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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/10056-0.txt b/10056-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..93c8ace --- /dev/null +++ b/10056-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11587 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10056 *** + +CHINESE LITERATURE + + + +COMPRISING + +THE ANALECTS OF CONFUCIUS, +THE SAYINGS OF MENCIUS, +THE SHI-KING, +THE TRAVELS OF FÂ-HIEN, AND +THE SORROWS OF HAN + + +WITH CRITICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES BY + +EPIPHANIUS WILSON, A.M. + + +REVISED EDITION + +1900 + + + + +THE ANALECTS OF CONFUCIUS + +Introduction + +BOOK + +I. On Learning--Miscellaneous Sayings +II. Good Government--Filial Piety--The Superior Man +III. Abuse of Proprieties in Ceremonial and Music +IV. Social Virtue--Superior and Inferior Man +V. A Disciple and the Golden Rule--Miscellaneous +VI. More Characteristics--Wisdom--Philanthropy +VII. Characteristics of Confucius--An Incident +VIII. Sayings of Tsang--Sentences of the Master +IX. His Favorite Disciple's Opinion of Him +X. Confucius in Private and Official Life +XI. Comparative Worth of His Disciples +XII. The Master's Answers--Philanthropy--Friendships +XIII. Answers on the Art of Governing--Consistency +XIV. Good and Bad Government--Miscellaneous Sayings +XV. Practical Wisdom--Reciprocity the Rule of Life +XVI. Against Intestine Strife--Good and Bad Friendships +XVII. The Master Induced to Take Office--Nature and Habit +XVIII. Good Men in Seclusion--Duke of Chow to His Son +XIX. Teachings of Various Chief Disciples +XX. Extracts from the Book of History + + + +THE SAYINGS OF MENCIUS + +Introduction + +Book I. King Hwuy of Lëang.-- + Part I + +[_Books II., III., and IV. are omitted_] + +Book V. Wan Chang.-- + Part I + + + +THE SHI-KING + +Introduction + +_Part I.--Lessons from the States_. + +BOOK I.--THE ODES OF CHOW AND THE SOUTH.-- + Celebrating the Virtue of King Wan's Bride + Celebrating the Industry of King Wan's Queen + In Praise of a Bride + Celebrating T'ae-Sze's Freedom from Jealousy + The Fruitfulness of the Locust + Lamenting the Absence of a Cherished Friend + Celebrating the Goodness of the Descendants of King Wan + The Virtuous Manners of the Young Women + Praise of a Rabbit-Catcher + The Song of the Plantain-Gatherers + The Affection of the Wives on the Joo + +BOOK II.--THE ODES OF SHAOU AND THE SOUTH.-- + The Marriage of a Princess + The Industry and Reverence of a Prince's Wife + The Wife of Some Great Officer Bewails his Absence + The Diligence of the Young Wife of an Officer + The Love of the People for the Duke of Shaou + The Easy Dignity of the Officers at Some Court + Anxiety of a Young Lady to Get Married + +BOOK III.--THE ODES OF P'EI.-- + An Officer Bewails the Neglect with which He is Treated + A Wife Deplores the Absence of Her Husband + The Plaint of a Rejected Wife + Soldiers of Wei Bewail Separation from their Families + An Officer Tells of His Mean Employment + An Officer Sets Forth His Hard Lot + The Complaint of a Neglected Wife + In Praise of a Maiden + Discontent + Chwang Keang Bemoans Her Husband's Cruelty + +[_Books IV., V., and VI. are omitted_] + +BOOK VII.--THE ODES OF CH'ING.--- + The People's Admiration for Duke Woo + A Wife Consoled by Her Husband's Arrival + In Praise of Some Lady + A Man's Praise of His Wife + An Entreaty + A Woman Scorning Her Lover + A Lady Mourns the Absence of Her Student Lover--- + +BOOK VIII.--THE ODES OF TS'E.-- + A Wife Urging Her Husband to Action + The Folly of Useless Effort + The Prince of Loo + +BOOK IX.--THE ODES OF WEI.-- + On the Misgovernment of the State + The Mean Husband + A Young Soldier on Service + +BOOK X.--THE ODES OF T'ANG.-- + The King Goes to War + Lament of a Bereaved Person + The Drawbacks of Poverty + A Wife Mourns for Her Husband + +BOOK XI.--THE ODES OF TS'IN.-- + Celebrating the Opulence of the Lords of Ts'in + A Complaint + A Wife's Grief Because of Her Husband's Absence + Lament for Three Brothers + In Praise of a Ruler of Ts'in + The Generous Nephew + +BOOK XII.--THE ODES OF CH'IN.-- + The Contentment of a Poor Recluse + The Disappointed Lover + A Love-Song + The Lament of a Lover + +BOOK XIII.--THE ODES OF KWEI-- + The Wish of an Unhappy Man + +BOOK XIV.--THE ODES OF TS'AOU.-- + Against Frivolous Pursuits + +BOOK XV.--THE ODES OF PIN.-- + The Duke of Chow Tells of His Soldiers + There is a Proper Way for Doing Everything + + +_Part II.--Minor Odes of the Kingdom_. + +BOOK I.--DECADE OF LUH MING.-- + A Festal Ode + A Festal Ode Complimenting an Officer + The Value of Friendship + The Response to a Festal Ode + An Ode of Congratulation + An Ode on the Return of the Troops + +BOOK II.--THE DECADE OF PIH HWA.-- + An Ode Appropriate to a Festivity + +BOOK III.--THE DECADE OF T'UNG KUNG.-- + Celebrating a Hunting Expedition + The King's Anxiety for His Morning Levee + Moral Lessons from Natural Facts + +BOOK IV.--THE DECADE OF K'E-FOO.-- + On the Completion of a Royal Palace + The Condition of King Seuen's Flocks + +BOOK V.--THE DECADE OF SEAOU MIN.-- + A Eunuch Complains of His Fate + An Officer Deplores the Misery of the Time + On the Alienation of a Friend + +BOOK VI.--THE DECADE OF PIH SHAN.-- + A Picture of Husbandry + The Complaint of an Officer + +BOOK VII.--DECADE OF SANG HOO.-- + The Rejoicings of a Bridegroom + Against Listening to Slanderers + +BOOK VIII.--THE DECADE OF TOO JIN SZE.-- + In Praise of By-gone Simplicity + A Wife Bemoans Her Husband's Absence + The Earl of Shaou's Work + The Plaint of King Yew's Forsaken Wife + Hospitality + On the Misery of Soldiers + + +_Part III.--Greater Odes of the Kingdom_. + +BOOK I.--DECADE OF KING WAN.-- + Celebrating King Wan + +[_Book II. is omitted_] + +BOOK III.--DECADE OF TANG.-- + King Seuen on the Occasion of a Great Drought + + +_Part IV.--Odes of the Temple and Altar_. + +BOOK I.--SACRIFICIAL ODES OF CHOW.-- + Appropriate to a Sacrifice to King Wan + On Sacrificing to the Kings Woo, Ching, and K'ang + +THE TRAVELS OF FÂ-HIEN +Translator's Introduction +CHAPTER +I. From Ch'ang-gan to the Sandy Desert +II. On to Shen-shen and thence to Khoten +III. Khoten--Processions of Images +IV. Through the Ts'ung Mountains to K'eech-ch'a +V. Great Quinquennial Assembly of Monks +VI. North India--Image of Maitreya Bodhisattva +VII. The Perilous Crossing of the Indus +VIII. Woo-chang, or Udyana--Traces of Buddha +IX. Soo ho-to--Legends of Buddha +X. Gandhara--Legends of Buddha +XI. Takshasila--Legends--The Four Great Topes +XII. Buddha's Alms-bowl--Death of Hwuy-king +XIII. Festival of Buddha's Skull-bone +XIV. Crossing the Indus to the East +XV. Sympathy of Monks with the Pilgrims +XVI. Condition and Customs of Central India +XVII. Legend of the Trayastrimsas Heaven +XVIII. Buddha's Subjects of Discourse +XIX. Legend of Buddha's Danta-kashtha +XX. The Jetavana Vihara--Legends of Buddha +XXI. The Three Predecessors of Sakyamuni +XXII. Legends of Buddha's Birth +XXIII. Legends of Rama and its Tope +XXIV. Where Buddha Renounced the World +XXV. The Kingdom of Vaisali +XXVI. Remarkable Death of Ânanda +XXVII. King Asoka's Spirit-built Palace and Halls +XXVIII. Rajagriha, New and Old--Legends Connected with It +XXIX. Fâ-Hien Passes a Night on Gridhra-kuta Hill +XXX. Srataparna Cave, or Cave of the First Council +XXXI. Sakyamuni's Attaining to the Buddhaship +XXXII. Legend of King Asoka in a Former Birth +XXXIII. Kasyapa Buddha's Skeleton on Mount Gurupada +XXXIV. On the Way Returning to Patna +XXXV. Dakshina, and the Pigeon Monastery +XXXVI. Fâ-Hien's Indian Studies +XXXVII. Fâ-Hien's Stay in Champa and Tamalipti +XXXVIII. At Ceylon--Feats of Buddha--His Statue in Jade +XXXIX. Cremation of an Arhat--Sermon of a Devotee +XL. After Two Years Fâ-Hien Takes Ship for China + +Conclusion + + +THE SORROWS OF HAN + +Introduction +Translator's Preface +Dramatis Personae +Prologue +Act First +Act Second +Act Third +Act Fourth + + + + +THE ANALECTS + +OF + +CONFUCIUS + +[_Translated into English by William Jennings_] + + + +PRONUNCIATION OF PROPER NAMES + +_j_, as in French. +_ng_, commencing a word, like the same letters terminating one. +_ai_ or _ei_, as in _aisle_ or _eider_. +_au_, as in German, or like _ow_ in _cow_. +_é_, as in _fête_. +_i_ (not followed by a consonant), as _ee_ in _see_. +_u_ (followed by a consonant), as in _bull_. +_iu_, as _ew_ in _new_. +_ui_, as _ooi_ in _cooing_. +_h_ at the end of a name makes the preceding vowel short. +_i_ in the middle of a word denotes an aspirate (_h_), as _K'ung_=Khung. + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +The strangest figure that meets us in the annals of Oriental thought is +that of Confucius. To the popular mind he is the founder of a religion, +and yet he has nothing in common with the great religious teachers of +the East. We think of Siddartha, the founder of Buddhism, as the very +impersonation of romantic asceticism, enthusiastic self-sacrifice, and +faith in the things that are invisible. Zoroaster is the friend of God, +talking face to face with the Almighty, and drinking wisdom and +knowledge from the lips of Omniscience. Mohammed is represented as +snatched up into heaven, where he receives the Divine communication +which he is bidden to propagate with fire and sword throughout the +world. These great teachers lived in an atmosphere of the supernatural. +They spoke with the authority of inspired prophets. They brought the +unseen world close to the minds of their disciples. They spoke +positively of immortality, of reward or punishment beyond the grave. The +present life they despised, the future was to them everything in its +promised satisfaction. The teachings of Confucius were of a very +different sort. Throughout his whole writings he has not even mentioned +the name of God. He declined to discuss the question of immortality. +When he was asked about spiritual beings, he remarked, "If we cannot +even know men, how can we know spirits?" + +Yet this was the man the impress of whose teaching has formed the +national character of five hundred millions of people. A temple to +Confucius stands to this day in every town and village of China. His +precepts are committed to memory by every child from the tenderest age, +and each year at the royal university at Pekin the Emperor holds a +festival in honor of the illustrious teacher. + +The influence of Confucius springs, first of all, from the narrowness +and definiteness of his doctrine. He was no transcendentalist, and never +meddled with supramundane things. His teaching was of the earth, earthy; +it dealt entirely with the common relations of life, and the Golden Rule +he must necessarily have stumbled upon, as the most obvious canon of his +system. He strikes us as being the great Stoic of the East, for he +believed that virtue was based on knowledge, knowledge of a man's own +heart, and knowledge of human-kind. There is a pathetic resemblance +between the accounts given of the death of Confucius and the death of +Zeno. Both died almost without warning in dreary hopelessness, without +the ministrations of either love or religion. This may be a mere +coincidence, but the lives and teachings of both men must have led them +to look with indifference upon such an end. For Confucius in his +teaching treated only of man's life on earth, and seems to have had no +ideas with regard to the human lot after death; if he had any ideas he +preserved an inscrutable silence about them. As a moralist he prescribed +the duties of the king and of the father, and advocated the cultivation +by the individual man of that rest or apathy of mind which resembles so +much the disposition aimed at by the Greek and Roman Stoic. Even as a +moralist, he seems to have sacrificed the ideal to the practical, and +his loose notions about marriage, his tolerance of concubinage, the +slight emphasis which he lays on the virtue of veracity--of which indeed +he does not seem himself to have been particularly studious in his +historic writings--place him low down in the rank of moralists. Yet he +taught what he felt the people could receive, and the flat mediocrity of +his character and his teachings has been stamped forever upon a people +who, while they are kindly, gentle, forbearing, and full of family +piety, are palpably lacking not only in the exaltation of Mysticism, but +in any religious feeling, generally so-called. + +The second reason that made the teaching of Confucius so influential is +based on the circumstances of the time. When this thoughtful, earnest +youth awoke to the consciousness of life about him, he saw that the +abuses under which the people groaned sprang from the feudal system, +which cut up the country into separate territories, over which the power +of the king had no control. China was in the position of France in the +years preceding Philippe-Auguste, excepting that there were no places of +sanctuary and no Truce of God. The great doctrine of Confucius was the +unlimited despotism of the Emperor, and his moral precepts were intended +to teach the Emperor how to use his power aright. But the Emperor was +only typical of all those in authority--the feudal duke, the judge on +the bench, and the father of the family. Each could discharge his duties +aright only by submitting to the moral discipline which Confucius +prescribed. A vital element in this system is its conservatism, its +adherence to the imperial idea. As James I said, "No bishop, no king," +so the imperialists of China have found in Confucianism the strongest +basis for the throne, and have supported its dissemination accordingly. + +The Analects of Confucius contain the gist of his teachings, and is +worthy of study. We find in this work most of the precepts which his +disciples have preserved and recorded. They form a code remarkable for +simplicity, even crudity, and we are compelled to admire the force of +character, the practical sagacity, the insight into the needs of the +hour, which enabled Confucius, without claiming any Divine sanction, to +impose this system upon his countrymen. + +The name Confucius is only the Latinized form of two words which mean +"Master K'ung." He was born 551 B.C., his father being governor of +Shantung. He was married at nineteen, and seems to have occupied some +minor position under the government. In his twenty-fourth year he +entered upon the three years' mourning for the death of his mother. His +seclusion gave him time for deep thought and the study of history, and +he resolved upon the regeneration of his unhappy country. By the time he +was thirty he became known as a great teacher, and disciples flocked to +him. But he was yet occupied in public duties, and rose through +successive stages to the office of Chief Judge in his own country of Lu. +His tenure of office is said to have put an end to crime, and he became +the "idol of the people" in his district. The jealousy of the feudal +lords was roused by his fame as a moral teacher and a blameless judge. +Confucius was driven from his home, and wandered about, with a few +disciples, until his sixty-ninth year, when he returned to Lu, after +accomplishing a work which has borne fruit, such as it is, to the +present day. He spent the remaining five years of his life in editing +the odes and historic monuments in which the glories of the ancient +Chinese dynasty are set forth. He died in his seventy-third year, 478 +B.C. There can be no doubt that the success of Confucius has been +singularly great, owing especially to the narrow scope of his scheme, +which has become crystallized in the habits, usages, and customs of the +people. Especially has it been instrumental in consolidating the empire, +and in strengthening the power of the monarch, who, as he every year +burns incense in the red-walled temple at Pekin, utters sincerely the +invocation: "Great art thou, O perfect Sage! Thy virtue is full, thy +doctrine complete. Among mortal men there has not been thine equal. All +kings honor thee. Thy statutes and laws have come gloriously down. Thou +art the pattern in this imperial school. Reverently have the sacrificial +vessels been set out. Full of awe, we sound our drums and bells." + +E. W. + + +THE ANALECTS + + +BOOK I + +On Learning--Miscellaneous Sayings:-- + + +"To learn," said the Master, "and then to practise opportunely what one +has learnt--does not this bring with it a sense of satisfaction? + +"To have associates in study coming to one from distant parts--does not +this also mean pleasure in store? + +"And are not those who, while not comprehending all that is said, still +remain not unpleased to hear, men of the superior order?" + + +A saying of the Scholar Yu:-- + +"It is rarely the case that those who act the part of true men in regard +to their duty to parents and elder brothers are at the same time willing +to turn currishly upon their superiors: it has never yet been the case +that such as desire not to commit that offence have been men willing to +promote anarchy or disorder. + +"Men of superior mind busy themselves first in getting at the root of +things; and when they have succeeded in this the right course is open to +them. Well, are not filial piety and friendly subordination among +brothers a root of that right feeling which is owing generally from man +to man?" + +The Master observed, "Rarely do we meet with the right feeling due from +one man to another where there is fine speech and studied mien." + +The Scholar Tsang once said of himself: "On three points I examine +myself daily, viz., whether, in looking after other people's interests, +I have not been acting whole-heartedly; whether, in my intercourse with +friends, I have not been true; and whether, after teaching, I have not +myself been practising what I have taught." + +The Master once observed that to rule well one of the larger States +meant strict attention to its affairs and conscientiousness on the part +of the ruler; careful husbanding of its resources, with at the same time +a tender care for the interests of all classes; and the employing of the +masses in the public service at suitable seasons. + +"Let young people," said he, "show filial piety at home, respectfulness +towards their elders when away from home; let them be circumspect, be +truthful; their love going out freely towards all, cultivating good-will +to men. And if, in such a walk, there be time or energy left for other +things, let them employ it in the acquisition of literary or artistic +accomplishments." + +The disciple Tsz-hiá said, "The appreciation of worth in men of worth, +thus diverting the mind from lascivious desires--ministering to parents +while one is the most capable of so doing--serving one's ruler when one +is able to devote himself entirely to that object--being sincere in +one's language in intercourse with friends: this I certainly must call +evidence of learning, though others may say there has been 'no +learning.'" + + +Sayings of the Master:-- + +"If the great man be not grave, he will not be revered, neither can his +learning be solid. + +"Give prominent place to loyalty and sincerity. + +"Have no associates in study who are not advanced somewhat like +yourself. + +"When you have erred, be not afraid to correct yourself." + + +A saying of the Scholar Tsang:-- + +"The virtue of the people is renewed and enriched when attention is seen +to be paid to the departed, and the remembrance of distant ancestors +kept and cherished." + +Tsz-k'in put this query to his fellow disciple Tsz-kung: said he, "When +our Master comes to this or that State, he learns without fail how it is +being governed. Does he investigate matters? or are the facts given +him?" + +Tsz-kung answered, "Our Master is a man of pleasant manners, and of +probity, courteous, moderate, and unassuming: it is by his being such +that he arrives at the facts. Is not his way of arriving at things +different from that of others?" + + +A saying of the Master:-- + +"He who, after three years' observation of the will of his father when +alive, or of his past conduct if dead, does not deviate from that +father's ways, is entitled to be called 'a dutiful son.'" + + +Sayings of the Scholar Yu:-- + +"For the practice of the Rules of Propriety,[1] one excellent way is to +be natural. This naturalness became a great grace in the practice of +kings of former times; let everyone, small or great, follow their +example. + +"It is not, however, always practicable; and it is not so in the case of +a person who does things naturally, knowing that he should act so, and +yet who neglects to regulate his acts according to the Rules. + +"When truth and right are hand in hand, a statement will bear +repetition. When respectfulness and propriety go hand in hand, disgrace +and shame are kept afar-off. Remove all occasion for alienating those to +whom you are bound by close ties, and you have them still to resort to." + + +A saying of the Master:-- + +"The man of greater mind who, when he is eating, craves not to eat to +the full; who has a home, but craves not for comforts in it; who is +active and earnest in his work and careful in his words; who makes +towards men of high principle, and so maintains his own rectitude--that +man may be styled a devoted student." + +Tsz-kung asked, "What say you, sir, of the poor who do not cringe and +fawn; and what of the rich who are without pride and haughtiness?" "They +are passable," the Master replied; "yet they are scarcely in the same +category as the poor who are happy, and the rich who love propriety." + +"In the 'Book of the Odes,'" Tsz-kung went on to say, "we read of one + + Polished, as by the knife and file, + The graving-tool, the smoothing-stone. + +Does that coincide with your remark?" + +"Ah! such as you," replied the Master, "may well commence a discussion +on the Odes. If one tell you how a thing goes, you know what ought to +come." + +"It does not greatly concern me," said the Master, "that men do not know +me; my great concern is, my not knowing them." + + +[Footnote 1: An important part of a Chinaman's education still. The +text-book, "The Li Ki," contains rules for behavior and propriety for +the whole life, from the cradle to the grave.] + + + +BOOK II + +Good Government--Filial Piety--The Superior Man + + +Sayings of the Master:-- + +"Let a ruler base his government upon virtuous principles, and he will +be like the pole-star, which remains steadfast in its place, while all +the host of stars turn towards it. + +"The 'Book of Odes' contains three hundred pieces, but one expression in +it may be taken as covering the purport of all, viz., Unswerving +mindfulness. + +"To govern simply by statute, and to reduce all to order by means of +pains and penalties, is to render the people evasive, and devoid of any +sense of shame. + +"To govern upon principles of virtue, and to reduce them to order by the +Rules of Propriety, would not only create in them the sense of shame, +but would moreover reach them in all their errors. + +"When I attained the age of fifteen, I became bent upon study. At +thirty, I was a confirmed student. At forty, nought could move me from +my course. At fifty, I comprehended the will and decrees of Heaven. At +sixty, my ears were attuned to them. At seventy, I could follow my +heart's desires, without overstepping the lines of rectitude." + +To a question of Mang-i, as to what filial piety consisted in, the +master replied, "In not being perverse." Afterwards, when Fan Ch'i was +driving him, the Master informed him of this question and answer, and +Fan Ch'i asked, "What was your meaning?" The Master replied, "I meant +that the Rules of Propriety should always be adhered to in regard to +those who brought us into the world: in ministering to them while +living, in burying them when dead, and afterwards in the offering to +them of sacrificial gifts." + +To a query of Mang Wu respecting filial piety, the Master replied, +"Parents ought to bear but one trouble--that of their own sickness." + +To a like question put by Tsz-yu, his reply was this: "The filial piety +of the present day simply means the being able to support one's +parents--which extends even to the case of dogs and horses, all of which +may have something to give in the way of support. If there be no +reverential feeling in the matter, what is there to distinguish between +the cases?" + +To a like question of Tsz-hia, he replied: "The manner is the +difficulty. If, in the case of work to be done, the younger folks simply +take upon themselves the toil of it; or if, in the matter of meat and +drink, they simply set these before their elders--is this to be taken as +filial piety?" + +Once the Master remarked, "I have conversed with Hwúi the whole day +long, and he has controverted nothing that I have said, as if he were +without wits. But when his back was turned, and I looked attentively at +his conduct apart from me, I found it satisfactory in all its issues. +No, indeed! Hwúi is not without his wits." + + +Other observations of the Master:-- + +"If you observe what things people (usually) take in hand, watch their +motives, and note particularly what it is that gives them satisfaction, +shall they be able to conceal from you what they are? Conceal +themselves, indeed! + +"Be versed in ancient lore, and familiarize yourself with the modern; +then may you become teachers. + +"The great man is not a mere receptacle." + +In reply to Tsz-kung respecting the great man:-- + +"What he first says, as a result of his experience, he afterwards +follows up. + +"The great man is catholic-minded, and not one-sided. The common man is +the reverse. + +"Learning, without thought, is a snare; thought, without learning, is a +danger. + +"Where the mind is set much upon heterodox principles--there truly and +indeed is harm." + +To the disciple Tsz-lu the Master said, "Shall I give you a lesson about +knowledge? When you know a thing, maintain that you know it; and when +you do not, acknowledge your ignorance. This is characteristic of +knowledge." + +Tsz-chang was studying with an eye to official income. The Master +addressed him thus: "Of the many things you hear hold aloof from those +that are doubtful, and speak guardedly with reference to the rest; your +mistakes will then be few. Also, of the many courses you see adopted, +hold aloof from those that are risky, and carefully follow the others; +you will then seldom have occasion for regret. Thus, being seldom +mistaken in your utterances, and having few occasions for regret in the +line you take, you are on the high road to your preferment." + +To a question put to him by Duke Ngai [2] as to what should be done in +order to render the people submissive to authority, Confucius replied, +"Promote the straightforward, and reject those whose courses are +crooked, and the thing will be effected. Promote the crooked and reject +the straightforward, and the effect will be the reverse." + +When Ki K'ang [3] asked of him how the people could be induced to show +respect, loyalty, and willingness to be led, the Master answered, "Let +there be grave dignity in him who has the oversight of them, and they +will show him respect; let him be seen to be good to his own parents, +and kindly in disposition, and they will be loyal to him; let him +promote those who have ability, and see to the instruction of those who +have it not, and they will be willing to be led." + +Some one, speaking to Confucius, inquired, "Why, sir, are you not an +administrator of government?" The Master rejoined, "What says the 'Book +of the Annals,' with reference to filial duty?