty of peace in + full. This naturally annoyed the American government and gave Carleton + endless trouble. But more serious still was the ceaseless western march of + the American backwoodsmen, who were everywhere in conflict with the + Indians. The Indians, in their turn, were confused between the British and + Americans under the new conditions. They and their ever-receding rights + and territories had not been mentioned in the treaty. But, seeing that + they would be better off under British than under American rule, they were + inclined to take sides accordingly. There were now no openly hostile sides + to take. But, for all that, the British posts in the hinterland looked + like weak little islands which might be suddenly engulfed in the sea of + Indian troubles raging round them. Then, at the other end of the British + line, there were the three maritime provinces to watch over. New Brunswick + had been divided off from Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island had been + taken from the direct supervision of the home authorities and placed under + the command of the new governor at Quebec. Thus Carleton had to deal + directly with everything that happened from the far West to Gaspe, while + dealing indirectly with the three maritime provinces and all the troubles + that proved too much for their own lieutenant-governors. There was no + chance of concentrating on one thing at a time. Nothing would wait. The + governor had to watch the writhing tangle as a whole during every minute + he devoted to any one kinked and knotted thread. + </p> + <p> + Fortunately there were some good men in office on both sides of the + Atlantic. Lords Sydney and Grenville, the two cabinet ministers with whom + Carleton had most to do, were both sensible and sympathetic. Years + afterwards Grenville, the favourite cousin of Pitt, became the colleague + of Fox at the head of the celebrated 'Ministry of All the Talents.' Hope + was an acceptable lieutenant-governor, and his successor, Sir Alured + Clarke, was better still. Francois Bailly, the coadjutor Roman Catholic + bishop of Quebec, who had gone to England as French tutor to Carleton's + children, was a most enlightened cleric. So too was Charles Inglis, the + Anglican bishop of Nova Scotia, appointed in 1787. He was the first + Canadian bishop of the Anglican communion and his diocese comprised the + whole of British North America. William Smith, the new chief justice, was + as different from Carleton's last chief justice, Livius, as angels are + from devils. Smith had been an excellent chief justice of his native New + York in the old colonial days, and, like Inglis, was a very ardent + Loyalist. He respected all reasonable French-Canadian peculiarities. But + he favoured the British-Constitutional way of 'broadening down from + precedent to precedent' rather than the French way of referring to a + supposedly infallible written regulation. We shall soon meet him as a + far-seeing statesman. But he well deserves an honoured place in Canadian + history for his legal services alone. To him, more than to any other man, + is due the nicely balanced adjustments which eventually harmonized the + French and English codes into a body of laws adapted to the extraordinary + circumstances of the province of Quebec. + </p> + <p> + Besides the committee on laws Carleton had nominated three other active + committees of his council, one on police, another on education, and a + third on trade and commerce. The police committee was of the usual kind + and dealt with usual problems in the usual way. But the education + committee brought out all the vexed questions of French and English, + Protestant and Roman Catholic, progressive and reactionary. Strangely + enough, the sharpest personal controversy was that between Hubert, the + Roman Catholic bishop of Quebec, and his coadjutor Bailly. Hubert + enumerated all the institutions already engaged in educational work and + suggested that 'rest and be thankful' was the only proper attitude for the + committee to assume. But Bailly very neatly pointed out that his respected + superior's real opinions could not be those attributed to him over his own + signature because they were at variance with the facts. Hubert had said + that the cures were spreading education with most commendable zeal, had + repudiated the base insinuation that only three or four people in each + parish could read and write, and had wound up by thinking that while there + was so much land to clear the farmers would do better to keep their sons + at home than send them to a university, where they would be under + professors so 'unprejudiced' as to have no definite views on religion. + Bailly argued that the bishop could not mean what these words seemed to + imply, as the logical conclusion would be to wait till Canada was cleared + right up to the polar circle. In the end the committee made three very + sanguine recommendations: a free common school in every parish, a + secondary school in every town or district, and an absolutely + non-sectarian central university. This educational ladder was never set + up. There was nothing to support either end of it. The financial side was + one difficulty. The Jesuits' estates were intended to be made over into + educational endowments under government control. But Amherst's claim that + they had been granted to him in 1760 was not settled for forty years; and + by that time all chance of carrying out the committee's intentions was + seen to be hopeless. + </p> + <p> + Commerce was another burning question and one of much more immediate + concern. In 1791 the united populations of all the provinces amounted to + only a quarter of a million, of whom at least one-half were French + Canadians. Quebec and Montreal had barely ten thousand citizens apiece. + But the commercial classes, mostly English-speaking, had greatly increased + in numbers, ability, and social standing. The camp-following gangs of + twenty years before had now either disappeared or sunk down to their + appropriate level. So petitions from the 'British merchants' required and + received much more consideration than formerly. The Loyalists had not yet + had time to start in business. All their energies were needed in hewing + out their future homes. But two parts of the American Republic, Vermont + and Kentucky, were very anxious to do business with the British at any + reasonable price. Some of their citizens were even ready for a change of + allegiance if the terms were only good enough. Vermont wanted a 'free + trade' outlet to the St Lawrence by way of the Richelieu. The rapids + between St Johns and Chambly lay in British territory. But Vermont was + ready to join in building a canal and would even become British to make + sure. The old Green Mountain Boys had changed their tune. Ethan Allen + himself had buried the hatchet and, like his brother, become Carleton's + friendly correspondent. He frankly explained that what Vermonters really + wanted was 'property not liberty' and added that they would stand no + coercion from the American government. About the same time Kentucky was + bent on getting an equally 'free trade' outlet to the Gulf of Mexico by + way of the Mississippi. The fact that France Spain, the British Empire, + and the United States might all be involved in war over it did not trouble + the conspirators in the least. The central authority of the new Republic + was still weak. The individual states were still ready to fly asunder. + Federal taxation was greatly feared. Anything that savoured of federal + interference with state rights was passionately resented. The general + spirit of the westerners was that of the exploiting pioneer in a virgin + wilderness—a law unto itself alone. There were various plans for + opening the coveted Mississippi. One was to join Spain. Another was to + seize New Orleans, turn out the French, and bring in the British. Then, to + make the plot complete, the French minister to the United States was + asking permission to make a tour through Canada at the very time when + Carleton was sending home reams of documents bearing on the impending + troubles. The letters exchanged on this subject are perfect models of + politeness. But Carleton's answer was an emphatic No. + </p> + <p> + Foreign complications were thickening fast. The French Revolution had + already begun, though its effect was not yet felt in Canada. The American + government was anxiously watching its refractory states, while an + anti-British political party was making headway in the South. As if this + was not enough to engage whatever attention Carleton had to spare from the + internal affairs of Canada, he suddenly heard that the Spaniards had been + seizing British vessels trading to a British post on Vancouver Island. + [Footnote: See Pioneers of the Pacific Coast in this Series.] This Nootka + Affair, which nearly brought on a war with Spain in 1790, was settled in + London and Madrid. But the threat of war added to Carleton's anxieties. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the governor was busily employed with an immigration problem. It + was desirable that the English-speaking immigrants should settle on the + land with the least possible friction between them and the French + Canadians. The French Canadians differed among themselves. But no such + differences brought them any closer to their new neighbours on questions + of land settlement. The French had granted lands in seigneuries. The + British would hear of nothing but free and common socage. French farms + were measured by the arpent and were staked out in long and narrow + oblongs. British farms were measured by the acre and staked out 'on the + square.' Language, laws, religion, manners and customs, ways of life, were + also different. So there was hardly any intermixture of settlements. The + French Canadians remained where they were. Most of the new Anglo-Canadians + settled in the Maritime Provinces or moved west into what is now Ontario. + A few settled in rural Quebec on lands outside the line of seigneuries. + The Eastern Townships, that part of the province lying east of the + Richelieu and nearest the American frontier, absorbed many English, Irish, + and Scots, as well as a good many Americans who were attracted by cheap + land. Ontario, or Upper Canada, received still more Americans, who were to + be a thorn in the side of the British during the War of 1812. + </p> + <p> + But Carleton's work comprised much more than this. There were the Church + of England, the Post Office, a refractory lieutenant-governor down in + Prince Edward Island, two royal visitors, and many other distracting + matters. The only Anglican see thus far established was at Halifax; but + the bishop there had authority over the whole country and the government + intended to establish the Church of England in Canada and endow it. The + Presbyterians also petitioned for the establishment of the Scottish + Church. The fortunes or misfortunes of the Clergy Reserves belong to + another chapter of Canadian history. But the root of their good or evil + was planted in the time of Carleton. The postal service was surrounded by + enormous difficulties—the vast extent of wild country, the few + towns, the long winters, the poverty of the people. The question of the + winter port was even then a live one between St John and Halifax. Each of + these towns asserted its advantages and promised twelve trips a year and + connection with Quebec overland by means of walking postmen till a bush + road should be cut from Quebec to the sea. In Prince Edward Island the old + lieutenant-governor, Walter Patterson, declined to make way for the new + one, Edmund Fanning. In the end Patterson gave up the contest. But the + incident, trivial as it now appears, shows what a governor-general had to + face in the early days when each province had queer little ways of its + own. Patterson had no precise official reason. But he said he could not go + home to answer charges he did not understand and leave an island which had + been his very successful hobby for so many years! The people sided with + him so vigorously that time had to be given them to cool down before the + transfer could be peaceably effected. + </p> + <p> + A judge whose court is in perpetual session or a commander whose + inadequate forces are continually surrounded by prospective enemies has + little time for the amenities of purely social life. So Carleton generally + left his young consort to rule the viceregal court at the Chateau St Louis + with a perfect blend of London and Versailles. Two Princes of the Blood, + however, demanded more than the usual attention from the governor. Prince + William Henry, afterwards King William IV, was the first member of the + Royal Family to set foot in the New World when he arrived in H.M.S. + Pegasus in 1787. He was the proverbial jolly Jack Tar, extremely affable + to everybody; and he quickly won golden opinions from all who met him, + except perhaps from Lady Dorchester and sundry would-be partners for his + duty dances. Philippe Aubert de Gaspe and other privileged chroniclers + record with slightly shocked delight how often he would break loose from + Lady Dorchester's designing care, long before she thought it right for him + to do so, and 'command' his partners for their pretty faces instead of by + precedence. At Sorel the people were so carried away by their enthusiasm + that they insisted on changing the name of their little town to William + Henry. Happily this name never took root in public sentiment and the old + one soon came back to stay. + </p> + <p> + The second member of the Royal Family to come to Canada was Prince Edward, + Duke of Kent, fourth son of George III, father of Queen Victoria and + grandfather of Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught, who became the first + royal governor-general in 1911, exactly a hundred and twenty years later. + The Duke of Kent would have gladly returned to Quebec as governor-general, + and the people would have gladly welcomed him. But he was not a favourite + with the government at home, and so he never came. There was no doubt + about his being a popular favourite in Quebec during the three years he + spent there as colonel of the 7th Fusiliers. Nor has he been forgotten to + the present day. Kent House is still the name of his quarters in the town + as well as of his country residence at Montmorency Falls seven miles away, + while the only new opening ever made in the walls is called Kent Gate. + </p> + <p> + The duke made fast friends with several of the seigneurial families, more + especially with the de Salaberrys, whose manor-house at Beauport stood + half-way between Montmorency and Quebec and not far from Montcalm's + headquarters in 1759. The de Salaberrys were a military family. All the + sons went into the Army and one became the hero of Chateauguay in the War + of 1812. But the duke mixed freely with many other people than the local + aristocracy. He was young, high-spirited, and loved adventure, as was + proved by his subsequent gallantry at Martinique. He was also fond of + driving round incognito, a habit which on at least one occasion obliged + him to put his skill at boxing to good use. This was at Charlesbourg, a + village near Quebec, where he was watching the fun at the first election + ever held. Perhaps, from a meticulously constitutional point of view, the + scene of a hotly contested election was not quite the place for Princes of + the Blood. But, however that might be, when the duke saw two electors + pommelling a third, who happened to be a friend of his, he dashed in to + the rescue and floored both of them with a neatly planted right and left. + One of these men, who lived to see King Edward VII arrive in 1860, as + Prince of Wales, always took the greatest pride in telling successive + generations of voters how Queen Victoria's father had knocked him down. + </p> + <p> + Like his brother before him the duke was very fond of dancing, and kept + many a reluctant senior and many a tired-out chaperone up till all hours + at the grand ball given in honour of his twenty-fourth birthday. Also like + his brother he was inclined to reduce his duty dances to a minimum, much + to Lady Dorchester's dismay. She had gone home with her husband for two + years shortly after the duke's arrival. But she had seen enough of him, + and was to see enough again on her return, to make her regret the good old + times of more exacting ceremony. To her dying day, half a century later, + she kept up a prodigious stateliness of manner. Before meals she expected + the whole company to assemble and remain standing till she had made her + royal progress through the room. She was a living anachronism for many + years before her death, with her high-heeled, gold-buttoned, + scarlet-coloured shoes, her Marie-Antoinette coiffure raised high above + her head and interlaced with ribbons, her elaborately gorgeous dress, her + intricate array of ornaments, and her long, jet-black, official-looking + cane. But she was no anachronism to herself; for she still lived in the + light of other days, in the fondly remembered times when, as the + vice-reine of the Chateau St Louis, she helped her consort to settle nice + points of etiquette and maintain a dignity befitting His Majesty's chosen + representative. How did the seigneurs rank among themselves and with the + leading English-speaking people? Who were to dance in the state minuet? + Should dancing cease when the bishops came in, and for how long? Was that + curtsy dropped quite low enough to her viceregal self, and did that + debutante offer her blushing cheek in quite the proper way to Carleton + when he graciously gave her the presentation kiss? How immeasurably far + away it all seems now, that stately little court where the echoes of a + dead Versailles lived on for seven years after the fall of the Bastille! + And yet there is still one citizen o Quebec whose early partners were + chaperoned by ladies who had danced the minuet with Lord and Lady + Dorchester. + </p> + <p> + The two royal visits were not without their political significance—using + the word political in its larger meaning. But the three years between them—that + is, 1788-89-90—formed the really pregnant time of constitutional + development, when the Canada Act of 1791 was taking shape in the minds of + its chief authors —Carleton and Smith in Canada, Grenville and Pitt + in England. The Loyalists and the English-speaking merchants of Quebec and + Montreal took good care to make themselves heard at every stage of the + proceedings. Most French Canadians would have preferred to be left without + the suspected blessings of a parliament. The clergy and seigneurs wished + for a continuance of the Quebec Act, and the habitants wanted they knew + not what, provided it would enable them to get more and give less. The + English-speaking people, on the other hand, were all for a parliament. But + they differed widely as to what kind of parliament would suit their + purpose best. As a rule they acquiesced, with a more or less bad grace, in + the necessity of admitting French Canadians on the same terms as + themselves. If Canada, without the Maritime Provinces, should be taken as + a whole then the French Canadians would only be in a moderate majority. + If, however, two provinces, Upper Canada and Lower Canada, were to be + erected, then the English-speaking minority in Lower Canada would be + outvoted three or four to one. + </p> + <p> + There was a third alternative: no less than the establishment of a regular + Dominion of British North America in 1790, a step which might have saved + much trouble between that time and the Confederation of 1867. William + Smith was its strongest advocate, Carleton its most cautious and judicious + supporter. The chief justice was in favour of federating Upper and Lower + Canada with the Maritime Provinces and Newfoundland into a single + dominion. Each of the six provinces would have its own parliament under a + lieutenant-governor, while there would also be a central parliament under + a governor-general. Carleton forwarded the suggestion to the home + government; but he nowhere committed himself to any very definite scheme. + His own preference was for keeping the existing province of Quebec a + little longer, then dividing it, and afterwards drawing in the other + provinces. The chief justice preferred to make a constitution. The + governor preferred to let it grow. The home government's preference could + not be stated better than in Grenville's dispatch to Carleton of the 20th + of October 1789: 'The general object is to assimilate the constitution to + that of Great Britain as nearly as the difference arising from the manners + of the People and from the present situation of the Province will admit. + ... Attention is due to the prejudices and habits of the French + Inhabitants and every caution should be used to continue to them the + enjoyment of those civil and religious Rights which were secured to them + by the Capitulation or which have since been granted by the liberal and + enlightened spirit of the British Government.' Except for its rather too + self-righteous conclusion this confidential announcement really is an + admirable statement of the 'liberal and enlightened' views which prevailed + at Westminster. + </p> + <p> + The bill, postponed in 1790, was introduced by Pitt himself in the House + of Commons on the 7th of March 1791. Sixteen days later Adam Lymburner, a + representative merchant of Quebec, whom Carleton described as 'a quiet, + decent man, not unfriendly to the administration,' pleaded for hours + before the committee of the House of Commons against the division of the + province. All the English-speaking minority in the prospective province of + Lower Canada were afraid of being swamped by the French-Canadian vote, and + so of being hampered in liberty and trade. The London merchants naturally + backed Lymburner. Fox opposed the bill as not being liberal enough. Burke + flared up into the speech which led to his final breach with Fox. Pitt, + the pilot who was to weather far greater storms in the years to come, + eventually got the bill through both Houses with substantial majorities. + On the 14th of May it became law. Quebec and Ontario were parted for good, + notwithstanding the legislative union of fifty years later. + </p> + <p> + The Canada Act, or, as it is better known, the Constitutional Act, cut off + Upper Canada. Lower Canada was now the old Quebec reduced to its right + size, endowed with clarified laws and a brand-new parliament, and made as + acceptable as possible to the English-speaking minority without any + injustice to the vastly greater French majority. Quebec, Three Rivers, + Montreal, and Sorel got each two members in the new parliament, an + allotment which ensured a certain representation of the 'British' + merchants. The franchise was the same in both provinces: in the country + parts a forty-shilling freehold or its equivalent, and in the towns either + a five-pound annual ownership value or twice that for a tenant. The Crown + gave up all taxation except commercial duties, which were to be applied + solely for the benefit of the provinces. Lands outside the seigneuries + were to be in free and common socage, while seigneurial tenure itself + could be converted into freehold on petition. One-seventh of the Crown + lands was reserved for the endowment of the Church of England. The Crown + kept all rights of veto and appointment. The legislatures were small in + membership. The Upper Houses could be made hereditary; though the actual + tenure was never more than for life during good behaviour. Carleton + favoured the hereditary principle whenever it could be applied with + advantage. But he knew the ups and downs of colonial fortunes too well to + believe that Canada was ready for any such experiment. + </p> + <p> + No one dreamt of having what is now known as responsible government, that + is, an executive sitting in the legislature and responsible to the + legislature for its acts. Nor was the greatest of all parliamentary powers—the + power of the purse—given outright. This, however, was owing to + simple force of circumstances and not to any desire of abridging the + liberties of the people. The fact is that at this time eighty per cent of + the total civil expenditure had to be paid by the home government. It is + frequently ignored that the mother country paid most of Canada's bills + till long after the War of 1812, that she paid nearly all the naval and + military accounts for longer still, and that she has borne far more than + her own share of the common defence down to the present day. + </p> + <p> + The new constitution came into force on the 26th of December 1791; and, + for the first time, Upper and Lower Canada had the right to elect their + own representatives. Assemblies, of course, were nothing new in British + North America. Nova Scotia had an assembly in 1758, the year that + Louisbourg was taken. Prince Edward Island had one in 1773, the year + before the Quebec Act was passed. New Brunswick had one in 1786, the year + Carleton began his second term. But assemblies still had all the charm of + novelty in 'Canada proper.' Perhaps it would be more appropriate to say + that Upper Canada experienced more charm than novelty while Lower Canada + experienced more novelty than charm. The Anglo-Canadians in all five + provinces were used to parliaments in America. Their ancestors had been + used to them for centuries in England. So the little parliament of Upper + Canada at Newark passed as many bills in five weeks as that of Lower + Canada passed in seven months. The fact that there were fifty members in + the Assembly at Quebec, while there were only half as many in both + chambers at Newark, doubtless had something to do with it. But the fact + that the Quebec parliament was an innovation, while the one at Newark was + a simple development, had very much more. + </p> + <p> + There is no need to follow the course of legislation in any of the five + provinces. As most of the civil and practically all the naval and military + expenditure had to be met by the Imperial Treasury, and as Canada was five + parts and no whole from her own parliamentary point of view, the + legislation required for a grand total of two hundred and fifty thousand + people could not be of the national kind. But at Quebec the scene, the + setting, and the unheard-of innovation itself all give a special interest + to every detail of the opening ceremony on the 17th of December 1792. + </p> + <p> + Carleton was in England, so the Speech from the Throne was read by the + lieutenant-governor, Major-General Sir Alured Clarke. Half of the Upper + House and two-thirds of the Lower were French Canadians. A French-Canadian + member was nominated for the speakership and elected unanimously. Both + races were for the most part represented by members whose official title + of 'Honourable Gentlemen' was not at all a misnomer. The French members of + the Assembly were half distrustful both of it and of themselves. But they + knew how to add grace and dignity to a very notable occasion. The old + Bishop's Palace served as the Houses of Parliament and so continued for + many years to come. It was a solid rather than a stately pile. But it + stood on a commanding site at the head of Mountain Hill between the Grand + Battery and the Chateau St Louis. Every one was in uniform or in what + corresponded to court dress. Round the throne stood many officers in their + red and gold, conspicuous among them the Duke of Kent. In front sat the + Executive and Legislative Councillors, corresponding to the modern cabinet + ministers and senators. Their roll, as well as the Assembly's, bore many + names that recalled the glories of the old regime—St Ours, + Longueuil, de Lanaudiere, Boucherville, de Salaberry, de Lotbiniere, and + many more. The Council chamber was crowded in every part long before the + governor arrived. 'The Ladies introduced into the House' were 'without + Hat, Cloak, or Bonnet,' the 'Doorkeeper of His Majesty's Council' having + taken good care to see them 'leave the same in the Great Committee Room + previous to their Introduction.' 'The Ladies attached to His Excellency's + Suite' were admitted 'within the railing or body of the House' and + 'accommodated with the seats of the members as far as possible.' Outwardly + it was all very much the same in principle as the opening of any other + British parliament—the escort, guard, and band, the royal salute, + the brilliant staff, the scarlet cloth of state, the few and quiet members + of the Upper House, the many of the Lower, jostling each other to get a + good place near Mr Speaker at the bar, the radiant ladies, the crowded + galleries corniced with inquiring faces and craned necks, the Gentlemen + Ushers and their quaint bows, the Speech from the Throne and the + occasional lifting of His Excellency's hat, the retiring in full state; + and then the ebbing away of all the sightseers, their eddying currents of + packed humanity in the halls and passages, the porch, the door, the + emptying street. But inwardly what a world of difference! For here was the + first British parliament in which legislators of foreign birth and blood + and language were shaping British laws as British subjects. + </p> + <p> + In September 1793 Carleton returned from his two years' absence and was + welcomed more warmly than ever. Quebec blazed with illuminations. The + streets swarmed with eager crowds. The first session of the first + parliament had been better than any one had dared to hope for. There was a + general tendency to give the new constitution a fair trial; and all + classes looked to Carleton to make the harmony that had been attained both + permanent and universal. Dr Jacob Mountain, first Anglican bishop of + Quebec, also arrived shortly afterwards and was warmly greeted by the + Roman Catholic prelate, who embraced him, saying, 'It's time you came to + shepherd your own flock.' Mountain was statesman and churchman in one. He + had been chosen by the elder Pitt to be the younger's tutor and then + chosen by the younger to be his private secretary. The fact that the + Anglican bishop of Quebec was then and for many years afterwards a sort of + Canadian chaplain-general to the Imperial troops and that most of the + leading officials and leading Loyalists belonged to the Church of England + made him a personage of great importance. It was fortunate that, as in the + case of Inglis down in Halifax, the choice could not have fallen on a + better man or on one who knew better how to win the esteem of communions + other than his own. This same year (1793) died William Smith, full of + honours. But the next year his excellent successor arrived in the person + of William Osgoode, the new chief justice, an eminent English lawyer who + had served for two years as chief justice of Upper Canada and whose name + is commemorated in Osgoode Hall, Toronto. He had come out on the distinct + understanding that no fees were to be attached to his office, only a + definite salary. This was a great triumph for Carleton, who certainly + practised what he preached. + </p> + <p> + So far, so good. But the third conspicuous new arrival, John Graves + Simcoe, lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, who had come out the year + before, was a great deal less to Carleton's liking. Simcoe was a good + officer who threw himself heart and soul into the work of settling the new + province. He won the affectionate regard of his people and is gratefully + remembered by their posterity. But he was too exclusively of his own + province in his civil and military outlook and was disposed to ignore + Carleton as his official chief. Moreover, he was appointed in spite of + Carleton's strongly expressed preference for Sir John Johnson, who, to all + appearances, was the very man for the post. Sir William Johnson, the first + baronet, had been the great British leader of the Indians and a person of + much consequence throughout America. His son John inherited many of his + good qualities, thoroughly understood the West and its problems, was a + devoted Loyalist all through the Revolution, when he raised the King's + Royal Regiment of New York, and would have been second only to Carleton + himself in the eyes of all Canadians, old and new. But the government + thought his private interests too great for his public duty—an + excellent general principle, though misapplied in this particular case. At + any rate, Simcoe came instead, and the friction began at once. Simcoe's + commission clearly made him subordinate to Carleton. Yet Simcoe made + appointments without consulting his superior and argued the point after he + had been brought to book. He communicated directly with the home + government over his superior's head and was not rebuked by the minister to + whom he wrote—Henry Dundas, afterwards first Viscount Melville. + Dundas, indeed, was half inclined to snub Carleton. Simcoe desired to + establish military posts wherever he thought they would best promote + immediate settlement, a policy which would tend to sap both the + government's resources and the self-reliance of the settlers. He also + wished to fix the capital at London instead of York, now Toronto, and to + make York instead of Kingston the naval base for Lake Ontario. Thus the + friction continued. At length Carleton wrote to the Duke of Portland, + Pitt's home secretary, saying: 'All command, civil and military, being + thus disorganized and without remedy, your Grace will, I hope, excuse my + anxiety for the arrival of any successor, who may have authority + sufficient to restore order, lest these insubordinations should extend to + mutiny among the troops and sedition among the people.' That was in + November 1795. The government, however, took no decisive action, and next + year both Carleton and Simcoe left Canada for ever. + </p> + <p> + When this unfortunate quarrel began (1793) Canada was in grave danger of + being attacked by both the French and the American republics. The danger, + however, had been greatly lessened by Jay's Treaty of 1794 and was to be + still further lessened (1796) by the transfer of the Western Posts to the + United States and by the presidential election which gave the Federal + party a new lease of power, though no longer under Washington. Had + Carleton remained in Canada these felicitous events would have offered him + a unique opportunity of strengthening the friendly ties between the + British and the Americans in a way which might have saved some trouble + later on. But that was not to be. + </p> + <p> + To understand the dangers which threatened Canada during the last three + years of Carleton's rule we must go back to February 1793, when + revolutionary France declared war on England and there then began that + titanic struggle which only ended twenty-two years later on the field of + Waterloo. The Americans were divided into two parties, one disposed to be + friendly towards Great Britain, the other unfriendly. The names these + parties then bore must not be confused with those borne by their political + offspring at the present day. The Federals, progenitors of the present + Republicans, formed the friendly party under Washington, Hamilton, and + Jay. The Republicans, progenitors of the present Democrats, formed the + unfriendly party under Jefferson, Madison, and Randolph. The Federals were + in power, the Republicans in opposition. When the Republicans got into + power in 1801 under Jefferson they pursued their anti-British policy till + they finally brought on the War of 1812 under the presidency of Madison. + The strength of the peace party lay in the North; that of the war party + lay in the South. The peaceful Federals, now that Independence had been + gained, were in favour of meeting the amicable British government + half-way. When Pitt came into power in 1783 he at once held out the olive + branch. Now, ten years later, the more far-seeing statesmen on both sides + were preparing to confirm the new friendship in the practical form of + Jay's Treaty, which put the United States into what is at present known as + a most-favoured-nation position with regard to British trade and commerce. + Moreover, Washington and his Northern Federals much preferred a British + Canada to a French one, while Jefferson and the Southern Republicans + thought any stick was good enough to beat the British dog with. + </p> + <p> + The Jeffersonians eagerly seized on the reports of a speech which Carleton + made to the Miamis, who lived just south of Detroit, and used it to the + utmost as a means of stirring up anti-British feeling. Carleton had said: + 'You are witnesses that we have acted in the most peaceable manner and + borne the language and conduct of the United States with patience. But I + believe our patience is almost exhausted.' Applied to the vexed questions + of the Western Posts, of the lawless ways of the exterminating American + pioneers, and of the infinitely worse jobbing politicians behind them, + this language was mildness itself. But in view of the high statesmanship + of Washington and his government it was injudicious. All the same, Dundas, + more especially because he was a cabinet minister, was even more + injudicious when he adopted a tone of reproof towards Carleton, whose + great services, past and present, entitled him to unusual respect and + confidence. The negotiations for Jay's Treaty were then in progress in + London, and Jefferson saw his chance of injuring both the American and + British governments by magnifying Carleton's speech into an 'unwarrantable + outrage.' He also hoped that an Indian war would upset the treaty and + bring on a British war as well. And the prospect did look encouragingly + black in the West, where the American general Wayne was ready waiting + south of Lake Erie, while the trade in scalps was unusually brisk. Forty + dollars was the regular market price for an ordinary Indian's scalp. But + as much as a thousand was offered for Simon Girty's in the hope of getting + that inconvenient British scout put quickly out of the way. Nearer home + Jefferson and his band of demagogues had other arguments as well. The + Federal North would suffer most by war, while the Republican South might + use war as a means of repudiating all the debts she owed to Englishmen. + This would have been a very different thing from the insolvency of the + Continental Congress during the Revolution. It was dire want, not + financial infamy, that made the Revolutionary paper money 'not worth a + Continental.' But it would have been sheer theft for the Jeffersonian + South to have made its honest obligations 'rotten as a Pennsylvanian + bond.' + </p> + <p> + The wild French-Revolutionary rage that swept through the South now fanned + the flame and made the sparks fly over into Canada. In April 1793 a fiery + Red Republican, named Genet, landed at Charleston as French minister to + the United States and made a triumphal progress to Philadelphia. Nobody + bothered about the fundamental differences between the French and American + revolutions. France and England were going to war and that was enough. + Genet was one of those 'impossibles' whom revolutions throw into + ridiculous power. When he began his campaign the Republican South was at + his feet. Planters and legislators donned caps of liberty and danced + themselves so crazy over the rights of abstract man that they had no + enthusiasm left for such concrete instances as Loyalists, Englishmen, and + their own plantation slaves. Then Genet made his next step in the new + diplomacy by fitting out French privateers in American harbours and + seizing British vessels in American waters. This brought Washington down + on him at once. Then he lost his head completely, abused everybody, + including Jefferson, and retired from public life as an American citizen, + being afraid to go home. + </p> + <p> + Genet's absurd career was short, but very meteoric while it lasted, and + full of anti-British mischief-making. His agents were everywhere; and his + successor, Adet, carried on the underground agitation with equal zeal and + more astuteness. Vermont offered an excellent base of operations. Finding + that its British proclivities had not produced the Chambly canal for its + trade with the St Lawrence, it had become more violently anti-British than + ever before and even proposed taking Canada single-handed. This time its + new policy remained at fever heat for over three years and only cooled + down when a British man-of-war captured the incongruously named Olive + Branch, in which Ira Allen was trying to run the blockade from Ostend with + twenty thousand muskets and other arms which he represented as being + solely for the annual drill of the Vermont militia. Thus Carleton had to + watch the raging South, the dangerous West, and bellicose Vermont, all + together, besides taking whatever measures he could against the swarms of + secret enemies within the gates. The American immigrants who wanted + 'property not liberty' were ready enough for a change of flag whenever it + suited them. But they were few compared with the mass of French Canadians + who were being stirred into disaffection. The seigneurs, the clergy, and + the very few enlightened people of other classes had no desire for being + conquered by a regicide France or an obliterating American Republic. But + many of the habitants and of the uneducated in the towns lent a willing + ear to those who promised them all kinds of liberty and property put + together. + </p> + <p> + The danger was all the greater because it was no longer one foreigner + intriguing against another, as in 1775, but French against British and + class against class. Some of the appeals were still ridiculous. The + habitants found themselves credited with an unslakable thirst for higher + education. They were promised 'free' maritime intercommunication between + the Old World and the New, a wonderful extension of representative + institutions, and much more to the same effect, universal revolutionary + brotherhood included. But when Frenchmen came promising fleets and armies, + when these emissaries were backed by French Canadians who had left home + for good reasons after the troubles of 1775, and when the habitants were + positively assured by all these credible witnesses that France and the + United States were going to drive the British out of Canada and make a + heaven on earth for all who would turn against Carleton, then there really + was something that sensible men could believe. Everything for nothing—or + next to nothing. Only turn against the British and the rest would be easy. + No more tithes to the cures, no more seigneurial dues, no more taxes to a + government which put half the money in its own pocket and sent the other + half to the king, who spent it buying palaces and crowns. + </p> + <p> + 'Nothing is too absurd for them to believe, wrote Carleton, who felt all + the old troubles of 1775 coming back in a greatly aggravated form. He lost + no time in vain regrets, however, but got a militia bill through + parliament, improved the defences of Quebec, and issued a proclamation + enjoining all good subjects to find out, report, and seize every + sedition-monger they could lay their hands on. An attempt to embody two + thousand militiamen by ballot was a dead failure. The few English-speaking + militiamen required came forward 'with alacrity.' The habitants hung back + or broke into riotous mobs. The ordinary habitant could hardly be blamed. + He saw little difference between one kind of English-speaking people and + another. So he naturally thought it best to be on the side of the + prospective winners, especially when they persuaded him that he would get + back everything taken from him by 'the infamous Quebec Act.' There really + was no way whatever of getting him to see the truth under these + circumstances. The mere fact that his condition had improved so much under + British rule made him all the readier to cry for the Franco-American moon. + Things presently went from bad to worse. A glowing, bombastic address from + 'The Free French to their Canadian Brothers' (who of course were 'slaves') + was even read out at more than one church door. Then the Quebec Assembly + unanimously passed an Alien Act in May 1794, and suspected characters + began to find that two could play at the game. This stringent act was not + passed a day too soon. By its provisions the Habeas Corpus Act could be + suspended or suppressed and the strongest measures taken against sedition + in every form. Monk, the attorney-general, reported that 'It is + astonishing to find the same savagery exhibited here as in France.' The + habitants and lower class of townsfolk had beers well worked up 'to follow + France and the United States by destroying a throne which was the seat of + hypocrisy, imposture, despotism, greed, cruelty' and all the other deadly + sins. The first step was to be the assassination of all obnoxious + officials and leading British patriots the minute the promised invasion + began to prove successful. + </p> + <p> + No war came. And, as we have seen already, Carleton's last year, 1796, was + more peaceful than his first. But even then the external dangers made the + governor-general's post a very trying one, especially when internal + troubles were equally rife. Thus Carleton never enjoyed a single day + without its anxious moments till, old and growing weary, though devoted as + ever, he finally left Quebec on the 9th of July. This was the second + occasion on which he had been forced to resign by unfair treatment at the + hands of those who should have been his best support. It was infinitely + worse the first time, when he was stabbed in the back by that shameless + political assassin, Lord George Germain. But the second was also + inexcusable because there could be no doubt whatever as to which of the + incompatibles should have left his post—the replaceable Simcoe or + the irreplaceable Carleton. Yet as H.M.S. Active rounded Point Levy, and + the great stronghold of Quebec faded from his view, Carleton had at least + the satisfaction of knowing that he had been the principal saviour of one + British Canada and the principal founder of another. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X — 'NUNC DIMITTIS' + </h2> + <h3> + 1796-1808 + </h3> + <p> + Our tale is told. + </p> + <p> + The Active was wrecked on the island of Anticosti, where the estuary of + the St Lawrence joins the Gulf. No lives were lost, and the Carletons + reached Perce in Gaspe quite safely in a little coasting vessel. Then a + ship came round from Halifax and sailed the family over to England at the + end of September, just thirty years after Carleton had come out to Canada + to take up a burden of oversea governance such as no other viceroy, in any + part of the world-encircling British Empire, has ever borne so long. + </p> + <p> + He lived to become a wonderful link with the past. When he died at home in + England he was in the sixty-seventh year of his connection with the Army + and in the eighty-fifth of his age. More than any other man of note he + brought the days of Marlborough into touch with those of Wellington, + though a century lay between. At the time he received his first commission + most of the senior officers were old Marlburians. At the time of his death + Nelson had already won Trafalgar, Napoleon had already been emperor of the + French for nearly three years, and Wellington had already begun the great + Peninsular campaigns. Carleton's own life thus constitutes a most + remarkable link between two very different eras of Imperial history. But + he and his wife together constitute a still more remarkable link between + two eras of Canadian history which are still farther apart. At first sight + it seems almost impossible that he, who was the trusted friend o Wolfe, + and she, who learned deportment at Versailles in the reign of Louis + Quinze, should together make up a living link between 1690, when Frontenac + saved Quebec from the American Colonials under Phips, and 1867, when the + new Dominion was proclaimed there. But it is true. Carleton, born in the + first quarter of the eighteenth century, knew several old men who had + served at the Battle of the Boyne, which was fought three months before + Frontenac sent his defiance to Phips 'from the mouth of my cannon.' + Carleton's wife, living far on into the second quarter of the nineteenth + century, knew several rising young men who saw the Dominion of Canada well + started on its great career. + </p> + <p> + All Carleton's sons went into the Army and all died on active service. The + fourth was killed in 1814 at Bergen-op-Zoom carrying the same sword that + Carleton himself had used there sixty-seven years before. A picture of the + first siege of Bergen-op-Zoom hangs in the dining-room of the family seat + at Greywell Hill to remind successive generations of their martial + ancestors. But no Carleton needs to be reminded of a man's first duty at + the call to arms. The present holder of the Dorchester estates and title + is a woman. But her son and heir went straight to the front with the + cavalry of the first British army corps to take the field in Belgium + during the Great World War of 1914. + </p> + <p> + Carleton spent most of his last twelve years at Kempshot near Basingstoke + because he kept his stud there and horses were his chief delight. But he + died at Stubbings, his place near Maidenhead beside the silver Thames, on + the 10th of November 1808. + </p> + <p> + Thus, after an unadventurous youth and early manhood, he spent his long + maturity steering the ship of state through troublous seas abroad; then + passed life's evening in the quiet haven of his home. + </p> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0011" id="link2H_4_0011"> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + </h2> + <p> + The Seigneurs and the Loyalists, both closely associated with Carleton's + Canadian career, are treated in two volumes of the present Series: The + Seigneurs of Old Canada and The United Empire Loyalists. Two other volumes + also provide profitable reading: The War Chief of the Six Nations: A + Chronicle of Brant, the Indian leader who was to Carleton's day what + Tecumseh was to Brock's, and The War Chief of the Ottawas: A Chronicle of + the Pontiac War. + </p> + <p> + Only one life of Carleton has been written, Lord Dorchester, by A. G. + Bradley (1907). The student should also consult John Graves Simcoe, by + Duncan Campbell Scott (1905), Sir Frederick Haldimand, by Jean McIlwraith + (1904), and A History of Canada from 1763 to 1812 by Sir Charles Lucas. + Carleton is the leading character in the first half of the third volume of + Canada and its Provinces, which, being the work of different authors, + throws light on his character from several different British points of + view as well as from several different kinds of evidence. Kingsford's + History of Canada, volumes iv to vii, treats the period in considerable + detail. Justin Smith's two volumes, Our Struggle for the Fourteenth + Colony, is the work of a most painstaking American scholar who had already + produced an excellent account of Arnold's March from Cambridge to Quebec, + in which, for the first time, Arnold's Journal was printed word for word. + Arnold's Expedition to Quebec, by J. Codman, is another careful work. + These are the complements of the British books mentioned above, as they + emphasize the American point of view and draw more from American than from + British sources of original information. The unfortunate defect of Our + Struggle for the Fourteenth Colony is that the author's efforts to be + sprightly at all costs tend to repel the serious student, while his very + thoroughness itself repels the merely casual reader. + </p> + <p> + So many absurd or perverting mistakes are still made about the life and + times of Carleton, and a full understanding of his career is of such vital + importance to Canadian history, that no accounts given in the general run + of books—including many so-called 'standard works'—should be + accepted without reference to the original authorities. Justin Smith's + books, cited above, have useful lists of authorities; though there is no + discrimination between documents of very different value. The original + British diaries kept during Montgomery and Arnold's beleaguerment have + been published by the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec in two + volumes, at the end of which there is a very useful bibliography showing + the whereabouts of the actual manuscripts of these and many other + documents in English, French, and German. In addition to the American and + British diarists who wrote in English there were several prominent French + Canadians and German officers who kept most interesting journals which are + still extant. The Dominion Archives at Ottawa possess an immense mass of + originals, facsimiles, and verbatim copies of every kind, including maps + and illustrations. The Dominion Archivist, Dr Doughty, has himself edited, + in collaboration with Professor Shortt, all the Documents relating to the + Constitutional History of Canada from 1759 to 1791. + </p> + <p> + The present Chronicle is based on the original evidence of both sides. + </p> + <h3> + END + </h3> + <div style="height: 6em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Father of British Canada: A +Chronicle of Carleton, by William Wood + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FATHER OF BRITISH CANADA *** + +***** This file should be named 10044-h.htm or 10044-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/0/4/10044/ + +Etext was produced by Gardner Buchanan + +HTML file produced by David Widger + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: The Father of British Canada: A Chronicle of Carleton + +Author: William Wood + +Release Date: November 11, 2003 [EBook #10044] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FATHER OF BRITISH CANADA *** + + + + +This etext was produced by Gardner Buchanan. + + + + + +CHRONICLES OF CANADA +Edited by George M. Wrong and H. H. Langton +In thirty-two volumes + +Volume 12 + + +THE FATHER OF BRITISH CANADA +A Chronicle of Carleton + +By WILLIAM WOOD +TORONTO, 1916 + + + + +CONTENTS + +I. GUY CARLETON, 1724-1759 +II. GENERAL MURRAY, 1759-1766 +III. GOVERNOR CARLETON, 1766-1774 +IV. INVASION, 1776 +V. BELEAGUERMENT, 1775-1776 +VI. DELIVERANCE, 1776 +VII. THE COUNTERSTROKE, 1776-1778 +VIII. GUARDING THE LOYALISTS, 1782-1783 +IX. FOUNDING MODERN CANADA, 1786-1796 +X. 'NUNC DIMITTIS,' 1796-1808 + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + + + + +CHAPTER I + +GUY CARLETON +1724-1759 + +Guy Carleton, first Baron Dorchester, was born at Strabane, +County Tyrone, on the 3rd of September 1724, the anniversary +of Cromwell's two great victories and death. He came of +a very old family of English country gentlemen which had +migrated to Ireland in the seventeenth century and +intermarried with other Anglo-Irish families equally +devoted to the service of the British Crown. Guy's father +was Christopher Carleton of Newry in County Down. His +mother was Catherine Ball of County Donegal. His father +died comparatively young; and, when he was himself fifteen, +his mother married the rector of Newry, the Reverend +Thomas Skelton, whose influence over the six step-children +of the household worked wholly for their good. + +At eighteen Guy received his first commission as ensign +in the 25th Foot, then known as Lord Rothes' regiment +and now as the King's Own Scottish Borderers. At +twenty-three he fought gallantly at the siege of +Bergen-op-Zoom. Four years later (1751) he was a lieutenant +in the Grenadier Guards. He was one of those quiet men +whose sterling value is appreciated only by the few till +some crisis makes it stand forth before the world at +large. Pitt, Wolfe, and George II all recognized his +solid virtues. At thirty he was still some way down the +list of lieutenants in the Grenadiers, while Wolfe, two +years his junior in age, had been four years in command +of a battalion with the rank of lieutenant-colonel. Yet +he had long been 'my friend Carleton' to Wolfe, he was +soon to become one of 'Pitt's Young Men,' and he was +enough of a 'coming man' to incur the king's displeasure. +He had criticized the Hanoverians; and the king never +forgave him. The third George 'gloried in the name of +Englishman.' But the first two were Hanoverian all through. +And for an English guardsman to disparage the Hanoverian +army was considered next door to _lese-majeste_. + +Lady Dorchester burnt all her husband's private papers +after his death in 1808; so we have lost some of the most +intimate records concerning him. But 'grave Carleton' +appears so frequently in the letters of his friend Wolfe +that we can see his character as a young man in almost +any aspect short of self-revelation. The first reference +has nothing to do with affairs of state. In 1747 Wolfe, +aged twenty, writing to Miss Lacey, an English girl in +Brussels, and signing himself 'most sincerely your friend +and admirer,' says: 'I was doing the greatest injustice +to the dear girls to admit the least doubt of their +constancy. Perhaps with respect to ourselves there may +be cause of complaint. Carleton, I'm afraid, is a recent +example of it.' From this we may infer that Carleton was +less 'grave' as a young man than Wolfe found him later +on. Six years afterwards Wolfe strongly recommended him +for a position which he had himself been asked to fill, +that of military tutor to the young Duke of Richmond, +who was to get a company in Wolfe's own regiment. Writing +home from Paris in 1753 Wolfe tells his mother that the +duke 'wants some skilful man to travel with him through +the Low Countries and into Lorraine. I have proposed my +friend Carleton, whom Lord Albemarle approves of.' Lord +Albemarle was the British ambassador to France; so Carleton +got the post and travelled under the happiest auspices, +while learning the frontier on which the Belgian, French, +and British allies were to fight the Germans in the Great +World War of 1914. It was during this military tour of +fortified places that Carleton acquired the engineering +skill which a few years later proved of such service to +the British cause in Canada. + +In 1754 George Washington, at that time a young Virginian +officer of only twenty-two, fired the first shot in what +presently became the world-wide Seven Years' War. The +immediate result was disastrous to the British arms; and +Washington had to give up the command of the Ohio by +surrendering Fort Necessity to the French on--of all +dates--the 4th of July! In 1755 came Braddock's defeat. +In 1756 Montcalm arrived in Canada and won his first +victory at Oswego. In 1757 Wolfe distinguished himself +by formulating the plan which, if properly executed, +would have prevented the British fiasco at Rochefort on +the coast of France. But Carleton remained as undistinguished +as before. He simply became lieutenant-colonel commanding +the 72nd Foot, now the Seaforth Highlanders. In 1758 his +chance appeared to have come at last. Amherst had asked +for his services at Louisbourg. But the king had neither +forgotten nor forgiven the remarks about the Hanoverians, +and so refused point-blank, to Wolfe's 'very great grief +and disappointment... It is a public loss Carleton's not +going.' Wolfe's confidence in Carleton, either as a friend +or as an officer, was stronger than ever. Writing to +George Warde, afterwards the famous cavalry leader, he +said: 'Accidents may happen in the family that may throw +my little affairs into disorder. Carleton is so good as +to say he will give what help is in his power. May I ask +the same favour of you, my oldest friend?' Writing to +Lord George Sackville, of whom we shall hear more than +enough at the crisis of Carleton's career Wolfe said: +'Amherst will tell you his opinion of Carleton, by which +you will probably be better convinced of our loss.' Again, +'We want grave Carleton for every purpose of the war.' +And yet again, after the fall of Louisbourg: 'If His +Majesty had thought proper to let Carleton come with us +as engineer it would have cut the matter much shorter +and we might now be ruining the walls of Quebec and +completing the conquest of New France.' A little later +on Wolfe blazes out with indignation over Carleton's +supersession by a junior. 'Can Sir John Ligonier (the +commander-in-chief) allow His Majesty to remain +unacquainted with the merit of that officer, and can he +see such a mark of displeasure without endeavouring to +soften or clear the matter up a little? A man of honour +has the right to expect the protection of his Colonel +and of the Commander of the troops, and he can't serve +without it. If I was in Carleton's place I wouldn't stay +an hour in the Army after being aimed at and distinguished +in so remarkable a manner.' But Carleton bided his time. + +At the beginning of 1759 Wolfe was appointed to command +the army destined to besiege Quebec. He immediately +submitted Carleton's name for appointment as +quartermaster-general. Pitt and Ligonier heartily approved. +But the king again refused. Ligonier went back a second +time to no purpose. Pitt then sent him in for the third +time, saying, in a tone meant for the king to overhear: +'Tell His Majesty that in order to render the General +[Wolfe] completely responsible for his conduct he should +be made, as far as possible, inexcusable if he should +fail; and that whatever an officer entrusted with such +a service of confidence requests ought therefore to be +granted.' The king then consented. Thus began Carleton's +long, devoted, and successful service for Canada, the +Empire, and the Crown. + +Early in this memorable Empire Year of 1759 he sailed +with Wolfe and Saunders from Spithead. On the 30th of +April the fleet rendezvoused at Halifax, where Admiral +Durell, second-in-command to Saunders, had spent the +winter with a squadron intended to block the St Lawrence +directly navigation opened in the spring. Durell was a +good commonplace officer, but very slow. He had lost many +hands from sickness during a particularly cold season, +and he was not enterprising enough to start cruising +round Cabot Strait before the month of May. Saunders, +greatly annoyed by this delay, sent him off with eight +men-of-war on the 5th of May. Wolfe gave him seven hundred +soldiers under Carleton. These forces were sufficient to +turn back, capture, or destroy the twenty-three French +merchantmen which were then bound for Quebec with supplies +and soldiers as reinforcements for Montcalm. But the +French ships were a week ahead of Durell; and, when he +landed Carleton at Isle-aux-Coudres on the 28th of May, +the last of the enemy's transports had already discharged +her cargo at Quebec, sixty miles above. + +Isle-aux-Coudres, so named by Jacques Cartier in 1535, +was a point of great strategic importance; for it commanded +the only channel then used. It was the place Wolfe had +chosen for his winter quarters, that is, in case of +failure before Quebec and supposing he was not recalled. +None but a particularly good officer would have been +appointed as its first commandant. Carleton spent many +busy days here preparing an advanced base for the coming +siege, while the subsequently famous Captain Cook was +equally busy 'a-sounding of the channell of the Traverse' +which the fleet would have to pass on its way to Quebec. +Some of Durell's ships destroyed the French 'long-shore +batteries near this Traverse, at the lower end of the +island of Orleans, while the rest kept ceaseless watch +to seaward, anxiously scanning the offing, day after day, +to make out the colours of the first fleet up. No one +knew what the French West India fleet would do; and there +was a very disconcerting chance that it might run north +and slip into the St Lawrence, ahead of Saunders, in the +same way as the French reinforcements had just slipped +in ahead of Durell. Presently, at the first streak of +dawn on the 23rd of June, a strong squadron was seen +advancing rapidly under a press of sail. Instantly the +officers of the watch called all hands up from below. +The boatswains' whistles shrilled across the water as +the seamen ran to quarters and cleared the decks for +action. Carleton's camp was equally astir. The guards +turned out. The bugles sounded. The men fell in and +waited. Then the flag-ship signalled ashore that the +strangers had just answered correctly in private code +that all was well and that Wolfe and Saunders were aboard. + +Next to Wolfe himself Carleton was the busiest man +in the army throughout the siege of Quebec. In addition +to his arduous and very responsible duties as +quartermaster-general, he acted as inspector of engineers +and as a special-service officer for work of an +exceptionally confidential nature. As quartermaster-general +he superintended the supply and transport branches. +Considering that the army was operating in a devastated +hostile country, a thousand miles away from its bases at +Halifax and Louisbourg, and that the interaction of the +different services--naval and military, Imperial and +Colonial--required adjustment to a nicety at every turn, +it was wonderful that so much was done so well with means +which were far from being adequate. War prices of course +ruled in the British camp. But they compared very favourably +with the famine prices in Quebec, where most 'luxuries' +soon became unobtainable at any price. There were no +canteen or camp-follower scandals under Carleton. Then, +as now, every soldier had a regulation ration of food +and a regulation allowance for his service kit. But +'extras' were always acceptable. The price-list of these +'extras' reads strangely to modern ears. But, under the +circumstances, it was not exorbitant, and it was slightly +tempered by being reckoned in Halifax currency of four +dollars to the pound instead of five. The British Tommy +Atkins of that and many a later day thought Canada a +wonderful country for making money go a long way when he +could buy a pot of beer for twopence and get back thirteen +pence Halifax currency as change for his English shilling. +Beef and ham ran from ninepence to a shilling a pound. +Mutton was a little dearer. Salt butter was eightpence +to one-and-threepence. Cheese was tenpence; potatoes from +five to ten shillings a bushel. 'A reasonable loaf of +good soft Bread' cost sixpence. Soap was a shilling a +pound. Tea was prohibitive for all but the officers. +'Plain Green Tea and very Badd' was fifteen shillings, +'Couchon' twenty shillings, 'Hyson' thirty. Leaf tobacco +was tenpence a pound, roll one-and-tenpence, snuff +two-and-threepence. Sugar was a shilling to eighteen +pence. Lemons were sixpence apiece. The non-intoxicating +'Bad Sproos Beer' was only twopence a quart and helped +to keep off scurvy. Real beer, like wine and spirits, +was more expensive. 'Bristol Beer' was eighteen shillings +a dozen, 'Bad malt Drink from Hellifax' ninepence a quart. +Rum and claret were eight shillings a gallon each, port +and Madeira ten and twelve respectively. The term 'Bad' +did not then mean noxious, but only inferior. It stood +against every low-grade article in the price-list. No +goods were over-classified while Carleton was +quartermaster-general. + +The engineers were under-staffed, under-manned, and +overworked. There were no Royal Engineers as a permanent +and comprehensive corps till the time of Wellington. +Wolfe complained bitterly and often of the lack of men +and materials for scientific siege work. But he 'relied +on Carleton' to good purpose in this respect as well as +in many others. In his celebrated dispatch to Pitt he +mentions Carleton twice. It was Carleton whom he sent to +seize the west end of the island of Orleans, so as to +command the basin of Quebec, and Carleton whom he sent to +take prisoners and gather information at Pointe-aux-Trembles, +twenty miles above the city. Whether or not he revealed +the whole of his final plan to Carleton is probably more +than we shall ever know, since Carleton's papers were +destroyed. But we do know that he did not reveal it to +any one else, not even to his three brigadiers, Monckton, +Townshend, and Murray. + +Carleton was wounded in the head during the Battle of +the Plains; but soon returned to duty. Wolfe showed his +confidence in him to the last. Carleton's was the only +name mentioned twice in the will which Wolfe handed over +to Jervis, the future Lord St Vincent, the night before +the battle. 'I leave to Colonel Oughton, Colonel Carleton, +Colonel Howe, and Colonel Warde a thousand pounds each.' +'All my books and papers, both here and in England, I +leave to Colonel Carleton.' Wolfe's mother, who died five +years later, showed the same confidence by appointing +Carleton her executor. + +With the fall of Quebec in 1759 Carleton disappears from +the Canadian scene till 1766. But so many pregnant events +happened in Canada during these seven years, while so +few happened in his own career, that it is much more +important for us to follow her history than his biography. + +In 1761 he was wounded at the storming of Port Andro +during the attack on Belle Isle off the west coast of +France. In 1762 he was wounded at Havana in the West +Indies. After that he enjoyed four years of quietness at +home. Then came the exceedingly difficult task of guiding +Canada through twelve years of turbulent politics and +most subversive war. + + + + +CHAPTER II + +GENERAL MURRAY +1759-1766 + +Both armies spent a terrible winter after the Battle of +the Plains. There was better shelter for the French in +Montreal than for the British among the ruins of Quebec. +But in the matter of food the positions were reversed. +Nevertheless the French gallantly refused the truce +offered them by Murray, who had now succeeded Wolfe. They +were determined to make a supreme effort to regain Quebec +in the spring; and they were equally determined that the +habitants should not be free to supply the British with +provisions. + +In spite of the state of war, however, the French and +British officers, even as prisoners and captors, began +to make friends. They had found each other foemen worthy +of their steel. A distinguished French officer, the Comte +de Malartic, writing to Levis, Montcalm's successor, +said: 'I cannot speak too highly of General Murray, +although he is our enemy.' Murray, on his part, was +equally loud and generous in his praise of the French. +The Canadian seigneurs found fellow-gentlemen among +the British officers. The priests and nuns of Quebec +found many fellow-Catholics among the Scottish and Irish +troops, and nothing but courteous treatment from the +soldiers of every rank and form of religion. Murray +directed that 'the compliment of the hat' should be paid +to all religious processions. The Ursuline nuns knitted +long stockings for the bare-legged Highlanders when the +winter came on, and presented each Scottish officer with +an embroidered St Andrew's Cross on the 30th of November, +St Andrew's Day. The whole garrison won the regard of +the town by giving up part of their rations for the hungry +poor; while the habitants from the surrounding country +presently began to find out that the British were honest +to deal with and most humane, though sternly just, as +conquerors. + +In the following April Levis made his desperate throw +for victory; and actually did succeed in defeating Murray +outside the walls of Quebec. But the British fleet came +up in May; and that summer three British armies converged +on Montreal, where the last doomed remnants of French +power on the St Lawrence stood despairingly at bay. When +Levis found his two thousand effective French regulars +surrounded by eight times as many British troops he had +no choice but to lay down the arms of France for ever. +On the 8th of September 1760 his gallant little army was +included in the Capitulation of Montreal, by which the +whole of Canada passed into the possession of the British +Crown. + +Great Britain had a different general idea for each one +of the four decades which immediately followed the conquest +of Canada. In the sixties the general idea was to kill +refractory old French ways with a double dose of new +British liberty and kindness, so that Canada might +gradually become the loyal fourteenth colony of the Empire +in America. But the fates were against this benevolent +scheme. The French Canadians were firmly wedded to their +old ways of life, except in so far as the new liberty +enabled them to throw off irksome duties and restraints, +while the new English-speaking 'colonists' were so few, +and mostly so bad, that they became the cause of endless +discord where harmony was essential. In the seventies +the idea was to restore the old French-Canadian life so +as not only to make Canada proof against the disaffection +of the Thirteen Colonies but also to make her a safe base +of operations against rebellious Americans. In the eighties +the great concern of the government was to make a harmonious +whole out of two very widely differing parts--the +long-settled French Canadians and the newly arrived United +Empire Loyalists. In the nineties each of these parts +was set to work out its own salvation under its own +provincial constitution. + +Carleton's is the only personality which links together +all four decades--the would-be American sixties, the +French-Canadian seventies, the Anglo-French-Canadian +eighties, and the bi-constitutional nineties--though, as +mentioned already, Murray ruled Canada for the first +seven years, 1759-66. + +James Murray, the first British governor of Canada, was +a younger son of the fourth Lord Elibank. He was just +over forty, warm-hearted and warm-tempered, an excellent +French scholar, and every inch a soldier. He had been a +witness for the defence of Mordaunt at the court-martial +held to try the authors of the Rochefort fiasco in 1757. +Wolfe, who was a witness on the other side, referred to +him later on as 'my old antagonist Murray.' But Wolfe +knew a good man when he saw one and gave his full confidence +to his 'old antagonist' both at Louisbourg and Quebec. +Murray was not born under a lucky star. He saw three +defeats in three successive wars. He began his service +with the abortive attack on pestilential Cartagena, where +Wolfe's father was present as adjutant-general. In +mid-career he lost the battle of Ste Foy. [Footnote: +See _The Winning of Canada_, chap. viii. See also, for +the best account of this battle and other events of the +year between Wolfe's victory and the surrender of Montreal, +_The Fall of Canada_, by George M. Wrong. Oxford, 1914.] +And his active military life ended with his surrender of +Minorca in 1782. But he was greatly distinguished for +honour and steadfastness on all occasions. An admiring +contemporary described him as a model of all the military +virtues except prudence. But he had more prudence and +less genius than his admirer thought; and he showed a +marked talent for general government. The problem before +him was harder than his superiors could believe. He was +expected to prepare for assimilation some sixty-five +thousand 'new subjects' who were mostly alien in religion +and wholly alien in every other way. But, for the moment, +this proved the least of his many difficulties because +no immediate results were required. + +While the war went on in Europe Canada remained nominally +a part of the enemy's dominions, and so, of course, was +subject to military rule. Sir Jeffery Amherst, the British +commander-in-chief in America, took up his headquarters +in New York. Under him Murray commanded Canada from +Quebec. Under Murray, Colonel Burton commanded the district +of Three Rivers while General Gage commanded the district +of Montreal, which then extended to the western wilds. +[Footnote: See _The War Chief of the Ottawas_, chap. iii.] + +Murray's first great trouble arose in 1761. It was caused +by an outrageous War Office order that fourpence a day +should be stopped from the soldiers to pay for the rations +they had always got free. Such gross injustice, coming +in time of war and applied to soldiers who richly deserved +reward, made the veterans 'mad with rage.' Quebec promised +to be the scene of a wild mutiny. Murray, like all his +officers, thought the stoppage nothing short of robbery. +But he threw himself into the breach. He assembled the +officers and explained that they must die to the last +man rather than allow the mutineers a free hand. He then +held a general parade at which he ordered the troops to +march between two flag-poles on pain of instant death, +promising to kill with his own hands the first man who +refused. He added that he was ready to hear and forward +any well-founded complaint, but that, since insubordination +had been openly threatened, he would insist on subordination +being publicly shown. Then, amid tense silence, he gave +the word of command--_Quick, March!_--while every officer +felt his trigger. To the immense relief of all concerned +the men stepped off, marched straight between the flags +and back to quarters, tamed. The criminal War Office +blunder was rectified and peace was restored in the ranks. + +'Murray's Report' of 1762 gives us a good view of the +Canada of that day and shows the attitude of the British +towards their new possession. Canada had been conquered +by Great Britain, with some help from the American +colonies, for three main reasons: first, to strike a +death-blow at French dominion in America; secondly, to +increase the opportunities of British seaborne trade; +and, thirdly, to enlarge the area available for British +settlement. When Murray was instructed to prepare a report +on Canada he had to keep all this in mind; for the +government wished to satisfy the public both at home and +in the colonies. He had to examine the military strength +of the country and the disposition of its population in +case of future wars with France. He had to satisfy the +natural curiosity of men like the London merchants. And +he had to show how and where English-speaking settlers +could go in and make Canada not only a British possession +but the fourteenth British colony in North America. Burton +and Gage were also instructed to report about their own +districts of Three Rivers and Montreal. The documents +they prepared were tacked on to Murray's. By June 1762 +the work was completed and sent on to Amherst, who sent +it to England in ample time to be studied there before +the opening of the impending negotiations for peace. + +Murray was greatly concerned about the military strength +of Quebec, then, as always, the key of Canada. Like the +unfortunate Montcalm he found the walls of Quebec badly +built, badly placed, and falling into ruins, and he +thought they could not be defended by three thousand men +against 'a well conducted _Coup-de-main_.' He proposed +to crown Cape Diamond with a proper citadel, which would +overawe the disaffected in Quebec itself and defend the +place against an outside enemy long enough to let a +British fleet come up to its relief. The rest of the +country was defended by little garrisons at Three Rivers +and Montreal as well as by several small detachments +distributed among the trading-posts where the white men +and the red met in the depths of the western wilderness. + +The relations between the British garrison and the French +Canadians were so excellent that what Gage reported from +Montreal might be taken as equally true of the rest of +the country: 'The Soldiers live peaceably with the +Inhabitants and they reciprocally acquire an affection +for each other.' The French Canadians numbered sixty-five +thousand altogether, exclusive of the fur traders and +coureurs de bois. Barely fifteen thousand lived in the +three little towns of Quebec, Montreal, and Three Rivers; +while over fifty thousand lived in the country. Nearly +all the officials had gone back to France. The three +classes of greatest importance were the seigneurs, the +clergy, and the habitants. The lawyers were not of much +account; the petty commercial classes of less account +still. The coureurs de bois and other fur traders formed +an important link between the savage and the civilized +life of the country. + +Apart from furs the trade of Canada was contemptibly +small in the eyes of men like the London merchants. But +the opportunity of fostering all the fur trade that could +be carried down the St Lawrence was very well worth while; +and if there was no other existing trade worth capturing +there seemed to be some kinds worth creating. Murray held +out well-grounded hopes of the fisheries and forests. 