--'Make it a point to be +dutiful to your parents and amicable with your brethren; the same duties +extend to an administrator.' If these, then, also make an administrator, +how am I to take your words about being an administrator?" + +On one occasion the Master remarked, "I know not what men are good for, +on whose word no reliance can be placed. How should your carriages, +large or little, get along without your whipple-trees or swing-trees?" + +Tsz-chang asked if it were possible to forecast the state of the country +ten generations hence. The Master replied in this manner: "The Yin +dynasty adopted the rules and manners of the Hiá line of kings, and it +is possible to tell whether it retrograded or advanced. The Chow line +has followed the Yin, adopting its ways, and whether there has been +deterioration or improvement may also be determined. Some other line may +take up in turn those of Chow; and supposing even this process to go on +for a hundred generations, the result may be known." + +Other sayings of the Master:-- + +"It is but flattery to make sacrificial offerings to departed spirits +not belonging to one's own family. + +"It is moral cowardice to leave undone what one perceives to be right to +do." + + +[Footnote 2: Of Lu (Confucius's native State).] + +[Footnote 3: Head of one of the "Three Families" of Lu.] + + + +BOOK III + +Abuse of Proprieties in Ceremonial and Music + + +Alluding to the head of the Ki family, [4] and the eight lines of +posturers [5] before their ancestral hall, Confucius remarked, "If the +Ki can allow himself to go to this extent, to what extent will he not +allow himself to go?" + +The Three Families [6] were in the habit, during the Removal of the +sacred vessels after sacrifice, of using the hymn commencing, + + "Harmoniously the Princes + Draw near with reverent tread, + Assisting in his worship + Heaven's Son, the great and dread." + +"How," exclaimed the Master, "can such words be appropriated in the +ancestral hall of the Three Families?" + +"Where a man," said he again, "has not the proper feelings due from one +man to another, how will he stand as regards the Rules of Propriety? And +in such a case, what shall we say of his sense of harmony?" + +On a question being put to him by Lin Fang, a disciple, as to what was +the radical idea upon which the Rules of Propriety were based, the +Master exclaimed, "Ah! that is a large question. As to some rules, where +there is likelihood of extravagance, they would rather demand economy; +in those which relate to mourning, and where there is likelihood of +being easily satisfied, what is wanted is real sorrow." + +Speaking of the disorder of the times he remarked that while the +barbarians on the North and East had their Chieftains, we here in this +great country had nothing to compare with them in that respect:--we had +lost these distinctions! + +Alluding to the matter of the Chief of the Ki family worshipping on +Tai-shan, [7] the Master said to Yen Yu, "Cannot you save him from this?" +He replied, "It is beyond my power." "Alas, alas!" exclaimed the Master, +"are we to say that the spirits of T'ai-shan have not as much +discernment as Lin Fang?" + +Of "the superior man," the Master observed, "In him there is no +contentiousness. Say even that he does certainly contend with others, as +in archery competitions; yet mark, in that case, how courteously he will +bow and go up for the forfeit-cup, and come down again and give it to +his competitor. In his very contest he is still the superior man." + +Tsz-hiá once inquired what inference might be drawn from the lines-- + + "Dimples playing in witching smile, + Beautiful eyes, so dark, so bright! + Oh, and her face may be thought the while + Colored by art, red rose on white!" + +"Coloring," replied the Master, "requires a pure and clear background." +"Then," said the other, "rules of ceremony require to have a +background!" "Ah!" exclaimed the Master, "you are the man to catch the +drift of my thought. Such as you may well introduce a discussion on the +Odes." + +Said the Master, "As regards the ceremonial adopted and enforced by the +Hiá dynasty, I am able to describe it, although their own descendants in +the State of Ki can adduce no adequate testimony in favor of its use +there. So, too, I am able to describe the ceremonial of the Yin dynasty, +although no more can the Sung people show sufficient reason for its +continuance amongst themselves. And why cannot they do so? Because they +have not documents enough, nor men learned enough. If only they had +such, I could refer them to them in support of their usages. + +"When I am present at the great quinquennial sacrifice to the _manes_ of +the royal ancestors," the Master said, "from the pouring-out of the +oblation onwards, I have no heart to look on." + +Some one asked what was the purport of this great sacrifice, and the +Master replied, "I cannot tell. The position in the empire of him who +could tell you is as evident as when you look at this"--pointing to the +palm of his hand. + +When he offered sacrifices to his ancestors, he used to act as if they +were present before him. In offering to other spirits it was the same. + +He would say, "If I do not myself take part in my offerings, it is all +the same as if I did not offer them." + +Wang-sun Kiá asked him once, "What says the proverb, 'Better to court +favor in the kitchen than in the drawing-room'?" The Master replied, +"Nay, better say, He who has sinned against Heaven has none other to +whom prayer may be addressed." + +Of the Chow dynasty the Master remarked, "It looks back upon two other +dynasties; and what a rich possession it has in its records of those +times! I follow Chow!" + +On his first entry into the grand temple, he inquired about every matter +connected with its usages. Some one thereupon remarked, "Who says that +the son of the man of Tsou [8] understands about ceremonial? On entering +the grand temple he inquired about everything." This remark coming to +the Master's ears, he said, "What I did is part of the ceremonial!" + +"In archery," he said, "the great point to be observed is not simply the +perforation of the leather; for men have not all the same strength. That +was the fashion in the olden days." + +Once, seeing that his disciple Tsz-kung was desirous that the ceremonial +observance of offering a sheep at the new moon might be dispensed with, +the Master said, "Ah! you grudge the loss of the sheep; I grudge the +loss of the ceremony." + +"To serve one's ruler nowadays," he remarked, "fully complying with the +Rules of Propriety, is regarded by others as toadyism!" + +When Duke Ting questioned him as to how a prince should deal with his +ministers, and how they in turn should serve their prince, Confucius +said in reply, "In dealing with his ministers a prince should observe +the proprieties; in serving his prince a minister should observe the +duty of loyalty." + +Referring to the First of the Odes, he remarked that it was mirthful +without being lewd, and sad also without being painful. + +Duke Ngai asked the disciple Tsai Wo respecting the places for +sacrificing to the Earth. The latter replied, "The Family of the Great +Yu, of the Hiá dynasty, chose a place of pine trees; the Yin founders +chose cypresses; and the Chow founders chestnut trees, solemn and +majestic, to inspire, 'tis said, the people with feelings of awe." + +The Master on hearing of this exclaimed, "Never an allusion to things +that have been enacted in the past! Never a remonstrance against what is +now going on! He has gone away without a word of censure." + +The Master once said of Kwan Chung, [9] "A small-minded man indeed!" + +"Was he miserly?" some one asked. + +"Miserly, indeed!" said he; "not that: he married three rimes, and he +was not a man who restricted his official business to too few hands--how +could he be miserly?" + +"He knew the Rules of Propriety, I suppose?" + +"Judge:--Seeing that the feudal lords planted a screen at their gates, +he too would have one at his! Seeing that when any two of the feudal +lords met in friendly conclave they had an earthenware stand on which to +place their inverted cups after drinking, he must have the same! If he +knew the Rules of Propriety, who is there that does not know them?" + +In a discourse to the Chief Preceptor of Music at the court of Lu, the +Master said, "Music is an intelligible thing. When you begin a +performance, let all the various instruments produce as it were one +sound (inharmonious); then, as you go on, bring out the harmony fully, +distinctly, and with uninterrupted flow, unto the end." + +The warden of the border-town of I requested an interview with +Confucius, and said, "When great men have come here, I have never yet +failed to obtain a sight of them." The followers introduced him; and, on +leaving, he said to them, "Sirs, why grieve at his loss of office? The +empire has for long been without good government; and Heaven is about to +use your master as its edict-announcer." + +Comparing the music of the emperor Shun with the music of King Wu, the +Master said, "That of Shun is beautiful throughout, and also good +throughout. That of Wu is all of it beautiful, but scarcely all of it +good." + +"High station," said the Master, "occupied by men who have no large and +generous heart; ceremonial performed with no reverence; duties of +mourning engaging the attention, where there is absence of sorrow;--how +should I look on, where this is the state of things?" + + +[Footnote 4: The Chief of the Ki clan was virtually the Duke of Lu, +under whom Confucius for a time held office.] + +[Footnote 5: These posturers were mutes who took part in the ritual of +the ancestral temple, waving plumes, flags, etc. Each line or rank of +these contained eight men. Only in the sovereign's household should +there have been eight lines of them; a ducal family like the Ki should +have had but six lines; a great official had four, and one of lower +grade two. These were the gradations marking the status of families, and +Confucius's sense of propriety was offended at the Ki's usurping in this +way the appearance of royalty.] + +[Footnote 6: Three great families related to each other, in whose hands +the government of the State of Lu then was, and of which the Ki was the +chief.] + +[Footnote 7: One of the five sacred mountains, worshipped upon only by +the sovereign.] + +[Footnote 8: Tsou was Confucius's birthplace; his father was governor of +the town.] + +[Footnote 9: A renowned statesman who flourished about two hundred years +before Confucius's time. A philosophical work on law and government, +said to have been written by him, is still extant. He was regarded as a +sage by the people, but he lacked, in Confucius's eyes, the one thing +needful--propriety.] + + + +BOOK IV + +Social Virtue--Superior and Inferior Man + + +Sayings of the Master:-- + +"It is social good feeling that gives charm to a neighborhood. And where +is the wisdom of those who choose an abode where it does not abide? + +"Those who are without it cannot abide long, either in straitened or in +happy circumstances. Those who possess it find contentment in it. Those +who are wise go after it as men go after gain. + +"Only they in whom it exists can have right likings and dislikings for +others. + +"Where the will is set upon it, there will be no room for malpractices. + +"Riches and honor are what men desire; but if they arrive at them by +improper ways, they should not continue to hold them. Poverty and low +estate are what men dislike; but if they arrive at such a condition by +improper ways, they should not refuse it. + +"If the 'superior man' make nought of social good feeling, how shall he +fully bear that name? + +"Not even whilst he eats his meal will the 'superior man' forget what he +owes to his fellow-men. Even in hurried leave-takings, even in moments +of frantic confusion, he keeps true to this virtue. + +"I have not yet seen a lover of philanthropy, nor a hater of +misanthropy--such, that the former did not take occasion to magnify that +virtue in himself, and that the latter, in his positive practice of +philanthropy, did not, at times, allow in his presence something +savoring of misanthropy. + +"Say you, is there any one who is able for one whole day to apply the +energy of his mind to this virtue? Well, I have not seen any one whose +energy was not equal to it. It may be there are such, but I have never +met with them. + +"The faults of individuals are peculiar to their particular class and +surroundings; and it is by observing their faults that one comes to +understand the condition of their good feelings towards their fellows. + +"One may hear the right way in the morning, and at evening die. + +"The scholar who is intent upon learning the right way, and who is yet +ashamed of poor attire and poor food, is not worthy of being discoursed +with. + +"The masterly man's attitude to the world is not exclusively this or +that: whatsoever is right, to that he will be a party. + +"The masterly man has an eye to virtue, the common man, to earthly +things; the former has an eye to penalties for error--the latter, to +favor. + +"Where there is habitual going after gain, there is much ill-will. + +"When there is ability in a ruler to govern a country by adhering to the +Rules of Propriety, and by kindly condescension, what is wanted more? +Where the ability to govern thus is wanting, what has such a ruler to do +with the Rules of Propriety? + +"One should not be greatly concerned at not being in office; but rather +about the requirements in one's self for such a standing. Neither should +one be so much concerned at being unknown; but rather with seeking to +become worthy of being known." + +Addressing his disciple Tsang Sin, the Master said, "Tsang Sin, the +principles which I inculcate have one main idea upon which they all +hang." "Aye, surely," he replied. + +When the Master was gone out the other disciples asked what was the +purport of this remark. Tsang's answer was, "The principles of our +Master's teaching are these--whole-heartedness and kindly forbearance; +these and nothing more." + + +Other observations of the Master:-- + +"Men of loftier mind manifest themselves in their equitable dealings; +small-minded men in their going after gain. + +"When you meet with men of worth, think how you may attain to their +level; when you see others of an opposite character, look within, and +examine yourself. + +"A son, in ministering to his parents, may (on occasion) offer gentle +remonstrances; when he sees that their will is not to heed such, he +should nevertheless still continue to show them reverent respect, never +obstinacy; and if he have to suffer, let him do so without murmuring. + +"Whilst the parents are still living, he should not wander far; or, if a +wanderer, he should at least have some fixed address. + +"If for three years he do not veer from the principles of his father, he +may be called a dutiful son. + +"A son should not ignore the years of his parents. On the one hand, they +may be a matter for rejoicing (that they have been so many), and on the +other, for apprehension (that so few remain). + +"People in olden times were loth to speak out, fearing the disgrace of +not being themselves as good as their words. + +"Those who keep within restraints are seldom losers. + +"To be slow to speak, but prompt to act, is the desire of the 'superior +man.' + +"Virtue dwells not alone: she must have neighbors." + + +An observation of Tsz-yu:-- +"Officiousness, in the service of princes, leads to disgrace: among +friends, to estrangement." + + + +BOOK V + +A Disciple and the Golden Rule--Miscellaneous + + +The Master pronounced Kung-ye Ch'ang, a disciple, to be a marriageable +person; for although lying bound in criminal fetters he had committed no +crime. And he gave him his own daughter to wife. + +Of Nan Yung, a disciple, he observed, that in a State where the +government was well conducted he would not be passed over in its +appointments, and in one where the government was ill conducted he would +evade punishment and disgrace. And he caused his elder brother's +daughter to be given in marriage to him. + +Of Tsz-tsien, a disciple, he remarked, "A superior man indeed is the +like of him! But had there been none of superior quality in Lu, how +should this man have attained to this excellence?" + +Tsz-kung asked, "What of me, then?" "You," replied the Master--"You are +a receptacle." "Of what sort?" said he. "One for high and sacred use," +was the answer. + +Some one having observed of Yen Yung that he was good-natured towards +others, but that he lacked the gift of ready speech, the Master said, +"What need of that gift? To stand up before men and pour forth a stream +of glib words is generally to make yourself obnoxious to them. I know +not about his good-naturedness; but at any rate what need of that gift?" + +When the Master proposed that Tsi-tiau K'ai should enter the government +service, the latter replied, "I can scarcely credit it." The Master was +gratified. + +"Good principles are making no progress," once exclaimed the Master. "If +I were to take a raft, and drift about on the sea, would Tsz-lu, I +wonder, be my follower there?" That disciple was delighted at hearing +the suggestion; whereupon the Master continued, "He surpasses me in his +love of deeds of daring. But he does not in the least grasp the pith of +my remark." + +In reply to a question put to him by Mang Wu respecting Tsz-lu--as to +whether he might be called good-natured towards others, the Master said, +"I cannot tell"; but, on the question being put again, he answered, +"Well, in an important State [10] he might be intrusted with the +management of the military levies; but I cannot answer for his good +nature." + +"What say you then of Yen Yu?" + +"As for Yen," he replied, "in a city of a thousand families, or in a +secondary fief, [11] he might be charged with the governorship; but I +cannot answer for his good-naturedness." + +"Take Tsz-hwa, then; what of him?" + +"Tsz-hwa," said he, "with a cincture girt upon him, standing as +attendant at Court, might be charged with the addressing of visitors and +guests; but as to his good-naturedness I cannot answer." + +Addressing Tsz-kung, the Master said, "Which of the two is ahead of the +other--yourself or Hwúi?" "How shall I dare," he replied, "even to look +at Hwúi? Only let him hear one particular, and from that he knows ten; +whereas I, if I hear one, may from it know two." + +"You are not a match for him, I grant you," said the Master. "You are +not his match." + +Tsai Yu, a disciple, used to sleep in the daytime. Said the Master, "One +may hardly carve rotten wood, or use a trowel to the wall of a +manure-yard! In his case, what is the use of reprimand? + +"My attitude towards a man in my first dealings with him," he added, +"was to listen to his professions and to trust to his conduct. My +attitude now is to listen to his professions, and to watch his conduct. +My experience with Tsai Yu has led to this change. + +"I have never seen," said the Master, "a man of inflexible firmness." +Some one thereupon mentioned Shin Ch'ang, a disciple. "Ch'ang," said he, +"is wanton; where do you get at his inflexibleness?" + +Tsz-kung made the remark: "That which I do not wish others to put upon +me, I also wish not to put upon others." "Nay," said the Master, "you +have not got so far as that." + +The same disciple once remarked, "There may be access so as to hear the +Master's literary discourses, but when he is treating of human nature +and the way of Heaven, there may not be such success." + +Tsz-lu, after once hearing him upon some subject, and feeling himself as +yet incompetent to carry into practice what he had heard, used to be +apprehensive only lest he should hear the subject revived. + +Tsz-kung asked how it was that Kung Wan had come to be so styled Wan +(the talented). The Master's answer was, "Because, though a man of an +active nature, he was yet fond of study, and he was not ashamed to stoop +to put questions to his inferiors." + +Respecting Tsz-ch'an,[12] the Master said that he had four of the +essential qualities of the 'superior man':--in his own private walk he +was humble-minded; in serving his superiors he was deferential; in his +looking after the material welfare of the people he was generously kind; +and in his exaction of public service from the latter he was just. + +Speaking of Yen Ping, he said, "He was one who was happy in his mode of +attaching men to him. However long the intercourse, he was always +deferential to them." + +Referring to Tsang Wan, he asked, "What is to be said of this man's +discernment?--this man with his tortoise-house, with the pillar-heads +and posts bedizened with scenes of hill and mere!" + +Tsz-chang put a question relative to the chief Minister of Tsu, Tsz-wan. +He said, "Three times he became chief Minister, and on none of these +occasions did he betray any sign of exultation. Three times his ministry +came to an end, and he showed no sign of chagrin. He used without fail +to inform the new Minister as to the old mode of administration. What +say you of him?" + +"That he was a loyal man," said the Master. + +"But was he a man of fellow-feeling?" said the disciple. + +"Of that I am not sure," he answered; "how am I to get at that?" + +The disciple went on to say:--"After the assassination of the prince of +Ts'i by the officer Ts'ui, the latter's fellow-official Ch'in Wan, who +had half a score teams of horses, gave up all, and turned his back upon +him. On coming to another State, he observed, 'There are here characters +somewhat like that of our minister Ts'ui,' and he turned his back upon +them. Proceeding to a certain other State, he had occasion to make the +same remark, and left. What say you of him?" + +"That he was a pure-minded man," answered the Master. + +"But was he a man of fellow-feeling?" urged the disciple. + +"Of that I am not sure," he replied; "how am I to get at that?" + +Ki Wan was one who thought three times over a thing before he acted. The +Master hearing this of him, observed, "Twice would have been enough." + +Of Ning Wu, the Master said that when matters went well in the State he +used to have his wits about him: but when they went wrong, he lost them. +His intelligence might be equalled, but not his witlessness! + +Once, when the Master lived in the State of Ch'in, he exclaimed, "Let me +get home again! Let me get home! My school-children [13] are wild and +impetuous! Though they are somewhat accomplished, and perfect in one +sense in their attainments, yet they know not how to make nice +discriminations." + +Of Peh-I and Shuh Ts'i he said, "By the fact of their not remembering +old grievances, they gradually did away with resentment." + +Of Wei-shang Kau he said, "Who calls him straightforward? A person once +begged some vinegar of him, and he begged it from a neighbor, and then +presented him with it!" + +"Fine speech," said he, "and studied mien, and superfluous show of +deference--of such things Tso-k'iu Ming was ashamed, I too am ashamed of +such things. Also of hiding resentment felt towards an opponent and +treating him as a friend--of this kind of thing he was ashamed, and so +too am I." + +Attended once by the two disciples Yen Yuen and Tsz-lu, he said, "Come +now, why not tell me, each of you, what in your hearts you are really +after?" + +"I should like," said Tsz-lu, "for myself and my friends and associates, +carriages and horses, and to be clad in light furs! nor would I mind +much if they should become the worse for wear." + +"And I should like," said Yen Yuen, "to live without boasting of my +abilities, and without display of meritorious deeds." + +Tsz-lu then said, "I should like, sir, to hear what your heart is set +upon." + +The Master replied, "It is this:--in regard to old people, to give them +quiet and comfort; in regard to friends and associates, to be faithful +to them; in regard to the young, to treat them with fostering affection +and kindness." + +On one occasion the Master exclaimed, "Ah, 'tis hopeless! I have not yet +seen the man who can see his errors, so as inwardly to accuse himself." + +"In a small cluster of houses there may well be," said he, "some whose +integrity and sincerity may compare with mine; but I yield to none in +point of love of learning." + + +[Footnote 10: Lit., a State of 1,000 war chariots.] + +[Footnote 11: Lit., a House of 100 war chariots.] + +[Footnote 12: A great statesman of Confucius's time.] + +[Footnote 13: A familiar way of speaking of his disciples in their +hearing.] + + + +BOOK VI + +More Characteristics--Wisdom--Philanthropy + + +Of Yen Yung, a disciple, the Master said, "Yung might indeed do for a +prince!" + +On being asked by this Yen Yung his opinion of a certain individual, the +Master replied, "He is passable. Impetuous, though." + +"But," argued the disciple, "if a man habituate himself to a reverent +regard for duty--even while in his way of doing things he is +impetuous--in the oversight of the people committed to his charge, is he +not passable? If, on the other hand, he habituate himself to impetuosity +of mind, and show it also in his way of doing things, is he not then +over-impetuous?" + +"You are right," said the Master. + +When the Duke Ngai inquired which of the disciples were devoted to +learning, Confucius answered him, "There was one Yen Hwúi who loved +it--a man whose angry feelings towards any particular person he did not +suffer to visit upon another; a man who would never fall into the same +error twice. Unfortunately his allotted time was short, and he died, and +now his like is not to be found; I have never heard of one so devoted to +learning." + +While Tsz-hwa, a disciple, was away on a mission to Ts'i, the disciple +Yen Yu, on behalf of his mother, applied for some grain. "Give her three +pecks," said the Master. He applied for more. "Give her eight, then." +Yen gave her fifty times that amount. The Master said, "When Tsz-hwa +went on that journey to Ts'i, he had well-fed steeds yoked to his +carriage, and was arrayed in light furs. I have learnt that the +'superior man' should help those whose needs are urgent, not help the +rich to be more rich." + +When Yuen Sz became prefect under him, he gave him nine hundred measures +of grain, but the prefect declined to accept them.[14] "You must not," +said the Master. "May they not be of use to the villages and hamlets +around you?" + +Speaking of Yen Yung again, the Master said, "If the offspring of a +speckled ox be red in color, and horned, even though men may not wish to +take it for sacrifice, would the spirits of the hills and streams reject +it?" + +Adverting to Hwúi again, he said, "For three months there would not be +in his breast one thought recalcitrant against his feeling of good-will +towards his fellow-men. The others may attain to this for a day or for a +month, but there they end." + +When asked by Ki K'ang whether Tsz-lu was fit to serve the government, +the Master replied, "Tsz-lu is a man of decision: what should prevent +him from serving the government?" + +Asked the same question respecting Tsz-kung and Yen Yu he answered +similarly, pronouncing Tsz-kung to be a man of perspicacity, and Yen Yu +to be one versed in the polite arts. + +When the head of the Ki family sent for Min Tsz-k'ien to make him +governor of the town of Pi, that disciple said, "Politely decline for +me. If the offer is renewed, then indeed I shall feel myself obliged to +go and live on the further bank of the Wan." + +Peh-niu had fallen ill, and the Master was inquiring after him. Taking +hold of his hand held out from the window, he said, "It is taking him +off! Alas, his appointed time has come! Such a man, and to have such an +illness!" + +Of Hwúi, again: "A right worthy man indeed was he! With his simple +wooden dish of rice, and his one gourd-basin of drink, away in his poor +back lane, in a condition too grievous for others to have endured, he +never allowed his cheery spirits to droop. Aye, a right worthy soul was +he!" + +"It is not," Yen Yu once apologized, "that I do not take pleasure in +your doctrines; it is that I am not strong enough." The Master rejoined, +"It is when those who are not strong enough have made some moderate +amount of progress that they fail and give up; but you are now drawing +your own line for yourself." + +Addressing Tsz-hiá, the Master said, "Let your scholarship be that of +gentlemen, and not like that of common men." + +When Tsz-yu became governor of Wu-shing, the Master said to him, "Do you +find good men about you?" The reply was, "There is Tan-t'ai Mieh-ming, +who when walking eschews by-paths, and who, unless there be some public +function, never approaches my private residence." + +"Mang Chi-fan," said the Master, "is no sounder of his own praises. +During a stampede he was in the rear, and as they were about to enter +the city gate he whipped up his horses, and said, 'Twas not my daring +made me lag behind. My horses would not go.'" + +_Obiter dicta_ of the Master:-- + +"Whoever has not the glib utterance of the priest T'o, as well as the +handsomeness of Prince Cháu of Sung, will find it hard to keep out of +harm's way in the present age. + +"Who can go out but by that door? Why walks no one by these guiding +principles? + +"Where plain naturalness is more in evidence than polish, we have--the +man from the country. Where polish is more in evidence than naturalness, +we have--the town scribe. It is when naturalness and polish are equally +evident that we have the ideal man. + +"The life of a man is--his rectitude. Life without it--such may you have +the good fortune to avoid! + +"They who know it are not as those who love it, nor they who love it as +those who rejoice in it--that is, have the fruition of their love for +it. + +"To the average man, and those above the average, it is possible to +discourse on higher subjects; to those from the average downwards, it is +not possible." + +Fan Ch'i put a query about wisdom. The Master replied, "To labor for the +promoting of righteous conduct among the people of the land; to be +serious in regard to spiritual beings, and to hold aloof from +them;--this may be called wisdom." + +To a further query, about philanthropy, he replied, "Those who possess +that virtue find difficulty with it at first, success later. + +"Men of practical knowledge," he said, "find their gratification among +the rivers of the lowland, men of sympathetic social feeling find theirs +among the hills. The former are active and bustling, the latter calm and +quiet. The former take their day of pleasure, the latter look to length +of days." + +Alluding to the States of Ts'i and Lu, he observed, that Ts'i, by one +change, might attain to the condition of Lu; and that Lu, by one change, +might attain to good government. + +An exclamation of the Master (satirizing the times, when old terms +relating to government were still used while bereft of their old +meaning):--"A quart, and not a quart! _quart_, indeed! _quart_, indeed!" + +Tsai Wo, a disciple, put a query. Said he, "Suppose a philanthropic +person were told, 'There's a fellow-creature down in the well!' Would he +go down after him?" + +"Why should he really do so?" answered the Master. "The good man or, a +superior man might be induced to go, but not to go down. He may be +misled, but not befooled." + +"The superior man," said he, "with his wide study of books, and hedging +himself round by the Rules of Propriety, is not surely, after all that, +capable of overstepping his bounds." + +Once when the Master had had an interview with Nan-tsz, which had +scandalized his disciple Tsz-lu, he uttered the solemn adjuration, "If I +have done aught amiss, may Heaven reject me! may Heaven reject me!" + +"How far-reaching," said he, "is the moral excellence that flows from +the Constant Mean! [15] It has for a long time been rare among the +people." + +Tsz-kung said, "Suppose the case of one who confers benefits far and +wide upon the people, and who can, in so doing, make his bounty +universally felt--how would you speak of him? Might he be called +philanthropic?" + +The Master exclaimed, "What a work for philanthropy! He would require +indeed to be a sage! He would put into shade even Yau and Shun!--Well, a +philanthropic person, desiring for himself a firm footing, is led on to +give one to others; desiring for himself an enlightened perception of +things, he is led on to help others to be similarly enlightened. If one +could take an illustration coming closer home to us than yours, that +might be made the starting-point for speaking about philanthropy." + + +[Footnote 14: At this time Confucius was Criminal Judge in his native +State of Lu. Yuen Sz had been a disciple. The commentators add that this +was the officer's proper salary, and that he did wrong to refuse it.] + +[Footnote 15: The doctrine afterwards known by that name, and which gave +its title to a Confucian treatise.] + + + +BOOK VII + +Characteristics of Confucius--An Incident + + +Said the Master:-- + +"I, as a transmitter[16] and not an originator, and as one who believes +in and loves the ancients, venture to compare myself with our old P'ang. + +"What find you indeed in me?