'A +Most immense Cod Fishery can be established in the River +and Gulph of St Lawrence. A rich tract of country on the +South Side of the Gulph will be settled and improved, +and a port or ports furnished with every material requisite +to repair ships.' He then went on to enumerate the other +kinds of fishery, the abundance of whales, seals, and +walruses in the Gulf, and of salmon up all the tributary +rivers. Burton recommends immediate attention to the iron +mines behind Three Rivers. All the governors expatiate +on the vast amount of forest wealth and remind the home +government that under the French regime the king, when +making out patents for the seigneurs, reserved the right +of taking wood for ship-building and fortifications from +any of the seigneuries. Agriculture was found to be in +a very backward state. The habitants would raise no more +than they required for their own use and for a little +local trade. But the fault was attributed to the gambling +attractions of the fur trade, to the bad governmental +system, and to the frequent interruptions of the _corvee_, +a kind of forced labour which was meant to serve the +public interest, but which Bigot and other thievish +officials always turned to their own private advantage. +On the whole, the reports were most encouraging in the +prospects they held out to honest labour, trade, and +government. + +While Murray and his lieutenants had been collecting +information for their reports the home government had +been undergoing many changes for the worse. The +master-statesman Pitt had gone out of power and the +back-stairs politician Bute had come in. Pitt's 'bloody +and expensive war'--the war that more than any other, +laid the foundations of the present British Empire--was +to be ended on any terms the country could be persuaded +to bear. Thus the end of the Seven Years' War, or, as +the British part of it was more correctly called, the +'Maritime War,' was no more glorious in statesmanship +than its beginning had been in arms. But the spirit of +its mighty heart still lived on in the Empire's grateful +memories of Pitt and quickened the English-speaking world +enough to prevent any really disgraceful surrender of +the hard-won fruits of victory. + +The Treaty of Paris, signed on the 10th of February 1763, +and the king's proclamation, published in October, were +duly followed by the inauguration of civil government in +Canada. The incompetent Bute, anxious to get Pitt out of +the way, tried to induce him to become the first British +governor of the new colony. Even Bute probably never +dared to hope that Pitt would actually go out to Canada. +But he did hope to lower his prestige by making him the +holder of a sinecure at home. However this may be, Pitt, +mightiest of all parliamentary ministers of war, refused +to be made either a jobber or an exile; whereupon Murray's +position was changed from a military command into that +of 'Governor and Captain-General.' + +The changes which ensued in the laws of Canada were +heartily welcomed so far as the adoption of the humaner +criminal code of England was concerned. The new laws +relating to debtor and creditor also gave general +satisfaction, except, as we shall presently see, when +they involved imprisonment for debt. But the tentative +efforts to introduce English civil law side by side with +the old French code resulted in great confusion and much +discontent. The land laws had become so unworkable under +this dual system that they had to be left as they were. +A Court of Common Pleas was set up specially for the +benefit of the French Canadians. If either party demanded +a jury one had to be sworn in; and French Canadians were +to be jurors on equal terms with 'the King's Old Subjects.' +The Roman Catholic Church was to be completely tolerated +but not in any way established. Lord Egremont, in giving +the king's instructions to Murray, reminded him that the +proviso in the Treaty of Paris--_as far as the Laws of +Great Britain permit_--should govern his action whenever +disputes arose. It must be remembered that the last +Jacobite rising was then a comparatively recent affair, +and that France was equally ready to upset either the +Protestant succession in England or the British regime +in Canada. + +The Indians were also an object of special solicitude in +the royal proclamation. 'The Indians who live under our +Protection should not be molested in the possession of +such parts of our Dominions and Territories as, not having +been ceded to or purchased by Us, are reserved to them.' +The home government was far in advance of the American +colonists in its humane attitude towards the Indians. +The common American attitude then and long afterwards +--indeed, up to a time well within living memory--was +that Indians were a kind of human vermin to be exterminated +without mercy, unless, of course, more money was to be +made out of them alive. The result was an endless struggle +along the ever-receding frontier of the West. And just +at this particular time the 'Conspiracy of Pontiac' had +brought about something like a real war. The story of +this great effort of the Indians to stem the encroachments +of the exterminating colonists is told in another chronicle +of the present Series. [Footnote: The War Chief of the +Ottawas.] The French traders in the West undoubtedly had +a hand in stirring up the Indians. Pontiac, a sort of +Indian Napoleon, was undoubtedly cruel as well as crafty. +And the Indians undoubtedly fought just as the ancestors +of the French and British used to fight when they were +at the corresponding stage of social evolution. But the +mere fact that so many jealously distinct tribes united +in this common cause proves how much they all must have +suffered at the hands of the colonists. + +While Pontiac's war continued in the West Murray had to +deal with a political war in Canada which rose to its +height in 1764. The king's proclamation of the previous +October had 'given express Power to our Governor that, +so soon as the state and circumstances of the said Colony +will admit thereof, he shall call a General Assembly in +such manner and form as is used in those Colonies and +Provinces in America which are under our immediate +government.' The intention of establishing parliamentary +institutions was, therefore, perfectly clear. But it was +equally clear that the introduction of such institutions +was to depend on 'circumstances,' and it is well to +remember here that these 'circumstances' were not held +to warrant the opening of a Canadian parliament till +1792. Now, the military government had been a great +success. There was every reason to suppose that civil +government by a governor and council would be the next +best thing. And it was quite certain that calling a +'General Assembly' at once would defeat the very ends +which such bodies are designed to serve. More than +ninety-nine per cent of the population were dead against +an assembly which none of them understood and all +distrusted. On the other hand, the clamorous minority of +less than one per cent were in favour only of a parliament +from which the majority should be rigorously excluded, +even, if possible, as voters. The immense majority +comprised the entire French-Canadian community. The +absurdly small minority consisted mostly of Americanized +camp-following traders, who, having come to fish in +troubled waters, naturally wanted the laws made to suit +poachers. The British garrison, the governing officials, +and the very few other English-speaking people of a more +enlightened class all looked down on the rancorous +minority. The whole question resolved itself into this: +should Canada be handed over to the licensed exploitation +of a few hundred low-class camp-followers, who had done +nothing to win her for the British Empire, who were +despised by those who had, and who promised to be a +dangerous thorn in the side of the new colony? + +What this ridiculous minority of grab-alls really wanted +was not a parliament but a rump. Many a representative +assembly has ended in a rump, The grab-alls wished to +begin with one and stop there. It might be supposed that +such pretensions would defeat themselves. But there was +a twofold difficulty in the way of getting the truth +understood by the English-speaking public on both sides +of the Atlantic. In the first place, the French Canadians +were practically dumb to the outside world. In the second, +the vociferous rumpites had the ear of some English and +more American commercial people who were not anxious to +understand; while the great mass of the general public +were inclined to think, if they ever thought at all, that +parliamentary government must mean more liberty for every +one concerned. + +A singularly apt commentary on the pretensions of the +camp-followers is supplied by the famous, or infamous, +'Presentment of the Grand Jury of Quebec' in October +1764. The moving spirits of this precious jury were +aspirants to membership in the strictly exclusive, rumpish +little parliament of their own seeking. The signatures +of the French-Canadian members were obtained by fraud, +as was subsequently proved by a sworn official protestation. +The first presentment tells its own tale, as it refers +to the only courts in which French-Canadian lawyers were +allowed to plead. 'The great number of inferior Courts +are tiresome, litigious, and expensive to this poor +Colony.' Then came a hit at the previous military +rule--'That Decrees of the military Courts may be amended +[after having been confirmed by legal ordinance] by +allowing Appeals if the matter decided exceed Ten Pounds,' +which would put it out of the reach of the 'inferior +Courts' and into the clutches of 'the King's Old Subjects.' +But the gist of it all was contained in the following: +'We represent that as the Grand Jury must be considered +at present as the only Body representative of the Colony, +... We propose that the Publick Accounts be laid before +the Grand Jury at least twice a year.' That the grand +jury was to be purged of all its French-Canadian members +is evident from the addendum slipped in behind their +backs. This addendum is a fine specimen of verbose +invective against 'the Church of Rome,' the Pope, Bulls, +Briefs, absolutions, etc., the empanelling 'en Grand and +petty Jurys' of 'papist or popish Recusants Convict,' +and so on. + +The 'Presentment of the Grand Jury' was presently followed +by _The Humble Petition of Your Majesty's most faithful +and loyal Subjects, British Merchants and Traders, in +behalf of Themselves and their fellow Subjects, Inhabitants +of Your Majesty's Province of Quebec_. 'Their fellow +Subjects' did not, of course, include any 'papist or +popish Recusants Convict.' Among the 'Grievances and +Distresses' enumerated were 'the oppressive and severely +felt Military government,' the inability to 'reap the +fruit of our Industry' under such a martinet as Murray, +who, in one paragraph, is accused of 'suppressing dutyfull +Remonstrances in Silence' and, in the next, of 'treating +them with a Rage and Rudeness of Language and Demeanor +as dishonourable to the Trust he holds of Your Majesty +as painfull to Those who suffer from it.' Finally, the +petitioners solemnly warn His Majesty that their 'Lives +in the Province are so very unhappy that we must be under +the Necessity of removing from it, unless timely prevented +by a Removal of the present Governor.' + +In forwarding this document Murray poured out the vials +of his wrath on 'the Licentious Fanaticks Trading here,' +while he boldly championed the cause of the French +Canadians, 'a Race, who, could they be indulged with a +few priveledges which the Laws of England deny to Roman +Catholicks at home, would soon get the better of every +National Antipathy to their Conquerors and become the +most faithful and most useful set of Men in this American +Empire.' + +While these charges and counter-charges were crossing +the Atlantic another, and much more violent, trouble came +to a head. As there were no barracks in Canada billeting +was a necessity. It was made as little burdensome as +possible and the houses of magistrates were specially +exempt. This, however, did not prevent the magistrates +from baiting the military whenever they got the chance. +Fines, imprisonments, and other sentences, out of all +proportion to the offence committed, were heaped on every +redcoat in much the same way as was then being practised +in Boston and other hotbeds of disaffection. The redcoats +had done their work in ridding America of the old French +menace. They were doing it now in ridding the colonies +of the last serious menace from the Indians. And so the +colonists, having no further use for them, began trying +to make the land they had delivered too hot to hold them. +There were, of course, exceptions; and the American +colonists had some real as well as pretended grievances. +But wantonly baiting the redcoats had already become a +most discreditable general practice. + +Montreal was most in touch with the disaffected people +to the south. It also had a magistrate of the name of +Walker, the most rancorous of all the disaffected +magistrates in Canada. This Walker, well mated with an +equally rancorous wife, was the same man who entertained +Benjamin Franklin and the other commissioners sent by +Congress into Canada in 1776, the year in which both the +American Republic and a truly British Canada were born. +He would not have been flattered could he have seen the +entry Franklin made about him and his wife in a diary +which is still extant. The gist of it was that wherever +the Walkers might be they would soon set the place by +the ears. Walker, of course, was foremost in the persecution +of the redcoats; and he eagerly seized his opportunity +when an officer was billeted in a house where a brother +magistrate happened to be living as a lodger. Under such +circumstances the magistrate could not claim exemption. +But this made no difference either to him or to Walker. +Captain Payne, the gentleman whose presence enraged these +boors, was seized and thrown into gaol. The chief justice +granted a writ of habeas corpus. But the mischief was +done and resentment waxed high. The French-Canadian +seigneurs sympathized with Payne, which added fuel to +the magisterial flame; and Murray, scenting danger, +summoned the whole bench down to Quebec. + +But before this bench of bumbles started some masked men +seized Walker in his own house and gave him a good sound +thrashing. Unfortunately they spoilt the fair reprisal +by cutting off his ear. That very night the news had run +round Montreal and made a start for Boston and Quebec. +Feeling ran high; and higher still when, a few weeks +later, the civil magistrates vented their rage on several +redcoats by imposing sentences exceeding even the utmost +limits of their previous vindictive action. Montreal +became panic-stricken lest the soldiers, baited past +endurance, should break out in open violence. Murray +drove up, post-haste, from Quebec, ordered the affected +regiment to another station, reproved the offending +magistrates, and re-established public confidence. Official +and private rewards were offered to any witnesses who +would identify Walker's assailants. But in vain. The +smouldering fire burst out again under Carleton. But the +mystery was never cleared up. + +Things had now come to a crisis. The London merchants, +knowing nothing about the internal affairs of Canada, +backed the petition of the Quebec traders, who were quite +unworthy of such support from men of real business probity +and knowledge. The magisterial faction in Canada advertised +their side of the case all over the colonies and in any +sympathetic quarter they could find in England. The +seigneurs sent home a warm defence of Murray; and Murray +himself sent Cramahe, a very able Swiss officer in the +British Army. The home government thus had plenty of +contradictory evidence before it in 1765. The result was +that Murray was called home in 1766, rather in a spirit +of open-minded and sympathetic inquiry into his conduct +than with any idea of censuring him. He never returned +to Canada. But as he held the titular governorship for +some time longer, and as he was afterwards employed in +positions of great responsibility and trust, the verdict +of the home authorities was clearly given in his favour. + +The troublous year of 1764 saw another innovation almost +as revolutionary, compared with the old regime, as the +introduction of civil government itself. This was the +issue of the first newspaper in Canada, where, indeed, +it was also the first printed thing of any kind. Nova +Scotia had produced an earlier paper, the _Halifax +Gazette_, which lived an intermittent life from 1752 to +1800. But no press had ever been allowed in New France. +The few documents that required printing had always been +done in the mother country. Brown and Gilmore, two +Philadelphians, were thus undertaking a pioneer business +when they announced that 'Our Design is, in case we are +fortunate enough to succeed, early in this spring to +settle in this City [Quebec] in the capacity of Printers, +and forthwith to publish a weekly newspaper in French +and English.' The _Quebec Gazette_, which first appeared +on the 21st of the following June, has continued to the +present time, though it is now a daily and is known as +the _Quebec Chronicle_. Centenarian papers are not common +in any country; and those that have lived over a century +and a half are very few indeed. So the _Quebec Chronicle_, +which is the second surviving senior in America, is also +among the great press seniors of the world. + +The original number is one of the curiosities of journalism. +The publishers felt tolerably sure of having what was +then considered a good deal of recent news for their +three hundred readers during the open season. But, knowing +that the supply would be both short and stale in winter, +they held out prospects of a Canadian _Tatler_ or _Spectator_, +without, however, being rash enough to promise a supply +of Addisons and Steeles. Their announcement makes curious +reading at the present day. + + The Rigour of Winter preventing the arrival of ships + from _Europe_, and in a great measure interrupting + the ordinary intercourse with the Southern Provinces, + it will be necessary, in a paper designed for General + Perusal, and Publick Utility, to provide some things + of general Entertainment, independent of foreign + intelligence: we shall therefore, on such occasions, + present our Readers with such _Originals_, both in + _Prose_ and _Verse_, as will please the FANCY and + instruct the JUDGMENT. And here we beg leave to observe + that we shall have nothing so much at heart as the + support of VIRTUE and MORALITY and the noble cause of + LIBERTY. The refined amusements of LITERATURE, and + the pleasing veins of well pointed wit, shall also be + considered as necessary to this collection; interspersed + with chosen pieces, and curious essays, extracted from + the most celebrated authors; So that, blending PHILOSOPHY + with POLITICKS, HISTORY, &c., the youth of both sexes + will be improved and persons of all ranks agreeably + and usefully entertained. And upon the whole we will + labour to attain to all the exactness that so much + variety will permit, and give as much variety as will + consist with a reasonable exactness. And as this part + of our project cannot be carried into execution without + the correspondence of the INGENIOUS, we shall take + all opportunities of acknowledging our obligations, + to those who take the trouble of furnishing any matter + which shall tend to entertainment or instruction. Our + Intentions to please the _Whole_, without offence to + any _Individual_, will be better evinced by our practice, + than by writing volumes on the subject. This one thing + we beg may be believed, that PARTY PREJUDICE, or + PRIVATE SCANDAL, will never find a place in this PAPER. + + + + +GOVERNOR CARLETON +1766-1774 + +The twelve years of Carleton's first administration +naturally fall into three distinct periods of equal +length. During the first he was busily employed settling +as many difficulties as he could, examining the general +state of the country, and gradually growing into the +change that was developing in the minds of the home +government, the change, that is, from the Americanizing +sixties to the French-Canadian seventies. During the +second period he was in England, helping to shape the +famous Quebec Act. During the third he was defending +Canada from American attack and aiding the British +counterstroke by every means in his power. + +On the 22nd of September 1766 Carleton arrived at Quebec +and began his thirty years' experience as a Canadian +administrator by taking over the government from Colonel +Irving, who had held it since Murray's departure in the +spring. Irving had succeeded Murray simply because he +happened to be the senior officer present at the time. +Carleton himself was technically Murray's lieutenant till +1768. But neither of these facts really affected the +course of Canadian history. + +The Council, the magistrates, and the traders each +presented. the new governor with an address containing +the usual professions of loyal devotion. Carleton remarked +in his dispatch that these separate addresses, and the +marked absence of any united address, showed how much +the population was divided. He also noted that a good +many of the English-speaking minority had objected to +the addresses on account of their own opposition to the +Stamp Act, and that there had been some broken heads in +consequence. Troubles enough soon engaged his anxious +attention--troubles over the Indian trade, the rights +and wrongs of the Canadian Jesuits, the wounded dignity +of some members of the Council, and the still smouldering +and ever mysterious Walker affair. + +The strife between Canada and the Thirteen Colonies over +the Indian trade of the West remained the same in principle +as under the old regime. The Conquest had merely changed +the old rivalry between two foreign powers into one +between two widely differing British possessions; and +this, because of the general unrest among the Americans, +made the competition more bitter, if possible, than ever. + +The Jesuits pressed their claims for recognition, for +their original estates, and for compensation. But their +order had fallen on evil days all over the world. It was +not popular even in Canada. And the arrangement was that +while the existing members were to be treated with every +consideration the Society itself was to be allowed to +die out. + +The offended councillors went so far as to present Carleton +with a remonstrance which Irving himself had the misfortune +to sign. Carleton had consulted some members on points +with which they were specially acquainted. The members +who had not been consulted thereupon protested to Irving, +who assured them that Carleton must have done so by +accident, not design. But when Carleton received a joint +letter in which they said, 'As you are pleased to signifye +to Us by Coll. Irving that it was accident, & not +Intention,' he at once replied: 'As Lieutenant Colonel +Irving has signified to you that the Part of my Conduct +you think worthy of your Reprehension happened by Accident +let him explain his reasons for so doing. He had no +authority from me.' Carleton then went on to say that he +would consult any 'Men of Good Sense, Truth, Candour, +and Impartial Justice' whenever he chose, no matter +whether they were councillors or not. + +The Walker affair, which now broke out again, was much +more serious than the storm in the Council's teacup. It +agitated the whole of Canada and threatened to range the +population of Montreal and Quebec into two irreconcilable +factions, the civil and the military. For the whole of +the two years since Murray had been called upon to deal +with it cleverly presented versions of Walker's views +had been spread all over the colonies and worked into +influential Opposition circles in England. The invectives +against the redcoats and their friends the seigneurs were +of the usual abusive type. But they had an unusually +powerful effect at that particular time in the Thirteen +Colonies as well as in what their authors hoped to make +a Fourteenth Colony after a fashion of their own; and +they looked plausible enough to mislead a good many +moderate men in the mother country too. Walker's case +was that he had an actual witness, as to the identity of +his assailants, in the person of McGovoch, a discharged +soldier, who laid information against one civilian, three +British officers, and the celebrated French-Canadian +leader, La Corne de St Luc. All the accused were arrested +in their beds in Montreal and thrown into the common +gaol. Walker objected to bail on the plea that his life +would be in danger if they were allowed at large. He also +sought to postpone the trial in order to punish the +accused as much as possible, guilty or innocent. But +William Hey, the chief justice, an able and upright man, +would consent to postponement only on condition that bail +should be allowed; so the trial proceeded. When the grand +jury threw out the case against one of the prisoners +Walker let loose such a flood of virulent abuse that +moderate men were turned against him. In the end all the +accused were honourably acquitted, while McGovoch, who +was proved to have been a false witness from the first, +was convicted of perjury. Carleton remained absolutely +impartial all through, and even dismissed Colonel Irving +and another member of the Council for heading a petition +on behalf of the military prisoners. + +The Walker affair was an instance of a bad case in which +the law at last worked well. But there were many others +in which it did not. What with the _Coutume de Paris_, +which is still quoted in the province of Quebec; the +other complexities of the old French law; the doubtful +meanings drawn from the capitulation, the treaty, the +proclamation, and the various ordinances; the instinctive +opposition between the French Canadians and the +English-speaking civilians; and, finally, what with the +portents of subversive change that were already beginning +to overshadow all America,--what with all this and more, +Carleton found himself faced with a problem which no man +could have solved to the satisfaction of every one +concerned. Each side in a lawsuit took whatever amalgam +of French and English codes was best for its own argument. +But, generally speaking, the ingrained feeling of the +French Canadians was against any change of their own laws +that was not visibly and immediately beneficial to their +own particular interests. Moreover, the use of the unknown +English language, the worthlessness of the rapacious +English-speaking magistrates, and the detested innovation +of imprisonment for debt, all combined to make every part +of English civil law hated simply because it happened to +be English and not French. The home authorities were +anxious to find some workable compromise. In 1767 Carleton +exchanged several important dispatches with them; and in +1768 they sent out Maurice Morgan to study and report, +after consultation with the chief justice and 'other well +instructed persons.' Morgan was an indefatigable and +clear-sighted man who deserves to be gratefully remembered +by both races; for he was a good friend both to the French +Canadians before the Quebec Act and to the United Empire +Loyalists just before their great migration, when he was +Carleton's secretary at New York. In 1769 the official +correspondence entered the 'secret and confidential' +stage with a dispatch from the home government to Carleton +suggesting a House of Representatives to which, practically +speaking, the towns would send Protestant members and +the country districts Roman Catholics. + +In 1770 Carleton sailed for England. He carried a good +deal of hard-won experience with him, both on this point +and on many others. He went home with a strong opinion +not only against an assembly but against any immediate +attempts at Anglicization in any form. The royal +instructions that had accompanied his commission as +'Captain-General and Governor-in-chief' in 1768 contained +directions for establishing the Church of England with a +view to converting the whole population to its tenets later +on. But no steps had been taken, and, needless to say, the +French Canadians remained as Roman Catholic as ever. + +An increasingly important question, soon to overshadow +all others, was defence. In April 1768 Carleton had +proposed the restoration of the seigneurial militia +system. 'All the Lands here are held of His Majesty's +Castle of St Lewis [the governor's official residence in +Quebec]. The Oath which the Vassals [seigneurs] take is +very Solemn and Binding. They are obliged to appear in +Arms for the King's defence, in case his Province is +attacked.' Carleton pointed out that a hundred men of +the Canadian seigneurial families were being kept on full +pay in France, ready to return and raise the Canadians +at the first opportunity. 'On the other hand, there are +only about seventy of these officers in Canada who have +been in the French service. Not one of them has been +given a commission in the King's [George's] Service, nor +is there One who, from any motive whatever, is induced +to support His Government.' The few French Canadians +raised for Pontiac's war had of course been properly paid +during the continuance of their active service. But they +had been disbanded like mere militia afterwards, without +either gratuities or half-pay for the officers. This +naturally made the class from which officers were drawn +think that no career was open to them under the Union +Jack and turned their thoughts towards France, where +their fellows were enjoying full pay without a break. + +What made this the more serious was the weakness of the +regular garrisons, all of which, put together, numbered +only 1,627 men. Carleton calculated that about five +hundred of 'the King's Old Subjects' were capable of +bearing arms; though most of them were better at talking +than fighting. He had nothing but contempt for 'the flimsy +wall round Montreal,' and relied little more on the very +defective works at Quebec. Thus with all his wonderful +equanimity, 'grave Carleton' left Canada with no light +heart when he took six months' leave of absence in 1770; +and he would have been more anxious still if he could +have foreseen that his absence was to be prolonged to no +less than four years. + +He had, however, two great satisfactions. He was +represented at Quebec by a most steadfast lieutenant, +the quiet, alert, discreet, and determined Cramahe; and +he was leaving Canada after having given proof of a +disinterestedness which was worthy of the elder Pitt +himself. When Pitt became Paymaster-General of England +he at once declined to use the two chief perquisites of +his office, the interest on the government balance and +the half per cent commission on foreign subsidies, though +both were regarded as a kind of indirect salary. When +Carleton became governor of Canada he at once issued a +proclamation abolishing all the fees and perquisites +attached to his position and explained his action to the +home authorities in the following words: 'There is a +certain appearance of dirt, a sort of meanness, in exacting +fees on every occasion. I think it necessary for the +King's service that his representative should be thought +unsullied.' Murray, who had accepted the fees, at first +took umbrage. But Carleton soon put matters straight with +him. The fact was that fees, and even certain perquisites, +were no dishonour to receive, as they nearly always formed +a recognized part, and often the whole, of a perfectly +legal salary. But fees and perquisites could be abused; +and they did lead to misunderstandings, even when they +were not abused; while fixed salaries were free from both +objections. So Carleton, surrounded by shamelessly +rapacious magistrates and the whole vile camp-following +gang, as well as by French Canadians who had suffered +from the robberies of Bigot and his like, decided to +sacrifice everything but his indispensable fixed salary +in order that even the most malicious critics could not +bring any accusation, however false, against the man who +represented Britain and her king. + +An interesting personal interlude, which was not without +considerable effect on Canadian history, took place in +the middle of Carleton's four years' stay in England. He +was forty-eight and still a bachelor. Tradition whispers +that these long years of single life were the result of +a disappointing love affair with Jane Carleton, a pretty +cousin, when both he and she were young. However that +may be, he now proposed to Lady Anne Howard, whose father, +the Earl of Effingham, was one of his greatest friends. +But he was doomed to a second, though doubtless very +minor, disappointment. Lady Anne, who probably looked on +'grave Carleton' as a sort of amiable, middle-aged uncle, +had fallen in love with his nephew, whom she presently +married, and with whom she afterwards went out to Canada, +where her husband served under the rejected uncle himself. +What added spice to this peculiar situation was the fact +that Carleton actually married the younger sister of the +too-youthful Lady Anne. When Lady Anne rejoined her sister +and their bosom friend, Miss Seymour, after the +disconcerting interview with Carleton, she explained her +tears by saying they were due to her having been 'obliged +to refuse the best man on earth.' 'The more fool you!' +answered the younger sister, Lady Maria, then just +eighteen, 'I only wish he had given me the chance!' There, +for the time, the matter ended. Carleton went back to +his official duties in furtherance of the Quebec Act. +His nephew and the elder sister made mutual love. Lady +Maria held her tongue. But Miss Seymour had not forgotten; +and one day she mustered up courage to tell Carleton the +story of 'the more fool you!' This decided him to act at +once. He proposed; was accepted; and lived happily married +for the rest of his long life. Lady Maria was small, +fair-haired, and blue-eyed, which heightened her girlish +appearance when, like Madame de Champlain, she came out +to Canada with a husband more than old enough to be her +father. But she had been brought up at Versailles. She +knew all the aristocratic graces of the old regime. And +her slight, upright figure--erect as any soldier's to +her dying day--almost matched her husband's stalwart form +in dignity of carriage. + +The Quebec Act of 1774--the Magna Charta of the +French-Canadian race--finally passed the House of Lords +on the 18th of June. The general idea of the Act was to +reverse the unsuccessful policy of ultimate assimilation +with the other American colonies by making Canada a +distinctly French-Canadian province. The Maritime Provinces, +with a population of some thirty thousand, were to be as +English as they chose. But a greatly enlarged Quebec, +with a population of ninety thousand, and stretching far +into the unsettled West, was to remain equally +French-Canadian; though the rights of what it was then +thought would be a perpetual English-speaking minority +were to be safeguarded in every reasonable way. The whole +country between the American colonies and the domains of +the Hudson's Bay Company was included in this new Quebec, +which comprised the southern half of what is now the +Newfoundland Labrador, practically the whole of the modern +provinces of Quebec and Ontario, and all the western +lands between the Ohio and the Great Lakes as far as the +Mississippi, that is, the modern American states of Ohio, +Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. + +The Act gave Canada the English criminal code. It recognized +most of the French civil law, including the seigneurial +tenure of land. Roman Catholics were given 'the free +Exercise' of their religion, 'subject to the King's +Supremacy' as defined 'by an Act made in the First Year +of Queen Elizabeth,' which Act, with a magnificently +prophetic outlook on the future British Empire, was to +apply to 'all the Dominions and Countries which then did, +or thereafter should, belong to the Imperial Crown.' The +Roman Catholic clergy were authorized to collect 'their +accustomed Dues and Rights' from members of their own +communion. The new oath of allegiance to the Crown was +silent about differences of religion, so that Roman +Catholics might take it without question. The clergy and +seigneurs were thus restored to an acknowledged leadership +in church and state. Those who wanted a parliament were +distinctly told that 'It is at present inexpedient to +call an Assembly,' and that a Council of from seventeen +to twenty-three members, all appointed by the Crown, +would attend to local government and have power to levy +taxes for roads and public buildings only. Lands held +'in free and common socage' were to be dealt with by the +laws of England, as was all property which could be freely +willed away. A possible establishment of the Church of +England was provided for but never put in operation. + +In some ways the Act did, in other ways it did not, fulfil +the objects of its framers. It was undoubtedly a generous +concession to the leading French Canadians. It did help +to keep Canada both British and Canadian. And it did open +the way for what ought to have been a crushing attack on +the American revolutionary forces. But it was not, and +neither it nor any other Act could possibly have been, +at that late hour, completely successful. It conciliated +the seigneurs and the parochial clergy. But it did not, +and it could not, also conciliate the lesser townsfolk +and the habitants. For the last fourteen years the +habitants had been gradually drifting away from their +former habits of obedience and former obligations towards +their leaders in church and state. The leaders had lost +their old followers. The followers had found no new +leaders of their own. + +Naturally enough, there was great satisfaction among the +seigneurs and the clergy, with a general feeling among +government supporters, both in England and Canada, that +the best solution of a very refractory problem had been +found at last. On the other hand, the Opposition in +England, nearly every one in the American colonies, and +the great majority of English-speaking people in +Newfoundland, the Maritime Provinces, and Canada itself +were dead against the Act; while the habitants, resenting +the privileges already reaffirmed in favour of the +seigneurs and clergy, and suspicious of further changes +in the same unwelcome direction, were neutral at the best +and hostile at the worst. + +The American colonists would have been angered in any +case. But when they saw Canada proper made as unlike a +'fourteenth colony' as could be, and when they also saw +the gates of the coveted western lands closed against +them by the same detested Act--the last of the 'five +intolerable acts' to which they most objected--their fury +knew no bounds. They cursed the king, the pope, and the +French Canadians with as much violence as any temporal +or spiritual rulers had ever cursed heretics and rebels. +The 'infamous and tyrannical ministry' in England was +accused of 'contemptible subservience' to the 'bloodthirsty, +idolatrous, and hypocritical creed' of the French Canadians. +To think that people whose religion had spread 'murder, +persecution, and revolt throughout the world' were to be +entrenched along the St Lawrence was bad enough. But to +see Crown protection given to the Indian lands which the +Americans considered their own western 'birthright' was +infinitely worse. Was the king of England to steal the +valley of the Mississippi in the same way as the king of +France? + +It is easy to be wise after the event and hard to follow +any counsel of perfection. But it must always be a subject +of keen, if unavailing, regret that the French Canadians +were not guaranteed their own way of life, within the +limits of the modern province of Quebec, immediately +after the capitulation of Montreal in 1760. They would +then have entered the British Empire, as a whole people, +on terms which they must all have understood to be +exceedingly generous from any conquering power, and which +they would have soon found out to be far better than +anything they had experienced under the government of +France. In return for such unexampled generosity they +might have become convinced defenders of the only flag +in the world under which they could possibly live as +French Canadians. Their relations to each other, to the +rest of a changing Canada, and to the Empire would have +followed the natural course of political evolution, with +the burning questions of language, laws, and religion +safely removed from general controversy in after years. +The rights of the English-speaking minority could, of +course, have been still better safeguarded under this +system than under the distracting series of half-measures +which took its place. There should have been no question +of a parliament in the immediate future. Then, with the +peopling of Ontario by the United Empire Loyalists and +the growth of the Maritime Provinces on the other side, +Quebec could have entered Carleton's proposed Confederation +in the nineties to her own and every one else's best +advantage. + +On the other hand, the delay of fourteen years after the +Capitulation of 1760 and the unwarrantable extension of +the provincial boundaries were cardinal errors of the +most disastrous kind. The delay, filled with a futile +attempt at mistaken Americanization, bred doubts and +dissensions not only between the two races but between +the different kinds of French Canadians. When the hour +of trial came disintegration had already gone too far. +The mistake about the boundaries was equally bad. The +western wilds ought to have been administered by a +lieutenant-governor under the supervision of a +governor-general. Even leasing them for a short term of +years to the Hudson's Bay Company would have been better +than annexing them to a preposterous province of Quebec. +The American colonists would have doubtless objected to +either alternative. But both could have been defended on +sound principles of administration; while the sudden +invasion of a new and inflated Quebec into the colonial +hinterlands was little less than a declaration of war. +The whole problem bristled with enormous difficulties, +and the circumstances under which it had to be faced made +an ideal solution impossible. But an earlier Quebec Act, +without its outrageous boundary clause, would have been +well worth the risk of passing; for the delay led many +French Canadians to suppose, however falsely, that the +Empire's need might always be their opportunity; and this +idea, however repugnant to their best minds and better +feelings, has persisted among their extreme particularists +until the present day. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +INVASION +1775 + +Carleton's first eight years as governor of Canada were +almost entirely occupied with civil administration. The +next four were equally occupied with war; so much so, +indeed, that the Quebec Act could not be put in force on +the 1st of May 1775, as provided for in the Act itself, +but only bit by bit much later on. There was one short +session of the new Legislative Council, which opened on +the 17th of August. But all men's minds were even then +turned towards the Montreal frontier, whence the American +invasion threatened to overspread the whole country and +make this opening session the last that might ever be +held. Most of the members were soon called away from the +council-chamber to the field. No further session could +be held either that year or the next; and Carleton was +obliged to nominate the judges himself. The fifteen years +of peace were over, and Canada had once more become an +object of contention between two fiercely hostile forces. + +The War of the American Revolution was a long and +exceedingly complicated struggle; and its many varied +fortunes naturally had a profound effect on those of +Canada. But Canada was directly engaged in no more than +the first three campaigns, when the Americans invaded +her in 1775 and '76, and when the British used her as +the base from which to invade the new American Republic +in 1777. These first three campaigns formed a purely +civil war within the British Empire. On each side stood +three parties. Opponents were ranged against each other +in the mother country, in the Thirteen Colonies, and in +Canada. In the mother country the king and his party +government were ranged against the Opposition and all +who held radical or revolutionary views. Here the strife +was merely political. But in the Thirteen Colonies the +forces of the Crown were ranged against the forces of +the new Continental Congress. The small minority of +colonists who were afterwards known as the United Empire +Loyalists sided with the Crown. A majority sided with +the Congress. The rest kept as selfishly neutral as they +could. Among the English-speaking civilians in Canada, +many of whom were now of a much better class than the +original camp-followers, the active loyalists comprised +only the smaller half. The larger half sided with the +Americans, as was only natural, seeing that most of them +were immigrants from the Thirteen Colonies. But by no +means all these sympathizers were ready for a fight. +Among the French Canadians the loyalists included very +few besides the seigneurs, the clergy, and a handful of +educated people in Montreal, Three Rivers, and Quebec. +The mass of the habitants were more or less neutral. But +many of them were anti-British at first, while most of +them were anti-American afterwards. + +Events moved quickly in 1775. On the 19th of April the +'shot heard round the world' was fired at Lexington in +Massachusetts. On the 1st of May, the day appointed for +the inauguration of the Quebec Act, the statue of the +king in Montreal was grossly defaced and hung with a +cross, a necklace of potatoes, and a placard bearing the +inscription, _Here's the Canadian Pope and English +Fool--Voila le Pape du Canada et le sot Anglais_. Large +rewards were offered for the detection of the culprits; +but without avail. Excitement ran high and many an argument +ended with a bloody nose. + +Meanwhile three Americans were plotting an attack along +the old line of Lake Champlain. Two of them were outlaws +from the colony of New York, which was then disputing +with the neighbouring colony of New Hampshire the possession +of the lawless region in which all three had taken refuge +and which afterwards became Vermont. Ethan Allen, the +gigantic leader of the wild Green Mountain Boys, had a +price on his head. Seth Warner, his assistant, was an +outlaw of a somewhat humbler kind. Benedict Arnold, the +third invader, came from Connecticut. He was a horse-dealer +carrying on business with Quebec and Montreal as well as +the West Indies. He was just thirty-four; an excellent +rider, a dead shot, a very fair sailor, and captain of +a crack militia company. Immediately after the affair at +Lexington he had turned out his company, reinforced by +undergraduates from Yale, had seized the New Haven powder +magazine and marched over to Cambridge, where the +Massachusetts Committeemen took such a fancy to him that +they made him a colonel on the spot, with full authority +to raise men for an immediate attack on Ticonderoga. The +opportunity seemed too good to be lost; though the +Continental Congress was not then in favour of attacking +Canada, as its members hoped to see the Canadians throw +off the yoke of empire on their own account. The British +posts on Lake Champlain were absurdly undermanned. +Ticonderoga contained two hundred cannon, but only forty +men, none of whom expected an attack. Crown Point had +only a sergeant and a dozen men to watch its hundred and +thirteen pieces. Fort George, at the head of Lake George, +was no better off; and nothing more had been done to man +the fortifications at St Johns on the Richelieu, where +there was an excellent sloop as well as many cannon in +charge of the usual sergeant's guard. This want of +preparation was no fault of Carleton's. He had frequently +reported home on the need of more men. Now he had less +than a thousand regulars to defend the whole country: +and not another man was to arrive till the spring of next +year. When Gage was hard pressed for reinforcements at +Boston in the autumn of 1774 Carleton had immediately +sent him two excellent battalions that could ill be spared +from Canada. But when Carleton himself made a similar +request, in the autumn of 1775, Admiral Graves, to his +lasting dishonour, refused to sail up to Quebec so late +as October. + +The first moves of the three Americans smacked strongly +of a well-staged extravaganza in which the smart Yankees +never failed to score off the dunderheaded British. The +Green Mountain Boys assembled on the east side of the +lake. Spies walked in and out of Ticonderoga, exactly +opposite, and reported to Ethan Allen that the commandant +and his whole garrison of forty unsuspecting men would +make an easy prey. Allen then sent eighty men down to +Skenesborough (now Whitehall) at the southern end of the +lake, to take the tiny post there and bring back boats +for the crossing on the 10th of May. Then Arnold turned +up with his colonel's commission, but without the four +hundred men it authorized him to raise. Allen, however, +had made himself a colonel too, with Warner as his +second-in-command. So there were no less than three +colonels for two hundred and thirty men. Arnold claimed +the command by virtue of his Massachusetts commission. +But the Green Mountain Boys declared they would follow +no colonels but their own; and so Arnold, after being +threatened with arrest, was appointed something like +chief of the staff, on the understanding that he would +make himself generally useful with the boats. This +appointment was made at dawn on the 10th of May, just as +the first eighty men were advancing to the attack after +crossing over under cover of night. The British sentry's +musket missed fire; whereupon he and the guard were +rushed, while the rest of the garrison were surprised in +their beds. Ethan Allen, who knew the fort thoroughly, +hammered on the commandant's door and summoned him to +surrender 'In the name of the Great Jehovah and the +Continental Congress!' The astonished commandant, seeing +that resistance was impossible, put on his dressing-gown +and paraded his disarmed garrison as prisoners of war. +Seth Warner presently arrived with the rest of Allen's +men and soon became the hero of Crown Point, which he +took with the whole of its thirteen men and a hundred +and thirteen cannon. Then Arnold had his own turn, in +command of an expedition against the sergeant's guard, +cannon, stores, fort, and sloop at St Johns on the +Richelieu, all of which he captured in the same absurdly +simple way. When he came sailing back the three victorious +commanders paraded all their men and fired off many +straggling fusillades of joy. In the meantime the +Continental Congress at Philadelphia, with a delightful +touch of unconscious humour, was gravely debating the +following resolution, which was passed on the 1st of +June: _That no Expedition or Incursion ought to be +undertaken or made, by any Colony or body of Colonists, +against or into Canada_. + +The same Congress, however, found reasons enough for +changing its mind before the month of May was out. The +British forces in Canada had already begun to move towards +the threatened frontier. They had occupied and strengthened +St Johns. And the Americans were beginning to fear lest +the command of Lake Champlain might again fall into +British hands. On the 27th of May the Congress closed +the phase of individual raids and inaugurated the phase +of regular invasion by commissioning General Schuyler to +'pursue any measures in Canada that may have a tendency +to promote the peace and security of these Colonies.' +Philip Schuyler was a distinguished member of the family +whose head had formulated the 'Glorious Enterprize' of +conquering New France in 1689. [Footnote: See, in this +Series, _The Fighting Governor_.] So it was quite in line +with the family tradition for him to be under orders to +'take possession of St Johns, Montreal, and any other +parts of the country,' provided always, adds the cautious +Congress, that 'General Schuyler finds it practicable, +and that it will not be disagreeable to the Canadians.' + +A few days later Arnold was trying to get a colonelcy +from the Convention of New York, whose members just then +happened to be thinking of giving commissions to his +rivals, the leaders of the Green Mountain Boys, while, +to make the complication quite complete, these Boys +themselves had every intention of electing officers on +their own account. In the meantime Connecticut, determined +not to be forestalled by either friend or foe, ordered +a thousand men to Ticonderoga and commissioned a general +called Wooster to command them. Thus early were sown the +seeds of those dissensions between Congress troops and +Colony troops which nearly drove Washington mad. + +Schuyler reached Ticonderoga in mid-July and assumed his +position as Congressional commander-in-chief. Unfortunately +for the good of the service he had only a few hundred +men with him; so Wooster, who had a thousand, thought +himself the bigger general of the two. The Connecticut +men followed Wooster's lead by jeering at Schuyler's men +from New York; while the Vermonters added to the confusion +by electing Seth Warner instead of Ethan Allen. In +mid-August a second Congressional general arrived, making +three generals and half a dozen colonels for less than +fifteen hundred troops. This third general was Richard +Montgomery, an ardent rebel of thirty-eight, who had been +a captain in the British Army. He had sold his commission, +bought an estate on the Hudson, and married a daughter +of the Livingstons. The Livingstons headed the +Anglo-American revolutionists in the colony of New York +as the Schuylers headed the Knickerbocker Dutch. One of +them was very active on the rebel side in Montreal and +was soon to take the field at the head of the American +'patriots' in Canada. Montgomery was brother to the +Captain Montgomery of the 43rd who was the only British +officer to disgrace himself during Wolfe's Quebec campaign, +which he did by murdering his French-Canadian prisoners +at Chateau Richer because they had fought disguised as +Indians. [Footnote: See _The Passing of New France_, p. +118.] Richard Montgomery was a much better man than his +savage brother; though, as the sequel proves, he was by +no means the perfect hero his American admirers would +have the world believe. His great value at Ticonderoga +was his professional knowledge and his ardour in the +cause he had espoused. His presence 'changed the spirit +of the camp.' It sadly needed change. 'Such a set of +pusillanimous wretches never were collected' is his own +description in a despairing letter to his wife. The +'army,' in fact, was all parts and no whole, and all the +parts were mere untrained militia. Moreover, the spirit +of the 'town meeting' ruled the camp. Even a battery +could not be moved without consulting a council of war. +Schuyler, though far more phlegmatic than Montgomery, +agreed with him heartily about this and many other +exasperating points. 'If Job had been a general in my +situation, his memory had not been so famous for patience.' + +Worn out by his worries, Schuyler fell ill and was sent +to command the base at Albany. Montgomery then succeeded +to the command of the force destined for the front. The +plan of invasion approved by Washington was, first, to +sweep the line of the Richelieu by taking St Johns and +Chambly, then to take Montreal, next to secure the line +of the St Lawrence, and finally to besiege Quebec. +Montgomery's forces were to carry out all the preliminary +parts alone. But Arnold was to join him at Quebec after +advancing across country from the Kennebec to the Chaudiere +with a flying column of Virginians and New Englanders. + +Carleton opened the melancholy little session of the new +Legislative Council at Quebec on the very day Montgomery +arrived at Ticonderoga--the 17th of August. When he closed +it, to take up the defence of Canada, the prospect was +already black enough, though it grew blacker still as +time went on. Immediately on hearing the news of +Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and St Johns at the end of May +he had sent every available man from Quebec to Montreal, +whence Colonel Templer had already sent off a hundred +and forty men to St Johns, while calling for volunteers +to follow. The seigneurial class came forward at once. +But all attempts to turn out the militia en masse_ proved +utterly futile. Fourteen years of kindly British rule +had loosened the old French bonds of government and the +habitants were no longer united as part of one people +with the seigneurs and the clergy. The rebels had been +busy spreading insidious perversions of the belated Quebec +Act, poisoning the minds of the habitants against the +British government, and filling their imaginations with +all sorts of terrifying doubts. The habitants were +ignorant, credulous, and suspicious to the last degree. +The most absurd stories obtained ready credence and ran +like wildfire through the province. Seven thousand Russians +were said to be coming up the St Lawrence--whether as +friends or foes mattered nothing compared with the awful +fact that they were all outlandish bogeys. Carleton was +said to have a plan for burning alive every habitant he +could lay his hands on. Montgomery's thousand were said +to be five thousand, with many more to follow. And later +on, when Arnold's men came up the Kennebec, it was +satisfactorily explained to most of the habitants that +it was no good resisting dead-shot riflemen who were +bullet-proof themselves. Carleton issued proclamations. +The seigneurs waved their swords. The clergy thundered +from their pulpits. But all in vain. Two months after +the American exploits on Lake Champlain Carleton gave a +guinea to the sentry mounted in his honour by the local +militia colonel, M. de Tonnancour, because this man was +the first genuine habitant he had yet seen armed in the +whole district of Three Rivers. What must Carleton have +felt when the home government authorized him to raise +six thousand of His Majesty's loyal French-Canadian +subjects for immediate service and informed him that the +arms and equipment for the first three thousand were +already on the way to Canada! Seven years earlier it +might still have been possible to raise French-Canadian +counterparts of those Highland regiments which Wolfe had +recommended and Pitt had so cordially approved. Carleton +himself had recommended this excellent scheme at the +proper time. But, though the home government even then +agreed with him, they thought such a measure would raise +more parliamentary and public clamour than they could +safely face. The chance once lost was lost for ever. + +Carleton had done what he could to keep the enemy at +arm's length from Montreal by putting every available +man into Chambly and St Johns. He knew nothing of Arnold's +force till it actually reached Quebec in November. Quebec +was thought secure for the time being, and so was left +with a handful of men under Cramahe. Montreal had a few +regulars and a hundred 'Royal Emigrants,' mostly old +Highlanders who had settled along the New York frontier +after the Conquest. For the rest, it had many American +and a few British sympathizers ready to fly at each +others' throats and a good many neutrals ready to curry +favour with the winners. Sorel was a mere post without +any effective garrison. Chambly was held by only eighty +men under Major Stopford. But its strong stone fort was +well armed and quite proof against anything except siege +artillery; while its little garrison consisted of good +regulars who were well provisioned for a siege. The mass +of Carleton's little force was at St Johns under Major +Preston, who had 500 men of the 7th and 26th (Royal +Fusiliers and Cameronians), 80 gunners, and 120 volunteers, +mostly French-Canadian gentlemen. Preston was an excellent +officer, and his seven hundred men were able to give a +very good account of themselves as soldiers. But the fort +was not nearly so strong as the one at Chambly; it had +no natural advantages of position; and it was short of +both stores and provisions. + +The three successive steps for Montgomery to take were +St Johns, Chambly, and Montreal. But the natural order +of events was completely upset by that headstrong Yankee, +Ethan Allen, who would have his private war at Montreal, +and by that contemptible British officer, Major Stopford, +who would not defend Chambly. Montgomery laid siege to +St Johns on the 18th of September, but made no substantial +progress for more than a month. He probably had no use +for Allen at anything like a regular siege. So Allen and +a Major Brown went on to 'preach politicks' and concert +a rising with men like Livingston and Walker. Livingston, +as we have seen already, belonged to a leading New York +family which was very active in the rebel cause; and +Livingston, Walker, Allen, and Brown would have made a +dangerous anti-British combination if they could only +have worked together. But they could not. Livingston +hurried off to join Montgomery with four hundred 'patriots' +who served their cause fairly well till the invasion was +over. Walker had no military qualities whatever. So Allen +and Brown were left to their own disunited devices. +Montreal seemed an easy prey. It had plenty of rebel +sympathizers. Nearly all the surrounding habitants were +either neutrals or inclined to side with the Americans, +though not as fighting men. Carleton's order to bring in +all the ladders, so as to prevent an escalade of the +walls, had met with general opposition and evasion. +Nothing seemed wanting but a good working plan. + +Brown, or possibly Allen himself, then hit upon the idea +of treating Montreal very much as Allen had treated +Ticonderoga. In any case Allen jumped at it. He jumped +so far, indeed, that he forestalled Brown, who failed to +appear at the critical moment. Thus, on the 24th of +September, Allen found himself alone at Long Point with +a hundred and twenty men in face of three times as many +under the redoubtable Major Carden, a skilled veteran +who had won Wolfe's admiration years before. Carden's +force included thirty regulars, two hundred and forty +militiamen, and some Indians, probably not over a hundred +strong. The militia were mostly of the seigneurial class +with a following of habitants and townsmen of both French +and British blood. Carden broke Allen's flanks rounded +up his centre, and won the little action easily, though +at the expense of his own most useful life. Allen was +very indignant at being handcuffed and marched off like +a common prisoner after having made himself a colonel +twice over. But Carleton had no respect for +self-commissioned officers and had no soldiers to spare +for guarding dangerous rebels. So he shipped Allen off +to England, where that eccentric warrior was confined in +Pendennis Castle near Falmouth in Cornwall. + +This affair, small as it was, revived British hopes in +Montreal and induced a few more militiamen and Indians +to come forward. But within a month more was lost at +Chambly than had been gained at Montreal. On the 18th of +October a small American detachment attacked Chambly with +two little field-guns and induced it to surrender on the +20th. If ever an officer deserved to be shot it was Major +Stopford, who tamely surrendered his well-armed and +well-provided fort to an insignificant force, after a +flimsy resistance of only thirty-six hours, without even +taking the trouble to throw his stores into the river +that flowed beside his strong stone walls. The news of +this disgraceful surrender, diligently spread by rebel +sympathizers, frightened the Indians away from St Johns, +thus depriving Major Preston, the commandant, of his best +couriers at the very worst time. But the evil did not +stop there; for nearly all the few French-Canadian +militiamen whom the more distant seigneurs had been able +to get under arms deserted _en masse_, with many threats +against any one who should try to turn them out again. + +Chambly is only a short day's march from Montreal to the +west and St Johns to the south; so its capture meant that +St Johns was entirely cut off from the Richelieu to the +north and dangerously exposed to being cut off from +Montreal as well. Its ample stores and munitions of war +were a priceless boon to Montgomery, who now redoubled +his efforts to take St Johns. But Preston held out bravely +for the remainder of the month, while Carleton did his +best to help him. A fortnight earlier Carleton had arrested +that firebrand, Walker, who had previously refused to +leave the country, though Carleton had given him the +chance of doing so. Mrs Walker, as much a rebel as her +husband, interviewed Carleton and noted in her diary that +he 'said many severe Things in very soft & Polite Termes.' +Carleton was firm. Walker's actions, words, and +correspondence all proved him a dangerous rebel whom no +governor could possibly leave at large without breaking +his oath of office. Walker, who had himself caused so +many outrageous arrests, now not only resisted the legal +arrest of his own person, but fired on the little party +of soldiers who had been sent to bring him into Montreal. +The soldiers then began to burn him out; whereupon he +carried his wife to a window from which the soldiers +rescued her. He then surrendered and was brought into +Montreal, where the sight of him as a prisoner made a +considerable impression on the waverers. + +A few hundred neighbouring militiamen were scraped +together. Every one of the handful of regulars who could +be spared was turned out. And Carleton set off to the +relief of St Johns. But Seth Warner's Green Mountain +Boys, reinforced by many more sharpshooters, prevented +Carleton from landing at Longueuil, opposite Montreal. +The remaining Indians began to slink away. The +French-Canadian militiamen deserted fast--'thirty or +forty of a night.' There were not two hundred regulars +available for a march across country. And on the 30th +Carleton was forced to give up in despair. Within the +week St Johns surrendered with 688 men, who were taken +south as prisoners of war. Preston had been completely +cut off and threatened with starvation as well. So when +he destroyed everything likely to be needed by the enemy +he had done all that could be expected of a brave and +capable commander. + +It was the 3rd of November when St Johns surrendered. +Ten days later Montgomery occupied Montreal and Arnold +landed at Wolfe's Cove just above Quebec. The race for +the possession of Quebec had been a very close one. The +race for the capture of Carleton was to be closer still. +And on the fate of either depended the immediate, and +perhaps the ultimate, fate of Canada. + +The race for Quebec had been none the less desperate +because the British had not known of the danger from the +south till after Arnold had suddenly emerged from the +wilds of Maine and was well on his way to the mouth of +the Chaudiere, which falls into the St Lawrence seven +miles above the city. Arnold's subsequent change of sides +earned him the execration of the Americans. But there +can be no doubt whatever that if he had got through in +time to capture Quebec he would have become a national +hero of the United States. He had the advantage of leading +picked men; though nearly three hundred faint-hearts did +turn back half-way. But, even with picked men, his feat +was one of surpassing excellence. His force went in eleven +hundred strong. It came out, reduced by desertion as well +as by almost incredible hardships, with barely seven +hundred. It began its toilsome ascent of the Kennebec +towards the end of September, carrying six weeks' supplies +in the bad, hastily built boats or on the men's backs. +Daniel Morgan and his Virginian riflemen led the way. +Aaron Burr was present as a young volunteer. The portages +were many and trying. The settlements were few at first +and then wanting altogether. Early in October the drenched +portagers were already sleeping in their frozen clothes. +The boats began to break up. Quantities of provisions +were lost. Soon there was scarcely anything left but +flour and salt pork. It took nearly a fortnight to get +past the Great Carrying Place, in sight of Mount Bigelow. +Rock, bog, and freezing slime told on the men, some of +whom began to fall sick. Then came the chain of ponds +leading into Dead River. Then the last climb up to the +height-of-land beyond which lay the headwaters of the +Chaudiere, which takes its rise in Lake Megantic. + +There were sixty miles to go beyond the lake, and a badly +broken sixty miles they were, before the first settlement +of French Canadians could be reached. There was no trail. +Provisions were almost at an end. Sickness increased. +The sick began to die. 'And what was it all for? A chance +to get killed! The end of the march was Quebec +--impregnable!' On the 24th of October Arnold, with +fifteen other men, began 'a race against time, a race +against starvation' by pushing on ahead in a desperate +effort to find food. Within a week he had reached the +first settlement, after losing three of his five boats +with everything in them. Three days later, and not one +day too soon, the French Canadians met his seven hundred +famishing men with a drove of cattle and plenty of +provisions. The rest of the way was toilsome enough. But +it seemed easy by comparison. The habitants were friendly, +but very shy about enlisting, in spite of Washington's +invitation to 'range yourselves under the standard of +general liberty.' The Indians were more responsive, and +nearly fifty joined on their own terms. By the 8th of +November Arnold was marching down the south shore of the +St Lawrence, from the Chaudiere to Point Levis, in full +view of Quebec. He had just received a dispatch ten days +old from Montgomery by which he learned that St Johns +was expected to fall immediately and that Schuyler was +no longer with the army at the front. But he could not +tell when the junction of forces would be made; and he +saw at once that Quebec was on the alert because every +boat had been either destroyed or taken over to the other +side. + +The spring and summer had been anxious times enough in +Quebec. But the autumn was a great deal worse. Bad news +kept coming down from Montreal. The disaffected got more +and more restless and began 'to act as though no opposition +might be shown the rebel forces.' And in October it did +seem as if nothing could be done to stop the invaders. +There were only a few hundred militiamen that could be +depended on. The regulars, under Colonel Maclean, had +gone up to help Carleton on the Montreal frontier. The +fortifications were in no state to stand a siege. But +Cramahe was full of steadfast energy. He had mustered +the French-Canadian militia on September 11, the very +day Arnold was leaving Cambridge in Massachusetts for +his daring march against Quebec. These men had answered +the call far better in the city of Quebec than anywhere +else. There was also a larger proportion of English-speaking +loyalists here than in Montreal. But no transports brought +troops up the St Lawrence from Boston or the mother +country, and no vessel brought Carleton down. The loyalists +were, however, encouraged by the presence of two small +men-of-war, one of which, the _Hunter_, had been the +guide-ship for Wolfe's boat the night before the Battle +of the Plains. Some minor reinforcements also kept +arriving: veterans from the border settlements and a +hundred and fifty men from Newfoundland. On the 3rd of +November, the day St Johns surrendered to Montgomery, an +intercepted dispatch had warned Cramahe of Arnold's +approach and led him to seize all the boats on the south +shore opposite Quebec. This was by no means his first +precaution. He had sent some men forty miles up the +Chaudiere as soon as the news of the raids on Lake +Champlain and St Johns had arrived at the end of May. +Thus, though neither of them had anticipated such a bolt +from the blue, both Carleton and Cramahe had taken all +the reasonable means within their most restricted power +to provide against unforeseen contingencies. + +Arnold's chance of surprising Quebec had been lost ten +days before he was able to cross the St Lawrence; and +when the habitants on the south shore were helping his +men to make scaling-ladders the British garrison on the +north had already become too strong for him. But he was +indefatigable in collecting boats and canoes at the mouth +of the Chaudiere, and at other points higher up than +Cramahe's men had reached when on their mission of +destruction or removal, and he was as capable as ever +when, on the pitch-black night of the 13th, he led his +little flotilla through the gap between the two British +men-of-war, the _Hunter_ and the _Lizard_. The next day +he marched across the Plains of Abraham and saluted Quebec +with three cheers. But meanwhile Colonel Maclean, who +had set out to help Carleton at Montreal and turned back +on hearing the news of St Johns, had slipped into Quebec +on the 12th. So Arnold found himself with less than seven +hundred effectives against the eleven hundred British +who were now behind the walls. After vainly summoning +the city to surrender he retired to Pointe-aux-Trembles, +more than twenty miles up the north shore of the St +Lawrence, there to await the arrival of the victorious +Montgomery. + +Meanwhile Montgomery was racing for Carleton and Carleton +was racing for Quebec. Montgomery's advance-guard had +hurried on to Sorel, at the mouth of the Richelieu, +forty-five miles below Montreal, to mount guns that would +command the narrow channel through which the fugitive +governor would have to pass on his way to Quebec. They +had ample time to set the trap; for an incessant nor'-easter +blew up the St Lawrence day after day and held Carleton +fast in Montreal, while, only a league away, Montgomery's +main body was preparing to cross over. Escape by land +was impossible, as the Americans held Berthier, on the +north shore, and had won over the habitants, all the way +down from Montreal, on both sides of the river. At last, +on the afternoon of the 11th, the wind shifted. Immediately +a single cannon-shot was fired, a bugle sounded the _fall +in!_ and 'the whole military establishment' of Montreal +formed up in the barrack square--one hundred and thirty +officers and men, all told. Carleton, 'wrung to the soul,' +as one of his officers wrote home, came on parade 'firm, +unshaken, and serene.' The little column then marched +down to the boats through shuttered streets of timid +neutrals and scowling rebels. The few loyalists who came +to say good-bye to Carleton at the wharf might well have +thought it was the last handshake they would ever get +from a British 'Captain-General and Governor-in-chief' +as they saw him step aboard in the dreary dusk of that +November afternoon. And if he and they had known the +worst they might well have thought their fate was sealed; +for neither of them then knew that both sides of the St +Lawrence were occupied in force at two different places +on the perilous way to Quebec. + +The little flotilla of eleven vessels got safely down to +within a few miles of Sorel, when one grounded and delayed +the rest till the wind failed altogether at noon on the +12th. The next three days it blew upstream without a +break. No progress could be made as there was no room to +tack in the narrow passages opposite Sorel. On the third +day an American floating battery suddenly appeared, firing +hard. Behind it came a boat with a flag of truce and the +following summons from Colonel Easton, who commanded +Montgomery's advance-guard at Sorel: + + SIR,--By this you will learn that General Montgomery + is in Possession of the Fortress Montreal. You are + very sensible that I am in Possession at this Place, + and that, from the strength of the United Colonies on + both sides your own situation is Rendered Very + disagreeable. I am therefore induced to make you the + following Proposal, viz.:--That if you will Resign + your Fleet to me Immediately, without destroying the + Effects on Board, You and Your men shall be used with + due civility, together with women & Children on Board. + To this I shall expect Your direct and Immediate + answer. Should you Neglect You will Cherefully take + the Consequences which will follow. + +Carleton was surprised: and well he might be. He had not +supposed that Montgomery's men were in any such commanding +position. But, like Cramahe at Quebec, he refused to +answer; whereupon Easton's batteries opened both from +the south shore and from Isle St Ignace. Carleton's +heaviest gun was a 9-pounder; while Easton had four +12-pounders, one of them mounted on a rowing battery that +soon forced the British to retreat. The skipper of the +schooner containing the powder magazine wanted to surrender +on the spot, especially when he heard that the Americans +were getting some hot shot ready for him. But Carleton +retreated upstream, twelve miles above Sorel, to Lavaltrie, +just above Berthier on the north shore, where, on attempting +to land, he was driven back by some Americans and habitants. +Next morning, the 16th, a fateful day for Canada, the +same Major Brown who had failed Ethan Allen at Montreal +came up with a flag of truce to propose that Carleton +should send an officer to see for himself how well all +chance of escape had now been cut off. The offer was +accepted; and Brown explained the situation from the +rebel point of view. 'This is my small battery; and, even +if you should chance to escape, I have a grand battery +at the mouth of the Sorel [Richelieu] which will infallibly +sink all of your vessels. Wait a little till you see the +32-pounders that are now within half-a-mile.' There was +a good deal of Yankee bluff in this warning, especially +as the 32-pounders could not be mounted in time. But the +British officer seemed perfectly satisfied that the way +was completely blocked; and so the Americans felt sure +that Carleton would surrender the following day. + +Carleton, however, was not the man to give in till the +very last; and one desperate chance still remained. His +flotilla was doomed. But he might still get through alone +without it. One of the French-Canadian skippers, better +known as 'Le Tourte' or 'Wild Pigeon' than by his own +name of Bouchette because of his wonderfully quick trips, +was persuaded to make the dash for freedom. So Carleton, +having ordered Prescott, his second-in-command, not to +surrender the flotilla before the last possible moment, +arranged for his own escape in a whaleboat. It was with +infinite precaution that he made his preparations, as +the enemy, though confident of taking him, were still on +the alert to prevent such a prize from slipping through +their fingers. He dressed like a habitant from head to +foot, putting on a tasselled _bonnet rouge_ and an _etoffe +du pays_ (grey homespun) suit of clothes, with a red sash +and _bottes sauvages_ like Indian moccasins. Then the +whaleboat was quietly brought alongside. The crew got in +and plied their muffled oars noiselessly down to the +narrow passage between Isle St Ignace and the Isle du +Pas, where they shipped the oars and leaned over the side +to paddle past the nearest battery with the palms of +their hands. It was a moment of breathless excitement; +for the hope of Canada was in their keeping and no turning +back was possible. But the American sentries saw no +furtive French Canadians gliding through that dark November +night and heard no suspicious noises above the regular +ripple of the eddying island current. One tense half-hour +and all was over, The oars were run out again; the men +gave way with a will; and Three Rivers was safely reached +in the morning. + +Here Carleton met Captain Napier, who took him aboard +the armed ship _Fell_, in which he continued his journey +to Quebec. He was practically safe aboard the _Fell_; +for Arnold had neither an army strong enough to take +Quebec nor any craft big enough to fight a ship. But the +flotilla above Sorel was doomed. After throwing all its +powder into the St Lawrence it surrendered on the 19th, +the very day Carleton reached Quebec. The astonished +Americans were furious when they found that Carleton had +slipped through their fingers after all. They got Prescott, +whom they hated; and they released Walker, whom Carleton +was taking as a prisoner to Quebec. But no friends and +foes like Walker and Prescott could make up for the loss +of Carleton, who was the heart as well as the head of +Canada at bay. + +The exultation of the British more than matched the +disappointment of the Americans. Thomas Ainslie, collector +of customs and captain of militia at Quebec, only expressed +the feelings of all his fellow-loyalists when he made +the following entry in the extremely accurate diary he +kept throughout those troublous times: + +'On the 19th (a Happy Day for Quebec!), to the unspeakable +joy of the friends of the Government, and to the utter +Dismay of the abettors of Sedition and Rebellion, General +Carleton arrived in the _Fell_, arm'd ship, accompanied +by an arm'd schooner. We saw our Salvation in his Presence.' + + + + +CHAPTER V + +BELEAGUERMENT +1775-1776 + +When Carleton finally turned at bay within the walls of +Quebec the British flag waved over less than a single +one out of the more than a million square miles that had +so recently been included within the boundaries of Canada. +The landward walls cut off the last half-mile of the +tilted promontory which rises three hundred feet above +the St Lawrence but only one hundred above the valley of +the St Charles. This promontory is just a thousand yards +wide where the landward walls run across it, and not much +wider across the world-famous Heights and Plains of +Abraham, which then covered the first two miles beyond. +The whole position makes one of Nature's strongholds when +the enemy can be kept at arm's length. But Carleton had +no men to spare for more than the actual walls and the +narrow little strip of the Lower Town between the base +of the cliff and the St Lawrence. So the enemy closed in +along the Heights' and among the suburbs, besides occupying +any point of vantage they chose across the St Lawrence +or St Charles. + +The walls were by no means fit to stand a siege, a fact +which Carleton had frequently reported. But, as the +Americans had neither the men nor the material for a +regular siege, they were obliged to confine themselves +to a mere beleaguerment, with the chance of taking Quebec +by assault. One of Carleton's first acts was to proclaim +that every able-bodied man refusing to bear arms was to +leave the town within four days. But, though this had +the desired effect of clearing out nearly all the dangerous +rebels, the Americans still believed they had enough +sympathizers inside to turn the scale of victory if they +could only manage to take the Lower Town, with all its +commercial property and shipping, or gain a footing +anywhere within the walls. + +There were five thousand souls left in Quebec, which was +well provisioned for the winter. The women, children, +and men unfit to bear arms numbered three thousand. The +'exempts' amounted to a hundred and eighty. As there was +a growing suspicion about many of these last, Carleton +paraded them for medical examination at the beginning of +March, when, a good deal more than half were found quite +fit for duty. These men had been malingering all winter +in order to skulk out of danger; so he treated them with +extreme leniency in only putting them on duty as a 'company +of Invalids.' But the slur stuck fast. The only other +exceptions to the general efficiency were a very few +instances of cowardice and many more of slackness. The +militia order-books have repeated entries about men who +turned up late for even important duties as well as about +others whose authorized substitutes were no better than +themselves. But it should be remembered that, as a whole, +the garrison did exceedingly good service and that all +the malingerers and serious delinquents together did not +amount to more than a tenth of its total, which is a +small proportion for such a mixed body. + +The effective strength at the beginning of the siege was +eighteen hundred of all ranks. Only one hundred of these +belonged to the regular British garrison in Canada--a +few staff-officers, twenty-two men of the Royal Artillery, +and seventy men of the 7th Royal Fusiliers, a regiment +which was to be commanded in Quebec sixteen years later +by Queen Victoria's father, the Duke of Kent. The Fusiliers +and two hundred and thirty 'Royal Emigrants' were formed +into a little battalion under Colonel Maclean, a first-rate +officer and Carleton's right-hand man in action. 'His +Majesty's Royal Highland Regiment of Emigrants,' which +subsequently became the 84th Foot, now known as the 2nd +York and Lancaster, was hastily raised in 1775 from the +Highland veterans who had settled in the American colonies +after the Peace of 1763. Maclean's two hundred and thirty +were the first men he could get together in time to reach +Quebec. The only other professional fighters were four +hundred blue-jackets and thirty-five marines of H.M.SS. +_Lizard_ and _Hunter_, who were formed into a naval +battalion under their own officers, Captains Hamilton +and McKenzie, Hamilton being made a lieutenant-colonel +and McKenzie a major while doing duty ashore. Fifty +masters and mates of trading vessels were enrolled in +the same battalion. The whole of the shipping was laid +up for the winter in the Cul de Sac, which alone made +the Lower Town a prize worth taking. The 'British Militia' +mustered three hundred and thirty, the 'Canadian Militia' +five hundred and forty-three. These two corps included +practically all the official and business classes in +Quebec and formed nearly half the total combatants. Some +of them took no pay and were not bound to service beyond +the neighbourhood of Quebec, thus being very much like +the Home Guards raised all over Canada and the rest of +the Empire during the Great World War of 1914. All the +militia wore dark green coats with buff waistcoats and +breeches. The total of eighteen hundred was completed by +a hundred and twenty 'artificers,' that is, men who would +now belong to the Engineers, Ordnance, and Army Service +Corps. As the composition of this garrison has been so +often misrepresented, it may be as well to state distinctly +that the past or present regulars of all kinds, soldiers +and sailors together, numbered eight hundred and the +militia and other non-regulars a thousand. The French +Canadians, very few of whom were or had been regulars, +formed less than a third of the whole. + +Montgomery and Arnold had about the same total number of +men. Sometimes there were more, sometimes less. But what +made the real difference, and what really turned the +scale, was that the Americans had hardly any regulars +and that their effectives rarely averaged three-quarters +of their total strength. The balance was also against +them in the matter of armament. For, though Morgan's +Virginians had many more rifles than were to be found +among the British, the Americans in general were not so +well off for bayonets and not so well able to use those +they had; while the artillery odds were still more against +them. Carleton's artillery was not of the best. But it +was better than that of the Americans. He decidedly +overmatched them in the combined strength of all kinds +of ordnance--cannons, carronades, howitzers, mortars, +and swivels. Cannons and howitzers fired shot and shell +at any range up to the limit then reached, between two +and three miles. Carronades were on the principle of a +gigantic shotgun, firing masses of bullets with great +effect at very short ranges--less than that of a long +musket-shot, then reckoned at two hundred yards. The +biggest mortars threw 13-inch 224-lb shells to a great +distance. But their main use was for high-angle fire, +such as that from the suburb of St Roch under the walls +of Quebec. Swivels were the smallest kind of ordnance, +firing one-, two-, or three-pound balls at short or medium +ranges. They were used at convenient points to stop +rushes, much like modern machine-guns. + +Thanks chiefly to Cramahe, the defences were not nearly +so 'ruinous' as Arnold at first had thought them. The +walls, however useless against the best siege artillery, +were formidable enough against irregular troops and +makeshift batteries; while the warehouses and shipping +in the Lower Town were protected by two stockades, one +straight under Cape Diamond, the other at the corner +where the Lower Town turns into the valley of the St +Charles. The first was called the Pres-de-Ville, the +second the Sault-au-Matelot. The shipping was open to +bombardment from the Levis shore. But the Americans had +no guns to spare for this till April. + +Montgomery's advance was greatly aided by the little +flotilla which Easton had captured at Sorel. Montgomery +met Arnold at Pointe-aux-Trembles, twenty miles above +Quebec, on the 2nd of December and supplied his little +half-clad force with the British uniforms taken at St +Johns and Chambly. He was greatly pleased with the +magnificent physique of Arnold's men, the fittest of an +originally well-picked lot. He still had some 'pusillanimous +wretches' among his own New Yorkers, who resented the +air of superiority affected by Arnold's New Englanders +and Morgan's Virginians. He felt a well-deserved confidence +in Livingston and some of the English-speaking Canadian +'patriots' whom Livingston had brought into his camp +before St Johns in September. But he began to feel more +and more doubtful about the French Canadians, most of +whom began to feel more and more doubtful about themselves. +On the 6th he arrived before Quebec and took up his +quarters in Holland House, two miles beyond the walls, +at the far end of the Plains of Abraham. The same day he +sent Carleton the following summons: + + SIR;--Notwithstanding the personal ill-treatment I + have received at your hands--notwithstanding your + cruelty to the unhappy Prisoners you have taken, the + feelings of humanity induce me to have recourse to + this expedient to save you from the Destruction which + hangs over you. Give me leave, Sir, to assure you that + I am well acquainted with your situation. A great + extent of works, in their nature incapable of defence, + manned with a motley crew of sailors, the greatest + part our friends; of citizens, who wish to see us + within their walls, & a few of the worst troops who + ever stiled themselves Soldiers. The impossibility of + relief, and the certain prospect of wanting every + necessary of life, should your opponents confine their + operations to a simple Blockade, point out the absurdity + of resistance. Such is your situation! I am at the + head of troops accustomed to Success, confident of + the righteousness of the cause they are engaged in, + inured to danger, & so highly incensed at your + inhumanity, illiberal abuse, and the ungenerous means + employed to prejudice them in the mind of the Canadians + that it is with difficulty I restrain them till my + Batteries are ready from assaulting your works, which + afford them a fair opportunity of ample vengeance and + just retaliation. Firing upon a flag of truce, hitherto + unprecedented, even among savages, prevents my taking + the ordinary mode of communicating my sentiments. + However, I will at any rate acquit my conscience. + Should you persist in an unwarrantable defence, the + consequences be upon your own head. Beware of destroying + stores of any kind, Publick or Private, as you have + done at Montreal and in Three Rivers--If you do, by + Heaven, there will be no mercy shown. + +Though Montgomery wrote bunkum like the common politician +of that and many a later age, he was really a brave +soldier. What galled him into fury was 'grave Carleton's' +quiet refusal to recognize either him or any other rebel +commander as the accredited leader of a hostile army. It +certainly must have been exasperating for the general of +the Continental Congress to be reduced to such expedients +as tying a grandiloquent ultimatum to an arrow and shooting +it into the beleaguered town. The charge of firing on +flags of truce was another instance of 'talking for +Buncombe.' Carleton never fired on any white flag. But +he always sent the same answer: that he could hold no +communication with any rebels unless they came to implore +the king's pardon. This, of course, was an aggravation +of his offensive calmness in the face of so much +revolutionary rage. To individual rebels of all sorts he +was, if anything, over-indulgent. He would not burn the +suburbs of Quebec till the enemy forced him to it, though +many of the houses that gave the Americans the best cover +belonged to rebel Canadians. He went out of his way to +be kind to all prisoners, especially if sick or wounded. +And it was entirely owing to his restraining influence +that the friendly Indians had not raided the border +settlements of New England during the summer. Nor was he +animated only by the very natural desire of bringing back +rebellious subjects to what he thought their true +allegiance, as his subsequent actions amply proved. He +simply acted with the calm dignity and impartial justice +which his position required. + +Three days before Christmas the bombardment began in +earnest. The non-combatants soon found, to their equal +amazement and delight, that a good many shells did very +little damage if fired about at random. But news intended +to make their flesh creep came in at the same time, and +probably had more effect than the shells on the weak-kneed +members of the community. Seven hundred scaling-ladders, +no quarter if Carleton persisted in holding out, and a +prophecy attributed to Montgomery that he would eat his +Christmas dinner either in Quebec or in Hell--these were +some of the blood-curdling items that came in by petticoat +or arrow post. One of the most active purveyors of all +this bombast was Jerry Duggan, a Canadian 'patriot' barber +now become a Continental major. + +But there was a serious side. Deserters and prisoners, +as well as British adherents who had escaped, all began +to tell the same tale, though with many variations. +Montgomery was evidently bent on storming the walls the +first dark night. His own orders showed it. + + HEAD QUARTERS, HOLLAND HOUSE. + Near Quebec, 15th Decr. 1755. + + The General having in vain offered the most favourable + terms of accommodation to the Governor of Quebec, & + having taken every possible step to prevail on the + inhabitants to desist from seconding him in his wild + scheme of defending the Town--for the speedy reduction + of the only hold possessed by the Ministerial Troops + in this Province--The soldiers, flushed with continual + success, confident of the justice of their cause, & + relying on that Providence which has uniformly protected + them, will advance with alacrity to the attack of + works incapable of being defended by the wretched + Garrison posted behind them, consisting of Sailors + unacquainted with the use of arms, of Citizens incapable + of Soldiers' duty, & of a few miserable Emigrants. + The General is confident that a vigorous & spirited + attack must be attended with success. The Troops shall + have the effects of the Governor, Garrison, & of such + as have been active in misleading the Inhabitants & + distressing the friends of liberty, equally divided + among them, except the 100th share out of the whole, + which shall be at the disposal of the General to be + given to such soldiers as distinguished themselves by + their activity & bravery, to be sold at public auction: + the whole to be conducted as soon as the City is in + our hands and the inhabitants disarmed. + +It was a week after these orders had been written before +the first positive news of the threatened assault was +brought into town by an escaped British prisoner who, +strangely enough, bore the name of Wolfe. Wolfe's escape +naturally caused a postponement of Montgomery's design +and a further council of war. Unlike most councils of +war this one was full of fight. Three feints were to be +made at different points while the real attack was to be +driven home at Cape Diamond. But just after this decision +had been reached two rebel Montrealers came down and, in +another debate, carried the day for another plan. These +men, Antell and Price, were really responsible for the +final plan, which, like its predecessor, did not meet +with Montgomery's approval. Montgomery wanted to make a +breach before trying the walls. But he was no more than +the chairman of a committee; and this egregious committee +first decided to storm the unbroken walls and then changed +to an attack on the Lower Town only. Antell was Montgomery's +engineer. Price was a red-hot agitator. Both were better +at politics than soldiering. Their argument was that if +the Lower Town could be taken the Quebec militia would +force Carleton to surrender in order to save the warehouses, +shipping, and other valuable property along the waterfront, +and that even if Carleton held out in debate he would +soon be brought to his knees by the Americans, who would +march through the gates, which were to be opened by the +'patriots' inside. + +Another week passed; and Montgomery had not eaten his +Christmas dinner either in Quebec or in the other place. +But both sides knew the crisis must be fast approaching; +for the New Yorkers had sworn that they would not stay +a minute later than the end of the year, when their term +of enlistment was up. Thus every day that passed made an +immediate assault more likely, as Montgomery had to strike +before his own men left him. Yet New Year's Eve itself +began without the sign of an alarm. + +Carleton had been sleeping in his clothes at the Recollets', +night after night, so that he might be first on parade +at the general rendezvous on the Place d'Armes, which +stood near the top of Mountain Hill, the only road between +the Upper and the Lower Town. Officers and men off duty +had been following his example; and every one was ready +to turn out at a moment's notice. + +A north-easterly snowstorm was blowing furiously, straight +up the St Lawrence, making Quebec a partly seen blur to +the nearest American patrols and the Heights of Abraham +a wild sea of whirling drifts to the nearest British +sentries. One o'clock passed, and nothing stirred. But +when two o'clock struck at Holland House Montgomery rose +and began to put the council's plan in operation. The +Lower Town was to be attacked at both ends. The +Pres-de-Ville barricade was to be carried by Montgomery +and the Sault-au-Matelot by Arnold, while Livingston was +to distract Carleton's attention as much as possible by +making a feint against the landward walls, where the +British still expected the real attack. Livingston's +Canadian fighting 'patriots' waded through the drifts, +against the storm, across the Plains, and took post close +in on the far side of Cape Diamond, only eighty yards +from the same walls that were to have been stormed some +days before. Jerry Duggan's parasitic Canadian 'patriots' +took post in the suburb of St John and thence round to +Palace Gate. Montgomery led his own column straight to +Wolfe's Cove, whence he marched in along the narrow path +between the cliff and the St Lawrence till he reached +the spot at the foot of Cape Diamond just under the right +of Livingston's line. Arnold, whose quarters were in the +valley of the St Charles, took post in St Roch, with a +mortar battery to fire against the walls and a column of +men to storm the Sault-au-Matelot. Livingston's and Jerry +Duggan's whole command numbered about four hundred men, +Montgomery's five hundred, Arnold's six. The opposing +totals were fifteen hundred Americans against seventeen +hundred British. There was considerable risk of confusion +between friend and foe, as most of the Americans, especially +Arnold's men, wore captured British uniforms with nothing +to distinguish them but odds and ends of their former +kits and a sort of paper hatband bearing the inscription +_Liberty or Death_. + +A little after four the sentries on the walls at Cape +Diamond saw lights flashing about in front of them and +were just going to call the guard when Captain Malcolm +Fraser of the Royal Emigrants came by on his rounds and +saw other lights being set out in regular order like +lamps in a street. He instantly turned out the guards +and pickets. The drums beat to arms. Every church bell +in the city pealed forth its alarm into that wild night. +The bugles blew. The men off duty swarmed on to the Place +d'Armes, where Carleton, calm and intrepid as ever, took +post with the general reserve and waited. There was +nothing for him to do just yet. Everything that could +have been foreseen had already been amply provided for; +and in his quiet confidence his followers found their +own. + +Towards five o'clock two green rockets shot up from +Montgomery's position beside the Anse des Meres under +Cape Diamond. This was the signal for attack. Montgomery's +column immediately struggled on again along the path +leading round the foot of the Cape towards the Pres-de-Ville +barricade. Livingston's serious 'patriots' on the top of +the Cape changed their dropping shots into a hot fire +against the walls; while Jerry Duggan's little mob of +would-be looters shouted and blazed away from safer cover +in the suburbs of St John and St Roch. Arnold's mortars +pitched shells all over the town; while his storming-party +advanced towards the Sault-au-Matelot barricade. Carleton, +naturally anxious about the landward walls, sent some of +the British militia to reinforce the men at Cape Diamond, +which, as he knew, Montgomery considered the best point +of attack. The walls lower down did not seem to be in +any danger from Jerry Duggan's 'patriots,' whose noisy +demonstration was at once understood to be nothing but +an empty feint. The walls facing the St Charles were well +manned and well gunned by the naval battalion. Those +facing the St Lawrence, though weak in themselves, were +practically impregnable, as the cliffs could not be scaled +by any formed body. The Lower Town, however, was by no +means so safe, in spite of its two barricades. The general +uproar was now so great that Carleton could not distinguish +the firing there from what was going on elsewhere. But +it was at these two points that the real attack was +rapidly developing. + +The first decisive action took place at Pres-de-Ville. +The guard there consisted of fifty men--John Coffin, who +was a merchant of Quebec, Sergeant Hugh McQuarters of +the Royal Artillery, Captain Barnsfair, a merchant skipper, +with fifteen mates and skippers like himself, and thirty +French Canadians under Captain Chabot and Lieutenant +Picard. These fifty men had to guard a front of only as +many feet. On their right Cape Diamond rose almost sheer. +On their left raged the stormy St Lawrence. They had a +tiny block-house next to the cliff and four small guns +on the barricade, all double-charged with canister and +grape. They had heard the dropping shots on the top of +the Cape for nearly an hour and had been quick to notice +the change to a regular hot fire. But they had no idea +whether their own post was to be attacked or not till +they suddenly saw the head of Montgomery's column halting +within fifty paces of them. A man came forward cautiously +and looked at the barricade. The storm was in his face. +The defences were wreathed in whirling snow. And the men +inside kept silent as the grave. When he went back a +little group stood for a couple of minutes in hurried +consultation. Then Montgomery waved his sword, called +out 'Come on, brave boys, Quebec is ours!' and led the +charge. The defenders let the Americans get about half-way +before Barnsfair shouted 'Fire!' Then the guns and muskets +volleyed together, cutting down the whole front of the +densely massed column. Montgomery, his two staff-officers, +and his ten leading men were instantly killed. Some more +farther back were wounded. And just as the fifty British +fired their second round the rest of the five hundred +Americans turned and ran in wild confusion. + +A few minutes later a man whose identity was never +established came running from the Lower Town to say that +Arnold's men had taken the Sault-au-Matelot barricade. +If this was true it meant that the Pres-de-Ville fifty +would be caught between two fires. Some of them made as +if to run back and reach Mountain Hill before the Americans +could cut them off. But Coffin at once threatened to kill +the first man to move; and by the time an artillery +officer had arrived with reinforcements perfect order +had been restored. This officer, finding he was not wanted +there, sent back to know where else he was to go, and +received an answer telling him to hurry to the +Sault-au-Matelot. When he arrived there, less than half +a mile off, he found that desperate street fighting had +been going on for over an hour. + +Arnold's advance had begun at the same time as Livingston's +demonstration and Montgomery's attack. But his task was +very different and the time required much longer. There +were three obstacles to be overcome. First, his men had +to run the gauntlet of the fire from the bluejackets +ranged along the Grand Battery, which faced the St Charles +at its mouth and overlooked the narrow little street of +Sous-le-Cap at a height of fifty or sixty feet. Then they +had to take the small advanced barricade, which stood a +hundred yards on the St Charles side of the actual +Sault-au-Matelot or Sailor's Leap, which is the +north-easterly point of the Quebec promontory and nearly +a hundred feet high. Finally, they had to round this +point and attack the regular Sault-au-Matelot barricade. +This second barricade was about a hundred yards long, +from the rock to the river. It crossed Sault-au-Matelot +Street and St Peter Street, which were the same then as +now. But it ended on a wharf half-way down the modern St +James Street, as the outer half of this street was then +a natural strand completely covered at high tide. It was +much closer than the Pres-de-Ville barricade was to +Mountain Hill, at the top of which Carleton held his +general reserve ready in the Place d'Armes; and it was +fairly strong in material and armament. But it was at +first defended by only a hundred men. + +The American forlorn hope, under Captain Oswald, got past +most of the Grand Battery unscathed. But by the time the +main body was following under Morgan the British +blue-jackets were firing down from the walls at less than +point-blank range. The driving snow, the clumps of bushes +on the cliff, and the little houses in the street below +all gave the Americans some welcome cover. But many of +them were hit; while the gun they were towing through +the drifts on a sleigh stuck fast and had to be abandoned. +Captain Dearborn, the future commander-in-chief of the +American army in the War of 1812, noted in his diary that +he 'met the wounded men very thick' as he was bringing +up the rear. When the forlorn hope reached the advanced +barricade Arnold halted it till the supports had come +up. The loss of the gun and the worrying his main body +was receiving from the sailors along the Grand Battery +spoilt his original plan of smashing in the barricade by +shell fire while Morgan circled round its outer flank on +the ice of the tidal flats and took it in rear. So he +decided on a frontal attack. When he thought he had a +fair chance he stepped to the front and shouted, 'Now, +boys, all together, rush!' But before he could climb the +barricade he was shot through the leg. For some time he +propped himself up against a house and, leaning on his +rifle, continued encouraging his men, who were soon firing +through the port-holes as well as over the top. But +presently growing faint from loss of blood he had to be +carried off the field to the General Hospital on the +banks of the St Charles. + +The men now called out for a lead from Morgan, who climbed +a ladder, leaped the top, and fell under a gun inside. +In another minute the whole forlorn hope had followed +him, while the main body came close behind. The guard, +not strong in numbers and weak in being composed of young +militiamen, gave way but kept on firing. 'Down with your +arms if you want quarter!' yelled Morgan, whose men were +in overwhelming strength; and the guard surrendered. A +little way beyond, just under the bluff of the +Sault-au-Matelot, the British supports, many of whom were +Seminary students, also surrendered to Morgan, who at +once pressed on, round the corner of the Sault-au-Matelot, +and halted in sight of the second or regular barricade. +What was to be done now? Where was Montgomery? How strong +was the barricade; and had it been reinforced? It could +not be turned because the cliff rose sheer on one flank +while the icy St Lawrence lashed the other. Had Morgan +known that there were only a hundred men behind it when +he attacked its advanced barricade he might have pressed +on at all costs and carried it by assault. But it looked +strong, there were guns on its platforms, and it ran +across two streets. His hurried council of war over-ruled +him, as Montgomery's council had over-ruled the original +plan of storming the walls; and so his men began a +desultory fight in the streets and from the houses. + +This was fatal to American success. The original British +hundred were rapidly reinforced. The artillery officer +who had found that he was not needed at the Pres-de-Ville +after Montgomery's defeat, and who had hurried across +the intervening half-mile, now occupied the corner houses, +enlarged the embrasures, and trained his guns on the +houses occupied by the enemy. Detachments of Fusiliers +and Royal Emigrants also arrived, as did the thirty-five +masters and mates of merchant vessels who were not on +guard with Barnsfair at the Pres-de-Ville. Thus, what +with soldiers, sailors, and militiamen of both races, +the main Sault-au-Matelot barricade was made secure +against being rushed like the outer one. But there was +plenty of fighting, with some confusion at close quarters +caused by the British uniforms which both sides were +wearing. A Herculean sailor seized the first ladder the +Americans set against the barricade, hauled it up, and +set it against the window of a house out of the far end +of which the enemy were firing. Major Nairne and Lieutenant +Dambourges of the Royal Emigrants at once climbed in at +the head of a storming-party and wild work followed with +the bayonet. All the Americans inside were either killed +or captured. Meanwhile a vigorous British nine-pounder +had been turned on another house they occupied. This +house was likewise battered in, so that its surviving +occupants had to run into the street, where they were +well plied with musketry by the regulars and militiamen. +The chance for a sortie then seeming favourable, Lieutenant +Anderson of the Navy headed his thirty-five merchant +mates and skippers in a rush along Sault-au-Matelot +Street. But his effort was premature. Morgan shot him +dead, and Morgan's Virginians drove the seamen back inside +the barricade. + +Carleton had of course kept in perfect touch with every +phase of the attack and defence; and now, fearing no +surprise against the walls in the growing daylight, had +decided on taking Arnold's men in rear. To do this he +sent Captain Lawes of the Royal Engineers and Captain +McDougall of the Royal Emigrants with a hundred and twenty +men out through Palace Gate. This detachment had hardly +reached the advanced barricade before they fell in with +the enemy's rearguard, which they took by complete surprise +and captured to a man. Leaving McDougall to secure these +prisoners before following on, Lawes pushed eagerly +forward, round the corner of the Sault-au-Matelot cliff, +and, running in among the Americans facing the main +barricade, called out, 'You are all my prisoners!' 'No, +we're not; you're ours!' they answered. 'No, no,' replied +Lawes, as coolly as if on parade 'don't mistake yourselves, +I vow to God you're mine!' 'But where are your men?' +asked the astonished Americans; and then Lawes suddenly +found that he was utterly alone! The roar of the storm +and the work of securing the prisoners on the far side +of the advanced barricade had prevented the men who should +have followed him from understanding that only a few were +needed with McDougall. But Lawes put a bold face on it +and answered, 'O, Ho, make yourselves easy! My men are +all round here and they'll be with you in a twinkling.' +He was then seized and disarmed. Some of the Americans +called out, 'Kill him! Kill him!' But a Major Meigs +protected him. The whole parley had lasted about ten +minutes when McDougall came running up with the missing +men, released Lawes, and made prisoners of the nearest +Americans. Lawes at once stepped forward and called on the +rest to surrender. Morgan was for cutting his way through. +A few men ran round by the wharf and escaped on the tidal +flats of the St Charles. But, after a hurried consultation, +the main body, including Morgan, laid down their arms. This +was decisive. The British had won the fight. + +The complete British loss in killed and wounded was +wonderfully small, only thirty, just one-tenth of the +corresponding American loss, which was large out of all +proportion. Nearly half of the fifteen hundred Americans +had gone--over four hundred prisoners and about three +hundred killed and wounded. Nor were the mere numbers +the most telling point about it; for the worse half +escaped--Livingston's Montreal 'patriots,' many of whom +had done very little fighting, Montgomery's time-expired +New Yorkers, most of whom wanted to go home, and Jerry +Duggan's miscellaneous rabble, all of whom wanted a +maximum of plunder with a minimum of war. + +The British victory was as nearly perfect as could have +been desired. It marked the turn of the tide in a desperate +campaign which might have resulted in the total loss of +Canada. And it was of the greatest significance and +happiest augury because all the racial elements of this +new and vast domain had here united for the first time +in defence of that which was to be their common heritage. +In Carleton's little garrison of regulars and militia, +of bluejackets, marines, and merchant seamen, there were +Frenchmen and French Canadians, there were Englishmen, +Irishmen, Scotsmen, Welshmen, Orcadians, and Channel +Islanders, there were a few Newfoundlanders, and there +mere a good many of those steadfast Royal Emigrants who +may be fitly called the forerunners of the United Empire +Loyalists. Yet, in spite of this remarkable significance, +no public memorial of Carleton has ever been set up; and +it was only in the twentieth century that the Dominion +first thought of commemorating his most pregnant victory +by placing tablets to mark the sites of the two famous +barricades. + +As soon as things had quieted down within the walls +Carleton sent out search-parties to bring in the dead +for decent burial and to see if any of the wounded had +been overlooked. James Thompson, the assistant engineer, +saw a frozen hand protruding from a snowdrift at +Pres-de-Ville. It was Montgomery's. The thirteen bodies +were dug out and Thompson was ordered to have a 'genteel +coffin made for Mr Montgomery,' who was buried in the +wall just above St Louis Gate by the Anglican chaplain. +Thompson kept Montgomery's sword, which was given to the +Livingston family more than a century later. + +The beleaguerment continued, in a half-hearted way, till +the spring. The Americans received various small +reinforcements, which eventually brought their total up +to what it had been under Montgomery's command. But there +were no more assaults. Arnold grew dissatisfied and +finally went to Montreal; while Wooster, the new general, +who arrived on the 1st of April, was himself succeeded +by Thomas, an ex-apothecary, on the 1st of May. The suburb +of St Roch was burnt down after the victory; so the +American snipers were bereft of some very favourite cover, +and this, with other causes, kept the bulk of the besiegers +at an ineffective distance from the walls. + +The British garrison had certain little troubles of its +own; for discipline always tends to become irksome after +a great effort. Carleton was obliged to stop the retailing +of spirits for fear the slacker men would be getting out +of hand. The guards and duties were made as easy as +possible, especially for the militia. But the 'snow-shovel +parade' was an imperative necessity. The winter was very +stormy, and the drifts would have frequently covered the +walls and even the guns if they had not promptly been +dug out. The cold was also unusually severe. One early +morning in January an angry officer was asking a sentry +why he hadn't challenged him, when the sentry said, 'God +bless your Honour! and I'm glad you're come, for I'm +blind!' Then it was found that his eyelids were frozen +fast together. + +News came in occasionally from the outside world. There +was intense indignation among the garrison when they +learned that the American commanders in Montreal were +imprisoning every Canadian officer who would not surrender +his commission. Such an unheard-of outrage was worthy of +Walker. But others must have thought of it; for Walker +was now in Philadelphia giving all the evidence he could +against Prescott and other British officers. Bad news +for the rebels was naturally welcomed, especially anything +about their growing failure to raise troops in Canada. +On hearing of Montgomery's defeat the Continental Congress +had passed a resolution, addressed to the 'Inhabitants +of Canada' declaring that 'we will never abandon you to +the unrelenting fury of your and our enemies.' But there +were no trained soldiers to back this up; and the raw +militia, though often filled with zeal and courage, could +do nothing to redress the increasingly adverse balance. +In the middle of March the Americans sent in a summons. +But Carleton refused to receive it; and the garrison put +a wooden horse and a bundle of hay on the walls with a +placard bearing the inscription, 'When this horse has +eaten this bunch of hay we will surrender.' Some excellent +practice made with 13-inch shells sent the Americans +flying from their new battery at Levis; and by the 17th +of March one of the several exultant British diarists, +whose anonymity must have covered an Irish name, was able +to record that 'this, being St Patrick's Day, the Governor, +who is a true Hibernian, has requested the garrison to +put off keeping it till the 17th of May, when he promises, +they shall be enabled to do it properly, and with the +usual solemnities.' + +A fortnight later a plot concerted between the American +prisoners and their friends outside was discovered just +in time. With tools supplied by traitors they were to +work their way out of their quarters, overpower the guard +at the nearest gate, set fire to the nearest houses in +three different streets, turn the nearest guns inwards +on the town, and shout 'Liberty for ever!' as an additional +signal to the storming-party that was to be waiting to +confirm their success. Carleton seized the chance of +turning this scheme against the enemy. Three safe bonfires +were set ablaze. The marked guns were turned inwards and +fired at the town with blank charges. And the preconcerted +shout was raised with a will. But the besiegers never stirred. +After this the Old-Countrymen among the prisoners, who had +taken the oath and enlisted in the garrison, were disarmed +and confined, while the rest were more strictly watched. + +Two brave attempts were made by French Canadians to reach +Quebec with reinforcements, one headed by a seigneur, +the other by a parish priest. Carleton had sent word to +M. de Beaujeu, seigneur of Crane Island, forty miles +below Quebec, asking him to see if he could cut off the +American detachment on the Levis shore. De Beaujeu raised +three hundred and fifty men. But Arnold sent over +reinforcements. A habitant betrayed his fellow-countrymen's +advance-guard. A dozen French Canadians were then killed +or wounded while forty were taken prisoners; whereupon +the rest dispersed to their homes. The other attempt was +made by Father Bailly, whose little force of about fifty +men was also betrayed. Entrapped in a country-house these +men fought bravely till nearly half their number had been +killed or wounded and the valiant priest had been mortally +hit. They then surrendered to a much stronger force which +had lost more men than they. + +This was on the 6th of April, just before Arnold was +leaving in disgust. Wooster made an effort to use his +new artillery to advantage by converging the fire of +three batteries, one close in on the Heights of Abraham, +another from across the mouth of the St Charles, and the +third from Levis. But the combination failed: the batteries +were too light for the work and overmatched by the guns +on the walls, the practice was bad, and the effect was +nil. On the 3rd of May the new general, Thomas, an +enterprising man, tried a fireship, which was meant to +destroy all the shipping in the Cul de Sac. It came on, +under full sail, in a very threatening manner. But the +crew lost their nerve at the critical moment, took to +the boats too soon, and forgot to lash the helm. The +vessel immediately flew up into the wind and, as the +tidal stream was already changing, began to drift away +from the Cul de Sac just when she burst into flame. The +result, as described by an enthusiastic British diarist, +was that 'she affoard'd a very pritty prospect while she +was floating down the River, every now & then sending up +Sky rackets, firing of Cannon or bursting of Shells, & +so continued till She disappear'd in the Channell.' + +Three days later, on the 6th of May, when the beleaguerment +had lasted precisely five months, the sound of distant +gunfire came faintly up the St Lawrence with the first +breath of the dawn wind from the east. The sentries +listened to make sure; then called the sergeants of the +guards, who sent word to the officers on duty, who, in +their turn, sent word to Carleton. By this time there +could be no mistake. The breeze was freshening; the sound +was gradually nearing Quebec; and there could hardly be +room for doubting that it came from the vanguard of the +British fleet. The drums beat to arms, the church bells +rang, the news flew round to every household in Quebec; +and before the tops of the _Surprise_ frigate were seen +over the Point of Levy every battery was fully manned, +every battalion was standing ready on the Grand Parade, +and every non-combatant man, woman, and child was lining +the seaward wall. The regulation shot was fired across +her bows as she neared the city; whereupon she fired +three guns to leeward, hoisted the private signal, and +showed the Union Jack. Then, at last, a cheer went up +that told both friend and foe of British victory and +American defeat. By a strange coincidence the parole for +this triumphal day was St George, while the parole +appointed for the victorious New Year's Eve had been St +Denis; so that the patron saints of France and England +happen to be associated with the two great days on which +the stronghold of Canada was saved by land and sea. + +The same tide brought in two other men-of-war. Some +soldiers of the 29th, who were on board the _Surprise_, +were immediately landed, together with the marines from +all three vessels. Carleton called for volunteers from +the militia to attack the Americans at once; and nearly +every man, both of the French- and of the English-speaking +corps, stepped forward. There was joy in every heart that +the day for striking back had come at last. The columns +marched gaily through the gates and deployed into line +at the double on the Heights outside. The Americans fired +a few hurried shots and then ran for dear life, leaving +their dinners cooking, and, in some cases, even their +arms behind them. The Plains were covered with flying +enemies and strewn with every sort of impediment to +flight, from a cannon to a loaf of bread. Quebec had been +saved by British sea-power; and, with it, the whole vast +dominion of which it was the key. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +DELIVERANCE +1776 + +The Continental Congress had always been anxious to have +delegates from the Fourteenth Colony. But as these never +came the Congress finally decided to send a special +commission to examine the whole civil and military state +of Canada and see what could be done. The news of +Montgomery's death and defeat was a very unwelcome +surprise. But reinforcements were being sent; the Canadians +could surely be persuaded; and a Congressional commission +must be able to set things right. This commission was a +very strong one. Benjamin Franklin was the chairman. +Samuel Chase of Maryland and Charles Carroll of Carrollton +were the other members. Carroll's brother, the future +archbishop of Baltimore, accompanied them as a sort of +ecclesiastical diplomatist. Franklin's prestige and the +fact that he was to set up a 'free' printing-press in +Montreal were to work wonders with the educated classes +at once and with the uneducated masses later on. Chase +would appeal to all the reasonable 'moderates.' Carroll, +a great landlord and the nearest approach yet made to an +American millionaire, was expected to charm the Canadian +noblesse; while the fact that he and his exceedingly +diplomatic brother were devout Roman Catholics was thought +to be by itself a powerful argument with the clergy. + +When they reached St Johns towards the end of April the +commissioners sent on a courier to announce their arrival +and prepare for their proper reception in Montreal. But +the ferryman at Laprairie positively refused to accept +Continental paper money at any price; and it was only +when a 'Friend of Liberty' gave him a dollar in silver +that he consented to cross the courier over the St +Lawrence. The same hitch occurred in Montreal, where the +same Friend of Liberty had to pay in silver before the +cab-drivers consented to accept a fare either from him +or from the commissioners. Even the name of Carroll of +Carrollton was conjured with in vain. The French Canadians +remembered Bigot's bad French paper. Their worst suspicions +were being confirmed about the equally bad American paper. +So they demanded nothing but hard cash--_argent dur_. +However, the first great obstacle had been successfully +overcome; and so, on the strength of five borrowed silver +dollars, the accredited commissioners of the Continental +Congress of the Thirteen Colonies made their state entry +into what they still hoped to call the Fourteenth Colony. +But silver dollars were scarce; and on the 1st of May +the crestfallen commissioners had to send the Congress +a financial report which may best be summed up in a +pithy phrase which soon became proverbial--'Not worth +a Continental.' + +On the 10th of May they heard the bad news from Quebec +and increased the panic among their Montreal sympathizers +by hastily leaving the city lest they should be cut off +by a British man-of-war. Franklin foresaw the end and +left for Philadelphia accompanied by the Reverend John +Carroll, whose twelve days of disheartening experience +with the leading French-Canadian clergy had convinced +him that they were impervious to any arguments or +blandishments emanating from the Continental Congress. +It was a sad disillusionment for the commissioners, who +had expected to be settling the affairs of a fourteenth +colony instead of being obliged to leave the city from +which they were to have enlightened the people with a +free press. In their first angry ignorance they laid the +whole blame on their unfortunate army for its 'disgraceful +flight' from Quebec. A week later, when Chase and Charles +Carroll ought to have known better, they were still +assuring the Congress that this 'shameful retreat' was +'the principal cause of all the disorders' in the army; +and even after the whole story ought to have been understood +neither they nor the Congress gave their army its proper +due. But, as a matter of fact, the American position had +become untenable the moment the British fleet began to +threaten the American line of communication with Montreal. +For the rest, the American volunteers, all things +considered, had done very well indeed. Arnold's march +was a truly magnificent feat. Morgan's men had fought +with great courage at the Sault-au-Matelot. And though +Montgomery's assault might well have been better planned +and executed, we must remember that the good plan, which +had been rejected, was the military one, while the bad +plan, which had been adopted, was concocted by mere +politicians. Nor were 'all the disorders' so severely +condemned by the commissioners due to the army alone. +Far from it, indeed. The root of 'all the disorders' lay +in the fact that a makeshift government was obliged to +use makeshift levies for an invasion which required a +regular army supported by a fleet. + +On the 19th of May another disaster happened, this time +above Montreal. The Congress had not felt strong enough +to attack the western posts. So Captain Forster of the +8th Foot, finding that he was free to go elsewhere, had +come down from Oswegatchie (the modern Ogdensburg) with +a hundred whites and two hundred Indians and made prisoners +of four hundred and thirty Americans at the Cedars, about +thirty miles up the St Lawrence from Montreal. Forster +was a very good officer. Butterfield, the American +commander, was a very bad one. And that made all the +difference. After two days of feeble and misdirected +defence Butterfield surrendered three hundred and fifty +men. The other eighty were reinforcements who walked into +the trap next day. Forster now had four American prisoners +for every white soldier of his own; while Arnold was near +by, having come up from Sorel to Lachine with a small +but determined force. So Forster, carefully pointing out +to his prisoners their danger if the Indians should be +reinforced and run wild, offered them their freedom on +condition that they should be regarded as being exchanged +for an equal number of British prisoners in American +hands. This was agreed to and never made a matter of +dispute afterwards. But the second article Butterfield +accepted was a stipulation that, while the released +British were to be free to fight again, the released +Americans were not; and it was over this point that a +bitter controversy raged. The British authorities maintained +that all the terms were binding because they had been +accepted by an officer commissioned by the Congress. The +Congress maintained that the disputed article was obtained +by an unfair threat of an Indian massacre and that it +was so one-sided as to be good for nothing but repudiation. + +'The Affair at the Cedars' thus became a sorely vexed +question. In itself it would have died out among later +and more important issues if it had not been used as a +torch to fire American public opinion at a time when the +Congress was particularly anxious to make the Thirteen +Colonies as anti-British as possible. Most of Forster's +men were Indians. He had reminded Butterfield how dangerous +an increasing number of Indians might become. Butterfield +was naturally anxious to prove that he had yielded only +to overwhelming odds and horrifying risks. Americans in +general were ready to believe anything bad about the +Indians and the British. The temptation and the opportunity +seemed made for each other. And so a quite imaginary +Indian massacre conveniently appeared in the American +news of the day and helped to form the kind of public +opinion which was ardently desired by the party of revolt. + +The British evidence in this and many another embittering +dispute about the Indians need not be cited, since the +following items of American evidence do ample justice to +both sides. In the spring of 1775 the Massachusetts +Provincial Congress sent Samuel Kirkland to exhort the +Iroquois 'to whet their hatchet and be prepared to defend +our liberties and lives'; while Ethan Allen asked the +Indians round Vermont to treat him 'like a brother and +ambush the regulars.' In 1776 the Continental Congress +secretly resolved 'that it is highly expedient to engage +the Indians in the service of the United Colonies.' This +was before the members knew about the Affair at the +Cedars. A few days later Washington was secretly authorized +to raise two thousand Indians; while agents were secretly +sent 'to engage the Six Nations in our Interest, on the +best terms that can be procured.' Within three weeks of +this secret arrangement the Declaration of Independence +publicly accused the king of trying 'to bring on the +inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages.' +Four days after this public accusation the Congress gave +orders for raising Indians along 'the Penobscot, the St +John, and in Nova Scotia'; and an entry to that effect +was made in its Secret Journal. Yet, before the month +was out, the same Congress publicly appealed to 'The +People of Ireland' in the following words: 'The wild and +barbarous savages of the wilderness have been solicited +by gifts to take up the hatchet against us, and instigated +to deluge our settlements with the blood of defenceless +women and children.' + +The American defeats at Quebec and at the Cedars completely +changed the position of the two remaining commissioners. +They had expected to control a victorious advance. They +found themselves the highest authority present with a +disastrous retreat. Thereupon they made blunder after +blunder. Public interest and parliamentary control are +the very life of armies and navies in every country which +enjoys the blessings of self-government. But civilian +interference is death. Yet Chase and Carroll practically +abolished rank in the disintegrating army by becoming an +open court of appeal to every junior with a grievance or +a plan. There never was an occasion on which military +rule was more essential in military matters. Yet, though +they candidly admitted that they had 'neither abilities +nor inclination' to command, these wretched misrulers +tried to do their duty both to the Congress and the army +by turning the camp into a sort of town meeting where +the best orders had no chance whatever against the loudest +'sentiments.' They had themselves found the root of all +evil in the retreat from Quebec. Their army, like every +impartial critic, found it in 'the Commissioners and the +smallpox'--with the commissioners easily first. The +smallpox had been bad enough at Quebec. It became far +worse at Sorel. There were few doctors, fewer medicines, +and not a single hospital. The reinforcements melted away +with the army they were meant to strengthen. Famine +threatened both, even in May. Finally the commissioners +left for home at the end of the month. But even their +departure could no longer make the army's burden light +enough to bear. + +Thomas, the ex-apothecary, who did his best to stem the +adverse tide of trouble, caught the smallpox, became +blind, and died at the beginning of June. Sullivan, the +fourth commander in less than half a year, having determined +that one more effort should be made, arrived at Sorel +with new battalions after innumerable difficulties by +the way. He was led to believe that Carleton's +reinforcements had come from Nova Scotia, not from England; +and this encouraged him to push on farther. He was +naturally of a very sanguine temper; and Thompson, his +second-in-command, heartily approved of the dash. The +new troops cheered up and thought of taking Quebec itself. +But, after getting misled by their guide, floundering +about in bottomless bogs, and losing a great deal of very +precious time, they found Three Rivers defended by +entrenchments, superior numbers, and the vanguard of the +British fleet. Nevertheless they attacked bravely on the +8th of June. But, taken in front and flank by well-drilled +regulars and well-handled men-of-war, they presently +broke and fled. Every avenue of escape was closed as they +wandered about the woods and bogs. But Carleton, who came +up from Quebec after the battle was all over, purposely +opened the way to Sorel. He had done his best to win the +hearts of his prisoners at Quebec and had succeeded so +well that when they returned to Crown Point they were +kept away from the rest of the American army lest their +account of his kindness should affect its anti-British +zeal. Now that he was in overwhelming force he thought +he saw an even better chance of earning gratitude from +rebels and winning converts to the loyal side by a still +greater act of clemency. + +The battle of Three Rivers was the last action fought on +Canadian soil. The American army retreated to Sorel and +up the Richelieu to St Johns, where it was joined by +Arnold, who had just evacuated Montreal. Most of the +Friends of Liberty in Canada fled either with or before +their beaten forces. So, like the ebbing of a whole river +system, the main and tributary streams of fugitives drew +south towards Lake Champlain. The neutral French Canadians +turned against them at once; though not to the extent of +making an actual attack. The habitant cared nothing for +the incomprehensible constitutionalities over which +different kinds of British foreigners were fighting their +exasperating civil war. But he did know what the king's +big fleet and army meant. He did begin to feel that his +own ways of life were safer with the loyal than with the +rebel side. And he quite understood that he had been +forced to give a good deal for nothing ever since the +American commissioners had authorized their famishing +army to commandeer his supplies and pay him with their +worthless 'Continentals.' + +From St Johns the worn-out Americans crawled homewards +in stray, exhausted parties, dropping fast by the way as +they went. 'I did not look into a hut or a tent,' wrote +a horrified observer, 'in which I did not find a dead or +dying man.' Disorganization became so complete that no +exact returns were ever made up. But it is known that +over ten thousand armed men crossed into Canada from +first to last and that not far short of half this total +either found their death beyond the line or brought it +back with them to Lake Champlain. + +It was on what long afterwards became Dominion Day--the +1st of July--that the ruined American forces reassembled +at Crown Point, having abandoned all hope of making Canada +the Fourteenth Colony. Three days later the disappointed +Thirteen issued the Declaration of Independence which +virtually proclaimed that Canadians and Americans should +thenceforth live a separate life. + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +THE COUNTERSTROKE +1776-1778 + +Six thousand British troops, commanded by Burgoyne, and +four thousand Germans, commanded by Baron Riedesel, had +arrived at Quebec before the battle of Three Rivers. +Quebec itself had then been left to the care of a German +garrison under a German commandant, 'that excellent man, +Colonel Baum,' while the great bulk of the army had +marched up the St Lawrence, as we have seen already. Such +a force as this new one of Carleton's was expected to +dismay the rebel colonies. And so, to a great extent, it +did. With a much larger force in the colonies themselves +the king was confidently expected to master his unruly +subjects, no matter how much they proclaimed their +independence. The Loyalists were encouraged. The trimmers +prepared to join them. Only those steadfast Americans +who held their cause dearer than life itself were still +determined to venture all. But they formed the one party +that really knew its own mind. This gave them a great +advantage over the king's party, which, hampered at every +turn by the opposition in the mother country, was never +quite sure whether it ought to strike hard or gently in +America. + +On one point, however, everybody was agreed. The command +of Lake Champlain was essential to whichever side would +hold its own. The American forces at Crown Point might +be too weak for the time being. But Arnold knew that even +ten thousand British soldiers could not overrun the land +without a naval force to help them. So he got together +a flotilla which had everything its own way during the +time that Carleton was laboriously building a rival +flotilla on the Richelieu with a very scanty supply of +ship-wrights and materials. Arnold, moreover, could devote +his whole attention to the work, makeshift as it had to +be; while Carleton was obliged to keep moving about the +province in an effort to bring it into some sort of order +after the late invasion. Throughout the summer the British +army held the line of the Richelieu all the way south as +far as Isle-aux-Noix, very near the lake and the line. +But Carleton's flotilla could not set sail from St Johns +till October 5, by which time the main body of his army +was concentrated round Pointe-au-Fer, at the northern +end of the lake, ninety miles north of the American camp +at Crown Point. + +It was a curious situation for a civil and military +governor to be hoisting his flag as a naval +commander-in-chief, however small the fleet might be. +But it is commonly ignored that, down to the present day, +the governor-general of Canada is appointed 'Vice-Admiral +of the Same' in his commissions from the Crown. Carleton +of course carried expert naval officers with him and had +enough professional seamen to work the vessels and lay +the guns. But, though Captain Pringle manoeuvred the +flotilla and Lieutenant Dacre handled the flagship +_Carleton_, the actual command remained in Carleton's +own hands. The capital ship (and the only real square-rigged +'ship') of this Lilliputian fleet was Pringle's +_Inflexible_, which had been taken up the Richelieu in +sections and hauled past the portages with immense labour +before reaching St Johns, whence there is a clear run +upstream to Lake Champlain. The _Inflexible_ carried +thirty guns, mostly 12-pounders, and was an overmatch +for quite the half of Arnold's decidedly weaker flotilla. +The _Lady Maria_ was a sort of sister ship to the +_Carleton_. The little armada was completed by a 'gondola' +with six 9-pounders, by twenty gunboats and four longboats, +each carrying a single piece, and by many small craft +used as transports. + +On the 11th of October Carleton's whole naval force was +sailing south when one of Arnold's vessels was seen making +for Valcour Island, a few miles still farther south on +the same, or western, side of Lake Champlain. Presently +the Yankee ran ashore on the southern end of the island, +where she was immediately attacked by some British small +craft while the _Inflexible_ sailed on. Then, to the +intense disgust of the _Inflexible_'s crew, Arnold's +complete flotilla was suddenly discovered drawn up in a +masterly position between the mainland and the island. +It was too late for the _Inflexible_ to beat back now. +But the rest of Carleton's flotilla turned in to the +attack. Arnold's flanks rested on the island and the +mainland. His rear could be approached only by beating +back against a bad wind all the way round the outside of +Valcour Island; and, even if this manoeuvre could have +been performed, the British attack on his rear from the +north could have been made only in a piecemeal way, +because the channel was there at its narrowest, with a +bad obstruction in the middle. So, for every reason, a +frontal attack from the south was the one way of closing +with him. The fight was furious while it lasted and +seemingly decisive when it ended. Arnold's best vessel, +the _Royal Savage_, which he had taken at St Johns the +year before, was driven ashore and captured. The others +were so severely mauled that when the victorious British +anchored their superior force in line across Arnold's +front there seemed to be no chance for him to escape the +following day. But that night he performed an even more +daring and wonderful feat than Bouchette had performed +the year before when paddling Carleton through the American +lines among the islands opposite Sorel. Using muffled +sweeps, with consummate skill he slipped all his remaining +vessels between the mainland and the nearest British +gunboat, and was well on his way to Crown Point before +his escape had been discovered. Next day Carleton chased +south. The day after he destroyed the whole of the enemy's +miniature sea-power as a fighting force. But the only +three serviceable vessels got away; while Arnold burnt +everything else likely to fall into British hands. So +Carleton had no more than his own reduced flotilla to +depend on when he occupied Crown Point. + +A vexed question, destined to form part of a momentous +issue, now arose. Should Ticonderoga be attacked at once +or not? It commanded the only feasible line of march from +Montreal to New York; and no force from Canada could +therefore attack the new republic effectively without +taking it first. But the season was late. The fort was +strong, well gunned, and well manned. Carleton's +reconnaissance convinced him that he could have little +chance of reducing it quickly, if at all, with the means +at hand, especially as the Americans had supplies close +by at Lake George, while he was now a hundred miles south +of his base. A winter siege was impossible. Sufficient +supplies could never be brought through the dense, +snow-encumbered bush, all the way from Canada, even if +the long and harassing line of communications had not +been everywhere open to American attack. Moreover, +Carleton's army was in no way prepared for a midwinter +campaign, even if it could have been supplied with food +and warlike stores. So he very sensibly turned his back +on Lake Champlain until the following year. + +That was the gayest winter Quebec had seen since Montcalm's +first season, twenty years before. Carleton had been +knighted for his services and was naturally supposed to +be the chosen leader for the next campaign. The ten +thousand troops gave confidence to the loyalists and +promised success for the coming campaign. The clergy were +getting their disillusioned parishioners back to the fold +beneath the Union Jack; while _Jean Ba'tis'e_ himself +was fain to admit that his own ways of life and the money +he got for his goods were very much safer with _les +Angla's_ than with the revolutionists, whom he called +_les Bastonna's_ because most trade between Quebec and +the Thirteen Colonies was carried on by vessels hailing +from the port of Boston. The seigneurs were delighted. +They still hoped for commissions as regulars, which too +few of them ever received; and they were charmed with +the little viceregal court over which Lady Maria Carleton, +despite her youthful two-and-twenty summers, presided +with a dignity inherited from the premier ducal family +of England and brought to the acme of conventional +perfection by her intimate experience of Versailles. On +New Year's Eve Carleton gave a public fete, a state +dinner, and a ball to celebrate the anniversary of the +British victory over Montgomery and Arnold. The bishop +held a special thanksgiving and made all notorious +renegades do open penance. Nothing seemed wanting to +bring the New Year in under the happiest auspices since +British rule began. + +But, quite unknown to Carleton, mischief was brewing in +the Colonial Office of that unhappy government which did +so many stupid things and got the credit for so many +more. In 1775 the well-meaning Earl of Dartmouth was +superseded by Lord George Germain, who continued the +mismanagement of colonial affairs for seven disastrous +years. Few characters have abused civil and military +positions more than the man who first, as a British +general, disgraced the noble name of Sackville on the +battlefield of Minden in 1759, and then, as a cabinet +minister, disgraced throughout America the plebeian one +of Germain, which he took in 1770 with a suitable legacy +attached to it. His crime at Minden was set down by the +thoughtless public to sheer cowardice. But Sackville was +no coward. He had borne himself with conspicuous gallantry +at Fontenoy. He was admired, before Minden, by two very +brave soldiers, Wolfe and the Duke of Cumberland. And he +afterwards fought a famous duel with as much sang-froid +as any one would care to see. His real crime at Minden +was admirably exposed by the court-martial which found +him 'guilty of having disobeyed the orders of Prince +Ferdinand of Brunswick, whom he was by his commission +bound to obey as commander-in-chief, according to the +rules of war.' This court also found him 'unfit to serve +his Majesty in any military capacity whatever'; and George +II directed that the following 'remarks' should be added +when the sentence was read out on parade to every regiment +in the service: 'It is his Majesty's pleasure that the +above sentence be given out in public orders, not only +in Britain, but in America, and in every quarter of the +globe where British troops happen to be, so that all +officers, being convinced that neither high birth nor +great employments can shelter offences of such a nature, +and seeing they are subject to censures worse than death +to a man who has any sense of honour, may avoid the fatal +consequences arising from disobedience of orders.' + +This seemed to mark the end of Sackville's sinister +career. But when George II died and George III began to +reign, with a very different set of men to help him, the +bad general reappeared as an equally bad politician. +Haughty, cantankerous, and self-opinionated to the last +degree, Germain, who had many perverse abilities fitting +him for the meaner side of party politics, was appointed +to the post for which he was least qualified just when +Canada and the Thirteen Colonies most needed a master +mind. Worse still, he cherished a contemptible grudge +against Carleton for having refused to turn out a good +officer and put in a bad one who happened to be a pampered +favourite. At first, however, Carleton was allowed to do +his best. But in the summer of 1776 Germain restricted +Carleton's command to Canada and put Burgoyne, a junior +officer, in command of the army destined to make the +counterstroke. The ship bearing this malicious order had +to put back; so it was not till the middle of May 1777 +that Carleton was disillusioned by its arrival as well +as by a second and still more exasperating dispatch +accusing him of neglect of duty for not having taken +Ticonderoga in November and thus prevented Washington +from capturing the Hessians at Trenton. The physical +impossibility of a winter siege, the three hundred miles +of hostile country between Trenton and Ticonderoga, and +the fact that the other leading British general, Howe, +had thirty thousand troops in the Colonies, while Carleton +had only ten thousand with which to hold Canada that year +and act as ordered next year, all went for nothing when +Germain found a chance to give a good stab in the back. + +On May 20 Carleton wrote a pungent reply, pointing out +the utter impossibility of following up his victory on +Lake Champlain by carrying out Germain's arm-chair plan +of operations in the middle of winter. 'I regard it as +a particular blessing that your Lordship's dispatch did +not arrive in due time.' As for the disaster at Trenton, +he 'begs to inform his Lordship' that if Howe's thirty +thousand men had been properly used the Hessians could +never have been taken, 'though all the rebels from +Ticonderoga had reinforced Mr Washington's army.' Moreover, +'I never could imagine why, if troops so far south [as +Howe's] found it necessary to go into winter quarters, +your Lordship could possibly expect troops so far north +to continue their operations.' A week later Carleton +wrote again and sent in his resignation. 'Finding that +I can no longer be of use, under your Lordship's +administration ... I flatter myself I shall obtain the +king's permission to return home this fall. ... I shall +embark with great satisfaction, still entertaining the +ardent wish that, after my departure, the dignity of the +Crown in this unfortunate Province may not appear beneath +your Lordship's concern.' + +Burgoyne had spent the winter in London and had arrived +at Quebec about the same time as Germain's dispatches. +He had loyally represented Carleton's plans at headquarters. +But he did not know America and he was not great enough +to see the weak points in the plan which Germain proposed +to carry out with wholly inadequate means. + +There was nothing wrong with the actual idea of this +plan. Washington, Carleton, and every other leading man +on either side saw perfectly well that the British army +ought to cut the rebels in two by holding the direct line +from Montreal to New York throughout the coming campaign +of 1777. Given the irresistible British command of the +sea, fifty thousand troops were enough. The general idea +was that half of these should hold the four-hundred-mile +line of the Richelieu, Lake Champlain, and the Hudson, +while the other half seized strategic points elsewhere +and still further divided the American forces. But the +troops employed were ten thousand short of the proper +number. Many of them were foreign mercenaries. And the +generals were not the men to smash the enemy at all costs. +They were ready to do their duty. But their affinities +were rather with the opposition, which was against the +war, than with the government, which was for it. Howe +was a strong Whig. Burgoyne became a follower of Fox. +Clinton had many Whig connections. Cornwallis voted +against colonial taxation. To make matters worse, the +government itself wavered between out-and-out war and +some sort of compromise both with its political opponents +at home and its armed opponents in America. + +Under these circumstances Carleton was in favour of a +modified plan. Ticonderoga had been abandoned by the +Americans and occupied by the British as Burgoyne marched +south. Carleton's idea was to use it as a base of operations +against New England, while Howe's main body struck at +the main body of the rebels and broke them up as much as +possible. Germain however, was all for the original plan. +So Burgoyne set off for the Hudson, expecting to get into +touch with Howe at Albany. But Germain, in his haste to +leave town for a holiday, forgot to sign Howe's orders +at the proper time; and afterwards forgot them altogether. +So Howe, pro-American in politics and temporizer in the +field, manoeuvred round his own headquarters at New York +until October, when he sailed south to Philadelphia. +Receiving no orders from Germain, and having no initiative +of his own, he had made no attempt to hold the line of +the Hudson all the way north to Albany, where he could +have met Burgoyne and completed the union of the forces +which would have cut the Colonies in two. Meanwhile +Burgoyne, ignorant of Germain's neglect and Howe's +futilities, was struggling to his fate at Saratoga, north +of Albany. He had been receiving constant aid from +Carleton's scanty resources, though Carleton knew full +well that the sending of any aid beyond the limits of +the province exposed him to personal ruin in case of a +reverse in Canada. But it was all in vain; and, on the +17th of October, Burgoyne--much more sinned against than +sinning--laid down his arms. The British garrison +immediately evacuated Ticonderoga and retired to St Johns, +thus making Carleton's position fairly safe in Canada. +But Germain, only too glad to oust him, had now notified +him that Haldimand, the new governor, was on the point +of sailing for Quebec. Haldimand, to his great credit, +had asked to have his own appointment cancelled when he +heard of Germain's shameful attitude towards Carleton, +and had only consented to go after being satisfied that +Carleton really wished to come home. The exchange, however, +was not to take place that year. Contrary winds blew +Haldimand back; and so Canada had to remain under the +best of all possible governors in spite of Germain. + +Germain had provoked Carleton past endurance both by his +public blunders and by his private malice. Even in 1776 +there was hate on one side, contempt on the other. When +Germain had blamed Carleton for not carrying out the +idiotic winter siege of Ticonderoga, Carleton, in his +official reply, 'could only suppose' that His Lordship +had acted 'in other places with such great wisdom that, +without our assistance, the rebels must immediately be +compelled to lay down their arms and implore the King's +mercy.' After that Germain had murder in his heart to +the bitter end of Carleton's rule. Carleton had frequently +reported the critical state of affairs in Canada. 'There +is nothing to fear from the Canadians so long as things +are in a state of prosperity; nothing to hope from them +when in distress. There are some of them who are guided +by sentiments of honour. The multitude is influenced by +hope of gain or fear of punishment.' The recent invasion +had proved this up to the hilt. Then welcome reaction +began. The defeat of the invaders, the arrival of Burgoyne's +army, and the efforts of the seigneurs and the clergy +had considerably brightened the prospects of the British +cause in Canada. The partial mobilization of the militia +which followed Burgoyne's surrender was not, indeed, a +great success. But it was far better than the fiasco of +two years before. There was also a corresponding improvement +in civil life. The judges whom Carleton had been obliged +to appoint in haste all proved at leisure the wisdom of +his choice; and there seemed to be every chance that +other nominees would be equally fit for their positions, +because the Quebec Act, which annulled every appointment +made before it came into force, opened the way for the +exclusion of bad officials and the inclusion of the good. + +But the chance of perverting this excellent intention +was too much for Germain, who succeeded in foisting one +worthless nominee after another on the province just as +Carleton was doing his best to heal old sores. One of +the worst cases was that of Livius, a low-down, +money-grubbing German Portuguese, who ousted the future +Master of the Rolls; Sir William Grant, a man most +admirably fitted to interpret the laws of Canada with +knowledge, sympathy, and absolute impartiality. Livius +as chief justice was more than Carleton could stand in +silence. This mongrel lawyer had picked up all the Yankee +vices without acquiring any of the countervailing Yankee +virtues. He was 'greedy of power, more greedy of gain, +imperious and impetuous in his temper, but learned in +the ways and eloquence of the New England provinces, and +valuing himself particularly on his knowledge of how to +manage governors.' He had been sent by Germain 'to +administer justice to the Canadians when he understands +neither their laws, manners, customs, nor language.' +Other like nominees followed, 'characters regardless of +the public tranquility but zealous to pay court to a +powerful minister and--provided they can obtain +advantages--unconcerned should the means of obtaining +them prove ruinous to the King's service.' These +pettifoggers so turned and twisted the law about for the +sake of screwing out the maximum of fees that Carleton +pointedly refused to appoint Livius as a member of the +Legislative Council. Livius then laid his case before +the Privy Council in England. But this great court of +ultimate appeal pronounced such a damning judgment on +his gross pretensions that even Germain could not prevent +his final dismissal from all employment under the Crown. + +Wounded in the house of those who should have been his +friends, thwarted in every measure of his self-sacrificing +rule, Carleton served on devotedly through six weary +months of 1778--the year in which a vindictive government +of Bourbon France became the first of the several foreign +enemies who made the new American republic an accomplished +fact by taking sides in a British civil war. His burden +was now far more than any man could bear. Yet he closed +his answer to Germain's parting shot with words which +are as noble as his deeds: + +'I have long looked out for the arrival of a successor. +Happy at last to learn his near approach, I resign the +important commands with which I have been entrusted into +hands less obnoxious to your Lordship. Thus, for the +King's service, as willingly I lay them down as, for his +service, I took them up.' + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +GUARDING THE LOYALISTS +1782-1783 + +Burgoyne's surrender marked the turning of the tide +against the British arms. True, the three campaigns of +purely civil war, begun in 1775, had reached no decisive +result. True also that the Independence declared in 1776 +had no apparent chance of becoming an accomplished fact. +But 1777 was the fatal year for all that. The long +political strife in England, the gross mismanagement of +colonial affairs under Germain, and the shameful blunders +that made Saratoga possible, all combined to encourage +foreign powers to take the field against the king's +incompetent and distracted ministry. France, Spain, and +Holland joined the Americans in arms; while Russia, +Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, and all the German seaboard +countries formed the Armed Neutrality of the North. This +made stupendous odds--no less than ten to one. First of +the ten came the political opposition at home, which, in +regard to the American rebellion itself, was at least +equal to the most powerful enemy abroad. Next came the +four enemies in arms: the American rebels, France, Spain, +and Holland. Finally came the five armed neutrals, all +ready to use their navies on the slightest provocation. + +From this it may be seen that not one-half, perhaps not +a quarter, of all the various forces that won the +Revolutionary war were purely American. Nor were the +Americans and their allies together victorious over the +mother country, but only over one sorely hampered party +in it. Yet, from the nature of the case, the Americans +got much more than the lion's share of the spoils, while, +even in their own eyes, they seemed to have gained honour +and glory in the same proportion. The last real campaign +was fought in 1781 and ended with the British surrender +at Yorktown. From that time on peace was in the air. The +unfortunate ministry, now on the eve of political defeat +at home, were sick of civil war and only too anxious for +a chance of uniting all parties against the foreign foes. +But they had first to settle with the Americans, who had +considered themselves an independent sovereign power for +the last five years and who were determined to make the +most of England's difficulties. No darker New Year's Day +had ever dawned on any cabinet than that of 1782 on +North's. In spite of his change from repression to +conciliation, and in spite of dismissing Germain to the +House of Lords with an ill-earned peerage, Lord North +found his majority dwindling away. At last, on the 20th +of March, he resigned. + +Meanwhile every real statesman in either party had felt +that the crisis required the master-hand of Carleton. +With Germain, the empire-wrecker, gone, Carleton would +doubtless have served under any cabinet, for no government +could have done without him. But his actual commission +came through the Rockingham administration on the 4th of +April. After three quiet years of retirement at his +country seat in Hampshire he was again called upon to +face a situation of extreme difficulty. For once, with +a wisdom rare enough in any age and almost unknown in +that one, the government gave him a free hand and almost +unlimited powers. The only questions over which he had +no final power were those of making treaties. He was +appointed 'General and Commander-in-chief of all His +Majesty's forces within the Colonies lying in the Atlantic +Ocean, from Nova Scotia to the Floridas, and inclusive +of Newfoundland and Canada should they be attacked.' He +was also appointed commissioner for executing the terms +of any treaty that might be made; and his instructions +contained two passages which bore eloquent witness to +the universal confidence reposed in him. 