--a quiet brooder and memorizer; a student +never satiated with learning; an unwearied monitor of others! + +"The things which weigh heavily upon my mind are these--failure to +improve in the virtues, failure in discussion of what is learnt, +inability to walk according to knowledge received as to what is right +and just, inability also to reform what has been amiss." + +In his hours of recreation and refreshment the Master's manner was easy +and unconstrained, affable and winning. + +Once he exclaimed, "Alas! I must be getting very feeble; 'tis long since +I have had a repetition of the dreams in which I used to see the Duke of +Chow. [17] + +"Concentrate the mind," said he, "upon the Good Way. + +"Maintain firm hold upon Virtue. + +"Rely upon Philanthropy. + +"Find recreation in the Arts. [18] + +"I have never withheld instruction from any, even from those who have +come for it with the smallest offering. + +"No subject do I broach, however, to those who have no eager desire to +learn; no encouraging hint do I give to those who show no anxiety to +speak out their ideas; nor have I anything more to say to those who, +after I have made clear one corner of the subject, cannot from that give +me the other three." + +If the Master was taking a meal, and there were any in mourning beside +him, he would not eat to the full. + +On one day on which he had wept, on that day he would not sing. + +Addressing his favorite disciple, he said, "To you only and myself it +has been given to do this--to go when called to serve, and to go back +into quiet retirement when released from office." + +Tsz-lu, hearing the remark said, "But if, sir, you had the handling of +the army of one of the greater States,[19] whom would you have +associated with you in that case?" + +The Master answered:-- + + "Not the one 'who'll rouse the tiger,' + Not the one 'who'll wade the Ho;' + +not the man who can die with no regret. He must be one who should watch +over affairs with apprehensive caution, a man fond of strategy, and of +perfect skill and effectiveness in it." + +As to wealth, he remarked, "If wealth were an object that I could go in +quest of, I should do so even if I had to take a whip and do grooms' +work. But seeing that it is not, I go after those objects for which I +have a liking." + +Among matters over which he exercised great caution were times of +fasting, war, and sickness. + +When he was in the State of Ts'i, and had heard the ancient Shau music, +he lost all perception of the taste of his meat. "I had no idea," said +he, "that music could have been brought to this pitch." + +In the course of conversation Yen Yu said, "Does the Master take the +part of the Prince of Wei?" "Ah yes!" said Tsz-kung, "I will go and ask +him that." + +On going in to him, that disciple began, "What sort of men were Peh-I +and Shuh Ts'i?" "Worthies of the olden time," the Master replied. "Had +they any feelings of resentment?" was the next question. "Their aim and +object," he answered, "was that of doing the duty which every man owes +to his fellows, and they succeeded in doing it;--what room further for +feelings of resentment?" The questioner on coming out said, "The Master +does not take his part." + +"With a meal of coarse rice," said the Master, "and with water to drink, +and my bent arm for my pillow--even thus I can find happiness. Riches +and honors without righteousness are to me as fleeting clouds." + +"Give me several years more to live," said he, "and after fifty years' +study of the 'Book of Changes' I might come to be free from serious +error." + +The Master's regular subjects of discourse were the "Books of the Odes" +and "History," and the up-keeping of the Rules of Propriety. On all of +these he regularly discoursed. + +The Duke of Shih questioned Tsz-lu about Confucius, and the latter did +not answer. + +Hearing of this, the Master said, "Why did you not say, He is a man with +a mind so intent on his pursuits that he forgets his food, and finds +such pleasure in them that he forgets his troubles, and does not know +that old age is coming upon him?" + +"As I came not into life with any knowledge of it," he said, "and as my +likings are for what is old, I busy myself in seeking knowledge there." + +Strange occurrences, exploits of strength, deeds of lawlessness, +references to spiritual beings--such-like matters the Master avoided in +conversation. + +"Let there," he said, "be three men walking together: from that number I +should be sure to find my instructors; for what is good in them I should +choose out and follow, and what is not good I should modify." + +On one occasion he exclaimed, "Heaven begat Virtue in me; what can man +do unto me?" + +To his disciples he once said, "Do you look upon me, my sons, as keeping +anything secret from you? I hide nothing from you. I do nothing that is +not manifest to your eyes, my disciples. That is so with me." + +Four things there were which he kept in view in his +teaching--scholarliness, conduct of life, honesty, faithfulness. + +"It is not given to me," he said, "to meet with a sage; let me but +behold a man of superior mind, and that will suffice. Neither is it +given to me to meet with a good man; let me but see a man of constancy, +and it will suffice. It is difficult for persons to have constancy, when +they pretend to have that which they are destitute of, to be full when +they are empty, to do things on a grand scale when their means are +contracted!" + +When the Master fished with hook and line, he did not also use a net. +When out with his bow, he would never shoot at game in cover. + +"Some there may be," said he, "who do things in ignorance of what they +do. I am not of these. There is an alternative way of knowing things, +viz.--to sift out the good from the many things one hears, and follow +it; and to keep in memory the many things one sees." + +Pupils from Hu-hiang were difficult to speak with. One youth came to +interview the Master, and the disciples were in doubt whether he ought +to have been seen. "Why so much ado," said the Master, "at my merely +permitting his approach, and not rather at my allowing him to draw back? +If a man have cleansed himself in order to come and see me, I receive +him as such; but I do not undertake for what he will do when he goes +away." + +"Is the philanthropic spirit far to seek, indeed?" the Master exclaimed; +"I wish for it, and it is with me!" + +The Minister of Crime in the State of Ch'in asked Confucius whether Duke +Ch'an, of Lu was acquainted with the Proprieties; and he answered, "Yes, +he knows them." + +When Confucius had withdrawn, the minister bowed to Wu-ma K'i, a +disciple, and motioned to him to come forward. He said, "I have heard +that superior men show no partiality; are they, too, then, partial? That +prince took for his wife a lady of the Wu family, having the same +surname as himself, and had her named 'Lady Tsz of Wu, the elder,' If he +knows the Proprieties, then who does not?" + +The disciple reported this to the Master, who thereupon remarked, "Well +for me! If I err in any way, others are sure to know of it." + +When the Master was in company with any one who sang, and who sang well, +he must needs have the song over again, and after that would join in it. + +"Although in letters," he said, "I may have none to compare with me, yet +in my personification of the 'superior man' I have not as yet been +successful." + +"'A Sage and a Philanthropist?' How should I have the ambition?" said +he. "All that I can well be called is this--An insatiable student, an +unwearied teacher;--this, and no more."--"Exactly what we, your +disciples, cannot by any learning manage to be," said Kung-si Hwa. + +Once when the Master was seriously ill, Tsz-lu requested to be allowed +to say prayers for him. "Are such available?" asked the Master. "Yes," +said he; "and the Manual of Prayers says, 'Pray to the spirits above and +to those here below,'" + +"My praying has been going on a long while," said the Master. + +"Lavish living," he said, "renders men disorderly; miserliness makes +them hard. Better, however, the hard than the disorderly." + +Again, "The man of superior mind is placidly composed; the small-minded +man is in a constant state of perturbation." + +The Master was gentle, yet could be severe; had an over-awing presence, +yet was not violent; was deferential, yet easy. + + +[Footnote 16: In reference to his editing the six Classics of his time.] + +[Footnote 17: This was one of his "beloved ancients," famous for what he +did in helping to found the dynasty of Chow, a man of great political +wisdom, a scholar also, and poet. It was the "dream" of Confucius's life +to restore the country to the condition in which the Duke of Chow left +it.] + +[Footnote 18: These were six in number, viz.: Ceremonial, Music, +Archery, Horsemanship, Language, and Calculation.] + +[Footnote 19: Lit., three forces. Each force consisted of 12,500 men, +and three of such forces were the equipment of a greater State.] + + + +BOOK VIII + +Sayings of Tsang--Sentences of the Master + + +Speaking of T'ai-pih the Master said that he might be pronounced a man +of the highest moral excellence; for he allowed the empire to pass by +him onwards to a third heir; while the people, in their ignorance of his +motives, were unable to admire him for so doing. + +"Without the Proprieties," said the Master, "we have these results: for +deferential demeanor, a worried one; for calm attentiveness, awkward +bashfulness; for manly conduct, disorderliness; for straightforwardness, +perversity. + +"When men of rank show genuine care for those nearest to them in blood, +the people rise to the duty of neighborliness and sociability. And when +old friendships among them are not allowed to fall off, there will be a +cessation of underhand practices among the people." + +The Scholar Tsang was once unwell, and calling his pupils to him he said +to them, "Disclose to view my feet and my hands. What says the Ode?-- + + 'Act as from a sense of danger, + With precaution and with care, + As a yawning gulf o'erlooking, + As on ice that scarce will bear,' + +At all times, my children, I know how to keep myself free from bodily +harm." + +Again, during an illness of his, Mang King, an official, went to ask +after him. The Scholar had some conversation with him, in the course of +which he said-- + + "'Doleful the cries of a dying bird, + Good the last words of a dying man,' + +There are three points which a man of rank in the management of his +duties should set store upon:--A lively manner and deportment, banishing +both severity and laxity; a frank and open expression of countenance, +allied closely with sincerity; and a tone in his utterances utterly free +from any approach to vulgarity and impropriety. As to matters of bowls +and dishes, leave such things to those who are charged with the care of +them." + +Another saying of the Scholar Tsang: "I once had a friend who, though he +possessed ability, would go questioning men of none, and, though +surrounded by numbers, would go with his questions to isolated +individuals; who also, whatever he might have, appeared as if he were +without it, and, with all his substantial acquirements, made as though +his mind were a mere blank; and when insulted would not retaliate;--this +was ever his way." + +Again he said: "The man that is capable of being intrusted with the +charge of a minor on the throne, and given authority over a large +territory, and who, during the important term of his superintendence +cannot be forced out of his position, is not such a 'superior man'? That +he is, indeed." + +Again:--"The learned official must not be without breadth and power of +endurance: the burden is heavy, and the way is long. + +"Suppose that he take his duty to his fellow-men as his peculiar burden, +is that not indeed a heavy one? And since only with death it is done +with, is not the way long?" + + +Sentences of the Master:-- + +"From the 'Book of Odes' we receive impulses; from the 'Book of the +Rules,' stability; from the 'Book on Music,' refinement. [20] + +"The people may be put into the way they should go, though they may not +be put into the way of understanding it. + +"The man who likes bravery, and yet groans under poverty, has mischief +in him. So, too, has the misanthrope, groaning at any severity shown +towards him. + +"Even if a person were adorned with the gifts of the Duke of Chow, yet +if he were proud and avaricious, all the rest of his qualities would not +indeed be worth looking at. + +"Not easily found is the man who, after three years' study, has failed +to come upon some fruit of his toil. + +"The really faithful lover of learning holds fast to the Good Way till +death. + +"He will not go into a State in which a downfall is imminent, nor take +up his abode in one where disorder reigns. When the empire is well +ordered he will show himself; when not, he will hide himself away. Under +a good government it will be a disgrace to him if he remain in poverty +and low estate; under a bad one, it would be equally disgraceful to him +to hold riches and honors. + +"If not occupying the office, devise not the policy. + +"When the professor Chi began his duties, how grand the finale of the +First of the Odes used to be! How it rang in one's ears! + +"I cannot understand persons who are enthusiastic and yet not +straightforward; nor those who are ignorant and yet not attentive; nor +again those folks who are simple-minded and yet untrue. + +"Learn, as if never overtaking your object, and yet as if apprehensive +of losing it. + +"How sublime was the handling of the empire by Shun and Yu!--it was as +nothing to them! + +"How great was Yau as a prince! Was he not sublime! Say that Heaven only +is great, then was Yau alone after its pattern! How profound was he! The +people could not find a name for him. How sublime in his achievements! +How brilliant in his scholarly productions!" + + +Shun had for his ministers five men, by whom he ordered the empire. + +King Wu (in his day) stated that he had ten men as assistants for the +promotion of order. + +With reference to these facts Confucius observed, "Ability is hard to +find. Is it not so indeed? During the three years' interregnum between +Yau and Shun there was more of it than in the interval before this +present dynasty appeared. There were, at this latter period, one woman, +and nine men only. + +"When two-thirds of the empire were held by King Wan, he served with +that portion the House of Yin. We speak of the virtue of the House of +Chow; we may say, indeed, that it reached the pinnacle of excellence." + +"As to Yu," added the Master, "I can find no flaw in him. Living on +meagre food and drink; yet providing to the utmost in his filial +offerings to the spirits of the dead! Dressing in coarse garments; yet +most elegant when vested in his sacrificial apron and coronet! Dwelling +in a poor palace; yet exhausting his energies over those +boundary-ditches and watercourses! I can find no flaw in Yu." + + +[Footnote 20: Comparison of three of the Classics: the "Shi-King," the +"Li Ki," and the "Yoh." The last is lost.] + + + +BOOK IX + +His Favorite Disciple's Opinion of Him + + +Topics on which the Master rarely spoke were--Advantage, and Destiny, +and Duty of man to man. + +A man of the village of Tah-hiang exclaimed of him, "A great man is +Confucius!--a man of extensive learning, and yet in nothing has he quite +made himself a name!" + +The Master heard of this, and mentioning it to his disciples he said, +"What then shall I take in hand? Shall I become a carriage driver, or an +archer? Let me be a driver!" + +"The sacrificial cap," he once said, "should, according to the Rules, be +of linen; but in these days it is of pure silk. However, as it is +economical, I do as all do. + +"The Rule says, 'Make your bow when at the lower end of the hall'; but +nowadays the bowing is done at the upper part. This is great freedom; +and I, though I go in opposition to the crowd, bow when at the lower +end." + +The Master barred four words:--he would have no "shall's," no "must's," +no "certainty's," no "I's." + +Once, in the town of K'wang fearing that his life was going to be taken, +the Master exclaimed, "King Wan is dead and gone; but is not '_wan_' +[21] with you here? If Heaven be about to allow this '_wan_' to perish, +then they who survive its decease will get no benefit from it. But so +long as Heaven does not allow it to perish, what can the men of K'wang +do to me?" + +A high State official, after questioning Tsz-kung, said, "Your Master is +a sage, then? How many and what varied abilities must be his!" + +The disciple replied, "Certainly Heaven is allowing him full +opportunities of becoming a sage, in addition to the fact that his +abilities are many and varied." + +When the Master heard of this he remarked, "Does that high official know +me? In my early years my position in life was low, and hence my ability +in many ways, though exercised in trifling matters. In the gentleman is +there indeed such variety of ability? No." + +From this, the disciple Lau used to say, "'Twas a saying of the Master: +'At a time when I was not called upon to use them, I acquired my +proficiency in the polite arts.'" + +"Am I, indeed," said the Master, "possessed of knowledge? I know +nothing. Let a vulgar fellow come to me with a question--a man with an +emptyish head--I may thrash out with him the matter from end to end, and +exhaust myself in doing it!" + +"Ah!" exclaimed he once, "the phoenix does not come! and no symbols +issue from the river! May I not as well give up?" + +Whenever the Master met with a person in mourning, or with one in +full-dress cap and kirtle, or with a blind person, although they might +be young persons, he would make a point of rising on their appearance, +or, if crossing their path, would do so with quickened step! + +Once Yen Yuen exclaimed with a sigh (with reference to the Master's +doctrines), "If I look up to them, they are ever the higher; if I try to +penetrate them, they are ever the harder; if I gaze at them as if before +my eyes, lo, they are behind me!--Gradually and gently the Master with +skill lures men on. By literary lore he gave me breadth; by the Rules of +Propriety he narrowed me down. When I desire a respite, I find it +impossible; and after I have exhausted my powers, there seems to be +something standing straight up in front of me, and though I have the +mind to make towards it I make no advance at all." + +Once when the Master was seriously ill, Tsz-lu induced the other +disciples to feign they were high officials acting in his service. +During a respite from his malady the Master exclaimed, "Ah! how long has +Tsz-lu's conduct been false? Whom should I delude, if I were to pretend +to have officials under me, having none? Should I deceive Heaven? +Besides, were I to die, I would rather die in the hands of yourselves, +my disciples, than in the hands of officials. And though I should fail +to have a grand funeral over me, I should hardly be left on my death on +the public highway, should I?" + +Tsz-kung once said to him, "Here is a fine gem. Would you guard it +carefully in a casket and store it away, or seek a good price for it and +sell it?" "Sell it, indeed," said the Master--"that would I; but I +should wait for the bidder." + +The Master protested he would "go and live among the nine wild tribes." + +"A rude life," said some one;--"how could you put up with it?" + +"What rudeness would there be," he replied, "if a 'superior man' was +living in their midst?" + +Once he remarked, "After I came back from Wei to Lu the music was put +right, and each of the Festal Odes and Hymns was given its appropriate +place and use." + +"Ah! which one of these following," he asked on one occasion, "are to be +found exemplified in me--proper service rendered to superiors when +abroad; duty to father and elder brother when at home; duty that shrinks +from no exertion when dear ones die; and keeping free from the confusing +effects of wine?" + +Standing once on the bank of a mountain stream, he said (musingly), +"Like this are those that pass away--no cessation, day or night!" + + +Other sayings:-- + +"Take an illustration from the making of a hill. A simple basketful is +wanting to complete it, and the work stops. So I stop short. + +"Take an illustration from the levelling of the ground. Suppose again +just one basketful is left, when the work has so progressed. There I +desist! + +"Ah! it was Hwúi, was it not? who, when I had given him his lesson, was +the unflagging one! + +"Alas for Hwúi! I saw him ever making progress. I never saw him stopping +short. + +"Blade, but no bloom--or else bloom, but no produce; aye, that is the +way with some! + +"Reverent regard is due to youth. How know we what difference there may +be in them in the future from what they are now? Yet when they have +reached the age of forty or fifty, and are still unknown in the world, +then indeed they are no more worthy of such regard. + +"Can any do otherwise than assent to words said to them by way of +correction? Only let them reform by such advice, and it will then be +reckoned valuable. Can any be other than pleased with words of gentle +suasion? Only let them comply with them fully, and such also will be +accounted valuable. With those who are pleased without so complying, and +those who assent but do not reform, I can do nothing at all. + +"Give prominent place to loyalty and sincerity. + +"Have no associates in study who are not advanced somewhat like +yourself. + +"When you have erred, be not afraid to correct yourself. + +"It may be possible to seize and carry off the chief commander of a +large army, but not possible so to rob one poor fellow of his will. + +"One who stands--clad in hempen robe, the worse for wear--among others +clad in furs of fox and badger, and yet unabashed--'tis Tsz-lu, that, is +it not?" + +Tsz-lu used always to be humming over the lines-- + + "From envy and enmity free, + What deed doth he other than good?" + +"How should such a rule of life," asked the Master, "be sufficient to +make any one good?" + +"When the year grows chilly, we know the pine and cypress are the last +to fade. + +"The wise escape doubt; the good-hearted, trouble; the bold, +apprehension. + +"Some may study side by side, and yet be asunder when they +come to the logic of things. Some may go on together in this +latter course, but be wide apart in the standards they reach in +it. Some, again, may together reach the same standard, and +yet be diverse in weight of character." + + "The blossom is out on the cherry tree, + With a flutter on every spray. + Dost think that my thoughts go not out to thee? + Ah, why art thou far away!" + +Commenting on these lines the Master said, "There can hardly have been +much 'thought going out,' What does distance signify?" + + +[Footnote 21: "Wan" was the honorary appellation of the great sage and +ruler, whose praise is in the "Shi-King" as one of the founders of the +Chow dynasty, and the term represented civic talent and virtues, as +distinct from Wu, the martial talent--the latter being the honorary +title of his son and successor. "Wan" also often stands for literature +and polite accomplishments. Here Confucius simply means, "If you kill +me, you kill a sage."] + + + +BOOK X + +Confucius in Private and Official Life + + +In his own village, Confucius presented a somewhat plain and simple +appearance, and looked unlike a man who possessed ability of speech. + +But in the ancestral temple, and at Court, he spoke with the fluency and +accuracy of a debater, but ever guardedly. + +At Court, conversing with the lower order of great officials, he spoke +somewhat firmly and directly; with those of the higher order his tone +was somewhat more affable. + +When the prince was present he was constrainedly reverent in his +movements, and showed a proper degree of grave dignity in demeanor. + +Whenever the prince summoned him to act as usher to the Court, his look +would change somewhat, and he would make as though he were turning round +to do obeisance. + +He would salute those among whom he took up his position, using the +right hand or the left, and holding the skirts of his robe in proper +position before and behind. He would make his approaches with quick +step, and with elbows evenly bent outwards. + +When the visitor withdrew, he would not fail to report the execution of +his commands, with the words, "The visitor no longer looks back." + +When he entered the palace gate, it was with the body somewhat bent +forward, almost as though he could not be admitted. When he stood still, +this would never happen in the middle of the gateway; nor when moving +about would he ever tread on the threshold. When passing the throne, his +look would change somewhat, he would turn aside and make a sort of +obeisance, and the words he spoke seemed as though he were deficient in +utterance. + +On going up the steps to the audience chamber, he would gather up with +both hands the ends of his robe, and walk with his body bent somewhat +forward, holding back his breath like one in whom respiration has +ceased. On coming out, after descending one step his countenance would +relax and assume an appearance of satisfaction. Arrived at the bottom, +he would go forward with quick step, his elbows evenly bent outwards, +back to his position, constrainedly reverent in every movement. + +When holding the sceptre in his hand, his body would be somewhat bent +forward, as if he were not equal to carrying it; wielding it now higher, +as in a salutation, now lower, as in the presentation of a gift; his +look would also be changed and appear awestruck; and his gait would seem +retarded, as if he were obeying some restraining hand behind. + +When he presented the gifts of ceremony, he would assume a placid +expression of countenance. At the private interview he would be cordial +and affable. + +The good man would use no purple or violet colors for the facings of his +dress. [22] Nor would he have red or orange color for his undress. [23] +For the hot season he wore a singlet, of either coarse or fine texture, +but would also feel bound to have an outer garment covering it. For his +black robe he had lamb's wool; for his white one, fawn's fur; and for +his yellow one, fox fur. His furred undress robe was longer, but the +right sleeve was shortened. He would needs have his sleeping-dress one +and a half times his own length. For ordinary home wear he used thick +substantial fox or badger furs. When he left off mourning, he would wear +all his girdle trinkets. His kirtle in front, when it was not needed for +full cover, he must needs have cut down. He would never wear his (black) +lamb's-wool, or a dark-colored cap, when he went on visits of condolence +to mourners. [24] On the first day of the new moon, he must have on his +Court dress and to Court. When observing his fasts, he made a point of +having bright, shiny garments, made of linen. He must also at such times +vary his food, and move his seat to another part of his dwelling-room. + +As to his food, he never tired of rice so long as it was clean and pure, +nor of hashed meats when finely minced. Rice spoiled by damp, and sour, +he would not touch, nor tainted fish, nor bad meat, nor aught of a bad +color or smell, nor aught overdone in cooking, nor aught out of season. +Neither would he eat anything that was not properly cut, or that lacked +its proper seasonings. Although there might be an abundance of meat +before him, he would not allow a preponderance of it to rob the rice of +its beneficial effect in nutrition. Only in the matter of wine did he +set himself no limit, yet he never drank so much as to confuse himself. +Tradesmen's wines, and dried meats from the market, he would not touch. +Ginger he would never have removed from the table during a meal. He was +not a great eater. Meat from the sacrifices at the prince's temple he +would never put aside till the following day. The meat of his own +offerings he would never give out after three days' keeping, for after +that time none were to eat it. + +At his meals he would not enter into discussions; and when reposing +(afterwards) he would not utter a word. + +Even should his meal consist only of coarse rice and vegetable broth or +melons, he would make an offering, and never fail to do so religiously. + +He would never sit on a mat that was not straight. + +After a feast among his villagers, he would wait before going away until +the old men had left. + +When the village people were exorcising the pests, he would put on his +Court robes and stand on the steps of his hall to receive them. + +When he was sending a message of inquiry to a person in another State, +he would bow twice on seeing the messenger off. + +Ki K'ang once sent him a present of some medicine. He bowed, and +received it; but remarked, "Until I am quite sure of its properties I +must not venture to taste it." + +Once when the stabling was destroyed by fire, he withdrew from the +Court, and asked, "Is any person injured? "--without inquiring as to the +horses. + +Whenever the prince sent him a present of food, he was particular to set +his mat in proper order, and would be the first one to taste it. If the +prince's present was one of raw meat, he must needs have it cooked, and +make an oblation of it. If the gift were a live animal, he would be sure +to keep it and care for it. + +When he was in waiting, and at a meal with the prince, the prince would +make the offering,[25] and he (the Master) was the pregustator. + +When unwell, and the prince came to see him, he would arrange his +position so that his head inclined towards the east, would put over him +his Court robes, and draw his girdle across them. + +When summoned by order of the prince, he would start off without waiting +for his horses to be put to. + +On his entry into the Grand Temple, he inquired about everything +connected with its usages. + +If a friend died, and there were no near relatives to take him to, he +would say, "Let him be buried from my house." + +For a friend's gift--unless it consisted of meat that had been offered +in sacrifice--he would not bow, even if it were a carriage and horses. + +In repose he did not lie like one dead. In his home life he was not +formal in his manner. + +Whenever he met with a person in mourning, even though it were a +familiar acquaintance, he would be certain to change his manner; and +when he met with any one in full-dress cap, or with any blind person, he +would also unfailingly put on a different look, even though he were +himself in undress at the time. + +In saluting any person wearing mourning he would bow forwards towards +the front bar of his carriage; in the same manner he would also salute +the bearer of a census-register. + +When a sumptuous banquet was spread before him, a different expression +would be sure to appear in his features, and he would rise up from his +seat. + +At a sudden thunder-clap, or when the wind grew furious, his look would +also invariably be changed. + +On getting into his car, he would never fail (first) to stand up erect, +holding on by the strap. When in the car, he would never look about, nor +speak hastily, nor bring one hand to the other. + + "Let one but make a movement in his face, + And the bird will rise and seek some safer place." + +Apropos of this, he said, "Here is a hen-pheasant from Shan Liang--and +in season! and in season!" After Tsz-lu had got it prepared, he smelt it +thrice, and then rose up from his seat. + + +[Footnote 22: Because, it is said, such colors were adopted in fasting +and mourning.] + +[Footnote 23: Because they did not belong to the five correct colors +(viz. green, yellow, carnation, white, and black), and were affected +more by females.] + +[Footnote 24: Since white was, as it is still, the mourning color.] + +[Footnote 25: The act of "grace," before eating.] + + + +BOOK XI + +Comparative Worth of His Disciples + + +"The first to make progress in the Proprieties and in Music," said the +Master, "are plain countrymen; after them, the men of higher standing. +If I had to employ any of them, I should stand by the former." + +"Of those," said he, "who were about me when I was in the Ch'in and +Ts'ai States, not one now is left to approach my door." + +"As for Hwui," [26] said the Master, "he is not one to help me on: there +is nothing I say but he is not well satisfied with." + +"What a dutiful son was Min Tsz-k'ien!" he exclaimed. "No one finds +occasion to differ from what his parents and brothers have said of him." + +Nan Yung used to repeat three times over the lines in the Odes about the +white sceptre. Confucius caused his own elder brother's daughter to be +given in marriage to him. + +When Ki K'ang inquired which of the disciples were fond of learning, +Confucius answered him, "There was one Yen Hwúi who was fond of it; but +unfortunately his allotted time was short, and he died; and now his like +is not to be found." + +When Yen Yuen died, his father, Yen Lu, begged for the Master's carriage +in order to get a shell for his coffin. "Ability or no ability," said +the Master, "every father still speaks of 'my son.' When my own son Li +died, and the coffin for him had no shell to it, I know I did not go on +foot to get him one; but that was because I was, though retired, in the +wake of the ministers, and could not therefore well do so." + +On the death of Yen Yuen the Master exclaimed, "Ah me! Heaven is ruining +me, Heaven is ruining me!" + +On the same occasion, his wailing for that disciple becoming excessive, +those who were about him said, "Sir, this is too much!"--"Too much?" +said he; "if I am not to do so for him, then--for whom else?" + +The disciples then wished for the deceased a grand funeral. The Master +could not on his part consent to this. They nevertheless gave him one. +Upon this he remarked, "He used to look upon me as if I were his father. +I could never, however, look on him as a son. Twas not my mistake, but +yours, my children." + +Tsz-lu propounded a question about ministering to the spirits of the +departed. The Master replied, "Where there is scarcely the ability to +minister to living men, how shall there be ability to minister to the +spirits?" On his venturing to put a question concerning death, he +answered, "Where there is scarcely any knowledge about life, how shall +there be any about death?" + +The disciple Min was by his side, looking affable and bland; Tsz-lu +also, looking careless and intrepid; and Yen Yu and Tsz-kung, firm and +precise. The Master was cheery. "One like Tsz-lu there," said he, "does +not come to a natural end." + +Some persons in Lu were taking measures in regard to the Long Treasury +House. Min Tsz-k'ien observed, "How if it were repaired on the old +lines?" The Master upon this remarked, "This fellow is not a talker, but +when he does speak he is bound to hit the mark!" + +"There is Yu's harpsichord," exclaimed the Master--"what is it doing at +my door?" On seeing, however, some disrespect shown to him by the other +disciples, he added, "Yu has got as far as the top of the hall; only he +has not yet entered the house." + +Tsz-kung asked which was the worthier of the two--Tsz-chang or Tsz-hiá. +"The former," answered the Master, "goes beyond the mark; the latter +falls short of it." + +"So then Tsz-chang is the better of the two, is he?" said he. + +"To go too far," he replied, "is about the same as to fall short." + +The Chief of the Ki family was a wealthier man than the Duke of Chow had +been, and yet Yen Yu gathered and hoarded for him, increasing his wealth +more and more. + +"He is no follower of mine," said the Master. "It would serve him right, +my children, to sound the drum, and set upon him." + +Characteristics of four disciples:--Tsz-káu was simple-minded; Tsang Si, +a dullard; Tsz-chang, full of airs; Tsz-lu, rough. + +"As to Hwúi," said the Master, "he comes near to perfection, while +frequently in great want. Tsz-kung does not submit to the appointments +of Heaven; and yet his goods are increased;--he is often successful in +his calculations." + +Tsz-chang wanted to know some marks of the naturally Good Man. + +"He does not walk in others' footprints," said the Master; "yet he does +not get beyond the hall into the house." + +Once the Master said, "Because we allow that a man's words have +something genuine in them, are they necessarily those of a superior man? +or words carrying only an outward semblance and show of gravity?" + +Tsz-lu put a question about the practice of precepts one has heard. The +Master's reply was, "In a case where there is a father or elder brother +still left with you, how should you practise all you hear?" + +When, however, the same question was put to him by Yen Yu, his reply +was, "Yes; do so." + +Kung-si Hwa animadverted upon this to the Master. "Tsz-lu asked you, +sir," said he, "about the practice of what one has learnt, and you said, +'There may be a father or elder brother still alive'; but when Yen Yu +asked the same question, you answered, 'Yes, do so.' I am at a loss to +understand you, and venture to ask what you meant." + +The Master replied, "Yen Yu backs out of his duties; therefore I push +him on. Tsz-lu has forwardness enough for them both; therefore I hold +him back." + +On the occasion of that time of fear in K'wang, Yen Yuen having fallen +behind, the Master said to him (afterwards), "I took it for granted you +were a dead man." "How should I dare to die," said he, "while you, sir, +still lived?" + +On Ki Tsz-jen putting to him a question anent Tsz-lu and Yen Yu, as to +whether they might be called "great ministers," the Master answered, "I +had expected your question, sir, to be about something extraordinary, +and lo! it is only about these two. Those whom we call 'great ministers' +are such as serve their prince conscientiously, and who, when they +cannot do so, retire. At present, as regards the two you ask about, they +may be called 'qualified ministers.'" + +"Well, are they then," he asked, "such as will follow their leader?" + +"They would not follow him who should slay his father and his prince!" +was the reply. + +Through the intervention of Tsz-lu, Tsz-kau was being appointed governor +of Pi. + +"You are spoiling a good man's son," said the Master. + +Tsz-lu rejoined, "But he will have the people and their superiors to +gain experience from, and there will be the altars; what need to read +books? He can become a student afterwards." + +"Here is the reason for my hatred of glib-tongued people," said the +Master. + +On one occasion Tsz-lu, Tsang Sin, Yen Yu, and Kung-si Hwa were sitting +near him. He said to them, "Though I may be a day older than you, do not +(for the moment) regard me as such. While you are living this unoccupied +life you are saying, 'We do not become known.' Now suppose some one got +to know you, what then?" + +Tsz-lu--first to speak--at once answered, "Give me a State of large size +and armament, hemmed in and hampered by other larger States, the +population augmented by armies and regiments, causing a dearth in it of +food of all kinds; give me charge of that State, and in three years' +time I should make a brave country of it, and let it know its place." + +The Master smiled at him. "Yen," said he, "how would it be with you?" + +"Give me," said Yen, "a territory of sixty or seventy li square, or of +fifty or sixty square; put me in charge of that, and in three years I +should make the people sufficiently prosperous. As regards their +knowledge of ceremonial or music, I should wait for superior men to +teach them that." + +"And with you, Kung-si, how would it be?" + +This disciple's reply was, "I have nothing to say about my capabilities +for such matters; my wish is to learn. I should like to be a junior +assistant, in dark robe and cap, at the services of the ancestral +temple, and at the Grand Receptions of the Princes by the Sovereign." + +"And with you, Tsang Sin?" + +This disciple was strumming on his harpsichord, but now the twanging +ceased, he turned from the instrument, rose to his feet, and answered +thus: "Something different from the choice of these three." "What harm?" +said the Master; "I want each one of you to tell me what his heart is +set upon." "Well, then," said he, "give me--in the latter part of +spring--dressed in full spring-tide attire--in company with five or six +young fellows of twenty, [27] or six or seven lads under that age, to do +the ablutions in the I stream, enjoy a breeze in the rain-dance, [28] +and finish up with songs on the road home." + +The Master drew in his breath, sighed, and exclaimed, "Ah, I take with +you!" + +The three other disciples having gone out, leaving Tsang Sin behind, the +latter said, "What think you of the answers of those three?"--"Well, +each told me what was uppermost in his mind," said the Master;--"simply +that." + +"Why did you smile at Tsz-lu, sir?" + +"I smiled at him because to have the charge of a State requires due +regard to the Rules of Propriety, and his words betrayed a lack of +modesty." + +"But Yen, then--he had a State in view, had he not?" + +"I should like to be shown a territory such as he described which does +not amount to a State." + +"But had not Kung-si also a State in view?" + +"What are ancestral temples and Grand Receptions, but for the feudal +lords to take part in? If Kung-si were to become an unimportant +assistant at these functions, who could become an important one?" + + +[Footnote 26: The men of virtuous life were Yen Yuen (Hwúi), Min +Tsz-k'ien, Yen Pihniu, and Chung-kung (Yen Yung); the speakers and +debaters were Tsai Wo and Tsz-kung; the (capable) government servants +were Yen Yu and Tsz-lu; the literary students, Tsz-yu and Tsz-hiá.] + +[Footnote 27: Lit., capped ones. At twenty they underwent the ceremony +of capping, and were considered men.] + +[Footnote 28: I.e., before the altars, where offerings were placed with +prayer for rain. A religious dance.] + + + +BOOK XII + +The Master's Answers--Philanthropy--Friendships + + +Yen Yuen was asking about man's proper regard for his fellow-man. The +Master said to him, "Self-control, and a habit of falling back upon +propriety, virtually effect it. Let these conditions be fulfilled for +one day, and every one round will betake himself to the duty. Is it to +begin in one's self, or think you, indeed! it is to begin in others?" + +"I wanted you to be good enough," said Yen Yuen, "to give me a brief +synopsis of it." + +Then said the Master, "Without Propriety use not your eyes; without it +use not your ears, nor your tongue, nor a limb of your body." + +"I may be lacking in diligence," said Yen Yuen, "but with your favor I +will endeavor to carry out this advice." + +Chung-kung asked about man's proper regard for his fellows. + +To him the Master replied thus: "When you go forth from your door, be as +if you were meeting some guest of importance. When you are making use of +the common people (for State purposes), be as if you were taking part in +a great religious function. Do not set before others what you do not +desire yourself. Let there be no resentful feelings against you when you +are away in the country, and none when at home." + +"I may lack diligence," said Chung-kung, "but with your favor I will +endeavor to carry out this advice." + +Sz-ma Niu asked the like question. The answer he received was this: "The +words of the man who has a proper regard for his fellows are uttered +with difficulty." + +"'His words--uttered with difficulty?'" he echoed, in surprise. "Is that +what is meant by proper regard for one's fellow-creatures?" + +"Where there is difficulty in doing," the Master replied, "will there +not be some difficulty in utterance?" + +The same disciple put a question about the "superior man." "Superior +men," he replied, "are free from trouble and apprehension." + +"'Free from trouble and apprehension!'" said he. "Does that make them +'superior men'?" + +The Master added, "Where there is found, upon introspection, to be no +chronic disease, how shall there be any trouble? how shall there be any +apprehension?" + +The same disciple, being in trouble, remarked, "I am alone in having no +brother, while all else have theirs--younger or elder." + +Tsz-hiá said to him, "I have heard this: 'Death and life have destined +times; wealth and honors rest with Heaven. Let the superior man keep +watch over himself without ceasing, showing deference to others, with +propriety of manners--and all within the four seas will be his brethren. +How should he be distressed for lack of brothers!'" [29] + +Tsz-chang asked what sort of man might be termed "enlightened." + +The Master replied, "That man with whom drenching slander and cutting +calumny gain no currency may well be called enlightened. Ay, he with +whom such things make no way may well be called enlightened in the +extreme." + +Tsz-kung put a question relative to government. In reply the Master +mentioned three essentials:--sufficient food, sufficient armament, and +the people's confidence. + +"But," said the disciple, "if you cannot really have all three, and one +has to be given up, which would you give up first?" + +"The armament," he replied. + +"And if you are obliged to give up one of the remaining two, which would +it be?" + +"The food," said he. "Death has been the portion of all men from of old. +Without the people's trust nothing can stand." + +Kih Tsz-shing once said, "Give me the inborn qualities of a gentleman, +and I want no more. How are such to come from book-learning?" + +Tsz-kung exclaimed, "Ah! sir, I regret to hear such words from you. A +gentleman!--But 'a team of four can ne'er o'er-take the tongue!' +Literary accomplishments are much the same as inborn qualities, and +inborn qualities as literary accomplishments. A tiger's or leopard's +skin without the hair might be a dog's or sheep's when so made bare." + +Duke Ngai was consulting Yu Joh. Said he, "It is a year of dearth, and +there is an insufficiency for Ways and Means--what am I to do?" + +"Why not apply the Tithing Statute?" said the minister. + +"But two tithings would not be enough for my purposes," said the duke; +"what would be the good of applying the Statute?" + +The minister replied, "So long as the people have enough left for +themselves, who of them will allow their prince to be without enough? +But--when the people have not enough, who will allow their prince all +that he wants?" + +Tsz-chang was asking how the standard of virtue was to be raised, and +how to discern what was illusory or misleading. The Master's answer was, +"Give a foremost place to honesty and faithfulness, and tread the path +of righteousness, and you will raise the standard of virtue. As to +discerning what is illusory, here is an example of an illusion:--Whom +you love you wish to live; whom you hate you wish to die. To have wished +the same person to live and also to be dead--there is an illusion for +you." + +Duke King of Ts'i consulted Confucius about government. His answer was, +"Let a prince be a prince, and ministers be ministers; let fathers be +fathers, and sons be sons." + +"Good!" exclaimed the duke; "truly if a prince fail to be a prince, and +ministers to be ministers, and if fathers be not fathers, and sons not +sons, then, even though I may have my allowance of grain, should I ever +be able to relish it?" + +"The man to decide a cause with half a word," exclaimed the Master, "is +Tsz-lu!" + +Tsz-lu never let a night pass between promise and performance. + +"In hearing causes, I am like other men," said the Master. "The great +point is--to prevent litigation." + +Tsz-chang having raised some question about government, the Master said +to him, "In the settlement of its principles be unwearied; in its +administration--see to that loyally." + +"The man of wide research," said he, "who also restrains himself by the +Rules of Propriety, is not likely to transgress." + +Again, "The noble-minded man makes the most of others' good qualities, +not the worst of their bad ones. Men of small mind do the reverse of +this." + +Ki K'ang was consulting him about the direction of public affairs. +Confucius answered him, "A director should be himself correct. If you, +sir, as a leader show correctness, who will dare not to be correct?" + +Ki K'ang, being much troubled on account of robbers abroad, consulted +Confucius on the matter. He received this reply: "If you, sir, were not +covetous, neither would they steal, even were you to bribe them to do +so." + +Ki K'ang, when consulting Confucius about the government, said, "Suppose +I were to put to death the disorderly for the better encouragement of +the orderly--what say you to that?" + +"Sir," replied Confucius, "in the administration of government why +resort to capital punishment? Covet what is good, and the people will be +good. The virtue of the noble-minded man is as the wind, and that of +inferior men as grass; the grass must bend, when the wind blows upon +it." + +Tsz-chang asked how otherwise he would describe the learned official who +might be termed influential. + +"What, I wonder, do you mean by one who is influential?" said the +Master. + +"I mean," replied the disciple, "one who is sure to have a reputation +throughout the country, as well as at home." + +"That," said the Master, "is reputation, not influence. The influential +man, then, if he be one who is genuinely straightforward and loves what +is just and right, a discriminator of men's words, and an observer of +their looks, and in honor careful to prefer others to himself--will +certainly have influence, both throughout the country and at home. The +man of mere reputation, on the other hand, who speciously affects +philanthropy, though in his way of procedure he acts contrary to it, +while yet quite evidently engrossed with that virtue--will certainly +have reputation, both in the country and at home." + +Fan Ch'i, strolling with him over the ground below the place of the +rain-dance, said to him, "I venture to ask how to raise the standard of +virtue, how to reform dissolute habits, and how to discern what is +illusory?" + +"Ah! a good question indeed!" he exclaimed. "Well, is not putting duty +first, and success second, a way of raising the standard of virtue? And +is not attacking the evil in one's self, and not the evil which is in +others, a way of reforming dissolute habits? And as to illusions, is not +one morning's fit of anger, causing a man to forget himself, and even +involving in the consequences those who are near and dear to him--is not +that an illusion?" + +The same disciple asked him what was meant by "a right regard for one's +fellow-creatures." He replied, "It is love to man." + +Asked by him again what was meant by wisdom, he replied, "It is +knowledge of man." + +Fan Ch'i did not quite grasp his meaning. + +The Master went on to say, "Lift up the straight, set aside the crooked, +so can you make the crooked straight." + +Fan Ch'i left him, and meeting with Tsz-hiá he said, "I had an interview +just now with the Master, and I asked him what wisdom was. In his answer +he said, 'Lift up the straight, set aside the crooked, and so can you +make the crooked straight.' What was his meaning?" + +"Ah! words rich in meaning, those," said the other. "When Shun was +emperor, and was selecting his men from among the multitude, he 'lifted +up' Káu-yáu; and men devoid of right feelings towards their kind went +far away. And when T'ang was emperor, and chose out his men from the +crowd, he 'lifted up' I-yin--with the same result." + +Tsz-kung was consulting him about a friend. "Speak to him frankly, and +respectfully," said the Master, "and gently lead him on. If you do not +succeed, then stop; do not submit yourself to indignity." + +The learned Tsang observed, "In the society of books the 'superior man' +collects his friends; in the society of his friends he is furthering +good-will among men." + + +[Footnote 29: From Confucius, it is generally thought.] + + + +BOOK XIII + +Answers on the Art of Governing--Consistency + + +Tsz-lu was asking about government. "Lead the way in it," said the +Master, "and work hard at it." + +Requested to say more, he added, "And do not tire of it." + +Chung-kung, on being made first minister to the Chief of the Ki family, +consulted the Master about government, and to him he said, "Let the +heads of offices be heads. Excuse small faults. Promote men of sagacity +and talent." + +"But," he asked, "how am I to know the sagacious and talented, before +promoting them?" + +"Promote those whom you do know," said the Master. + +"As to those of whom you are uncertain, will others omit to notice +them?" + +Tsz-lu said to the Master, "As the prince of Wei, sir, has been waiting +for you to act for him in his government, what is it your intention to +take in hand first?" + +"One thing of necessity," he answered--"the rectification of terms." + +"That!" exclaimed Tsz-lu. "How far away you are, sir! Why such +rectification?" + +"What a rustic you are, Tsz-lu!" rejoined the Master. "A gentleman would +be a little reserved and reticent in matters which he does not +understand. If terms be incorrect, language will be incongruous; and if +language be incongruous, deeds will be imperfect. So, again, when deeds +are imperfect, propriety and harmony cannot prevail, and when this is +the case laws relating to crime will fail in their aim; and if these +last so fail, the people will not know where to set hand or foot. Hence, +a man of superior mind, certain first of his terms, is fitted to speak; +and being certain of what he says can proceed upon it. In the language +of such a person there is nothing heedlessly irregular--and that is the +sum of the matter." + +Fan Ch'i requested that he might learn something of husbandry. "For +that." said the Master, "I am not equal to an old husbandman." Might he +then learn something of gardening? he asked. "I am not equal to an old +gardener." was the reply. + +"A man of little mind, that!" said the Master, when Fan Ch'i had gone +out. "Let a man who is set over the people love propriety, and they will +not presume to be disrespectful. Let him be a lover of righteousness, +and they will not presume to be aught but submissive. Let him love +faithfulness and truth, and they will not presume not to lend him their +hearty assistance. Ah, if all this only were so, the people from all +sides would come to such a one, carrying their children on their backs. +What need to turn his hand to husbandry? + +"Though a man," said he, "could hum through the Odes--the three +hundred--yet should show himself unskilled when given some +administrative work to do for his country; though he might know much of +that other lore, yet if, when sent on a mission to any quarter, he could +answer no question personally and unaided, what after all is he good +for? + +"Let a leader," said he, "show rectitude in his own personal character, +and even without directions from him things will go well. If he be not +personally upright, his directions will not be complied with." + +Once he made the remark, "The governments of Lu and of Wei are in +brotherhood." + +Of King, a son of the Duke of Wei, he observed that "he managed his +household matters well. On his coming into possession, he thought, 'What +a strange conglomeration!'--Coming to possess a little more, it was, +'Strange, such a result!' And when he became wealthy, 'Strange, such +elegance!'" + +The Master was on a journey to Wei, and Yen Yu was driving him. "What +multitudes of people!" he exclaimed. Yen Yu asked him, "Seeing they are +so numerous, what more would you do for them?" + +"Enrich them," replied the Master. + +"And after enriching them, what more would you do for them?" + +"Instruct them." + +"Were any one of our princes to employ me," he said, "after a +twelvemonth I might have made some tolerable progress;" + +Again, "How true is that saying, 'Let good men have the management of a +country for a century, and they would be adequate to cope with +evil-doers, and thus do away with capital punishments,'" + +Again, "Suppose the ruler to possess true kingly qualities, then surely +after one generation there would be good-will among men." + +Again, "Let a ruler but see to his own rectitude, and what trouble will +he then have in the work before him? If he be unable to rectify himself, +how is he to rectify others?" + +Once when Yen Yu was leaving the Court, the Master accosted him. "Why so +late?" he asked. "Busy with legislation," Yen replied. "The details of +it," suggested the Master; "had it been legislation, I should have been +there to hear it, even though I am not in office." + +Duke Ting asked if there were one sentence which, if acted upon, might +have the effect of making a country prosperous. + +Confucius answered, "A sentence could hardly be supposed to do so much +as that. But there is a proverb people use which says, 'To play the +prince is hard, to play the minister not easy.' Assuming that it is +understood that 'to play the prince is hard,' would it not be probable +that with that one sentence the country should be made to prosper?" + +"Is there, then," he asked, "one sentence which, if acted upon, would +have the effect of ruining a country?" + +Confucius again replied, "A sentence could hardly be supposed to do so +much as that. But there is a proverb men have which says, 'Not gladly +would I play the prince, unless my words were ne'er withstood.' Assuming +that the words were good, and that none withstood them, would not that +also be good? But assuming that they were not good, and yet none +withstood them, would it not be probable that with that one saying he +would work his country's ruin?" + +When the Duke of Sheh consulted him about government, he replied, "Where +the near are gratified, the far will follow." + +When Tsz-hiá became governor of Kü-fu, and consulted him about +government, he answered, "Do not wish for speedy results. Do not look at +trivial advantages. If you wish for speedy results, they will not be +far-reaching; and if you regard trivial advantages you will not +successfully deal with important affairs." + +The Duke of Sheh in a conversation with Confucius said, "There are +some straightforward persons in my neighborhood. If a father has stolen +a sheep, the son will give evidence against him." + +"Straightforward people in my neighborhood are different from those," +said Confucius. "The father will hold a thing secret on his son's +behalf, and the son does the same for his father. They are on their way +to becoming straightforward." + +Fan Ch'i was asking him about duty to one's fellow-men. "Be courteous," +he replied, "in your private sphere; be serious in any duty you take in +hand to do; be leal-hearted in your intercourse with others. Even though +you were to go amongst the wild tribes, it would not be right for you to +neglect these duties." + +In answer to Tsz-kung, who asked, "how he would characterize one who +could fitly be called 'learned official,'" the Master said, "He may be +so-called who in his private life is affected with a sense of his own +unworthiness, and who, when sent on a mission to any quarter of the +empire, would not disgrace his prince's commands." + +"May I presume," said his questioner, "to ask what sort you would put +next to such?" + +"Him who is spoken of by his kinsmen as a dutiful son, and whom the +folks of his neighborhood call' good brother.'" + +"May I still venture to ask whom you would place next in order?" + +"Such as are sure to be true to their word, and effective in their +work--who are given to hammering, as it were, upon one note--of inferior +calibre indeed, but fit enough, I think, to be ranked next." + +"How would you describe those who are at present in the government +service?" + +"Ugh! mere peck and panier men!--not worth taking into the reckoning." + +Once he remarked, "If I cannot get _via media_ men to impart instruction +to, then I must of course take the impetuous and undisciplined! The +impetuous ones will at least go forward and lay hold on things; and the +undisciplined have at least something in them which needs to be brought +out." + +"The Southerners," said he, "have the proverb, 'The man who sticks not +to rule will never make a charm-worker or a medical man,' +Good!