'It is impossible +to judge of the precise situation at so great a distance' +and 'His Majesty's affairs are so situated that further +deliberations give way to instant decision. We are +satisfied that whatever inconveniences may arise they +will be compensated by the presence of a commander-in-chief +of whose discretion, conduct, and ability His Majesty +has long entertained the highest opinion.' Thus the great +justifier of British rule beyond the seas arrived in New +York on the 9th of May 1782 with at least some hope of +reconciling enough Americans to turn the scale before it +was too late. + +For three months the prospect, though worse than he had +anticipated, did not seem utterly hopeless. It had been +considerably brightened by Rodney's great victory over +the French fleet which was on its way to attack Jamaica. +But an unfortunate incident happened to be exasperating +Loyalists and revolutionists at this very time. Some +revolutionists had killed a Loyalist named Philip White, +apparently out of pure hate. Some Loyalists, under Captain +Lippincott, then seized and hanged Joshua Huddy, a captain +in the Congress militia, out of sheer revenge. A paper +left pinned on Huddy's breast bore the inscription: 'Up +goes Huddy for Philip White.' Washington then demanded +that Lippincott should be delivered up; and, on Carleton's +refusal, chose a British prisoner by lot instead. The +lot fell on a young Lieutenant Asgill of the Guards, +whose mother appealed to the king and queen of France +and to their powerful minister, Vergennes. The American +Congress wanted blood for blood, which would have led to +an endless vendetta. But Vergennes pointed out that +Asgill, a youth of nineteen, was as much a prisoner of +the king of France as of the Continental Congress. At +this the Congress gnashed its teeth, but had to give way. + +While the Asgill affair was still running its course, +and embittering Loyalists and rebels more than ever, +Carleton was suddenly informed that the government had +decided to grant complete independence. This was more +than he could stand; and he at once asked to be recalled. +He had been all for honourable reconciliation from the +first. He had been particularly kind to his American +prisoners in Canada and had purposely refrained from +annihilating the American army after the battle of Three +Rivers. But he was not prepared for independence. Nor +had he been sent out with this ostensible object in view. +His official instructions were to inform the Americans +that 'the most liberal sentiments had taken root in the +nation, and that the narrow policy of monopoly was totally +extinguished.' Now he was called upon to surrender without +having tried either his arms or his diplomacy. With +British sea-power beginning to reassert its age-long +superiority over all possible rivals, with practically +all constitutional points of dispute conceded to the +revolutionists, and with the certain knowledge that by +no means the majority of all Americans were absolute +anti-British out-and-outers, he thought it no time to +dismember the Empire. His Intelligence Department had +been busily collecting information which seems surprising +enough as we read it over to-day, but which was based on +the solid facts of that unhappy time. One member of the +Continental Congress was anxious to know what would become +of the American army if reconciliation should be effected +on the understanding that there would be no more imperial +taxation or customs duty--would it become part of the +Imperial Army, or what? + +But speculation on all such contingencies was suddenly +cut short by the complete change of policy at home. The +idea was to end the civil war that had divided the Empire +and to concentrate on the foreign war that at least united +the people of Great Britain. No matter at what cost this +policy had now to be carried out; and Carleton was the +only man that every one would trust to do it. So, +sacrificing his own feelings and convictions, he made +the best of an exceedingly bad business. He had to +safeguard the prisoners and Loyalists while preparing to +evacuate the few remaining footholds of British power in +the face of an implacable foe. At the same time he had +to watch every other point in North America and keep in +touch with his excellent naval colleague, Admiral Digby, +lest his own rear might be attacked by the three foreign +enemies of England. He was even ordered off to the West +Indies in the autumn. But counter-orders fortunately +arrived before he could start. Thus, surrounded by enemies +in front and rear and on both flanks, he spent the seven +months between August and the following March. + +At the end of March 1783 news arrived that the preliminary +treaty of peace had been signed. The final treaty was +not signed till his fifty-ninth birthday, the 3rd of the +following September. The signature of the preliminaries +simplified the naval and military situation. But it made +the situation of the Loyalists worse than ever. Compared +with them the prisoners of war had been most highly +favoured from the first. And yet the British prisoners +had little to thank the Congress for. That they were +badly fed and badly housed was not always the fault of +the Americans. But that political favourites and underlings +were allowed to prey on them was an inexcusable disgrace. +When a prisoner complained, he was told it was the fault +of the British government which would not pay for his +keep! This answer, so contrary to all the accepted usages +of war, which reserve such payments till after the +conclusion of peace, was no empty gibe; for when, some +time before the preliminaries had been signed, the British +and American commissioners met to effect an exchange of +prisoners, the Americans began by claiming the immediate +payment of what the British prisoners had cost them. This +of course broke up the meeting at once. In the meantime +the German prisoners in British pay were offered their +freedom at eighty dollars a head. Then farmers came +forward to buy up these prisoners at this price. But the +farmers found competitors in the recruiting sergeants, +who urged the Germans, with only too much truth, not to +become 'the slaves of farmers' but to follow 'the glorious +trade of war' against their employers, the British +government. To their honour be it said, these Germans +kept faith with the British, much to the surprise of the +Americans, who, like many modern writers, could not +understand that these foreign mercenaries took a +professional pride in carrying out a sworn contract, even +when it would pay them better to break it. The British +prisoners were not put up for sale in the same way. But +money sent to them had a habit of disappearing on the +road--one item mentioned by Carleton amounted to six +thousand pounds. + +If such was the happy lot of prisoners during the war, +what was the wretched lot of Loyalists after the treaty +of peace? The words of one of the many petitions sent in +to Carleton will suggest the answer. 'If we have to +encounter this inexpressible misfortune we beg consideration +for our lives, fortunes, and property, _and not by mere +terms of treaty_.' What this means cannot be appreciated +unless we fully realize how strong the spirit of hate +and greed had grown, and why it had grown so strong. + +The American Revolution had not been provoked by +oppression, violence, and massacre. The 'chains and +slavery' of revolutionary orators was only a figure of +speech. The real causes were constitutional and personal; +and the actual crux of the question was one of payment +for defence. Of course there were many other causes at +work. The social, religious, and political grudges with +which so many emigrants had left the mother country had +not been forgotten and were now revived. Commercial +restrictions, however well they agreed with the spirit +of the age, were galling to such keen traders. And the +mere difference between colonies and motherland had +produced misunderstandings on both sides. But the main +provocative cause was Imperial taxation for local defence. +The Thirteen Colonies could not have held their own by +land or sea, much less could they have conquered their +French rivals, without the Imperial forces, which, indeed, +had done by far the greater part of the fighting. How +was the cost to be shared between the mother country and +themselves? The colonies had not been asked to pay more +than their share. The point was whether they could be +taxed at all by the Imperial government when they had no +representation in the Imperial parliament. The government +said Yes. The colonies and the opposition at home said +No. As the colonies would not pay of their own accord, +and as the government did not see why they should be +parasites on the armed strength of the mother country, +parliament proceeded to tax them. They then refused to +pay under compulsion; and a complete deadlock ensued. + +The personal factors in this perhaps insoluble problem +were still more refractory than the constitutional. All +the great questions of peace and war and other foreign +relations were settled by the mother country, which was +the only sovereign power and which alone possessed the +force to make any British rights respected. The Americans +supplied subordinate means and so became subordinate men +when they and the Imperial forces worked together. This, +to use a homely phrase, made their leaders feel out of +it. Everything that breeds trouble between militiamen +and regulars, colonials and mother-countrymen, fanned +the flame of colonial resentment till the leaders were +able to set their followers on fire. It was a leaders' +rebellion: there was no maddening cruelty or even +oppression such as those which have produced so many +revolutions elsewhere. It was a leaders' victory: there +was no general feeling that death or independence were +the only alternatives from the first. But as the fight +went on, and Loyalists and revolutionists grew more and +more bitter towards one another, the revolutionary +followers found the same cause for hating the Loyalists +as their leaders had found for hating the government. +Many of the Loyalists belonged to the well-educated and +well-to-do classes. So the envy and greed of the +revolutionary followers were added to the personal and +political rage of their leaders. + +The British government had done its best for the Loyalists +in the treaty of peace and had urged Carleton, who needed +no urging in such a cause, to do his best as well. But +the treaty was made with the Congress; and the Congress +had no authority over the internal affairs of the thirteen +new states, each one of which could do as it liked with +its own envied and detested Loyalists. The revolutionists +wanted some tangible spoils. The safety of peace had made +the trimmers equally 'patriotic' and equally clamorous. +So the confiscation of Loyalist property soon became the +order of the day. + +It was not the custom of that age to confiscate private +property simply because the owners were on the losing +side, still less to confiscate it under local instead of +national authority. But need, greed, and resentment were +stronger than any scruples. Need was the weakest, resentment +the strongest of all the animating motives. The American +army was in rags and its pay greatly in arrears while +the British forces under Carleton were fed, clothed, and +paid in the regular way. But it was the passionate +resentment of the revolutionists that perverted this +exasperating difference into another 'intolerable wrong.' +Washington was above such meaner measures. But when he +said the Loyalists were only fit for suicide, and when +Adams, another future president, said they ought to be +hanged, it is little wonder that lesser men thought the +time had come for legal looting. Those Loyalists who best +understood the temper of their late fellow-countrymen +left at once. They were right. Even to be a woman was no +protection against confiscation in the case of Mary +Phillips, sister-in-law to Beverley Robinson, a well-known +Loyalist who settled in New Brunswick after the Revolution. +Her case was not nearly so hard as many another. But her +historic love-affair makes it the most romantic. +Eight-and-twenty years before this General Braddock had +marched to death and defeat beside the Monongahela with +two handsome and gallant young aides-de-camp, Washington +and Morris. Both fell in love with bewitching Mary +Phillips. But, while Washington left her fancy-free, +Morris won her heart and hand. Now that the strife was +no longer against a foreign foe but between two British +parties, the former aides-de-camp found themselves rivals +in arms as well as love; for Colonel Morris was Carleton's +right-hand man in all that concerned the Loyalists, being +the official head of the department of Claims and Succour: + +Morris, Morgan, and Carleton were the three busiest men +in New York. Forty thick manuscript volumes still show +Maurice Morgan's assiduous work as Carleton's confidential +secretary. But Morris had the more heart-breaking duty +of the three, with no relief, day after sorrow-laden day, +from the anguishing appeals of Loyalist widows, orphans, +and other ruined refugees. No sooner had the dire news +arrived that peace had been made with the Congress, and +that each of the thirteen United States was free to show +uncovenanted mercies towards its own Loyalists, than the +exodus began. Five thousand five hundred and ninety-three +Loyalists sailed for Halifax in the first convoy on the +17th of April with a strong recommendation from Carleton +to Governor Parr of Nova Scotia. 'Many of these are of +the first families and born to the fairest possessions. +I therefore beg that you will have them properly +considered.' Shipping was scarce; for the hostility of +the whole foreign naval world had made enormous demands +on the British navy and mercantile marine. So six thousand +Loyalists had to march overland to join Carleton's vessels +at New York, some of them from as far south as +Charlottesville, Virginia. They were carefully shepherded +by Colonel Alured Clarke, of whom we shall hear again. + +Meanwhile Carleton and Washington had exchanged the usual +compliments on the conclusion of peace and had met each +other on the 6th of May at Tappan, where they discussed +the exchange of prisoners. By the terms of the treaty +the British were to evacuate New York, their last foothold +in the new republic, with all practicable dispatch; so, +as summer changed into autumn, the Congress became more +and more impatient to see the last of them. But Carleton +would not go without the Loyalists, whose many tributary +streams of misery were still flowing into New York. In +September, when the treaty of peace was ratified in +Europe, the Congress asked Carleton point-blank to name +the date of his own departure. But he replied that this +was impossible and that the more the Loyalists were +persecuted the longer he would be obliged to stay. The +correspondence between him and the Congress teems with +complaints and explanations. The Americans were very +anxious lest the Loyalists should take away any goods +and chattels not their own, particularly slaves. Carleton +was disposed to consider slaves as human beings, though +slavery was still the law in the British oversea dominions, +and so the Americans felt uneasy lest he might discriminate +between their slaves and other chattels. Reams of the +Carleton papers are covered with descriptive lists of +claimed and counter-claimed niggers--Julius Caesars, +Jupiters, Venuses, Dianas, and so on, who were either +'stout wenches' and 'likely fellows' or 'incurably lazy' +and 'old worn-outs.' + +Perhaps, when a slave wished to remain British, and his +case was nicely balanced between the claimants and the +counter-claimants, Carleton was a little inclined to give +him the benefit of the doubt. But with other forms of +disputed property he was too severe to please all Loyalists. +A typical case of restitution in Canada will show how +differently the two governments viewed the rights of +private property. Mercier and Halsted, two Quebec rebels, +owned a wharf and the frame of a warehouse in 1775. It +was Arnold's intercepted letter to Mercier that gave +Carleton's lieutenant, Cramahe, the first warning of +danger from the south. Halsted was Major Caldwell's miller +at the time and took advantage of his position to give +his employer's flour to Arnold's army, in which he served +as commissary throughout the siege. Just after the peace +of 1783 Mercier and Halsted laid claim to their former +property, which they had abandoned for eight years and +on which the government had meanwhile built a provision +store, making use of the original frame. The case was +complicated by many details too long for notice here. +But the British government finally gave the two rebels +the original property, plus thirteen years' rent, less +the cost of government works erected in the meantime. +All the documents are still in Quebec. + +Property was troublesome enough. But people were worse. +And Carleton's difficulties increased as the autumn wore +on. The first great harrying of the Loyalists drove more +than thirty thousand from their homes; and about twenty-five +thousand of these embarked at New York. Then there were +the remnants of twenty Loyalist corps to pension, settle, +or employ. There were also the British prisoners to +receive, besides ten thousand German mercenaries. Add to +all this the regular garrison and the general oversight +of every British interest in North America, from the +Floridas to Labrador, remember the implacable enemy in +front, and we may faintly imagine what Carleton had to +do before he could report that 'His Majesty's troops and +such remaining Loyalists as chose to emigrate were +successfully withdrawn on the 25th [of November] without +the smallest circumstance of irregularity.' + +Thus ended one of the greatest acts in the drama of the +British Empire, the English-speaking peoples, or the +world; and thus, for the second time, Carleton, now in +his sixtieth year, apparently ended his own long service +in America. He had left Canada, after saving her from +obliteration, because, so long as he remained her governor, +the war minister at home remained her enemy. He had then +returned to serve in New York, and had stayed there to +the bitter end, because there was no other man whom the +new government would trust to command the rearguard of +the Empire in retreat. + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +FOUNDING MODERN CANADA +1786-1796 + +Carleton now enjoyed two years of uninterrupted peace at +his country seat in England. His active career seemed to +have closed at last. He had no taste for party politics. +He was not anxious to fill any position of civil or +military trust, even if it had been pressed upon him. +And he had said farewell to America for good and all when +he had left New York. Though as full of public spirit as +before and only just turned sixty, he bid fair to spend +the rest of his life as an English country gentleman. +His young wife was well contented with her lot. His manly +boys promised to become worthy followers of the noble +profession of arms. And the overseeing of his little +estate occupied his time very pleasantly indeed. Like +most healthy Englishmen he was devoted to horses, and, +unlike some others, he was very successful with his +thoroughbreds. + +He had first bought a place near Maidenhead, beside the +Thames, which is nowhere lovelier than in that sylvan +neighbourhood. Then he bought the present family seat of +Greywill Hill near the little village of Odiham in +Hampshire. As an ex-governor and commander-in-chief, a +county magnate, a personage of great importance to the +Empire, and the one victorious British general in the +unhappy American war, he had more than earned a peerage. +But it was not till 1786, on the eve of his sixty-second +birthday, and at a time when his services were urgently +required again, that he received it. Needless to say this +peerage had nothing whatever to do with his acceptance +of another self-sacrificing duty. It was not given till +several months after he had promised to return to Canada; +and he would certainly have refused it if it had been +held out to him as an inducement to go there. He became +Baron Dorchester and was granted the not very extravagant +addition to his income of a thousand pounds a year payable +during four lives, his own, his wife's, and those of his +two eldest sons. His elevation to the House of Lords met +with the almost unanimous approval of his fellow-peers, +in marked contrast to the open hostility they had shown +towards his old enemy, Lord George Germain, when that +vile wrecker had been 'kicked upstairs' among them. The +Carleton motto, crest, and supporters are all most +appropriate. The crest is a strong right arm with the +hand clenched firmly on an arrow. The motto is _Quondam +his vicimus armis_--_We used to conquer with these arms_. +The supporters are two beavers, typifying Canada, while +their respective collars, one a naval the other a military +coronet, show how her British life was won and saved and +has been kept. + +Carleton was a man of great reserve and self-control. +But his kindly nature must have responded to the cordial +welcome which he received on his return to Quebec in +October 1786. It was not without reason that the people +of Canada rejoiced to have him back as their leader. All +that the Indians imagined the Great White Father to be +towards themselves he was in reality towards both red +man and white. Stern, when the occasion forced him to be +stern, just in all his dealings between man and man, +dignified and courteous in all his ways, a soldier through +every inch of his stalwart six feet, he was a ruler with +whom no one ever dreamt of taking liberties. But neither +did any deserving one in trouble ever hesitate to lay +the most confidential case before him in the full assurance +that his head and heart were at the service of all +committed to his care. And no other governor, before his +time or since, ever inspired his followers with such a +firm belief that all would turn out for the best so long +as he was in command. + +This power of inspiring confidence was now badly needed. +Everything in Canada was still provisional. Owing to the +war the Quebec Act of 1774 had never been thoroughly +enforced. Then, when the war was over, the Loyalists +arrived and completely changed the circumstances which +the act had been designed to meet. The next constitution, +the Canada Act of 1791, was of a very different character. +During the seventeen years between these two constitutions +all that could be done was to make the best of a very +confusing state of flux. Not that the Quebec Act was a +dead letter--far from it--but simply that it could not +go beyond restoring the privileges of the French-Canadian +priests and seigneurs within the area then effectively +occupied by the French-Canadian race. Carleton, as we +have seen, had faced its problem for the first four years. +Haldimand had carried on the government under its provisions +for the following six. Hamilton and Hope, successive +lieutenant-governors, had bridged the two years between +Haldimand's retirement and Carleton's second appointment. +Now Carleton was to pick up the threads and make what he +could of the tangled skein for the next five years. +Haldimand had not been popular with either of the two +chief parties into which the leading French Canadians +were divided. The seigneurs had nothing like the same +regard for a Swiss soldier of fortune that they had for +aristocratic British commanders like Murray and Carleton. +The clergy also preferred these Anglicans to such a strong +Swiss Protestant. The habitants and agitators, who were +far less favourable to the new regime, had passionately +resented Haldimand's firmness at times of crisis. But, +despite all this French-Canadian animus, he was not such +an absolute martinet as some writers would have us think. +The war with France and with the American Revolutionists +required strong government in Canada; while the influx +of Loyalists had introduced an entirely new set of most +perplexing circumstances. On the whole, Haldimand had +done very well in spite of many personal and public +drawbacks; and it was through no special fault of his, +nor yet of Hope's, that the threads which Carleton picked +up formed such a perversely tangled skein. + +The troubles that now dogged the great conciliator's +every step were of all kinds--racial, religious, social, +political, military, diplomatic, legal. The confusion +resulting from the intermixture of French and English +civil laws had become a great deal more confounded since +he had left Canada eight years before. The old proportions +of races and religions to each other had changed most +disturbingly. The Loyalists were of quite a different +social class from the English-speaking immigrants of +earlier days. They wanted a parliament, public schools, +and many other things new to the country; and they were +the sort of people who had a right to have them. The +problem of defence was always a vexed one with the +inadequate military forces at hand and the insuperable +difficulties concerning the militia. The British still +held the Western forts pending the settlement of the +frontier and the execution of the treaty of peace in +full. This naturally annoyed the American government and +gave Carleton endless trouble. But more serious still +was the ceaseless western march of the American +backwoodsmen, who were everywhere in conflict with the +Indians. The Indians, in their turn, were confused between +the British and Americans under the new conditions. They +and their ever-receding rights and territories had not +been mentioned in the treaty. But, seeing that they would +be better off under British than under American rule, +they were inclined to take sides accordingly. There were +now no openly hostile sides to take. But, for all that, +the British posts in the hinterland looked like weak +little islands which might be suddenly engulfed in the +sea of Indian troubles raging round them. Then, at the +other end of the British line, there were the three +maritime provinces to watch over. New Brunswick had been +divided off from Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island +had been taken from the direct supervision of the home +authorities and placed under the command of the new +governor at Quebec. Thus Carleton had to deal directly +with everything that happened from the far West to Gaspe, +while dealing indirectly with the three maritime provinces +and all the troubles that proved too much for their own +lieutenant-governors. There was no chance of concentrating +on one thing at a time. Nothing would wait. The governor +had to watch the writhing tangle as a whole during every +minute he devoted to any one kinked and knotted thread. + +Fortunately there were some good men in office on both +sides of the Atlantic. Lords Sydney and Grenville, the +two cabinet ministers with whom Carleton had most to do, +were both sensible and sympathetic. Years afterwards +Grenville, the favourite cousin of Pitt, became the +colleague of Fox at the head of the celebrated 'Ministry +of All the Talents.' Hope was an acceptable +lieutenant-governor, and his successor, Sir Alured Clarke, +was better still. Francois Bailly, the coadjutor Roman +Catholic bishop of Quebec, who had gone to England as +French tutor to Carleton's children, was a most enlightened +cleric. So too was Charles Inglis, the Anglican bishop +of Nova Scotia, appointed in 1787. He was the first +Canadian bishop of the Anglican communion and his diocese +comprised the whole of British North America. William +Smith, the new chief justice, was as different from +Carleton's last chief justice, Livius, as angels are from +devils. Smith had been an excellent chief justice of his +native New York in the old colonial days, and, like +Inglis, was a very ardent Loyalist. He respected all +reasonable French-Canadian peculiarities. But he favoured +the British-Constitutional way of 'broadening down from +precedent to precedent' rather than the French way of +referring to a supposedly infallible written regulation. +We shall soon meet him as a far-seeing statesman. But he +well deserves an honoured place in Canadian history for +his legal services alone. To him, more than to any other +man, is due the nicely balanced adjustments which eventually +harmonized the French and English codes into a body of +laws adapted to the extraordinary circumstances of the +province of Quebec. + +Besides the committee on laws Carleton had nominated +three other active committees of his council, one on +police, another on education, and a third on trade and +commerce. The police committee was of the usual kind and +dealt with usual problems in the usual way. But the +education committee brought out all the vexed questions +of French and English, Protestant and Roman Catholic, +progressive and reactionary. Strangely enough, the sharpest +personal controversy was that between Hubert, the Roman +Catholic bishop of Quebec, and his coadjutor Bailly. +Hubert enumerated all the institutions already engaged +in educational work and suggested that 'rest and be +thankful' was the only proper attitude for the committee +to assume. But Bailly very neatly pointed out that his +respected superior's real opinions could not be those +attributed to him over his own signature because they +were at variance with the facts. Hubert had said that +the cures were spreading education with most commendable +zeal, had repudiated the base insinuation that only three +or four people in each parish could read and write, and +had wound up by thinking that while there was so much +land to clear the farmers would do better to keep their +sons at home than send them to a university, where they +would be under professors so 'unprejudiced' as to have +no definite views on religion. Bailly argued that the +bishop could not mean what these words seemed to imply, +as the logical conclusion would be to wait till Canada +was cleared right up to the polar circle. In the end the +committee made three very sanguine recommendations: a +free common school in every parish, a secondary school +in every town or district, and an absolutely non-sectarian +central university. This educational ladder was never +set up. There was nothing to support either end of it. +The financial side was one difficulty. The Jesuits' +estates were intended to be made over into educational +endowments under government control. But Amherst's claim +that they had been granted to him in 1760 was not settled +for forty years; and by that time all chance of carrying +out the committee's intentions was seen to be hopeless. + +Commerce was another burning question and one of much +more immediate concern. In 1791 the united populations +of all the provinces amounted to only a quarter of a +million, of whom at least one-half were French Canadians. +Quebec and Montreal had barely ten thousand citizens +apiece. But the commercial classes, mostly English-speaking, +had greatly increased in numbers, ability, and social +standing. The camp-following gangs of twenty years before +had now either disappeared or sunk down to their appropriate +level. So petitions from the 'British merchants' required +and received much more consideration than formerly. The +Loyalists had not yet had time to start in business. All +their energies were needed in hewing out their future +homes. But two parts of the American Republic, Vermont +and Kentucky, were very anxious to do business with the +British at any reasonable price. Some of their citizens +were even ready for a change of allegiance if the terms +were only good enough. Vermont wanted a 'free trade' +outlet to the St Lawrence by way of the Richelieu. The +rapids between St Johns and Chambly lay in British +territory. But Vermont was ready to join in building a +canal and would even become British to make sure. The +old Green Mountain Boys had changed their tune. Ethan +Allen himself had buried the hatchet and, like his brother, +become Carleton's friendly correspondent. He frankly +explained that what Vermonters really wanted was 'property +not liberty' and added that they would stand no coercion +from the American government. About the same time Kentucky +was bent on getting an equally 'free trade' outlet to +the Gulf of Mexico by way of the Mississippi. The fact +that France Spain, the British Empire, and the United +States might all be involved in war over it did not +trouble the conspirators in the least. The central +authority of the new Republic was still weak. The individual +states were still ready to fly asunder. Federal taxation +was greatly feared. Anything that savoured of federal +interference with state rights was passionately resented. +The general spirit of the westerners was that of the +exploiting pioneer in a virgin wilderness--a law unto +itself alone. There were various plans for opening the +coveted Mississippi. One was to join Spain. Another was +to seize New Orleans, turn out the French, and bring in +the British. Then, to make the plot complete, the French +minister to the United States was asking permission to +make a tour through Canada at the very time when Carleton +was sending home reams of documents bearing on the +impending troubles. The letters exchanged on this subject +are perfect models of politeness. But Carleton's answer +was an emphatic No. + +Foreign complications were thickening fast. The French +Revolution had already begun, though its effect was not +yet felt in Canada. The American government was anxiously +watching its refractory states, while an anti-British +political party was making headway in the South. As if +this was not enough to engage whatever attention Carleton +had to spare from the internal affairs of Canada, he +suddenly heard that the Spaniards had been seizing British +vessels trading to a British post on Vancouver Island. +[Footnote: _See Pioneers of the Pacific Coast_ in this +Series.] This Nootka Affair, which nearly brought on a +war with Spain in 1790, was settled in London and Madrid. +But the threat of war added to Carleton's anxieties. + +Meanwhile the governor was busily employed with an +immigration problem. It was desirable that the +English-speaking immigrants should settle on the land +with the least possible friction between them and the +French Canadians. The French Canadians differed among +themselves. But no such differences brought them any +closer to their new neighbours on questions of land +settlement. The French had granted lands in seigneuries. +The British would hear of nothing but free and common +socage. French farms were measured by the arpent and were +staked out in long and narrow oblongs. British farms were +measured by the acre and staked out 'on the square.' +Language, laws, religion, manners and customs, ways of +life, were also different. So there was hardly any +intermixture of settlements. The French Canadians remained +where they were. Most of the new Anglo-Canadians settled +in the Maritime Provinces or moved west into what is now +Ontario. A few settled in rural Quebec on lands outside +the line of seigneuries. The Eastern Townships, that part +of the province lying east of the Richelieu and nearest +the American frontier, absorbed many English, Irish, and +Scots, as well as a good many Americans who were attracted +by cheap land. Ontario, or Upper Canada, received still +more Americans, who were to be a thorn in the side of +the British during the War of 1812. + +But Carleton's work comprised much more than this. There +were the Church of England, the Post Office, a refractory +lieutenant-governor down in Prince Edward Island, two +royal visitors, and many other distracting matters. The +only Anglican see thus far established was at Halifax; +but the bishop there had authority over the whole country +and the government intended to establish the Church of +England in Canada and endow it. The Presbyterians also +petitioned for the establishment of the Scottish Church. +The fortunes or misfortunes of the Clergy Reserves +belong to another chapter of Canadian history. But the +root of their good or evil was planted in the time of +Carleton. The postal service was surrounded by enormous +difficulties--the vast extent of wild country, the few +towns, the long winters, the poverty of the people. +The question of the winter port was even then a live +one between St John and Halifax. Each of these towns +asserted its advantages and promised twelve trips a year +and connection with Quebec overland by means of walking +postmen till a bush road should be cut from Quebec to the +sea. In Prince Edward Island the old lieutenant-governor, +Walter Patterson, declined to make way for the new one, +Edmund Fanning. In the end Patterson gave up the contest. +But the incident, trivial as it now appears, shows what +a governor-general had to face in the early days when +each province had queer little ways of its own. Patterson +had no precise official reason. But he said he could +not go home to answer charges he did not understand and +leave an island which had been his very successful hobby +for so many years! The people sided with him so vigorously +that time had to be given them to cool down before the +transfer could be peaceably effected. + +A judge whose court is in perpetual session or a commander +whose inadequate forces are continually surrounded by +prospective enemies has little time for the amenities of +purely social life. So Carleton generally left his young +consort to rule the viceregal court at the Chateau St +Louis with a perfect blend of London and Versailles. Two +Princes of the Blood, however, demanded