--'Whoever is intermittent in his practise of virtue will live to +be ashamed of it.' Without prognostication," he added, "that will indeed +be so." + +"The nobler-minded man," he remarked, "will be agreeable even when he +disagrees; the small-minded man will agree and be disagreeable." + +Tsz-kung was consulting him, and asked, "What say you of a person who +was liked by all in his village?" + +"That will scarcely do," he answered. + +"What, then, if they all disliked him?" + +"That, too," said he, "is scarcely enough. Better if he were liked by +the good folk in the village, and disliked by the bad." + +"The superior man," he once observed, "is easy to serve, but difficult +to please. Try to please him by the adoption of wrong principles, and +you will fail. Also, when such a one employs others, he uses them +according to their capacity. The inferior man is, on the other hand, +difficult to serve, but easy to please. Try to please him by the +adoption of wrong principles, and you will succeed. And when he employs +others he requires them to be fully prepared for everything." + +Again, "The superior man can be high without being haughty. The inferior +man can be haughty if not high." + +"The firm, the unflinching, the plain and simple, the slow to speak," +said he once, "are approximating towards their duty to their +fellow-men." + +Tsz-lu asked how he would characterize one who might fitly be called an +educated gentleman. The master replied, "He who can properly be +so-called will have in him a seriousness of purpose, a habit of +controlling himself, and an agreeableness of manner: among his friends +and associates the seriousness and the self-control, and among his +brethren the agreeableness of manner." + +"Let good and able men discipline the people for seven years," said the +Master, "and after that they may do to go to war." + +But, said he, "To lead an undisciplined people to war--that I call +throwing them away." + + + +BOOK XIV + +Good and Bad Government--Miscellaneous Sayings + + +Yuen Sz asked what might be considered to bring shame on one. + +"Pay," said the Master; "pay--ever looking to that, whether the country +be well or badly governed." + +"When imperiousness, boastfulness, resentments, and covetousness cease +to prevail among the people, may it be considered that mutual good-will +has been effected?" To this question the Master replied, "A hard thing +overcome, it may be considered. But as to the mutual good-will--I cannot +tell." + +"Learned officials," said he, "who hanker after a home life, are not +worthy of being esteemed as such." + +Again, "In a country under good government, speak boldly, act boldly. +When the land is ill-governed, though you act boldly, let your words be +moderate." + +Again, "Men of virtue will needs be men of words--will speak out--but +men of words are not necessarily men of virtue. They who care for their +fellow-men will needs be bold, but the bold may not necessarily be such +as care for their fellow-men." + +Nan-kung Kwoh, who was consulting Confucius, observed respecting I, the +skilful archer, and Ngau, who could propel a boat on dry land, that +neither of them died a natural death; while Yu and Tsih, who with their +own hands had labored at husbandry, came to wield imperial sway. + +The Master gave him no reply. But when the speaker had gone out he +exclaimed, "A superior man, that! A man who values virtue, that!" + +"There have been noble-minded men," said he, "who yet were wanting in +philanthropy; but never has there been a small-minded man who had +philanthropy in him." + +He asked, "Can any one refuse to toil for those he loves? Can any one +refuse to exhort, who is true-hearted?" + +Speaking of the preparation of Government Notifications in his day he +said, "P'i would draw up a rough sketch of what was to be said; the +Shishuh then looked it carefully through and put it into proper shape; +Tsz-yu next, who was master of the ceremonial of State intercourse, +improved and adorned its phrases; and Tsz-ch'an of Tung-li added his +scholarly embellishments thereto." + +To some one who asked his opinion of the last-named, he said, "He was a +kind-hearted man." Asked what he thought of Tsz-si, he exclaimed, "Alas +for him! alas for him!"--Asked again about Kwan Chung, his answer was, +"As to him, he once seized the town of P'in with its three hundred +families from the Chief of the Pih clan, who, afterwards reduced to +living upon coarse rice, with all his teeth gone, never uttered a word +of complaint." + +"It is no light thing," said he, "to endure poverty uncomplainingly; and +a difficult thing to bear wealth without becoming arrogant." + +Respecting Mang Kung-ch'oh, he said that, while he was fitted for +something better than the post of chief officer in the Cháu or Wei +families, he was not competent to act as minister in small States like +those of T'ang or Sieh. + +Tsz-lu asked how he would describe a perfect man. He replied, "Let a man +have the sagacity of Tsang Wu-chung, the freedom from covetousness of +Kung-ch'oh, the boldness of Chwang of P'in, and the attainments in +polite arts of Yen Yu; and gift him further with the graces taught by +the 'Books of Rites' and 'Music'--then he may be considered a perfect +man. But," said he, "what need of such in these days? The man that may +be regarded as perfect now is the one who, seeing some advantage to +himself, is mindful of righteousness; who, seeing danger, risks his +life; and who, if bound by some covenant of long standing, never forgets +its conditions as life goes on." + +Respecting Kung-shuh Wan, the Master inquired of Kung-ming Kiá, saying, +"Is it true that your master never speaks, never laughs, never takes +aught from others?" + +"Those who told you that of him," said he, "have gone too far. My master +speaks when there is occasion to do so, and men are not surfeited with +his speaking. When there is occasion to be merry too, he will laugh, but +men have never overmuch of his laughing. And whenever it is just and +right to take things from others, he will take them, but never so as to +allow men to think him burdensome." "Is that the case with him?" said +the Master. "Can it be so?" + +Respecting Tsang Wu-chung the Master said, "When he sought from Lu the +appointment of a successor to him, and for this object held on to his +possession of the fortified city of Fang--if you say he was not then +using constraint towards his prince, I must refuse to believe it." + +Duke Wan of Tsin he characterized as "artful but not upright"; and Duke +Hwan of Ts'i as "upright but not artful." + +Tsz-lu remarked, "When Duke Hwan caused his brother Kiu to be put to +death, Shau Hwuh committed suicide, but Kwan Chung did not. I should say +he was not a man who had much good-will in him--eh?" + +The Master replied, "When Duke Hwan held a great gathering of the feudal +lords, dispensing with military equipage, it was owing to Kwan Chung's +energy that such an event was brought about. Match such good-will as +that--match it if you can." + +Tsz-kung then spoke up. "But was not Kwan Chung wanting in good-will? He +could not give up his life when Duke Hwan caused his brother to be put +to death. Besides, he became the duke's counsellor." + +"And in acting as his counsellor put him at the head of all the feudal +lords," said the Master, "and unified and reformed the whole empire; and +the people, even to this day, reap benefit from what he did. Had it not +been for him we should have been going about with locks unkempt and +buttoning our jackets (like barbarians) on the left. Would you suppose +that he should show the same sort of attachment as exists between a poor +yokel and his one wife--that he would asphyxiate himself in some sewer, +leaving no one the wiser?" + +Kung-shuh Wan's steward, who became the high officer Sien, went up +accompanied by Wan to the prince's hall of audience. + +When Confucius heard of this he remarked, "He may well be esteemed a +'Wan,'" + +The Master having made some reference to the lawless ways of Duke Ling +of Wei, Ki K'ang said to him, "If he be like that, how is it he does not +ruin his position?" + +Confucius answered, "The Chung-shuh, Yu, is charged with the +entertainment of visitors and strangers; the priest T'o has charge of +the ancestral temple; and Wang-sun Kiá has the control of the army and +its divisions:--with men such as those, how should he come to ruin?" + +He once remarked, "He who is unblushing in his words will with +difficulty substantiate them." + +Ch'in Shing had slain Duke Kien. Hearing of this, Confucius, after +performing his ablutions, went to Court and announced the news to Duke +Ngai, saying, "Ch'in Hang has slain his prince. May I request that you +proceed against him?" + +"Inform the Chiefs of the Three Families," said the duke. + +Soliloquizing upon this, Confucius said, "Since he uses me to back his +ministers, [30] I did not dare not to announce the matter to him; and +now he says, 'Inform the Three Chiefs.'" + +He went to the Three Chiefs and informed them, but nothing could be +done. Whereupon again he said, "Since he uses me to back his ministers, +I did not dare not to announce the matter." + +Tsz-lu was questioning him as to how he should serve his prince. +"Deceive him not, but reprove him," he answered. + +"The minds of superior men," he observed, "trend upwards; those of +inferior men trend downwards." + +Again, "Students of old fixed their eyes upon themselves: now they learn +with their eyes upon others." + +Kü Pih-yuh despatched a man with a message to Confucius. Confucius gave +him a seat, and among other inquiries he asked, "How is your master +managing?" "My master," he replied, "has a great wish to be seldom at +fault, and as yet he cannot manage it." + +"What a messenger!" exclaimed he admiringly, when the man went out. +"What a messenger!" + +"When not occupying the office," was a remark of his, "devise not the +policy." + +The Learned Tsang used to say, "The thoughts of the 'superior man' do +not wander from his own office." + +"Superior men," said the Master, "are modest in their words, profuse in +their deeds." + +Again, "There are three attainments of the superior man which are beyond +me--the being sympathetic without anxiety, wise without scepticism, +brave without fear." + +"Sir," said Tsz-kung, "that is what you say of yourself." + +Whenever Tsz-kung drew comparisons from others, the Master would say, +"Ah, how wise and great you must have become! Now I have no time to do +that." + +Again, "My great concern is, not that men do not know me, but that they +cannot." + +Again, "If a man refrain from making preparations against his being +imposed upon, and from counting upon others' want of good faith towards +him, while he is foremost to perceive what is passing--surely that is a +wise and good man." + +Wi-shang Mau accosted Confucius, saying, "Kiu, how comes it that you +manage to go perching and roosting in this way? Is it not because you +show yourself so smart a speaker, now?" + +"I should not dare do that," said Confucius. "Tis that I am sick of +men's immovableness and deafness to reason." + +"In a well-bred horse," said he, "what one admires is not its speed, but +its good points." + +Some one asked, "What say you of the remark, 'Requite enmity with +kindness'?" + +"How then," he answered, "would you requite kindness? Requite enmity +with straightforwardness, and kindness with kindness." + +"Ah! no one knows me!" he once exclaimed. + +"Sir," said Tsz-kung, "how comes it to pass that no one knows you?" + +"While I murmur not against Heaven," continued the Master, "nor cavil at +men; while I stoop to learn and aspire to penetrate into things that are +high; yet 'tis Heaven alone knows what I am." + +Liáu, a kinsman of the duke, having laid a complaint against Tsz-lu +before Ki K'ang, an officer came to Confucius to inform him of the fact, +and he added, "My lord is certainly having his mind poisoned by his +kinsman Liáu, but through my influence perhaps we may yet manage to see +him exposed in the marketplace or the Court." + +"If right principles are to have their course, it is so destined," said +the Master; "if they are not to have their course, it is so destined. +What can Liáu do against Destiny?" + +"There are worthy men," said the Master, "fleeing from the world; some +from their district; some from the sight of men's looks; some from the +language they hear." + +"The men who have risen from their posts and withdrawn in this manner +are seven in number." + +Tsz-lu, having lodged overnight in Shih-mun, was accosted by the +gate-keeper in the morning. "Where from?" he asked. "From Confucius," +Tsz-lu responded. "That is the man," said he, "who knows things are not +up to the mark, and is making some ado about them, is it not?" + +When the Master was in Wei, he was once pounding on the musical stone, +when a man with a basket of straw crossed his threshold, and exclaimed, +"Ah, there is a heart that feels! Aye, drub the stone!" After which he +added, "How vulgar! how he hammers away on one note!--and no one knows +him, and he gives up, and all is over! + + Be it deep, our skirts we'll raise to the waist, + --Or shallow, then up to the knee,'" + +"What determination!" said the Master. "Yet it was not +hard to do." + +Tsz-chang once said to him, "In the 'Book of the Annals' +it is stated that while Káu-tsung was in the Mourning Shed he +spent the three years without speaking. What is meant by +that?" + +"Why must you name Káu-tsung?" said the Master. "It +was so with all other ancient sovereigns: when one of them +died, the heads of every department agreed between themselves +that they should give ear for three years to the Prime Minister." + +"When their betters love the Rules, then the folk are easy +tools," was a saying of the Master. + +Tsz-lu having asked what made a "superior man," he answered, +"Self-culture, with a view to becoming seriously-minded." + +"Nothing more than that?" said he. + +"Self-culture with a view to the greater satisfaction of +others," added the Master. + +"That, and yet no more?" + +"Self-culture with a view to the greater satisfaction of all the +clans and classes," he again added. "Self-culture for the sake +of all--a result that, that would almost put Yau and Shun into +the shade!" + +To Yuen Jang, [31] who was sitting waiting for him in a squatting +(disrespectful) posture, the Master delivered himself as follows: +"The man who in his youth could show no humility or subordination, +who in his prime misses his opportunity, and who when old age +comes upon him will not die--that man is a miscreant." And he +tapped him on the shin with his staff. + +Some one asked about his attendant--a youth from the village +of Kiueh--whether he was one who improved. He replied, "I note +that he seats himself in the places reserved for his betters, +and that when he is walking he keeps abreast with his seniors. +He is not one of those who care for improvement: he wants to +be a man all at once." + + +[Footnote 30: Confucius had now retired from office, and this incident +occurred only two years before his death.] + +[Footnote 31: It is a habit with the Chinese, when a number are out +walking together, for the eldest to go first, the others pairing off +according to their age. It is a custom much older than the time of +Confucius.] + + + +BOOK XV + +Practical Wisdom--Reciprocity the Rule of Life + + +Duke Ling of Wei was consulting Confucius about army arrangements. His +answer was, "Had you asked me about such things as temple requisites, I +have learnt that business, but I have not yet studied military matters." +And he followed up this reply by leaving on the following day. + +After this, during his residence in the State of Ch'in, his followers, +owing to a stoppage of food supply, became so weak and ill that not one +of them could stand. Tsz-lu, with indignation pictured on his +countenance, exclaimed, "And is a gentleman to suffer starvation?" + +"A gentleman," replied the Master, "will endure it unmoved, but a common +person breaks out into excesses under it." + +Addressing Tsz-kung, the Master said, "You regard me as one who studies +and stores up in his mind a multiplicity of things--do you not?"--"I +do," he replied; "is it not so?"--"Not at all. I have one idea--one cord +on which to string all." + +To Tsz-lu he remarked, "They who know Virtue are rare." + +"If you would know one who without effort ruled well, was not Shun such +a one? What did he indeed do? He bore himself with reverent dignity and +undeviatingly 'faced the south,' and that was all." + +Tsz-chang was consulting him about making way in life. He answered, "Be +true and honest in all you say, and seriously earnest in all you do, and +then, even if your country be one inhabited by barbarians, South or +North, you will make your way. If you do not show yourself thus in word +and deed how should you succeed, even in your own district or +neighborhood?--When you are afoot, let these two counsels be two +companions preceding you, yourself viewing them from behind; when you +drive, have them in view as on the yoke of your carriage. Then may you +make your way." + +Tsz-chang wrote them on the two ends of his cincture. + +"Straight was the course of the Annalist Yu," said the Master--"aye, +straight as an arrow flies; were the country well governed or ill +governed, his was an arrow-like course. + +"A man of masterly mind, too, is Kü Pih-yuh! When the land is being +rightly governed he will serve; when it is under bad government he is +apt to recoil, and brood." + +"Not to speak to a man." said he, "to whom you ought to speak, is to +lose your man; to speak to one to whom you ought not to speak is to lose +your words. Those who are wise will not lose their man nor yet their +words." + +Again, "The scholar whose heart is in his work, and who is +philanthropic, seeks not to gain a livelihood by any means that will do +harm to his philanthropy. There have been men who have destroyed their +own lives in the endeavor to bring that virtue in them to perfection." + +Tsz-kung asked how to become philanthropic. The Master answered him +thus: "A workman who wants to do his work well must first sharpen his +tools. In whatever land you live, serve under some wise and good man +among those in high office, and make friends with the more humane of its +men of education." + +Yen Yuen consulted him on the management of a country. He answered:-- + +"Go by the Hiá Calendar. Have the State carriages like those of the Yin +princes. Wear the Chow cap. For your music let that of Shun be used for +the posturers. Put away the songs of Ch'ing, and remove far from you men +of artful speech: the Ch'ing songs are immodest, and artful talkers are +dangerous." + +Other sayings of the Master:-- + +"They who care not for the morrow will the sooner have their sorrow. + +"Ah, 'tis hopeless! I have not yet met with the man who loves Virtue as +he loves Beauty. + +"Was not Tsang Wan like one who surreptitiously came by the post he +held? He knew the worth of Hwúi of Liu-hiá, and could not stand in his +presence. + +"Be generous yourself, and exact little from others; then you banish +complaints. + +"With one who does not come to me inquiring 'What of this?' and 'What of +that?' I never can ask 'What of this?' and give him up. + +"If a number of students are all day together, and in their conversation +never approach the subject of righteousness, but are fond merely of +giving currency to smart little sayings, they are difficult indeed to +manage. + +"When the 'superior man' regards righteousness as the thing material, +gives operation to it according to the Rules of Propriety, lets it issue +in humility, and become complete in sincerity--there indeed is your +superior man! + +"The trouble of the superior man will be his own want of ability: it +will be no trouble to him that others do not know him. + +"Such a man thinks it hard to end his days and leave a name to be no +longer named. + +"The superior man is exacting of himself; the common man is exacting of +others. + +"A superior man has self-respect, and does not strive; is sociable, yet +no party man. + +"He does not promote a man because of his words, or pass over the words +because of the man." + +Tsz-kung put to him the question, "Is there one word upon which the +whole life may proceed?" + +The Master replied, "Is not Reciprocity such a word?--what you do not +yourself desire, do not put before others." + +"So far as I have to do with others, whom do I over-censure? whom do I +over-praise? If there be something in them that looks very praiseworthy, +that something I put to the test. I would have the men of the present +day to walk in the straight path whereby those of the Three Dynasties +have walked. + +"I have arrived as it were at the annalist's blank page.--Once he who +had a horse would lend it to another to mount; now, alas! it is not so. + +"Artful speech is the confusion of Virtue. Impatience over little things +introduces confusion into great schemes. + +"What is disliked by the masses needs inquiring into; so also does that +which they have a preference for. + +"A man may give breadth to his principles: it is not principles (in +themselves) that give breadth to the man. + +"Not to retract after committing an error may itself be called error. + +"If I have passed the whole day without food and the whole night without +sleep, occupied with my thoughts, it profits me nothing: I were better +engaged in learning. + +"The superior man deliberates upon how he may walk in truth, not upon +what he may eat. The farmer may plough, and be on the way to want: the +student learns, and is on his way to emolument. To live a right life is +the concern of men of nobler minds: poverty gives them none. + +"Whatsoever the intellect may attain to, unless the humanity within is +powerful enough to keep guard over it, is assuredly lost, even though it +be gained. + +"If there be intellectual attainments, and the humanity within is +powerful enough to keep guard over them, yet, unless (in a ruler) there +be dignity in his rule, the people will fail to show him respect. + +"Again, given the intellectual attainments, and humanity sufficient to +keep watch over them, and also dignity in ruling, yet if his movements +be not in accordance with the Rules of Propriety, he is not yet fully +qualified. + +"The superior man may not be conversant with petty details, and yet may +have important matters put into his hands. The inferior man may not be +charged with important matters, yet may be conversant with the petty +details. + +"Good-fellowship is more to men than fire and water. I have seen men +stepping into fire and into water, and meeting with death thereby; I +have not yet seen a man die from planting his steps in the path of +good-fellowship. + +"Rely upon good nature. 'Twill not allow precedence even to a teacher. + +"The superior man is inflexibly upright, and takes not things upon +trust. + +"In serving your prince, make your service the serious concern, and let +salary be a secondary matter. + +"Where instruction is to be given, there must be no distinction of +persons. + +"Where men's methods are not identical, there can be no planning by one +on behalf of another. + +"In speaking, perspicuity is all that is needed." + +When the blind music-master Mien paid him a visit, on his approaching +the steps the Master called out "Steps," and on his coming to the mat, +said "Mat." When all in the room were seated, the Master told him +"So-and-so is here, so-and-so is here." + +When the music-master had left, Tsz-chang said to him, "Is that the way +to speak to the music-master?" "Well," he replied, "it is certainly the +way to assist him." + + + +BOOK XVI + +Against Intestine Strife--Good and Bad Friendships + + +The Chief of the Ki family was about to make an onslaught upon the +Chuen-yu domain. + +Yen Yu and Tsz-lu in an interview with Confucius told him, "The Ki is +about to have an affair with Chuen-yu." + +"Yen," said Confucius, "does not the fault lie with you? The Chief of +Chuen-yu in times past was appointed lord of the East Mung (mountain); +besides, he dwells within the confines of your own State, and is an +official of the State-worship; how can you think of making an onslaught +upon him?" + +"It is the wish of our Chief," said Yen Yu, "not the wish of either of +us ministers." + +Confucius said, "Yen, there is a sentence of Cháu Jin which runs thus: +'Having made manifest their powers and taken their place in the official +list, when they find themselves incompetent they resign; if they cannot +be firm when danger threatens the government, nor lend support when it +is reeling, of what use then shall they be as Assistants?'--Besides, you +are wrong in what you said. When a rhinoceros or tiger breaks out of its +cage--when a jewel or tortoise-shell ornament is damaged in its +casket--whose fault is it?" + +"But," said Yen Yu, "so far as Chuen-yu is concerned, it is now +fortified, and it is close to Pi; and if he does not now take it, in +another generation it will certainly be a trouble to his descendants." + +"Yen!" exclaimed Confucius, "it is a painful thing to a superior man to +have to desist from saying, 'My wish is so-and-so,' and to be obliged to +make apologies. For my part, I have learnt this--that rulers of States +and heads of Houses are not greatly concerned about their small +following, but about the want of equilibrium in it--that they do not +concern themselves about their becoming poor, but about the best means +of living quietly and contentedly; for where equilibrium is preserved +there will be no poverty, where there is harmony their following will +not be small, and where there is quiet contentment there will be no +decline nor fall. Now if that be the case, it follows that if men in +outlying districts are not submissive, then a reform in education and +morals will bring them to; and when they have been so won, then will you +render them quiet and contented. At the present time you two are +Assistants of your Chief; the people in the outlying districts are not +submissive, and cannot be brought round. Your dominion is divided, +prostrate, dispersed, cleft in pieces, and you as its guardians are +powerless. And plans are being made for taking up arms against those who +dwell within your own State. I am apprehensive that the sorrow of the Ki +family is not to lie in Chuen-yu, but in those within their own screen." + +"When the empire is well-ordered," said Confucius, "it is from the +emperor that edicts regarding ceremonial, music, and expeditions to +quell rebellion go forth. When it is being ill governed, such edicts +emanate from the feudal lords; and when the latter is the case, it will +be strange if in ten generations there is not a collapse. If they +emanate merely from the high officials, it will be strange if the +collapse do not come in five generations. When the State-edicts are in +the hands of the subsidiary ministers, it will be strange if in three +generations there is no collapse. + +"When the empire is well-ordered, government is not left in the hands of +high officials. + +"When the empire is well-ordered, the common people will cease to +discuss public matters." + +"For five generations," he said, "the revenue has departed from the +ducal household. Four generations ago the government fell into the hands +of the high officials. Hence, alas! the straitened means of the +descendants of the three Hwan families." + +"There are," said he, "three kinds of friendships which are profitable, +and three which are detrimental. To make friends with the upright, with +the trustworthy, with the experienced, is to gain benefit; to make +friends with the subtly perverse, with the artfully pliant, with the +subtle in speech, is detrimental." + +Again, "There are three kinds of pleasure which are profitable, and +three which are detrimental. To take pleasure in going regularly through +the various branches of Ceremonial and Music, in speaking of others' +goodness, in having many worthy wise friends, is profitable. To take +pleasure in wild bold pleasures, in idling carelessly about, in the too +jovial accompaniments of feasting, is detrimental." + +Again, "Three errors there be, into which they who wait upon their +superior may fall:--(1) to speak before the opportunity comes to them to +speak, which I call heedless haste; (2) refraining from speaking when +the opportunity has come, which I call concealment; and (3) speaking, +regardless of the mood he is in, which I call blindness." + +Again, "Three things a superior should guard against:--(1) against the +lusts of the flesh in his earlier years while the vital powers are not +fully developed and fixed; (2) against the spirit of combativeness when +he has come to the age of robust manhood and when the vital powers are +matured and strong, and (3) against ambitiousness when old age has come +on and the vital powers have become weak and decayed." + +"Three things also such a man greatly reveres:--(1) the ordinances of +Heaven, (2) great men, (3) words of sages. The inferior man knows not +the ordinances of Heaven and therefore reveres them not, is unduly +familiar in the presence of great men, and scoffs at the words of +sages." + +"They whose knowledge comes by birth are of all men the first in +understanding; they to whom it comes by study are next; men of poor +intellectual capacity, who yet study, may be added as a yet inferior +class; and lowest of all are they who are poor in intellect and never +learn." + +"Nine things there are of which the superior man should be mindful:--to +be clear in vision, quick in hearing, genial in expression, respectful +in demeanor, true in word, serious in duty, inquiring in doubt, firmly +self-controlled in anger, just and fair when the way to success opens +out before him." + +"Some have spoken of 'looking upon goodness as upon something beyond +their reach,' and of 'looking upon evil as like plunging one's hands +into scalding liquid';--I have seen the men, I have heard the sayings. + +"Some, again, have talked of 'living in seclusion to work out their +designs,' and of 'exercising themselves in righteous living in order to +render their principles the more effective';--I have heard the sayings, +I have not seen the men." + +"Duke King of Ts'i had his thousand teams of four, yet on the day of his +death the people had nothing to say of his goodness. Peh-I and Shuh-Ts'i +starved at the foot of Shau-yang, and the people make mention of them to +this day. + + 'E'en if not wealth thine object be, + 'Tis all the same, thou'rt changed to me.' + +"Is not this apropos in such cases?" + +Tsz-k'in asked of Pih-yu, "Have you heard anything else peculiar from +your father?" + +"Not yet," said he. "Once, though, he was standing alone when I was +hurrying past him over the vestibule, and he said, 'Are you studying the +Odes?' 'Not yet,' I replied. 'If you do not learn the Odes,' said he, +'you will not have the wherewithal for conversing,' I turned away and +studied the Odes. Another day, when he was again standing alone and I +was hurrying past across the vestibule, he said to me, 'Are you learning +the Rules of Propriety?' 'Not yet,' I replied. 'If you have not studied +the Rules, you have nothing to stand upon,' said he. I turned away and +studied the Rules.--These two things I have heard from him." + +Tsz-k'in turned away, and in great glee exclaimed, "I asked one thing, +and have got three. I have learnt something about the Odes, and about +the Rules, and moreover I have learnt how the superior man will turn +away his own son." + +The wife of the ruler of a State is called by her husband "My helpmeet." +She speaks of herself as "Your little handmaiden." The people of that +State call her "The prince's helpmeet," but addressing persons of +another State they speak of her as "Our little princess." When persons +of another State name her they say also "Your prince's helpmeet." + + + +BOOK XVII + +The Master Induced to Take Office--Nature and Habit + + +Yang Ho was desirous of having an interview with Confucius, but on the +latter's failing to go and see him, he sent a present of a pig to his +house. Confucius went to return his acknowledgments for it at a time +when he was not at home. They met, however, on the way. + +He said to Confucius, "Come, I want a word with you. Can that man be +said to have good-will towards his fellow-men who hugs and hides his own +precious gifts and allows his country to go on in blind error?" + +"He cannot," was the reply. + +"And can he be said to be wise who, with a liking for taking part in the +public service, is constantly letting slip his opportunities?" + +"He cannot," was the reply again. + +"And the days and months are passing; and the years do not wait for us." + +"True," said Confucius; "I will take office." + +It was a remark of the Master that while "by nature we approximate +towards each other, by experience we go far asunder." + +Again, "Only the supremely wise and the most deeply ignorant do not +alter." + +The Master once, on his arrival at Wu-shing, heard the sound of stringed +instruments and singing. His face beamed with pleasure, and he said +laughingly, "To kill a cock--why use an ox-knife?" + +Tsz-yu, the governor, replied, "In former days, sir, I heard you say, +'Let the superior man learn right principles, and he will be loving to +other men; let the ordinary person learn right principles, and he will +be easily managed.'" + +The Master (turning to his disciples) said, "Sirs, what he says is +right: what I said just now was only in play." + +Having received an invitation from Kung-shan Fuh-jau, who was in revolt +against the government and was holding to his district of Pi, the Master +showed an inclination to go. + +Tsz-lu was averse to this, and said, "You can never go, that is certain; +how should you feel you must go to that person?" + +"Well," said the Master, "he who has invited me must surely not have +done so without a sufficient reason! And if it should happen that my +services were enlisted, I might create for him another East Chow--don't +you think so?" + +Tsz-chang asked Confucius about the virtue of philanthropy. His answer +was, "It is the being able to put in practice five qualities, in any +place under the sun." + +"May I ask, please, what these are?" said the disciple. + +"They are," he said, "dignity, indulgence, faithfulness, earnestness, +kindness. If you show dignity you will not be mocked; if you are +indulgent you will win the multitude; if faithful, men will place their +trust in you; if earnest, you will do something meritorious; and if +kind, you will be enabled to avail yourself amply of men's services." + +Pih Hih sent the Master an invitation, and he showed an inclination to +go. + +Tsz-lu (seeing this) said to him, "In former days, sir, I have heard you +say, 'A superior man will not enter the society of one who does not that +which is good in matters concerning himself'; and this man is in revolt, +with Chung-man in his possession; if you go to him, how will the case +stand?" + +"Yes," said the Master, "those are indeed my words; but is it not said, +'What is hard may be rubbed without being made thin,' and 'White may be +stained without being made black'?--I am surely not a gourd! How am I to +be strung up like that kind of thing--and live without means?" + +"Tsz-lu," said the Master, "you have heard of the six words with their +six obfuscations?" + +"No," said he, "not so far." + +"Sit down, and I will tell you them. They are these six virtues, cared +for without care for any study about them:--philanthropy, wisdom, +faithfulness, straightforwardness, courage, firmness. And the six +obfuscations resulting from not liking to learn about them are, +respectively, these:--fatuity, mental dissipation, mischievousness, +perversity, insubordination, impetuosity." + +"My children," said he once, "why does no one of you study the +Odes?--They are adapted to rouse the mind, to assist observation, to +make people sociable, to arouse virtuous indignation. They speak of +duties near and far--the duty of ministering to a parent, the duty of +serving one's prince; and it is from them that one becomes conversant +with the names of many birds, and beasts, and plants, and trees." + +To his son Pih-yu he said, "Study you the Odes of Chow and the South, +and those of Shau and the South. The man who studies not these is, I +should say, somewhat in the position of one who stands facing a wall!" + +"'Etiquette demands it.' 'Etiquette demands it,' so people plead," said +he; "but do not these hankerings after jewels and silks indeed demand +it? Or it is, 'The study of Music requires it'--'Music requires it'; but +do not these predilections for bells and drums require it?" + +Again, "They who assume an outward appearance of severity, being +inwardly weak, may be likened to low common men; nay, are they not +somewhat like thieves that break through walls and steal?" + +Again, "The plebeian kind of respect for piety is the very pest of +virtue." + +Again, "Listening on the road, and repeating in the lane--this is +abandonment of virtue." + +"Ah, the low-minded creatures!" he exclaimed. "How is it possible indeed +to serve one's prince in their company? Before they have got what they +wanted they are all anxiety to get it, and after they have got it they +are all anxiety lest they should lose it; and while they are thus full +of concern lest they should lose it, there is no length to which they +will not go." + +Again, "In olden times people had three moral infirmities; which, it may +be, are now unknown. Ambitiousness in those olden days showed itself in +momentary outburst; the ambitiousness of to-day runs riot. Austerity in +those days had its sharp angles; in these it is irritable and perverse. +Feebleness of intellect then was at least straightforward; in our day it +is never aught but deceitful." + +Again, "Rarely do we find mutual good feeling where there is fine speech +and studied mien." + +Again, "To me it is abhorrent that purple color should be made to +detract from that of vermilion. Also that the Odes of Ch'ing should be +allowed to introduce discord in connection with the music of the Festal +Songs and Hymns. Also that sharp-whetted tongues should be permitted to +subvert governments." + +Once said he, "Would that I could dispense with speech!" + +"Sir," said Tsz-kung, "if you were never to speak, what should your +pupils have to hand down from you?" + +"Does Heaven ever speak?" said the Master. "The four seasons come and +go, and all creatures live and grow. Does Heaven indeed speak?" + +Once Ju Pi desired an interview with Confucius, from which the latter +excused himself on the score of ill-health; but while the attendant was +passing out through the doorway with the message he took his lute and +sang, in such a way as to let him hear him. + +Tsai Wo questioned him respecting the three years' mourning, saying that +one full twelve-month was a long time--that, if gentlemen were for three +years to cease from observing rules of propriety, propriety must +certainly suffer, and that if for three years they neglected music, +music must certainly die out--and that seeing nature has taught us that +when the old year's grain is finished the new has sprung up for +us--seeing also that all the changes[32] in procuring fire by friction +have been gone through in the four seasons--surely a twelve-month might +suffice. + +The Master asked him, "Would it be a satisfaction to you--that returning +to better food, that putting on of fine clothes?" + +"It would," said he. + +"Then if you can be satisfied in so doing, do so. But to a gentleman, +who is in mourning for a parent, the choicest food will not be +palatable, nor will the listening to music be pleasant, nor will +comforts of home make him happy in mind. Hence he does not do as you +suggest. But if you are now happy in your mind, then do so." + +Tsai Wo went out. And the Master went on to say, "It is want of human +feeling in this man. After a child has lived three years it then breaks +away from the tender nursing of its parents. And this three years' +mourning is the customary mourning prevalent all over the empire. Can +this man have enjoyed the three years of loving care from his parents?" + +"Ah, it is difficult," said he, "to know what to make of those who are +all day long cramming themselves with food and are without anything to +apply their minds to! Are there no dice and chess players? Better, +perhaps, join in that pursuit than do nothing at all!" + +"Does a gentleman," asked Tsz-lu, "make much account of bravery?" + +"Righteousness he counts higher," said the Master. "A gentleman who is +brave without being just may become turbulent; while a common person who +is brave and not just may end in becoming a highwayman." + +Tsz-kung asked, "I suppose a gentleman will have his aversions as well +as his likings?" + +"Yes," replied the Master, "he will dislike those who talk much about +other people's ill-deeds. He will dislike those who, when occupying +inferior places, utter defamatory words against their superiors. He will +dislike those who, though they may be brave, have no regard for +propriety. And he will dislike those hastily decisive and venturesome +spirits who are nevertheless so hampered by limited intellect." + +"And you, too, Tsz-kung," he continued, "have your aversions, have you +not?" + +"I dislike," said he, "those plagiarists who wish to pass for wise +persons. I dislike those people who wish their lack of humility to be +taken for bravery. I dislike also those divulgers of secrets who think +to be accounted straightforward." + +"Of all others," said the Master, "women-servants and men-servants are +the most difficult people to have the care of. Approach them in a +familiar manner, and they take liberties; keep them at a distance, and +they grumble." + +Again, "When a man meets with odium at forty, he will do so to the end." + + +[Footnote 32: Different woods were adopted for this purpose at the +various seasons.] + + + +BOOK XVIII + +Good Men in Seclusion--Duke of Chow to His Son + + +"In the reign of the last king of the Yin dynasty," Confucius I said, +"there were three men of philanthropic spirit:--the viscount of Wei, who +withdrew from him; the viscount of Ki, who became his bondsman; and +Pi-kan, who reproved him and suffered death." + +Hwúi of Liu-hiá, who filled the office of Chief Criminal Judge, was +thrice dismissed. A person remarked to him, "Can you not yet bear to +withdraw?" He replied, "If I act in a straightforward way in serving +men, whither in these days should I go, where I should not be thrice +dismissed? Were I to adopt crooked ways in their service, why need I +leave the land where my parents dwell?" + +Duke King of Ts'i remarked respecting his attitude towards Confucius, +"If he is to be treated like the Chief of the Ki family, I cannot do it. +I should treat him as somewhere between the Ki and Mang Chiefs.--I am +old," he added, "and not competent to avail myself of him." + +Confucius, hearing of this, went away. + +The Ts'i officials presented to the Court of Lu a number of female +musicians. Ki Hwan accepted them, and for three days no Court was held. + +Confucius went away. + +Tsieh-yu, the madman [33] of Ts'u, was once passing Confucius, singing +as he went along. He sang-- + + "Ha, the phoenix! Ha, the phoenix! + How is Virtue lying prone! + Vain to chide for what is o'er, + Plan to meet what's yet in store. + Let alone! Let alone! + Risky now to serve a throne." + +Confucius alighted, wishing to enter into conversation with him; but the +man hurried along and left him, and he was therefore unable to get a +word with him. + +Ch'ang-tsü and Kieh-nih [34] were working together on some ploughed +land. Confucius was passing by them, and sent Tsz-lu to ask where the +ford was. + +Ch'ang-tsü said, "Who is the person driving the carriage?" + +"Confucius," answered Tsz-lu. + +"He of Lu?" he asked. + +"The same," said Tsz-lu. + +"He knows then where the ford is," said he. + +Tsz-lu then put his question to Kieh-nih; and the latter asked, "Who are +you?" + +Tsz-lu gave his name. + +"You are a follower of Confucius of Lu, are you not?" + +"You are right," he answered. + +"Ah, as these waters rise and overflow their bounds," said he, "'tis so +with all throughout the empire; and who is he that can alter the state +of things? And you are a follower of a learned man who withdraws from +his chief; had you not better be a follower of such as have forsaken the +world?" And he went on with his harrowing, without stopping. + +Tsz-lu went and informed his Master of all this. He was deeply touched, +and said, "One cannot herd on equal terms with beasts and birds: if I am +not to live among these human folk, then with whom else should I live? +Only when the empire is well ordered shall I cease to take part in the +work of reformation." + +Tsz-lu was following the Master, but had dropped behind on the way, when +he encountered an old man with a weed-basket slung on a staff over his +shoulder. Tsz-lu inquired of him, "Have you seen my Master, sir?" Said +the old man, "Who is your master?--you who never employ your four limbs +in laborious work; you who do not know one from another of the five +sorts of grain!" And he stuck his staff in the ground, and began his +weeding. + +Tsz-lu brought his hands together on his breast and stood still. + +The old man kept Tsz-lu and lodged him for the night, killed a fowl and +prepared some millet, entertained him, and brought his two sons out to +see him. + +On the morrow Tsz-lu went on his way, and told all this to the Master, +who said, "He is a recluse," and sent Tsz-lu back to see him again. But +by the time he got there he was gone. + +Tsz-lu remarked upon this, "It is not right he should evade official +duties. If he cannot allow any neglect of the terms on which elders and +juniors should live together, how is it that he neglects to conform to +what is proper as between prince and public servant? He wishes for +himself personally a pure life, yet creates disorder in that more +important relationship. When a gentleman undertakes public work, he will +carry out the duties proper to it; and he knows beforehand that right +principles may not win their way." + +Among those who have retired from public life have been Peh-I and +Shuh-Ts'i, Yu-chung, I-yih, Chu-chang, Hwúi of Liuhia, and Sháu-lien. + +"Of these," said the Master, "Peh-I and Shuh-Ts'i may be characterized, +I should say, as men who never declined from their high resolve nor +soiled themselves by aught of disgrace. + +"Of Hwúi of Liu-hiá and Sháu-lien, if one may say that they did decline +from high resolve, and that they did bring disgrace upon themselves, yet +their words were consonant with established principles, and their action +consonant with men's thoughts and wishes; and this is all that may be +said of them. + +"Of Yu-chung and I-yih, if it be said that when they retired into +privacy they let loose their tongues, yet in their aim at personal +purity of life they succeeded, and their defection was also successful +in its influence. + +"My own rule is different from any adopted by these: I will take no +liberties, I will have no curtailing of my liberty." + +The chief music-master went off to Ts'i. Kan, the conductor of the music +at the second repast, went over to Ts'u. Liáu, conductor at the third +repast, went over to Ts'ai. And Kiueh, who conducted at the fourth, went +to Ts'in. + +Fang-shuh, the drummer, withdrew into the neighborhood of the Ho. Wu the +tambourer went to the Han. And Yang the junior music-master, and Siang +who played on the musical stone, went to the sea-coast. + +Anciently the Duke of Chow, addressing his son the Duke of Lu, said, "A +good man in high place is not indifferent about the members of his own +family, and does not give occasion to the chief ministers to complain +that they are not employed; nor without great cause will he set aside +old friendships; nor does he seek for full equipment for every kind of +service in any single man." + +There were once eight officials during this Chow dynasty, who were four +pairs of twins, all brothers--the eldest pair Tab and Kwoh, the next Tub +and Hwuh, the third Yé and Hiá, the youngest Sui and Kwa. + + +[Footnote 33: He only pretended to be mad, in order to escape being +employed in the public service.] + +[Footnote 34: Two worthies who had abandoned public life, owing to the +state of the times.] + + + +BOOK XIX + +Teachings of Various Chief Disciples + + +"The learned official," said Tsz-chang, "who when he sees danger ahead +will risk his very life, who when he sees a chance of success is mindful +of what is just and proper, who in his religious acts is mindful of the +duty of reverence, and when in mourning thinks of his loss, is indeed a +fit and proper person for his place." + +Again he said, "If a person hold to virtue but never advance in it, and +if he have faith in right principles and do not build himself up in +them, how can he be regarded either as having such, or as being without +them?" + +Tsz-hiá's disciples asked Tsz-chang his views about intercourse with +others. "What says your Master?" he rejoined. "He says," they replied, +"'Associate with those who are qualified, and repel from you such as are +not,'" Tsz-chang then said, "That is different from what I have learnt. +A superior man esteems the worthy and wise, and bears with all. He makes +much of the good and capable, and pities the incapable. Am I eminently +worthy and wise?--who is there then among men whom I will not bear with? +Am I not worthy and wise?--others will be minded to repel me: I have +nothing to do with repelling them." + +Sayings of Tsz-hiá:-- + +"Even in inferior pursuits there must be something worthy of +contemplation, but if carried to an extreme there is danger of +fanaticism; hence the superior man does not engage in them. + +"The student who daily recognizes how much he yet lacks, and as the +months pass forgets not what he has succeeded in learning, may +undoubtedly be called a lover of learning. + +"Wide research and steadfast purpose, eager questioning and close +reflection--all this tends to humanize a man. + +"As workmen spend their time in their workshops for the perfecting of +their work, so superior men apply their minds to study in order to make +themselves thoroughly conversant with their subjects. + +"When an inferior man does a wrong thing, he is sure to gloss it over. + +"The superior man is seen in three different aspects:--look at him from +a distance, he is imposing in appearance; approach him, he is gentle and +warm-hearted; hear him speak, he is acute and strict. + +"Let such a man have the people's confidence, and he will get much work +out of them; so long, however, as he does not possess their confidence +they will regard him as grinding them down. + +"When confidence is reposed in him, he may then with impunity administer +reproof; so long as it is not, he will be regarded as a detractor. + +"Where there is no over-stepping of barriers in the practice of the +higher virtues, there may be freedom to pass in and out in the practice +of the lower ones." + +Tsz-yu had said, "The pupils in the school of Tsz-hiá are good enough at +such things as sprinkling and scrubbing floors, answering calls and +replying to questions from superiors, and advancing and retiring to and +from such; but these things are only offshoots--as to the root of things +they are nowhere. What is the use of all that?" + +When this came to the ears of Tsz-hiá, he said, "Ah! there he is +mistaken. What does a master, in his methods of teaching, consider first +in his precepts? And what does he account next, as that about which he +may be indifferent? It is like as in the study of plants--classification +by _differentiae_. How may a master play fast and loose in his methods +of instruction? Would they not indeed be sages, who could take in at +once the first principles and the final developments of things?" + + +Further observations of Tsz-hiá:-- + +"In the public service devote what energy and time remain to study. +After study devote what energy and time remain to the public service. + +"As to the duties of mourning, let them cease when the grief is past. + +"My friend Tsz-chang, although he has the ability to tackle hard things, +has not yet the virtue of philanthropy." + +The learned Tsang observed, "How loftily Tsz-chang bears himself! +Difficult indeed along with him to practise philanthropy!" + +Again he said, "I have heard this said by the Master, that 'though men +may not exert themselves to the utmost in other duties, yet surely in +the duty of mourning for their parents they will do so!'" + +Again, "This also I have heard said by the Master: 'The filial piety of +Mang Chwang in other respects might be equalled, but as manifested in +his making no changes among his father's ministers, nor in his father's +mode of government--that aspect of it could not easily be equalled.'" + +Yang Fu, having been made senior Criminal Judge by the Chief of the Mang +clan, consulted with the learned Tsang. The latter advised him as +follows: "For a long time the Chiefs have failed in their government, +and the people have become unsettled. When you arrive at the facts of +their cases, do not rejoice at your success in that, but rather be sorry +for them, and have pity upon them." + +Tsz-kung once observed, "We speak of 'the iniquity of Cháu'--but 'twas +not so great as this. And so it is that the superior man is averse from +settling in this sink, into which everything runs that is foul in the +empire." + +Again he said, "Faults in a superior man are like eclipses of the sun or +moon: when he is guilty of a trespass men all see it; and when he is +himself again, all look up to him." + +Kung-sun Ch'an of Wei inquired of Tsz-kung how Confucius acquired his +learning. + +Tsz-kung replied, "The teachings of Wan and Wu have not yet fallen to +the ground. They exist in men. Worthy and wise men have the more +important of these stored up in their minds; and others, who are not +such, store up the less important of them; and as no one is thus without +the teachings of Wan and Wu, how should our Master not have learned? And +moreover what permanent preceptor could he have?" + +Shuh-sun Wu-shuh, addressing the high officials at the Court, remarked +that Tsz-kung was a greater worthy than Confucius. + +Tsz-fuh King-pih went and informed Tsz-kung of this remark. + +Tsz-kung said, "Take by way of comparison the walls outside our houses. +My wall is shoulder-high, and you may look over it and see what the +house and its contents are worth. My Master's wall is tens of feet high, +and unless you should effect an entrance by the door, you would fail to +behold the beauty of the ancestral hall and the rich array of all its +officers. And they who effect an entrance by the door, methinks, are +few! Was it not, however, just like him--that remark of the Chief?" + +Shuh-sun Wu-shuh had been casting a slur on the character of Confucius. + +"No use doing that," said Tsz-kung; "he is irreproachable. The wisdom +and worth of other men are little hills and mounds of earth: +traversible. He is the sun, or the moon, impossible to reach and pass. +And what harm, I ask, can a man do to the sun or the moon, by wishing to +intercept himself from either? It all shows that he knows not how to +gauge capacity." + +Tsz-k'in, addressing Tsz-kung, said, "You depreciate yourself. Confucius +is surely not a greater worthy than yourself." + +Tsz-kung replied, "In the use of words one ought never to be +incautious; because a gentleman for one single utterance of his is apt +to be considered a wise man, and for a single utterance may be accounted +unwise. No more might one think of attaining to the Master's perfections +than think of going upstairs to Heaven! Were it ever his fortune to be +at the head of the government of a country, then that which is spoken of +as 'establishing the country' would be establishment indeed; he would be +its guide and it would follow him, he would tranquillize it and it would +render its willing homage: he would give forward impulses to it to which +it would harmoniously respond. In his life he would be its glory, at his +death there would be great lamentation. How indeed could such as he be +equalled?" + + + +BOOK XX + +Extracts from the Book of History + + +The Emperor Yau said to Shun, "Ah, upon you, upon your person, lies the +Heaven-appointed order of succession! Faithfully hold to it, without any +deflection; for if within the four seas necessity and want befall the +people, your own revenue will forever come to an end." + +Shun also used the same language in handing down the appointment to Yu. + +The Emperor T'ang in his prayer, said, "I, the child Li, presume to +avail me of an ox of dusky hue, and presume to manifestly announce to +Thee, O God, the most high and Sovereign Potentate, that to the +transgressor I dare not grant forgiveness, nor yet keep in abeyance Thy +ministers. Judgment rests in Thine heart, O God. Should we ourself +transgress, may the guilt not be visited everywhere upon all. Should the +people all transgress, be the guilt upon ourself!" + +Chow possessed great gifts, by which the able and good were richly +endowed. + +"Although," said King Wu, "he is surrounded by his near relatives, they +are not to be compared with men of humane spirit. The people are +suffering wrongs, and the remedy rests with me--the one man." + +After Wu had given diligent attention to the various weights and +measures, examined the laws and regulations, and restored the degraded +officials, good government everywhere ensued. + +He caused ruined States to flourish again, reinstated intercepted heirs, +and promoted to office men who had gone into retirement; and the hearts +of the people throughout the empire drew towards him. + +Among matters of prime consideration with him were these--food for the +people, the duty of mourning, and sacrificial offerings to the departed. + +He was liberal and large-hearted, and so won all hearts; true, and so +was trusted by the people; energetic, and thus became a man of great +achievements; just in his rule, and all were well content. + +Tsz-chang in a conversation with Confucius asked, "What say you is +essential for the proper conduct of government?" + +The Master replied, "Let the ruler hold in high estimation the five +excellences, and eschew the four evils; then may he conduct his +government properly." + +"And what call you the five excellences?" he was asked. + +"They are," he said, "Bounty without extravagance; burdening without +exciting discontent; desire without covetousness; dignity without +haughtiness; show of majesty without fierceness." + +"What mean you," asked Tsz-chang, "by bounty without extravagance?" + +"Is it not this," he replied--"to make that which is of benefit to the +people still more beneficial? When he selects for them such labors as it +is possible for them to do, and exacts them, who will then complain? So +when his desire is the virtue of humaneness, and he attains it, how +shall he then be covetous? And if--whether he have to do with few or +with many, with small or with great--he do not venture ever to be +careless, is not this also to have dignity without haughtiness? And +if--when properly vested in robe and cap, and showing dignity in his +every look--his appearance be so imposing that the people look up to and +stand in awe of him, is not this moreover to show majesty without +fierceness?" + +"What, then, do you call the four evils?" said Tsz-chang. + +The answer here was, "Omitting to instruct the people and then +inflicting capital punishment on them--which means cruel tyranny. +Omitting to give them warning and yet looking for perfection in +them--which means oppression. Being slow and late in issuing +requisitions, and exacting strict punctuality in the returns--which +means robbery. And likewise, in intercourse with men, to expend and to +receive in a stingy manner--which is to act the part of a mere +commissioner." + +"None can be a superior man," said the Master, "who does not recognize +the decrees of Heaven. + +"None can have stability in him without a knowledge of the proprieties. + +"None can know a man without knowing his utterances." + + + + + +THE SAYINGS OF MENICUS + +[Translated into English by James Legge_] + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +A hundred years after the time of Confucius the Chinese nation seemed to +have fallen back into their original condition of lawlessness and +oppression. The King's power and authority was laughed to scorn, the +people were pillaged by the feudal nobility, and famine reigned in many +districts. The foundations of truth and social order seemed to be +overthrown. There were teachers of immorality abroad, who published the +old Epicurean doctrine, "Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die." +This