more than the +usual attention from the governor. Prince William Henry, +afterwards King William IV, was the first member of the +Royal Family to set foot in the New World when he arrived +in H.M.S. _Pegasus_ in 1787. He was the proverbial jolly +Jack Tar, extremely affable to everybody; and he quickly +won golden opinions from all who met him, except perhaps +from Lady Dorchester and sundry would-be partners for +his duty dances. Philippe Aubert de Gaspe and other +privileged chroniclers record with slightly shocked +delight how often he would break loose from Lady +Dorchester's designing care, long before she thought it +right for him to do so, and 'command' his partners for +their pretty faces instead of by precedence. At Sorel +the people were so carried away by their enthusiasm that +they insisted on changing the name of their little town +to William Henry. Happily this name never took root in +public sentiment and the old one soon came back to stay. + +The second member of the Royal Family to come to Canada +was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, fourth son of George +III, father of Queen Victoria and grandfather of Prince +Arthur, Duke of Connaught, who became the first royal +governor-general in 1911, exactly a hundred and twenty +years later. The Duke of Kent would have gladly returned +to Quebec as governor-general, and the people would have +gladly welcomed him. But he was not a favourite with the +government at home, and so he never came. There was no +doubt about his being a popular favourite in Quebec during +the three years he spent there as colonel of the 7th +Fusiliers. Nor has he been forgotten to the present day. +Kent House is still the name of his quarters in the town +as well as of his country residence at Montmorency Falls +seven miles away, while the only new opening ever made +in the walls is called Kent Gate. + +The duke made fast friends with several of the seigneurial +families, more especially with the de Salaberrys, whose +manor-house at Beauport stood half-way between Montmorency +and Quebec and not far from Montcalm's headquarters in +1759. The de Salaberrys were a military family. All the +sons went into the Army and one became the hero of +Chateauguay in the War of 1812. But the duke mixed freely +with many other people than the local aristocracy. He +was young, high-spirited, and loved adventure, as was +proved by his subsequent gallantry at Martinique. He was +also fond of driving round incognito, a habit which on +at least one occasion obliged him to put his skill at +boxing to good use. This was at Charlesbourg, a village +near Quebec, where he was watching the fun at the first +election ever held. Perhaps, from a meticulously +constitutional point of view, the scene of a hotly +contested election was not quite the place for Princes +of the Blood. But, however that might be, when the duke +saw two electors pommelling a third, who happened to be +a friend of his, he dashed in to the rescue and floored +both of them with a neatly planted right and left. One +of these men, who lived to see King Edward VII arrive in +1860, as Prince of Wales, always took the greatest pride +in telling successive generations of voters how Queen +Victoria's father had knocked him down. + +Like his brother before him the duke was very fond of +dancing, and kept many a reluctant senior and many a +tired-out chaperone up till all hours at the grand ball +given in honour of his twenty-fourth birthday. Also like +his brother he was inclined to reduce his duty dances to +a minimum, much to Lady Dorchester's dismay. She had gone +home with her husband for two years shortly after the +duke's arrival. But she had seen enough of him, and was +to see enough again on her return, to make her regret +the good old times of more exacting ceremony. To her +dying day, half a century later, she kept up a prodigious +stateliness of manner. Before meals she expected the +whole company to assemble and remain standing till she +had made her royal progress through the room. She was a +living anachronism for many years before her death, with +her high-heeled, gold-buttoned, scarlet-coloured shoes, +her Marie-Antoinette _coiffure_ raised high above her +head and interlaced with ribbons, her elaborately gorgeous +dress, her intricate array of ornaments, and her long, +jet-black, official-looking cane. But she was no anachronism +to herself; for she still lived in the light of other +days, in the fondly remembered times when, as the vice-reine +of the Chateau St Louis, she helped her consort to settle +nice points of etiquette and maintain a dignity befitting +His Majesty's chosen representative. How did the seigneurs +rank among themselves and with the leading English-speaking +people? Who were to dance in the state minuet? Should +dancing cease when the bishops came in, and for how long? +Was that curtsy dropped quite low enough to her viceregal +self, and did that _debutante_ offer her blushing cheek +in quite the proper way to Carleton when he graciously +gave her the presentation kiss? How immeasurably far away +it all seems now, that stately little court where the +echoes of a dead Versailles lived on for seven years +after the fall of the Bastille! And yet there is still +one citizen o Quebec whose early partners were chaperoned +by ladies who had danced the minuet with Lord and Lady +Dorchester. + +The two royal visits were not without their political +significance--using the word political in its larger +meaning. But the three years between them--that is, +1788-89-90--formed the really pregnant time of +constitutional development, when the Canada Act of 1791 +was taking shape in the minds of its chief authors +--Carleton and Smith in Canada, Grenville and Pitt in +England. The Loyalists and the English-speaking merchants +of Quebec and Montreal took good care to make themselves +heard at every stage of the proceedings. Most French +Canadians would have preferred to be left without the +suspected blessings of a parliament. The clergy and +seigneurs wished for a continuance of the Quebec Act, +and the habitants wanted they knew not what, provided it +would enable them to get more and give less. The +English-speaking people, on the other hand, were all for +a parliament. But they differed widely as to what kind +of parliament would suit their purpose best. As a rule +they acquiesced, with a more or less bad grace, in the +necessity of admitting French Canadians on the same terms +as themselves. If Canada, without the Maritime Provinces, +should be taken as a whole then the French Canadians +would only be in a moderate majority. If, however, two +provinces, Upper Canada and Lower Canada, were to be +erected, then the English-speaking minority in Lower +Canada would be outvoted three or four to one. + +There was a third alternative: no less than the +establishment of a regular Dominion of British North +America in 1790, a step which might have saved much +trouble between that time and the Confederation of 1867. +William Smith was its strongest advocate, Carleton its +most cautious and judicious supporter. The chief justice +was in favour of federating Upper and Lower Canada with +the Maritime Provinces and Newfoundland into a single +dominion. Each of the six provinces would have its own +parliament under a lieutenant-governor, while there would +also be a central parliament under a governor-general. +Carleton forwarded the suggestion to the home government; +but he nowhere committed himself to any very definite +scheme. His own preference was for keeping the existing +province of Quebec a little longer, then dividing it, +and afterwards drawing in the other provinces. The chief +justice preferred to make a constitution. The governor +preferred to let it grow. The home government's preference +could not be stated better than in Grenville's dispatch +to Carleton of the 20th of October 1789: 'The general +object is to assimilate the constitution to that of Great +Britain as nearly as the difference arising from the +manners of the People and from the present situation of +the Province will admit. ... Attention is due to the +prejudices and habits of the French Inhabitants and every +caution should be used to continue to them the enjoyment +of those civil and religious Rights which were secured +to them by the Capitulation or which have since been +granted by the liberal and enlightened spirit of the +British Government.' Except for its rather too +self-righteous conclusion this confidential announcement +really is an admirable statement of the 'liberal and +enlightened' views which prevailed at Westminster. + +The bill, postponed in 1790, was introduced by Pitt +himself in the House of Commons on the 7th of March 1791. +Sixteen days later Adam Lymburner, a representative +merchant of Quebec, whom Carleton described as 'a quiet, +decent man, not unfriendly to the administration,' pleaded +for hours before the committee of the House of Commons +against the division of the province. All the +English-speaking minority in the prospective province of +Lower Canada were afraid of being swamped by the +French-Canadian vote, and so of being hampered in liberty +and trade. The London merchants naturally backed Lymburner. +Fox opposed the bill as not being liberal enough. Burke +flared up into the speech which led to his final breach +with Fox. Pitt, the pilot who was to weather far greater +storms in the years to come, eventually got the bill +through both Houses with substantial majorities. On the +14th of May it became law. Quebec and Ontario were parted +for good, notwithstanding the legislative union of fifty +years later. + +The Canada Act, or, as it is better known, the +Constitutional Act, cut off Upper Canada. Lower Canada +was now the old Quebec reduced to its right size, endowed +with clarified laws and a brand-new parliament, and made +as acceptable as possible to the English-speaking minority +without any injustice to the vastly greater French +majority. Quebec, Three Rivers, Montreal, and Sorel got +each two members in the new parliament, an allotment +which ensured a certain representation of the 'British' +merchants. The franchise was the same in both provinces: +in the country parts a forty-shilling freehold or its +equivalent, and in the towns either a five-pound annual +ownership value or twice that for a tenant. The Crown +gave up all taxation except commercial duties, which were +to be applied solely for the benefit of the provinces. +Lands outside the seigneuries were to be in free and +common socage, while seigneurial tenure itself could be +converted into freehold on petition. One-seventh of the +Crown lands was reserved for the endowment of the Church +of England. The Crown kept all rights of veto and +appointment. The legislatures were small in membership. +The Upper Houses could be made hereditary; though the +actual tenure was never more than for life during good +behaviour. Carleton favoured the hereditary principle +whenever it could be applied with advantage. But he knew +the ups and downs of colonial fortunes too well to believe +that Canada was ready for any such experiment. + +No one dreamt of having what is now known as responsible +government, that is, an executive sitting in the legislature +and responsible to the legislature for its acts. Nor was +the greatest of all parliamentary powers--the power of +the purse--given outright. This, however, was owing to +simple force of circumstances and not to any desire of +abridging the liberties of the people. The fact is that +at this time eighty per cent of the total civil expenditure +had to be paid by the home government. It is frequently +ignored that the mother country paid most of Canada's +bills till long after the War of 1812, that she paid +nearly all the naval and military accounts for longer +still, and that she has borne far more than her own share +of the common defence down to the present day. + +The new constitution came into force on the 26th of +December 1791; and, for the first time, Upper and Lower +Canada had the right to elect their own representatives. +Assemblies, of course, were nothing new in British North +America. Nova Scotia had an assembly in 1758, the year +that Louisbourg was taken. Prince Edward Island had one +in 1773, the year before the Quebec Act was passed. New +Brunswick had one in 1786, the year Carleton began his +second term. But assemblies still had all the charm of +novelty in 'Canada proper.' Perhaps it would be more +appropriate to say that Upper Canada experienced more +charm than novelty while Lower Canada experienced more +novelty than charm. The Anglo-Canadians in all five +provinces were used to parliaments in America. Their +ancestors had been used to them for centuries in England. +So the little parliament of Upper Canada at Newark passed +as many bills in five weeks as that of Lower Canada passed +in seven months. The fact that there were fifty members +in the Assembly at Quebec, while there were only half as +many in both chambers at Newark, doubtless had something +to do with it. But the fact that the Quebec parliament +was an innovation, while the one at Newark was a simple +development, had very much more. + +There is no need to follow the course of legislation in +any of the five provinces. As most of the civil and +practically all the naval and military expenditure had +to be met by the Imperial Treasury, and as Canada was +five parts and no whole from her own parliamentary point +of view, the legislation required for a grand total of +two hundred and fifty thousand people could not be of +the national kind. But at Quebec the scene, the setting, +and the unheard-of innovation itself all give a special +interest to every detail of the opening ceremony on the +17th of December 1792. + +Carleton was in England, so the Speech from the Throne +was read by the lieutenant-governor, Major-General Sir +Alured Clarke. Half of the Upper House and two-thirds of +the Lower were French Canadians. A French-Canadian member +was nominated for the speakership and elected unanimously. +Both races were for the most part represented by members +whose official title of 'Honourable Gentlemen' was not +at all a misnomer. The French members of the Assembly +were half distrustful both of it and of themselves. But +they knew how to add grace and dignity to a very notable +occasion. The old Bishop's Palace served as the Houses +of Parliament and so continued for many years to come. +It was a solid rather than a stately pile. But it stood +on a commanding site at the head of Mountain Hill between +the Grand Battery and the Chateau St Louis. Every one +was in uniform or in what corresponded to court dress. +Round the throne stood many officers in their red and +gold, conspicuous among them the Duke of Kent. In front +sat the Executive and Legislative Councillors, corresponding +to the modern cabinet ministers and senators. Their roll, +as well as the Assembly's, bore many names that recalled +the glories of the old regime--St Ours, Longueuil, de +Lanaudiere, Boucherville, de Salaberry, de Lotbiniere, +and many more. The Council chamber was crowded in every +part long before the governor arrived. 'The Ladies +introduced into the House' were 'without Hat, Cloak, or +Bonnet,' the 'Doorkeeper of His Majesty's Council' having +taken good care to see them 'leave the same in the Great +Committee Room previous to their Introduction.' 'The +Ladies attached to His Excellency's Suite' were admitted +'within the railing or body of the House' and 'accommodated +with the seats of the members as far as possible.' +Outwardly it was all very much the same in principle as +the opening of any other British parliament--the escort, +guard, and band, the royal salute, the brilliant staff, +the scarlet cloth of state, the few and quiet members of +the Upper House, the many of the Lower, jostling each +other to get a good place near Mr Speaker at the bar, +the radiant ladies, the crowded galleries corniced with +inquiring faces and craned necks, the Gentlemen Ushers +and their quaint bows, the Speech from the Throne and +the occasional lifting of His Excellency's hat, the +retiring in full state; and then the ebbing away of all +the sightseers, their eddying currents of packed humanity +in the halls and passages, the porch, the door, the +emptying street. But inwardly what a world of difference! +For here was the first British parliament in which +legislators of foreign birth and blood and language were +shaping British laws as British subjects. + +In September 1793 Carleton returned from his two years' +absence and was welcomed more warmly than ever. Quebec +blazed with illuminations. The streets swarmed with eager +crowds. The first session of the first parliament had +been better than any one had dared to hope for. There +was a general tendency to give the new constitution a +fair trial; and all classes looked to Carleton to make +the harmony that had been attained both permanent and +universal. Dr Jacob Mountain, first Anglican bishop of +Quebec, also arrived shortly afterwards and was warmly +greeted by the Roman Catholic prelate, who embraced him, +saying, 'It's time you came to shepherd your own flock.' +Mountain was statesman and churchman in one. He had been +chosen by the elder Pitt to be the younger's tutor and +then chosen by the younger to be his private secretary. The +fact that the Anglican bishop of Quebec was then and for +many years afterwards a sort of Canadian chaplain-general +to the Imperial troops and that most of the leading +officials and leading Loyalists belonged to the Church +of England made him a personage of great importance. It +was fortunate that, as in the case of Inglis down in +Halifax, the choice could not have fallen on a better +man or on one who knew better how to win the esteem of +communions other than his own. This same year (1793) died +William Smith, full of honours. But the next year his +excellent successor arrived in the person of William +Osgoode, the new chief justice, an eminent English lawyer +who had served for two years as chief justice of Upper +Canada and whose name is commemorated in Osgoode Hall, +Toronto. He had come out on the distinct understanding +that no fees were to be attached to his office, only a +definite salary. This was a great triumph for Carleton, +who certainly practised what he preached. + +So far, so good. But the third conspicuous new arrival, +John Graves Simcoe, lieutenant-governor of Upper Canada, +who had come out the year before, was a great deal less +to Carleton's liking. Simcoe was a good officer who threw +himself heart and soul into the work of settling the new +province. He won the affectionate regard of his people +and is gratefully remembered by their posterity. But he +was too exclusively of his own province in his civil and +military outlook and was disposed to ignore Carleton as +his official chief. Moreover, he was appointed in spite +of Carleton's strongly expressed preference for Sir John +Johnson, who, to all appearances, was the very man for +the post. Sir William Johnson, the first baronet, had +been the great British leader of the Indians and a person +of much consequence throughout America. His son John +inherited many of his good qualities, thoroughly understood +the West and its problems, was a devoted Loyalist all +through the Revolution, when he raised the King's Royal +Regiment of New York, and would have been second only to +Carleton himself in the eyes of all Canadians, old and +new. But the government thought his private interests +too great for his public duty--an excellent general +principle, though misapplied in this particular case. At +any rate, Simcoe came instead, and the friction began at +once. Simcoe's commission clearly made him subordinate +to Carleton. Yet Simcoe made appointments without consulting +his superior and argued the point after he had been +brought to book. He communicated directly with the home +government over his superior's head and was not rebuked +by the minister to whom he wrote--Henry Dundas, afterwards +first Viscount Melville. Dundas, indeed, was half inclined +to snub Carleton. Simcoe desired to establish military +posts wherever he thought they would best promote immediate +settlement, a policy which would tend to sap both the +government's resources and the self-reliance of the +settlers. He also wished to fix the capital at London +instead of York, now Toronto, and to make York instead +of Kingston the naval base for Lake Ontario. Thus the +friction continued. At length Carleton wrote to the Duke +of Portland, Pitt's home secretary, saying: 'All command, +civil and military, being thus disorganized and without +remedy, your Grace will, I hope, excuse my anxiety for +the arrival of any successor, who may have authority +sufficient to restore order, lest these insubordinations +should extend to mutiny among the troops and sedition +among the people.' That was in November 1795. The +government, however, took no decisive action, and next +year both Carleton and Simcoe left Canada for ever. + +When this unfortunate quarrel began (1793) Canada was in +grave danger of being attacked by both the French and +the American republics. The danger, however, had been +greatly lessened by Jay's Treaty of 1794 and was to be +still further lessened (1796) by the transfer of the +Western Posts to the United States and by the presidential +election which gave the Federal party a new lease of +power, though no longer under Washington. Had Carleton +remained in Canada these felicitous events would have +offered him a unique opportunity of strengthening the +friendly ties between the British and the Americans in +a way which might have saved some trouble later on. But +that was not to be. + +To understand the dangers which threatened Canada during +the last three years of Carleton's rule we must go back +to February 1793, when revolutionary France declared war +on England and there then began that titanic struggle +which only ended twenty-two years later on the field of +Waterloo. The Americans were divided into two parties, +one disposed to be friendly towards Great Britain, the +other unfriendly. The names these parties then bore must +not be confused with those borne by their political +offspring at the present day. The Federals, progenitors +of the present Republicans, formed the friendly party +under Washington, Hamilton, and Jay. The Republicans, +progenitors of the present Democrats, formed the unfriendly +party under Jefferson, Madison, and Randolph. The Federals +were in power, the Republicans in opposition. When the +Republicans got into power in 1801 under Jefferson they +pursued their anti-British policy till they finally +brought on the War of 1812 under the presidency of Madison. +The strength of the peace party lay in the North; that +of the war party lay in the South. The peaceful Federals, +now that Independence had been gained, were in favour of +meeting the amicable British government half-way. When +Pitt came into power in 1783 he at once held out the +olive branch. Now, ten years later, the more far-seeing +statesmen on both sides were preparing to confirm the +new friendship in the practical form of Jay's Treaty, +which put the United States into what is at present known +as a most-favoured-nation position with regard to British +trade and commerce. Moreover, Washington and his Northern +Federals much preferred a British Canada to a French one, +while Jefferson and the Southern Republicans thought any +stick was good enough to beat the British dog with. + +The Jeffersonians eagerly seized on the reports of a +speech which Carleton made to the Miamis, who lived just +south of Detroit, and used it to the utmost as a means +of stirring up anti-British feeling. Carleton had said: +'You are witnesses that we have acted in the most peaceable +manner and borne the language and conduct of the United +States with patience. But I believe our patience is almost +exhausted.' Applied to the vexed questions of the Western +Posts, of the lawless ways of the exterminating American +pioneers, and of the infinitely worse jobbing politicians +behind them, this language was mildness itself. But in +view of the high statesmanship of Washington and his +government it was injudicious. All the same, Dundas, more +especially because he was a cabinet minister, was even +more injudicious when he adopted a tone of reproof towards +Carleton, whose great services, past and present, entitled +him to unusual respect and confidence. The negotiations +for Jay's Treaty were then in progress in London, and +Jefferson saw his chance of injuring both the American +and British governments by magnifying Carleton's speech +into an 'unwarrantable outrage.' He also hoped that an +Indian war would upset the treaty and bring on a British +war as well. And the prospect did look encouragingly +black in the West, where the American general Wayne was +ready waiting south of Lake Erie, while the trade in +scalps was unusually brisk. Forty dollars was the regular +market price for an ordinary Indian's scalp. But as much +as a thousand was offered for Simon Girty's in the hope +of getting that inconvenient British scout put quickly +out of the way. Nearer home Jefferson and his band of +demagogues had other arguments as well. The Federal North +would suffer most by war, while the Republican South +might use war as a means of repudiating all the debts +she owed to Englishmen. This would have been a very +different thing from the insolvency of the Continental +Congress during the Revolution. It was dire want, not +financial infamy, that made the Revolutionary paper money +'not worth a Continental.' But it would have been sheer +theft for the Jeffersonian South to have made its honest +obligations 'rotten as a Pennsylvanian bond.' + +The wild French-Revolutionary rage that swept through +the South now fanned the flame and made the sparks fly +over into Canada. In April 1793 a fiery Red Republican, +named Genet, landed at Charleston as French minister to +the United States and made a triumphal progress to +Philadelphia. Nobody bothered about the fundamental +differences between the French and American revolutions. +France and England were going to war and that was enough. +Genet was one of those 'impossibles' whom revolutions +throw into ridiculous power. When he began his campaign +the Republican South was at his feet. Planters and +legislators donned caps of liberty and danced themselves +so crazy over the rights of abstract man that they had +no enthusiasm left for such concrete instances as Loyalists, +Englishmen, and their own plantation slaves. Then Genet +made his next step in the new diplomacy by fitting out +French privateers in American harbours and seizing British +vessels in American waters. This brought Washington down +on him at once. Then he lost his head completely, abused +everybody, including Jefferson, and retired from public +life as an American citizen, being afraid to go home. + +Genet's absurd career was short, but very meteoric while +it lasted, and full of anti-British mischief-making. His +agents were everywhere; and his successor, Adet, carried +on the underground agitation with equal zeal and more +astuteness. Vermont offered an excellent base of operations. +Finding that its British proclivities had not produced +the Chambly canal for its trade with the St Lawrence, it +had become more violently anti-British than ever before +and even proposed taking Canada single-handed. This time +its new policy remained at fever heat for over three +years and only cooled down when a British man-of-war +captured the incongruously named _Olive Branch_, in which +Ira Allen was trying to run the blockade from Ostend with +twenty thousand muskets and other arms which he represented +as being solely for the annual drill of the Vermont +militia. Thus Carleton had to watch the raging South, +the dangerous West, and bellicose Vermont, all together, +besides taking whatever measures he could against the +swarms of secret enemies within the gates. The American +immigrants who wanted 'property not liberty' were ready +enough for a change of flag whenever it suited them. But +they were few compared with the mass of French Canadians +who were being stirred into disaffection. The seigneurs, +the clergy, and the very few enlightened people of other +classes had no desire for being conquered by a regicide +France or an obliterating American Republic. But many of +the habitants and of the uneducated in the towns lent a +willing ear to those who promised them all kinds of +liberty and property put together. + +The danger was all the greater because it was no longer +one foreigner intriguing against another, as in 1775, but +French against British and class against class. Some of the +appeals were still ridiculous. The habitants found themselves +credited with an unslakable thirst for higher education. +They were promised 'free' maritime intercommunication +between the Old World and the New, a wonderful extension +of representative institutions, and much more to the same +effect, universal revolutionary brotherhood included. +But when Frenchmen came promising fleets and armies, when +these emissaries were backed by French Canadians who had +left home for good reasons after the troubles of 1775, +and when the habitants were positively assured by all +these credible witnesses that France and the United States +were going to drive the British out of Canada and make +a heaven on earth for all who would turn against Carleton, +then there really was something that sensible men could +believe. Everything for nothing--or next to nothing. Only +turn against the British and the rest would be easy. No +more tithes to the cures, no more seigneurial dues, no +more taxes to a government which put half the money in +its own pocket and sent the other half to the king, who +spent it buying palaces and crowns. + +'Nothing is too absurd for them to believe, wrote Carleton, +who felt all the old troubles of 1775 coming back in a +greatly aggravated form. He lost no time in vain regrets, +however, but got a militia bill through parliament, +improved the defences of Quebec, and issued a proclamation +enjoining all good subjects to find out, report, and +seize every sedition-monger they could lay their hands +on. An attempt to embody two thousand militiamen by ballot +was a dead failure. The few English-speaking militiamen +required came forward 'with alacrity.' The habitants hung +back or broke into riotous mobs. The ordinary habitant +could hardly be blamed. He saw little difference between +one kind of English-speaking people and another. So he +naturally thought it best to be on the side of the +prospective winners, especially when they persuaded him +that he would get back everything taken from him by 'the +infamous Quebec Act.' There really was no way whatever +of getting him to see the truth under these circumstances. +The mere fact that his condition had improved so much +under British rule made him all the readier to cry for +the Franco-American moon. Things presently went from bad +to worse. A glowing, bombastic address from 'The Free +French to their Canadian Brothers' (who of course were +'slaves') was even read out at more than one church door. +Then the Quebec Assembly unanimously passed an Alien Act +in May 1794, and suspected characters began to find that +two could play at the game. This stringent act was not +passed a day too soon. By its provisions the Habeas Corpus +Act could be suspended or suppressed and the strongest +measures taken against sedition in every form. Monk, the +attorney-general, reported that 'It is astonishing to +find the same savagery exhibited here as in France.' The +habitants and lower class of townsfolk had beers well +worked up 'to follow France and the United States by +destroying a throne which was the seat of hypocrisy, +imposture, despotism, greed, cruelty' and all the other +deadly sins. The first step was to be the assassination +of all obnoxious officials and leading British patriots +the minute the promised invasion began to prove successful. + +No war came. And, as we have seen already, Carleton's +last year, 1796, was more peaceful than his first. But +even then the external dangers made the governor-general's +post a very trying one, especially when internal troubles +were equally rife. Thus Carleton never enjoyed a single +day without its anxious moments till, old and growing +weary, though devoted as ever, he finally left Quebec on +the 9th of July. This was the second occasion on which +he had been forced to resign by unfair treatment at the +hands of those who should have been his best support. It +was infinitely worse the first time, when he was stabbed +in the back by that shameless political assassin, Lord +George Germain. But the second was also inexcusable +because there could be no doubt whatever as to which of +the incompatibles should have left his post--the replaceable +Simcoe or the irreplaceable Carleton. Yet as H.M.S. +_Active_ rounded Point Levy, and the great stronghold of +Quebec faded from his view, Carleton had at least the +satisfaction of knowing that he had been the principal +saviour of one British Canada and the principal founder +of another. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +'NUNC DIMITTIS' +1796-1808 + +Our tale is told. + +The _Active_ was wrecked on the island of Anticosti, +where the estuary of the St Lawrence joins the Gulf. No +lives were lost, and the Carletons reached Perce in Gaspe +quite safely in a little coasting vessel. Then a ship +came round from Halifax and sailed the family over to +England at the end of September, just thirty years after +Carleton had come out to Canada to take up a burden of +oversea governance such as no other viceroy, in any part +of the world-encircling British Empire, has ever borne +so long. + +He lived to become a wonderful link with the past. When +he died at home in England he was in the sixty-seventh +year of his connection with the Army and in the eighty-fifth +of his age. More than any other man of note he brought +the days of Marlborough into touch with those of Wellington, +though a century lay between. At the time he received +his first commission most of the senior officers were +old Marlburians. At the time of his death Nelson had +already won Trafalgar, Napoleon had already been emperor +of the French for nearly three years, and Wellington had +already begun the great Peninsular campaigns. Carleton's +own life thus constitutes a most remarkable link between +two very different eras of Imperial history. But he and +his wife together constitute a still more remarkable link +between two eras of Canadian history which are still +farther apart. At first sight it seems almost impossible +that he, who was the trusted friend o Wolfe, and she, +who learned deportment at Versailles in the reign of +Louis Quinze, should together make up a living link +between 1690, when Frontenac saved Quebec from the American +Colonials under Phips, and 1867, when the new Dominion +was proclaimed there. But it is true. Carleton, born in +the first quarter of the eighteenth century, knew several +old men who had served at the Battle of the Boyne, which +was fought three months before Frontenac sent his defiance +to Phips 'from the mouth of my cannon.' Carleton's wife, +living far on into the second quarter of the nineteenth +century, knew several rising young men who saw the Dominion +of Canada well started on its great career. + +All Carleton's sons went into the Army and all died on +active service. The fourth was killed in 1814 at +Bergen-op-Zoom carrying the same sword that Carleton +himself had used there sixty-seven years before. A picture +of the first siege of Bergen-op-Zoom hangs in the +dining-room of the family seat at Greywell Hill to remind +successive generations of their martial ancestors. But +no Carleton needs to be reminded of a man's first duty +at the call to arms. The present holder of the Dorchester +estates and title is a woman. But her son and heir went +straight to the front with the cavalry of the first +British army corps to take the field in Belgium during +the Great World War of 1914. + +Carleton spent most of his last twelve years at Kempshot +near Basingstoke because he kept his stud there and horses +were his chief delight. But he died at Stubbings, his +place near Maidenhead beside the silver Thames, on the +10th of November 1808. + +Thus, after an unadventurous youth and early manhood, he +spent his long maturity steering the ship of state through +troublous seas abroad; then passed life's evening in the +quiet haven of his home. + + + + +BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE + +The Seigneurs and the Loyalists, both closely associated +with Carleton's Canadian career, are treated in two +volumes of the present Series: _The Seigneurs of Old +Canada_ and _The United Empire Loyalists_. Two other +volumes also provide profitable reading: _The War Chief +of the Six Nations: A Chronicle of Brant_, the Indian +leader who was to Carleton's day what Tecumseh was to +Brock's, and _The War Chief of the Ottawas: A Chronicle +of the Pontiac War_. + +Only one life of Carleton has been written, _Lord +Dorchester_, by A. G. Bradley (1907). The student should +also consult _John Graves Simcoe_, by Duncan Campbell +Scott (1905), _Sir Frederick Haldimand_, by Jean McIlwraith +(1904), and _A History of Canada from 1763 to 1812_ by +Sir Charles Lucas. Carleton is the leading character in +the first half of the third volume of _Canada and its +Provinces_, which, being the work of different authors, +throws light on his character from several different +British points of view as well as from several different +kinds of evidence. Kingsford's _History of Canada_, +volumes iv to vii, treats the period in considerable +detail. Justin Smith's two volumes, _Our Struggle for +the Fourteenth Colony_, is the work of a most painstaking +American scholar who had already produced an excellent +account of _Arnold's March from Cambridge to Quebec_, in +which, for the first time, _Arnold's Journal_ was printed +word for word. _Arnold's Expedition to Quebec_, by J. +Codman, is another careful work. These are the complements +of the British books mentioned above, as they emphasize +the American point of view and draw more from American +than from British sources of original information. The +unfortunate defect of _Our Struggle for the Fourteenth +Colony_ is that the author's efforts to be sprightly at +all costs tend to repel the serious student, while his +very thoroughness itself repels the merely casual reader. + +So many absurd or perverting mistakes are still made +about the life and times of Carleton, and a full +understanding of his career is of such vital importance +to Canadian history, that no accounts given in the general +run of books--including many so-called 'standard +works'--should be accepted without reference to the +original authorities. Justin Smith's books, cited above, +have useful lists of authorities; though there is no +discrimination between documents of very different value. +The original British diaries kept during Montgomery and +Arnold's beleaguerment have been published by the Literary +and Historical Society of Quebec in two volumes, at the +end of which there is a very useful bibliography showing +the whereabouts of the actual manuscripts of these and +many other documents in English, French, and German. In +addition to the American and British diarists who wrote +in English there were several prominent French Canadians +and German officers who kept most interesting journals +which are still extant. The Dominion Archives at Ottawa +possess an immense mass of originals, facsimiles, and +verbatim copies of every kind, including maps and +illustrations. The Dominion Archivist, Dr Doughty, has +himself edited, in collaboration with Professor Shortt, +all the _Documents relating to the Constitutional History +of Canada from 1759 to 1791_. + +The present Chronicle is based on the original evidence +of both sides. + + + +END + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Father of British Canada: A +Chronicle of Carleton, by William Wood + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FATHER OF BRITISH CANADA *** + +***** This file should be named 10044.txt or 10044.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/0/4/10044/ + +This etext was produced by Gardner Buchanan. + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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