teaching was accompanied by a spirit of cold-blooded egotism which +extinguished every spark of Confucian altruism. Even the pretended +disciples of Confucius confused the precepts of the Master, and by +stripping them of their narrow significance rendered them nugatory. It +was at this point that Mang-tsze, "Mang the philosopher," arose. He was +sturdy in bodily frame, vigorous in mind, profound in political sagacity +and utterly fearless in denouncing the errors of his countrymen. He had +been brought up among the disciples of Confucius, in whose province he +was born B.C. 372, but he was much more active and aggressive, less a +Mystic than a fanatic, in comparison! with his Master. He resolved on +active measures in stemming the tendency of his day. He did indeed +surround himself with a school of disciples, but instead of making a +series of desultory travels, teaching in remote places and along the +high-road, he went to the heart of the evil. He presented himself like a +second John the Baptist at the courts of kings and princes, and there +boldly denounced vice and misrule. It was not difficult for a Chinese +scholar and teacher to find access to the highest of the land. The +Chinese believed in the divine right of learning, just as they believed +in the divine right of kings. Mang employed every weapon of persuasion +in trying to combat heresy and oppression; alternately ridiculing and +reproving: now appealing in a burst of moral enthusiasm, and now +denouncing in terms of cutting sarcasm the abuses which after all he +failed to check. The last prince whom he successfully confronted was the +Marquis of Lu, who turned him carelessly away. He accepted this as the +Divine sentence of his failure, "That I have not found in this marquis, +a ruler who would hearken to me is an intimation of heaven." Henceforth +he lived in retirement until his ninety-seventh year; but from his +apparent failure sprang a practical success. His written teachings are +amongst the most lively and epigrammatic works of Chinese literature, +have done much to keep alive amongst his countrymen the spirit of +Confucianism, and even Western readers may drink wisdom from this spring +of Oriental lore. The following selections from his sayings well exhibit +the spirit of his system of philosophy and morality. + + E.W. + + + + +THE SAYINGS OF MENCIUS + + + +BOOK I + +KING HWUY OF LËANG + + +Part I + +Mencius went to see King Hwuy of Lëang. [1] The king said, "Venerable +Sir, since you have not counted it far to come here a distance of a +thousand li, may I presume that you are likewise provided with counsels +to profit my kingdom?" Mencius replied, "Why must your Majesty used that +word 'profit'? What I am likewise provided with are counsels to +benevolence and righteousness; and these are my only topics. + +"If your Majesty say, 'What is to be done to profit my kingdom?' the +great officers will say, 'What is to be done to profit our families?' +and the inferior officers and the common people will say, 'What is to be +done to profit our persons?' Superiors and inferiors will try to take +the profit the one from the other, and the kingdom will be endangered. +In the kingdom of ten thousand chariots, the murderer of his ruler will +be the chief of a family of a thousand chariots. In the State of a +thousand chariots, the murderer of his ruler will be the chief of a +family of a hundred chariots. To have a thousand in ten thousand, and a +hundred in a thousand, cannot be regarded as not a large allowance; but +if righteousness be put last and profit first, they will not be +satisfied without snatching all. + +"There never was a man trained to benevolence who neglected his parents. +There never was a man trained to righteousness who made his ruler an +after consideration. Let your Majesty likewise make benevolence and +righteousness your only themes--Why must you speak of profit?" + +When Mencius, another day, was seeing King Hwuy of Lëang, the King went +and stood with him by a pond, and, looking round on the wild geese and +deer, large and small, said, "Do wise and good princes also take +pleasure in these things?" Mencius replied, "Being wise and good, they +then have pleasure in these things. If they are not wise and good, +though they have these things, they do not find pleasure." It is said in +the 'Book of Poetry':-- + + 'When he planned the commencement of the Marvellous tower, + He planned it, and defined it, + And the people in crowds undertook the work, + And in no time completed it. + When he planned the commencement, he said, "Be not in a hurry." + But the people came as if they were his children. + The king was in the Marvellous park, + Where the does were lying down-- + The does so sleek and fat; + With the white birds glistening. + The king was by the Marvellous pond;-- + How full was it of fishes leaping about!' + +King Wan used the strength of the people to make his tower and pond, and +the people rejoiced to do the work, calling the tower 'the Marvellous +Tower,' and the pond 'the Marvellous Pond,' and being glad that he had +his deer, his fishes and turtles. The ancients caused their people to +have pleasure as well as themselves, and therefore they could enjoy it. + +"In the Declaration of T'ang it is said, 'O Sun, when wilt thou expire? +We will die together with thee.' The people wished for Këeh's death, +though they should die with him. Although he had his tower, his pond, +birds and animals, how could he have pleasure alone?" + +King Hwuy of Lëang said, "Small as my virtue is, in the government of my +kingdom, I do indeed exert my mind to the utmost. If the year be bad +inside the Ho, I remove as many of the people as I can to the east of +it, and convey grain to the country inside. If the year be bad on the +east of the river, I act on the same plan. On examining the governmental +methods of the neighboring kingdoms, I do not find there is any ruler +who exerts his mind as I do. And yet the people of the neighboring kings +do not decrease, nor do my people increase--how is this?" + +Mencius replied, "Your Majesty loves war; allow me to take an +illustration from war. The soldiers move forward at the sound of the +drum; and when the edges of their weapons have been crossed, on one +side, they throw away their buff coats, trail their weapons behind them, +and run. Some run a hundred paces and then stop; some run fifty paces +and stop. What would you think if these, because they had run but fifty +paces, should laugh at those who ran a hundred paces?" The king said, +"They cannot do so. They only did not run a hundred paces; but they also +ran." Mencius said, "Since your Majesty knows this you have no ground to +expect that your people will become more numerous than those of the +neighboring kingdoms. + +"If the seasons of husbandry be not interfered with, the grain will be +more than can be eaten. If close nets are not allowed to enter the pools +and ponds, the fish and turtles will be more than can be consumed. If +the axes and bills enter the hill-forests only at the proper times, the +wood will be more than can be used. When the grain and fish and turtles +are more than can be eaten, and there is more wood than can be used, +this enables the people to nourish their living and do all offices for +their dead, without any feeling against any. But this condition, in +which the people nourish their living, and do all offices to their dead +without having any feeling against any, is the first step in the Royal +way. + +"Let mulberry trees be planted about the homesteads with their five +acres, and persons of fifty years will be able to wear silk. In keeping +fowls, pigs, dogs, and swine, let not their time of breeding be +neglected, and persons of seventy years will be able to eat flesh. Let +there not be taken away the time that is proper for the cultivation of +the field allotment of a hundred acres, and the family of several mouths +will not suffer from hunger. Let careful attention be paid to the +teaching in the various schools, with repeated inculcation of the filial +and fraternal duties, and gray-haired men will not be seen upon the +roads, carrying burdens on their backs or on their heads. It has never +been that the ruler of a State where these results were seen, persons of +seventy wearing silk and eating flesh, and the black-haired people +suffering neither from hunger nor cold, did not attain to the Royal +dignity. + +"Your dogs and swine eat the food of men, and you do not know to store +up of the abundance. There are people dying from famine on the roads, +and you do not know to issue your stores for their relief. When men die, +you say, 'It is not owing to me; it is owing to the year,' In what does +this differ from stabbing a man and killing him, and then saying, 'It +was not I; it was the weapon'? Let your Majesty cease to lay the blame +on the year and instantly the people, all under the sky, will come to +you." + +King Hwuy of Lëang said, "I wish quietly to receive your instructions." +Mencius replied, "Is there any difference between killing a man with a +stick and with a sword?" "There is no difference," was the answer. + +Mencius continued, "Is there any difference between doing it with a +sword and with governmental measures?" "There is not," was the answer +again. + +Mencius then said, "In your stalls there are fat beasts; in your stables +there are fat horses. But your people have the look of hunger, and in +the fields there are those who have died of famine. This is leading on +beasts to devour men. Beasts devour one another, and men hate them for +doing so. When he who is called the parent of the people conducts his +government so as to be chargeable with leading on beasts to devour men, +where is that parental relation to the people? Chung-ne said, 'Was he +not without posterity who first made wooden images to bury with the +dead?' So he said, because that man made the semblances of men and used +them for that purpose; what shall be thought of him who causes his +people to die of hunger?" + +King Hwuy of Lëang said, "There was not in the kingdom a stronger State +than Ts'in, as you, venerable Sir, know. But since it descended to me, +on the east we were defeated by Ts'e, and then my eldest son perished; +on the west we lost seven hundred li of territory to Ts'in; and on the +south we have sustained disgrace at the hands of Ts'oo. I have brought +shame on my departed predecessors, and wish on their account to wipe it +away once for all. What course is to be pursued to accomplish this?" + +Mencius replied, "With a territory only a hundred li square it has been +possible to obtain the Royal dignity. If your Majesty will indeed +dispense a benevolent government to the people, being sparing in the use +of punishments and fines, and making the taxes and levies of produce +light, so causing that the fields shall be ploughed deep, and the +weeding well attended to, and that the able-bodied, during their days of +leisure, shall cultivate their filial piety, fraternal duty, +faithfulness, and truth, serving thereby, at home, their fathers and +elder brothers, and, abroad, their elders and superiors, you will then +have a people who can be employed with sticks which they have prepared +to oppose the strong buff-coats and sharp weapons of the troops of Ts'in +and Ts'oo. + +"The rulers of those States rob their people of their time, so that they +cannot plough and weed their fields in order to support their parents. +Parents suffer from cold and hunger; elder and younger brothers, wives +and children, are separated and scattered abroad. Those rulers drive +their people into pitfalls or into the water; and your Majesty will go +to punish them. In such a case, who will oppose your Majesty? In +accordance with this is the saying, 'The benevolent has no enemy!' I beg +your Majesty not to doubt what I said." + +Mencius had an interview with King Sëang[2] of Lëang. When he came out +he said to some persons, "When I looked at him from a distance, he did +not appear like a ruler; when I drew near to him, I saw nothing +venerable about him. Abruptly he asked me, 'How can the kingdom, all +under the sky, be settled?' I replied, 'It will be settled by being +united under one sway,' + +"'Who can so unite it?' he asked. + +"I replied, 'He who has no pleasure in killing men can so unite it.' + +"'Who can give it to him?' he asked. + +"I replied, 'All under heaven will give it to him. Does your Majesty +know the way of the growing grain? During the seventh and eighth months, +when drought prevails, the plants become dry. Then the clouds collect +densely in the heavens, and send down torrents of rain, so that the grain +erects itself as if by a shoot. When it does so, who can keep it back? +Now among those who are shepherds of men throughout the kingdom, there +is not one who does not find pleasure in killing men. If there were one +who did not find pleasure in killing men, all the people under the sky +would be looking towards him with outstretched necks. Such being indeed +the case, the people would go to him as water flows downwards with a +rush, which no one can repress." + +King Seuen of Ts'e asked, saying, "May I be informed by you of the +transactions of Hwan of Ts'e and Wan of Ts'in?" + +Mencius replied, "There were none of the disciples of Chung-ne who spoke +about the affairs of Hwan and Wan, and therefore they have not been +transmitted to these after-ages; your servant has not heard of them. If +you will have me speak, let it be about the principles of attaining to +the Royal sway." + +The king said, "Of what kind must his virtue be who can attain to the +Royal sway?" Mencius said, "If he loves and protects the people, it is +impossible to prevent him from attaining it." + +The king said, "Is such an one as poor I competent to love and protect +the people?" "Yes," was the reply. "From what do you know that I am +competent to that?" "I have heard," said Mencius, "from Hoo Heih the +following incident:--'The king,' said he, 'was sitting aloft in the +hall, when some people appeared leading a bull past below it. The king +saw it, and asked where the bull was going, and being answered that they +were going to consecrate a bell with its blood, he said, "Let it go, I +cannot bear its frightened appearance--as if it were an innocent person +going to the place of death." They asked in reply whether, if they did +so, they should omit the consecration of the bell, but the king said, +"How can that be omitted? Change it for a sheep."' I do not know whether +this incident occurred." + +"It did," said the king, and Mencius replied, "The heart seen in this is +sufficient to carry you to the Royal sway. The people all supposed that +your Majesty grudged the animal, but your servant knows surely that it +was your Majesty's not being able to bear the sight of the creature's +distress which made you do as you did." + +The king said, "You are right; and yet there really was an appearance of +what the people imagined. But though Ts'e be narrow and small, how +should I grudge a bull? Indeed it was because I could not bear its +frightened appearance, as if it were an innocent person going to the +place of death, that therefore I changed it for a sheep." + +Mencius said, "Let not your Majesty deem it strange that the people +should think you grudged the animal. When you changed a large one for a +small, how should they know the true reason? If you felt pained by its +being led without any guilt to the place of death, what was there to +choose between a bull and a sheep?" The king laughed and said, "What +really was my mind in the matter? I did not grudge the value of the +bull, and yet I changed it for a sheep! There was reason in the people's +saying that I grudged the creature." + +Mencius said, "There is no harm in their saying so. It was an artifice +of benevolence. You saw the bull, and had not seen the sheep. So is the +superior man affected towards animals, that, having seen them alive, he +cannot bear to see them die, and, having heard their dying cries, he +cannot bear to eat their flesh. On this account he keeps away from his +stalls and kitchen." + +The king was pleased and said, "The Ode says, + + 'What other men have in their minds, + I can measure by reflection,' + +This might be spoken of you, my Master. I indeed did the thing, but when +I turned my thoughts inward and sought for it, I could not discover my +own mind. When you, Master, spoke those words, the movements of +compassion began to work in my mind. But how is it that this heart has +in it what is equal to the attainment of the Royal sway?" + +Mencius said, "Suppose a man were to make this statement to your +Majesty, 'My strength is sufficient to lift three thousand catties, but +is not sufficient to lift one feather; my eyesight is sharp enough to +examine the point of an autumn hair, but I do not see a wagon-load of +fagots,' would your Majesty allow what he said?" "No," was the king's +remark, and Mencius proceeded, "Now here is kindness sufficient to reach +to animals, and yet no benefits are extended from it to the people--how +is this? is an exception to be made here? The truth is, the feather's +not being lifted is because the strength was not used; the wagon-load of +firewood's not being seen is because the eyesight was not used; and the +people's not being loved and protected is because the kindness is not +used. Therefore your Majesty's not attaining to the Royal sway is +because you do not do it, and not because you are not able to do it." + +The king asked, "How may the difference between him who does not do a +thing and him who is not able to do it be graphically set forth?" +Mencius replied, "In such a thing as taking the T'ae mountain under your +arm, and leaping with it over the North Sea, if you say to people, 'I am +not able to do it,' that is a real case of not being able. In such a +matter as breaking off a branch from a tree at the order of a superior, +if you say to people, 'I am not able to do it,' it is not a case of not +being able to do it. And so your Majesty's not attaining to the Royal +sway is not such a case as that of taking the T'ae mountain under your +arm and leaping over the North Sea with it; but it is a case like that +of breaking off a branch from a tree. + +"Treat with reverence due to age the elders in your own family, so that +those in the families of others shall be similarly treated; treat with +the kindness due to youth the young in your own family, so that those in +the families of others shall be similarly treated--do this and the +kingdom may be made to go round in your palm. It is said in the 'Book of +Poetry,' + + 'His example acted on his wife, + Extended to his brethren, + And was felt by all the clans and States;' + +Telling us how King Wan simply took this kindly heart, and exercised it +towards those parties. Therefore the carrying out of the feeling of +kindness by a ruler will suffice for the love and protection of all +within the four seas; and if he do not carry it out, he will not be able +to protect his wife and children. The way in which the ancients came +greatly to surpass other men was no other than this, that they carried +out well what they did, so as to affect others. Now your kindness is +sufficient to reach to animals, and yet no benefits are extended from it +to the people. How is this? Is an exception to be made here? + +"By weighing we know what things are light, and what heavy. By measuring +we know what things are long, and what short. All things are so dealt +with, and the mind requires specially to be so. I beg your Majesty to +measure it.--Your Majesty collects your equipments of war, endangers +your soldiers and officers and excites the resentment of the various +princes--do these things cause you pleasure in your mind?" + +The king said, "No. How should I derive pleasure from these things? My +object in them is to seek for what I greatly desire." + +Mencius said, "May I hear from you what it is that your Majesty greatly +desires?" The king laughed, and did not speak. Mencius resumed, "Are you +led to desire it because you have not enough of rich and sweet food for +your mouth? or because you have not enough of light and warm clothing +for your body? or because you have not enough of beautifully colored +objects to satisfy your eyes? or because there are not voices and sounds +enough to fill your ears? or because you have not enough of attendants +and favorites to stand before you and receive your orders? Your +Majesty's various officers are sufficient to supply you with all these +things. How can your Majesty have such a desire on account of them?" +"No," said the king, "my desire is not on account of them." Mencius +observed, "Then what your Majesty greatly desires can be known. You +desire to enlarge your territories, to have Ts'in and Ts'oo coming to +your court, to rule the Middle States, and to attract to you the +barbarous tribes that surround them. But to do what you do in order to +seek for what you desire is like climbing a tree to seek for fish." + +"Is it so bad as that?" said the king. "I apprehend it is worse," was +the reply. "If you climb a tree to seek for fish, although you do not +get the fish, you have no subsequent calamity. But if you do what you do +in order to seek for what you desire, doing it even with all your heart, +you will assuredly afterwards meet with calamities." The king said, "May +I hear what they will be?" Mencius replied, "If the people of Tsow were +fighting with the people of Ts'oo, which of them does your Majesty think +would conquer?" "The people of Ts'oo would conquer," was the answer, and +Mencius pursued, "So then, a small State cannot contend with a great, +few cannot contend with many, nor can the weak contend with the strong. +The territory within the seas would embrace nine divisions, each of a +thousand li square. All Ts'e together is one of them. If with one part +you try to subdue the other eight, what is the difference between that +and Tsow's contending with Ts'oo? With the desire which you have, you +must turn back to the proper course for its attainment. + +"Now, if your Majesty will institute a government whose action shall all +be benevolent, this will cause all the officers in the kingdom to wish +to stand in your Majesty's court, the farmers all to wish to plough in +your Majesty's fields, the merchants, both travelling and stationary, +all to wish to store their goods in your Majesty's market-places, +travellers and visitors all to wish to travel on your Majesty's roads, +and all under heaven who feel aggrieved by their rulers to wish to come +and complain to your Majesty. When they are so bent, who will be able to +keep them back?" + +The king said, "I am stupid and cannot advance to this. But I wish you, +my Master, to assist my intentions. Teach me clearly, and although I am +deficient in intelligence and vigor, I should like to try at least to +institute such a government." + +Mencius replied, "They are only men of education, who, without a certain +livelihood, are able to maintain a fixed heart. As to the people, if +they have not a certain livelihood, they will be found not to have a +fixed heart. And if they have not a fixed heart, there is nothing which +they will not do in the way of self-abandonment, of moral deflection, of +depravity, and of wild license. When they have thus been involved in +crime, to follow them up and punish them, is to entrap the people. How +can such a thing as entrapping the people be done under the rule of a +benevolent man?" + +"Therefore, an intelligent ruler will regulate the livelihood of the +people, so as to make sure that, above, they shall have sufficient +wherewith to serve their parents, and below, sufficient wherewith to +support their wives and children; that in good years they shall always +be abundantly satisfied, and that in bad years they shall not be in +danger of perishing. After this he may urge them, and they will proceed +to what is good, for in this case the people will follow after that with +readiness. + +"But now the livelihood of the people is so regulated, that, above, they +have not sufficient wherewith to serve their parents, and, below, they +have not sufficient wherewith to support their wives and children; even +in good years their lives are always embittered, and in bad years they +are in danger of perishing. In such circumstances their only object is +to escape from death, and they are afraid they will not succeed in doing +so--what leisure have they to cultivate propriety and righteousness? + +"If your Majesty wishes to carry out a benevolent government, why not +turn back to what is the essential step to its attainment? + +"Let mulberry trees be planted about the homesteads with their five +acres, and persons of fifty years will be able to wear silk. In keeping +fowls, pigs, dogs, and swine, let not their times of breeding be +neglected, and persons of seventy years will be able to eat flesh. Let +there not be taken away the time that is proper for the cultivation of +the field-allotment of a hundred acres, and the family of eight mouths +will not suffer from hunger. Let careful attention be paid to the +teaching in the various schools, with repeated inculcation of the filial +and fraternal duties, and gray-haired men will not be seen upon the +roads, carrying burdens on their backs or on their heads. It has never +been that the ruler of a State, where these results were seen, the old +wearing silk and eating flesh, and the black-haired people suffering +neither from hunger nor cold, did not attain to the Royal dignity." + +[NOTE: _Books II, III, and IV are omitted_] + + +[Footnote 1: The title of this book in Chinese is--"King Hwuy of Lëang; +in chapters and sentences." Like the Books of the Confucian Analects, +those of this work are headed by two or three words at or near the +commencement of them. Each Book is divided into two parts. This +arrangement was made by Chaou K'e, and to him are due also the divisions +into chapters, and sentences, or paragraphs, containing, it may be, many +sentences.] + +[Footnote 2: Sëang was the son of King Hwuy. The first year of his reign +is supposed to be B.C. 317. Sëang's name was Hih. As a posthumous +epithet, Sëang has various meanings: "Land-enlarger and Virtuous"; +"Successful in Arms." The interview here recorded seems to have taken +place immediately after Hih's accession, and Mencius, it is said, was so +disappointed by it that he soon after left the country.] + + + + +THE SHI-KING + + +[_Metrical translation by James Legge_] + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +The wisdom of Confucius as a social reformer, as a teacher and guide of +the Chinese people, is shown in many ways. He not only gave them a code +of personal deportment, providing them with rules for the etiquette and +ceremony of life, but he instilled into them that profound spirit of +domestic piety which is one of the strongest features in the Chinese +character. He took measures to secure also the intellectual cultivation +of his followers, and his Five Canons contain all the most ancient works +of Chinese literature, in the departments of poetry, history, +philosophy, and legislation. The Shi-King is a collection of Chinese +poetry made by Confucius himself. This great anthology consists of more +than three hundred pieces, covering the whole range of Chinese lyric +poetry, the oldest of which dates some eighteen centuries before Christ, +while the latest of the selections must have been written at the +beginning of the sixth century before Christ. These poems are of the +highest interest, and even nowadays may be read with delight by +Europeans. The ballad and the hymn are among the earliest forms of +national poetry, and the contents of the Shi-King naturally show +specimens of lyric poetry of this sort. We find there not only hymns, +but also ballads of a really fine and spirited character. Sometimes the +poems celebrate the common pursuits, occupations, and incidents of life. +They rise to the exaltation of the epithalamium, or of the vintage song; +at other times they deal with sentiment and human conduct, being in the +highest degree sententious and epigrammatic. We must give the credit to +Confucius of having saved for us the literature of China, and of having +set his people an example in preserving the monuments of a remote +antiquity. While the literatures of ancient Greece and Rome have largely +perished in the convulsions that followed the breaking up of the Roman +empire in Europe, when the kingdom of China fell into disorder and +decrepitude this one great teacher stepped forward to save the precious +record of historic fact, philosophical thought, and of legislation as +well as poetry, from being swept away by the deluge of revolution. +Confucius showed his wisdom by the high value he set upon the poetry of +his native land, and his name must be set side by side with that of the +astute tyrant of Athens who collected the poems of Homer and preserved +them as a precious heritage to the Greek world. Confucius has given us +his opinion with regard to the poems of the Shi-King. No man, he says, +is worth speaking to who has not mastered the poems of an anthology, the +perusal of which elevates the mind and purifies it from all corrupt +thoughts. Thanks to the work of modern scholarship, English readers can +now verify this dictum for themselves. + +E. W. + + + + +THE SHI-KING + + + +_PART I--LESSONS FROM THE STATES_ + + +BOOK I + +THE ODES OF CHOW AND THE SOUTH + + +~Celebrating the Virtue of King Wan's Bride~ + + + Hark! from the islet in the stream the voice + Of the fish-hawks that o'er their nests rejoice! + From them our thoughts to that young lady go, + Modest and virtuous, loth herself to show. + Where could be found to share our prince's state, + So fair, so virtuous, and so fit a mate? + + See how the duckweed's stalks, or short or long, + Sway left and right, as moves the current strong! + So hard it was for him the maid to find! + By day, by night, our prince with constant mind + Sought for her long, but all his search was vain. + Awake, asleep, he ever felt the pain + Of longing thought, as when on restless bed, + Tossing about, one turns his fevered head. + + Here long, there short, afloat the duckweed lies; + But caught at last, we seize the longed-for prize. + The maiden modest, virtuous, coy, is found; + Strike every lute, and joyous welcome sound. + Ours now, the duckweed from the stream we bear, + And cook to use with other viands rare. + He has the maiden, modest, virtuous, bright; + Let bells and drums proclaim our great delight + + + +~Celebrating the Industry of King Wan's Queen~ + + Sweet was the scene. The spreading dolichos + Extended far, down to the valley's depths, + With leaves luxuriant. The orioles + Fluttered around, and on the bushy trees + In throngs collected--whence their pleasant notes + Resounded far in richest melody. + + The spreading dolichos extended far, + Covering the valley's sides, down to its depths, + With leaves luxuriant and dense. I cut + It down, then boiled, and from the fibres spun + Of cloth, both fine and coarse, large store, + To wear, unwearied of such simple dress. + + Now back to my old home, my parents dear + To see, I go. The matron I have told, + Who will announcement make. Meanwhile my clothes, + My private clothes I wash, and rinse my robes. + Which of them need be rinsed? and which need not? + My parents dear to visit, back I go. + + + +~In Praise of a Bride~ + + Graceful and young the peach-tree stands; + How rich its flowers, all gleaming bright! + This bride to her new home repairs; + Chamber and house she'll order right. + + Graceful and young the peach-tree stands; + Large crops of fruit it soon will show. + This bride to her new home repairs; + Chamber and house her sway shall know. + + Graceful and young the peach-tree stands, + Its foliage clustering green and full. + This bride to her new home repairs; + Her household will attest her rule. + + + +~Celebrating T'ae-Sze's Freedom from Jealousy~ + + In the South are the trees whose branches are bent, + And droop in such fashion that o'er their extent + All the dolichos' creepers fast cling. + See our princely lady, from whom we have got + Rejoicing that's endless! May her happy lot + And her honors repose ever bring! + + In the South are the trees whose branches are bent, + And droop in such fashion that o'er their extent + All the dolichos' creepers are spread. + See our princely lady, from whom we have got + Rejoicing that's endless! Of her happy lot + And her honors the greatness ne'er fade! + + In the South are the trees whose branches are bent, + And droop in such fashion that o'er their extent + All the dolichos' creepers entwine. + See our princely lady, from whom we have got + Rejoicing that's endless! May her happy lot + And her honors complete ever shine! + + + +~The Fruitfulness of the Locust~ + + Ye locusts, wingèd tribes, + Gather in concord fine; + Well your descendants may + In numerous bright hosts shine! + + Ye locusts, wingèd tribes, + Your wings in flight resound; + Well your descendants may + In endless lines be found! + + Ye locusts, wingèd tribes, + Together cluster strong; + Well your descendants may + In swarms forever throng! + + + +~Lamenting the Absence of a Cherished Friend~ + + Though small my basket, all my toil + Filled it with mouse-ears but in part. + I set it on the path, and sighed + For the dear master of my heart. + + My steeds, o'er-tasked, their progress stayed, + When midway up that rocky height. + Give me a cup from that gilt vase-- + When shall this longing end in sight? + + To mount that lofty ridge I drove, + Until my steeds all changed their hue. + A cup from that rhinoceros's horn + May help my longing to subdue. + + Striving to reach that flat-topped hill, + My steeds, worn out, relaxed their strain; + My driver also sank oppressed:-- + I'll never see my lord again! + + + +~Celebrating the Goodness of the Descendants of King Wan~ + + As the feet of the _lin_, which avoid each living thing, + So our prince's noble sons no harm to men will bring. + They are the _lin!_ + + As the front of the _lin_, never forward thrust in wrath, + So our prince's noble grandsons of love tread the path. + They are the _lin!_ + + As the horn of the _lin_, flesh-tipped, no wound to give, + So our prince's noble kindred kindly with all live. + They are the _lin!_ + +[NOTE.--The "lin" is the female of "K'e"--a fabulous animal--the +symbol of all goodness and benevolence; having the body of a +deer, the tail of an ox, the hoofs of a horse, one horn, the scales of a +fish, etc. Its feet do not tread on any living thing--not even on live +grass; it does not butt with its forehead; and the end of its horn is +covered with flesh--to show that, while able for war, it wills to have +peace. The "lin" was supposed to appear inaugurating a golden age, +but the poet finds a better auspice of that in the character of Wan's +family and kindred.] + + + +~The Virtuous Manners of the Young Women~ + + High and compressed, the Southern trees + No shelter from the sun afford. + The girls free ramble by the Han, + But will not hear enticing word. + Like the broad Han are they, + Through which one cannot dive; + And like the Keang's long stream, + Wherewith no raft can strive. + + Many the fagots bound and piled; + The thorns I'd hew still more to make. + As brides, those girls their new homes seek; + Their colts to feed I'd undertake. + Like the broad Han are they, + Through which one cannot dive; + And like the Keang's long stream, + Wherewith no raft can strive. + + Many the fagots bound and piled; + The Southern-wood I'd cut for more. + As brides, those girls their new homes seek; + Food for their colts I'd bring large store. + Like the broad Han are they, + Through which one cannot dive; + And like the Keang's long stream, + Wherewith no raft can strive. + + + +~Praise of a Rabbit-Catcher~ + + Careful he sets his rabbit-nets all round; + _Chang-chang_ his blows upon the pegs resound. + Stalwart the man and bold! his bearing all + Shows he might be his prince's shield and wall. + + Careful he is his rabbit-nets to place + Where many paths of rabbits' feet bear trace. + Stalwart the man and bold! 'tis plain to see + He to his prince companion good would be. + + Careful he is his rabbit-nets to spread, + Where in the forest's depth the trees give shade. + Stalwart the man and bold! fit his the part + Guide to his prince to be, and faithful heart. + + + +~The Song of the Plantain-Gatherers~ + + We gather and gather the plantains; + Come gather them anyhow. + Yes, gather and gather the plantains, + And here we have got them now. + + We gather and gather the plantains; + Now off the ears we must tear. + Yes, gather and gather the plantains, + And now the seeds are laid bare. + + We gather and gather the plantains, + The seeds in our skirts are placed. + Yes, gather and gather the plantains. + Ho! safe in the girdled waist! + + + +~The Affection of the Wives on the Joo~ + + Along the raised banks of the Joo, + To hew slim stem and branch I wrought, + My lord away, my husband true, + Like hunger-pang my troubled thought! + + Along the raised banks of the Joo, + Branch and fresh shoot confessed my art. + I've seen my lord, my husband true, + And still he folds me in his heart. + + As the toiled bream makes red its tail, + Toil you, Sir, for the Royal House; + Amidst its blazing fires, nor quail:-- + Your parents see you pay your vows. + + + + +BOOK II + + + +THE ODES OF SHAOU AND THE SOUTH + + + +~The Marriage of a Princess~ + + In the magpie's nest + Dwells the dove at rest. + This young bride goes to her future home; + To meet her a hundred chariots come. + + Of the magpie's nest + Is the dove possessed. + This bride goes to her new home to live; + And escort a hundred chariots give. + + The nest magpie wove + Now filled by the dove. + This bride now takes to her home her way; + And these numerous cars her state display. + + + +~The Industry and Reverence of a Prince's Wife~ + + Around the pools, the islets o'er, + Fast she plucks white Southern-wood, + To help the sacrificial store; + And for our prince does service good. + + Where streams among the valleys shine, + Of Southern-woods she plucks the white; + And brings it to the sacred shrine, + To aid our prince in solemn rite. + + In head-dress high, most reverent, she + The temple seeks at early dawn. + The service o'er, the head-dress see + To her own chamber slow withdrawn. + + + +~The Wife of Some Great Officer Bewails His Absence~ + + Shrill chirp the insects in the grass; + All about the hoppers spring. + While I my husband do not see, + Sorrow must my bosom wring. + O to meet him! + O to greet him! + Then my heart would rest and sing. + + Ascending high that Southern hill, + Turtle ferns I strove to get. + While I my husband do not see, + Sorrow must my heart beset. + O to meet him! + O to greet him! + Then my heart would cease to fret. + + Ascending high that Southern hill, + Spinous ferns I sought to find. + While I my husband do not see, + Rankles sorrow in my mind. + O to meet him! + O to greet him! + In my heart would peace be shrined. + + + +~The Diligence of the Young Wife of an Officer~ + + She gathers fast the large duckweed, + From valley stream that southward flows; + And for the pondweed to the pools + Left on the plains by floods she goes. + + The plants, when closed her toil, she puts + In baskets round and baskets square. + Then home she hies to cook her spoil, + In pans and tripods ready there. + + In sacred chamber this she sets, + Where the light falls down through the wall. + 'Tis she, our lord's young reverent wife, + Who manages this service all. + + + +~The Love of the People for the Duke of Shaou~ + + O fell not that sweet pear-tree! + See how its branches spread. + Spoil not its shade, + For Shaou's chief laid + Beneath it his weary head. + + O clip not that sweet pear-tree! + Each twig and leaflet spare. + 'Tis sacred now, + Since the lord of Shaou, + When weary, rested him there. + + O touch not that sweet pear-tree! + Bend not a twig of it now. + There long ago, + As the stories show, + Oft halted the chief of Shaou. + + + +~The Easy Dignity of the Officers at Some Court~ + + Arrayed in skins of lamb or sheep, + With five silk braidings all of white, + From court they go, to take their meal, + All self-possessed, with spirits light. + + How on their skins of lamb or sheep + The five seams wrought with white silk show! + With easy steps, and self-possessed, + From court to take their meal, they go. + + Upon their skins of lamb or sheep + Shines the white silk the seams to link. + With easy steps and self-possessed, + They go from court to eat and drink. + + + +~Anxiety of a Young Lady to Get Married~ + + Ripe, the plums fall from the bough; + Only seven-tenths left there now! + Ye whose hearts on me are set, + Now the time is fortunate! + + Ripe, the plums fall from the bough; + Only three-tenths left there now! + Ye who wish my love to gain, + Will not now apply in vain! + + No more plums upon the bough! + All are in my basket now! + Ye who me with ardor seek, + Need the word but freely speak! + + + +BOOK III + + + +THE ODES OF P'EI + + +~An Officer Bewails the Neglect with which He is Treated~ + + It floats about, that boat of cypress wood, + Now here, now there, as by the current borne. + Nor rest nor sleep comes in my troubled mood; + I suffer as when painful wound has torn + The shrinking body. Thus I dwell forlorn, + And aimless muse, my thoughts of sorrow full. + I might with wine refresh my spirit worn; + I might go forth, and, sauntering try to cool + The fever of my heart; but grief holds sullen rule. + + My mind resembles not a mirror plate, + Reflecting all the impressions it receives. + The good I love, the bad regard with hate; + I only cherish whom my heart believes. + Colleagues I have, but yet my spirit grieves, + That on their honor I cannot depend. + I speak, but my complaint no influence leaves + Upon their hearts; with mine no feelings blend; + With me in anger they, and fierce disdain contend. + + My mind is fixed, and cannot, like a stone, + Be turned at will indifferently about; + And what I think, to that, and that alone, + I utterance give, alike within, without; + Nor can like mat be rolled and carried out. + With dignity in presence of them all, + My conduct marked, my goodness who shall scout? + My foes I boldly challenge, great and small, + If there be aught in me they can in question call. + + How full of trouble is my anxious heart! + With hate the blatant herd of creatures mean + Ceaseless pursue. Of their attacks the smart + Keeps my mind in distress. Their venomed spleen + Aye vents itself; and with insulting mien + They vex my soul; and no one on my side + A word will speak. Silent, alone, unseen, + I think of my sad case; then opening wide + My eyes, as if from sleep, I beat my breast, sore-tried. + + Thy disc, O sun, should ever be complete, + While thine, O changing moon, doth wax and wane. + But now our sun hath waned, weak and effete, + And moons are ever full. My heart with pain + Is firmly bound, and held in sorrow's chain, + As to the body cleaves an unwashed dress. + Silent I think of my sad case; in vain + I try to find relief from my distress. + Would I had wings to fly where ills no longer press! + + + +~A Wife Deplores the Absence of Her Husband~ + + + Away the startled pheasant flies, + With lazy movement of his wings. + Borne was my heart's lord from my eyes;-- + What pain the separation brings! + + The pheasant, though no more in view, + His cry, below, above, forth sends. + Alas! my princely lord, 'tis you-- + Your absence, that my bosom rends. + + At sun and moon I sit and gaze, + In converse with my troubled heart. + Far, far from me my husband stays! + When will he come to heal its smart? + + Ye princely men who with him mate, + Say, mark ye not his virtuous way. + His rule is--covet nought, none hate;-- + How can his steps from goodness stray? + + + +~The Plaint of a Rejected Wife~ + + The east wind gently blows, + With cloudy skies and rain. + 'Twixt man and wife should ne'er be strife, + But harmony obtain. + Radish and mustard plants + Are used, though some be poor; + While my good name is free from blame, + Don't thrust me from your door. + + I go along the road, + Slow, with reluctant heart. + Your escort lame to door but came, + There glad from me to part. + Sow-thistle, bitter called, + As shepherd's purse is sweet; + With your new mate you feast elate, + As joyous brothers meet. + + Part clear, the stream of King + Is foul beside the Wei. + You feast elate with your new mate, + And take no heed of me. + Loose mate, avoid my dam, + Nor dare my basket move! + Person slighted, life all blighted, + What can the future prove? + + The water deep, in boat, + Or raft-sustained, I'd go; + And where the stream did narrow seem, + I dived or breasted through. + I labored to increase + Our means, or great or small; + When 'mong friends near death did appear, + On knees to help I'd crawl. + + No cherishing you give, + I'm hostile in your eyes. + As pedler's wares for which none cares, + My virtues you despise. + + When poverty was nigh, + I strove our means to spare; + You, now rich grown, me scorn to own; + To poison me compare. + + The stores for winter piled + Are all unprized in spring. + So now, elate with your new mate, + Myself away you fling. + Your cool disdain for me + A bitter anguish hath. + The early time, our love's sweet prime, + In you wakes only wrath. + + + +~Soldiers of Wei Bewail Separation from Their Families~ + + List to the thunder and roll of the drum! + See how we spring and brandish the dart! + Some raise Ts'aou's walls; some do field work at home; + But we to the southward lonely depart. + + Our chief, Sun Tsze-chung, agreement has made, + Our forces to join with Ch'in and with Sung. + When shall we back from this service be led? + Our hearts are all sad, our courage unstrung. + + Here we are halting, and there we delay; + Anon we soon lose our high-mettled steeds. + The forest's gloom makes our steps go astray; + Each thicket of trees our searching misleads. + + For death as for life, at home or abroad, + We pledged to our wives our faithfulest word. + Their hands clasped in ours, together we vowed, + We'd live to old age in sweetest accord. + + This march to the South can end but in ill; + Oh! never shall we our wives again meet. + The word that we pledged we cannot fulfil; + Us home returning they never will greet. + + + +~An Officer Tells of His Mean Employment~ + + With mind indifferent, things I easy take; + In every dance I prompt appearance make:-- + Then, when the sun is at his topmost height, + There, in the place that courts the public sight. + + With figure large I in the courtyard dance, + And the duke smiles, when he beholds me prance. + A tiger's strength I have; the steeds swift bound; + The reins as ribbons in my hands are found. + + See how I hold the flute in my left hand; + In right the pheasant's plume, waved like a wand; + With visage red, where rouge you think to trace, + While the duke pleased, sends down the cup of grace! + + Hazel on hills; the _ling_ in meadow damp;-- + Each has its place, while I'm a slighted scamp. + My thoughts go back to th' early days of Chow, + And muse upon its chiefs, not equalled now. + O noble chiefs, who then the West adorned, + Would ye have thus neglected me and scorned? + + + +~An Officer Sets Forth His Hard Lot~ + + My way leads forth by the gate on the north; + My heart is full of woe. + I hav'n't a cent, begged, stolen, or lent, + And friends forget me so. + So let it be! 'tis Heaven's decree. + What can I say--a poor fellow like me? + + The King has his throne, sans sorrow or moan; + On me fall all his cares, + And when I come home, resolved not to roam, + Each one indignant stares. + So let it be! 'tis Heaven's decree. + What can I say--a poor fellow like me? + + Each thing of the King, and the fate of the State, + On me come more and more. + And when, sad and worn, I come back forlorn, + They thrust me from the door. + So let it be! 'tis Heaven's decree. + What can I say--a poor fellow like me? + + + +~The Complaint of a Neglected Wife~ + + When the upper robe is green, + With a yellow lining seen, + There we have a certain token, + Right is wronged and order broken. + How can sorrow from my heart + In a case like this depart? + + Color green the robe displays; + Lower garment yellow's blaze. + Thus it is that favorite mean + In the place of wife is seen. + Vain the conflict with my grief; + Memory denies relief. + + Yes, 'twas you the green who dyed, + You who fed the favorite's pride. + Anger rises in my heart, + Pierces it as with a dart. + But on ancient rules lean I, + Lest to wrong my thoughts should fly. + + Fine or coarse, if thin the dress, + Cold winds always cause distress. + Hard my lot, my sorrow deep, + But my thoughts in check I keep. + Ancient story brings to mind + Sufferers who were resigned. + + +[NOTE.--Yellow is one of the five "correct" colors of the Chinese, while +green is one of the "intermediate" colors that are less esteemed. Here +we have the yellow used merely as a lining to the green, or employed in +the lower, or less honorable, part of the dress;--an inversion of +propriety, and intimating how a favorite had usurped the place of the +rightful wife and thrust her down.] + + + +~In Praise of a Maiden~ + + + O sweet maiden, so fair and retiring, + At the corner I'm waiting for you; + And I'm scratching my head, and inquiring + What on earth it were best I should do. + + Oh! the maiden, so handsome and coy, + For a pledge gave a slim rosy reed. + Than the reed is she brighter, my joy; + On her loveliness how my thoughts feed! + + In the pastures a _t'e_ blade she sought, + And she gave it, so elegant, rare. + Oh! the grass does not dwell in my thought, + But the donor, more elegant, fair. + + + +~Discontent~ + + As when the north winds keenly blow, + And all around fast falls the snow, + The source of pain and suffering great, + So now it is in Wei's poor state. + Let us join hands and haste away, + My friends and lovers all. + 'Tis not a time will brook delay; + Things for prompt action call. + + As when the north winds whistle shrill, + And drifting snows each hollow fill, + The source of pain and suffering great, + So now it is in Wei's poor state, + Let us join hands, and leave for aye, + My friends and lovers all, + 'Tis not a time will brook delay; + Things for prompt action call. + + We look for red, and foxes meet; + For black, and crows our vision greet. + The creatures, both of omen bad, + Well suit the state of Wei so sad. + + Let us join hands and mount our cars, + My friends and lovers all. + No time remains for wordy jars; + Things for prompt action call. + + + +~Chwang Keang Bemoans Her Husband's Cruelty~ + + Fierce is the wind and cold; + And such is he. + Smiling he looks, and bold + Speaks mockingly. + Scornful and lewd his words, + Haughty his smile. + Bound is my heart with cords + In sorrow's coil. + + As cloud of dust wind-blown, + Just such is he. + Ready he seems to own, + And come to me. + But he comes not nor goes, + Stands in his pride. + Long, long, with painful throes, + Grieved I abide. + + Strong blew the wind; the cloud + Hastened away. + Soon dark again, the shroud + Covers the day. + I wake, and sleep no more + Visits my eyes. + His course I sad deplore, + With heavy sighs. + + Cloudy the sky, and dark; + The thunders roll. + Such outward signs well mark + My troubled soul. + I wake, and sleep no more + Comes to give rest. + His course I sad deplore, + In anguished breast. + + + +[NOTE: Selections from Books IV., V., and VI., +have been omitted.--EDITOR.] + + + +BOOK VII + + + +THE ODES OF CH'ING + + + +~The People's Admiration for Duke Woo~ + + The black robes well your form befit; + When they are worn we'll make you new. + Now for your court! oh! there we'll sit, + And watch how you your duties do. + And when we to our homes repair, + We'll send to you our richest fare, + Such is the love to you we bear! + + Those robes well with your virtue match; + When they are worn we'll make you new. + Now for your court! There will we watch, + Well pleased, how you your duties do. + And when we to our homes repair, + We'll send to you our richest fare, + Such is the love to you we bear! + + Those robes your character beseem; + When they are worn we'll make you new. + Now for your court! oh! there we deem + It pleasure great your form to view. + And when we to our homes repair, + We'll send to you our richest fare, + Such is the love to you we bear! + + + +~A Wife Consoled by Her Husband's Arrival~ + + Cold is the wind, fast falls the rain, + The cock aye shrilly crows. + But I have seen my lord again;-- + Now must my heart repose. + + Whistles the wind, patters the rain, + The cock's crow far resounds. + But I have seen my lord again, + And healed are my heart's wounds. + + All's dark amid the wind and rain, + Ceaseless the cock's clear voice! + But I have seen my lord again;-- + Should not my heart rejoice? + + +~In Praise of Some Lady~ + + There by his side in chariot rideth she, + As lovely flower of the hibiscus tree, + So fair her face; and when about they wheel, + Her girdle gems of _Ken_ themselves reveal. + For beauty all the House of Këang have fame; + Its eldest daughter--she beseems her name. + + There on the path, close by him, walketh she, + Bright as the blossom of hibiscus tree, + And fair her face; and when around they flit, + Her girdle gems a tinkling sound emit. + Among the Keang she has distinguished place, + For virtuous fame renowned, and peerless grace. + + + +~A Man's Praise of His Wife~ + + My path forth from the east gate lay, + Where cloud-like moved the girls at play. + Numerous are they, as clouds so bright, + But not on them my heart's thoughts light. + Dressed in a thin white silk, with coiffure gray + Is she, my wife, my joy in life's low way. + + Forth by the covering wall's high tower, + I went, and saw, like rush in flower, + Each flaunting girl. Brilliant are they, + But not with them my heart's thoughts stay. + In thin white silk, with head-dress madder-dyed, + Is she, my sole delight, 'foretime my bride. + + + +~An Entreaty~ + + Along the great highway, + I hold you by the cuff. + O spurn me not, I pray, + Nor break old friendship off. + + Along the highway worn, + I hold your hand in mine. + Do not as vile me scorn; + Your love I can't resign. + + + + ~A Woman Scorning Her Lover~ + + O dear! that artful boy + Refuses me a word! + But, Sir, I shall enjoy + My food, though you're absurd! + + O dear! that artful boy + My table will not share! + But, Sir, I shall enjoy + My rest, though you're not there! + + + +~A Lady Mourns the Absence of Her Student Lover~ + + You student, with the collar blue, + Long pines my heart with anxious pain. + Although I do not go to you, + Why from all word do you refrain? + + O you, with girdle strings of blue, + My thoughts to you forever roam! + Although I do not go to you, + Yet why to me should you not come? + + How reckless you, how light and wild, + There by the tower upon the wall! + One day, from sight of you exiled, + As long as three long months I call. + + +[NOTE: Selections from Books IV., V., and VI., have been +omitted.--EDITOR.] + + + +BOOK VIII + + + +THE ODES OF TS'E + + + +~A Wife Urging Her Husband to Action~ + + His lady to the marquis says, + "The cock has crowed; 'tis late. + Get up, my lord, and haste to court. + 'Tis full; for you they wait." + She did not hear the cock's shrill sound, + Only the blueflies buzzing round. + + Again she wakes him with the words, + "The east, my lord, is bright. + A crowded court your presence seeks; + Get up and hail the light." + 'Twas not the dawning light which shone, + But that which by the moon was thrown. + + He sleeping still, once more she says, + "The flies are buzzing loud. + To lie and dream here by your side + Were pleasant, but the crowd + Of officers will soon retire; + Draw not on you and me their ire!" + + + +~The Folly of Useless Effort~ + + The weeds will but the ranker grow, + If fields too large you seek to till. + To try to gain men far away + With grief your toiling heart will fill, + + If fields too large you seek to till, + The weeds will only rise more strong. + To try to gain men far away + Will but your heart's distress prolong. + + Things grow the best when to themselves + Left, and to nature's vigor rare. + How young and tender is the child, + With his twin tufts of falling hair! + But when you him ere long behold, + That child shall cap of manhood wear! + + + +~The Prince of Loo~ + + A grand man is the prince of Loo, + With person large and high. + Lofty his front and suited to + The fine glance of his eye! + Swift are his feet. In archery + What man with him can vie? + With all these goodly qualities, + We see him and we sigh! + + Renowned through all the land is he, + The nephew of our lord. + With clear and lovely eyes, his grace + May not be told by word. + All day at target practice, + He'll never miss the bird. + Such is the prince of Loo, and yet + With grief for him we're stirred! + + All grace and beauty he displays, + High forehead and eyes bright. + And dancing choice! His arrows all + The target hit aright. + Straight through they go, and every one + Lights on the self-same spot. + Rebellion he could well withstand, + And yet we mourn his lot! + + + +BOOK IX + + + +THE ODES OF WEI + + + +~On the Misgovernment of the State~ + + A fruit, small as the garden peach, + May still be used for food. + A State, though poor as ours, might thrive, + If but its rule were good. + Our rule is bad, our State is sad, + With mournful heart I grieve. + All can from instrument and voice + My mood of mind perceive. + Who know me not, with scornful thought, + Deem me a scholar proud. + "Those men are right," they fiercely say, + "What mean your words so loud?" + Deep in my heart my sorrows lie, + And none the cause may know. + How should they know who never try + To learn whence comes our woe? + + The garden jujube, although small, + May still be used for food. + A State, though poor as ours, might thrive, + If but its rule were good. + Our rule is bad, our State is sad, + With mournful heart I grieve. + Methinks I'll wander through the land, + My misery to relieve. + Who know me not, with scornful thought, + Deem that wild views I hold. + "Those men are right," they fiercely say, + "What mean your words so bold?" + + Deep in my heart my sorrows lie, + And none the cause may know. + How can they know, who never try + To learn whence comes our woe? + + + +~The Mean Husband~ + + Thin cloth of dolichos supplies the shoes, + In which some have to brave the frost and cold. + A bride, when poor, her tender hands must use, + Her dress to make, and the sharp needle hold. + This man is wealthy, yet he makes his bride + Collars and waistbands for his robes provide. + + Conscious of wealth, he moves with easy mien; + Politely on the left he takes his place; + The ivory pin is at his girdle seen:-- + His dress and gait show gentlemanly grace. + Why do we brand him in our satire here? + 'Tis this---his niggard soul provokes the sneer. + + + +~A Young Soldier on Service~ + + To the top of that tree-clad hill I go, + And towards my father I gaze, + Till with my mind's eye his form I espy, + And my mind's ear hears how he says:-- + "Alas for my son on service abroad! + He rests not from morning till eve. + May he careful be and come back to me! + While he is away, how I grieve!" + + To the top of that barren hill I climb, + And towards my mother I gaze, + Till with my mind's eye her form I espy, + And my mind's ear hears how she says:-- + "Alas for my child on service abroad! + He never in sleep shuts an eye. + May he careful be, and come back to me! + In the wild may his body not lie!" + + Up the lofty ridge I, toiling, ascend, + And towards my brother I gaze, + Till with my mind's eye his form I espy, + And my mind's ear hears how he says:-- + "Alas! my young brother, serving abroad, + All day with his comrades must roam. + May he careful be, and come back to me, + And die not away from his home." + + + +BOOK X + + + +THE ODES OF TANG + + + +~The King Goes to War~ + + The wild geese fly the bushy oaks around, + With clamor loud. _Suh-suh_ their wings resound, + As for their feet poor resting-place is found. + The King's affairs admit of no delay. + Our millet still unsown, we haste away. + No food is left our parents to supply; + When we are gone, on whom can they rely? + O azure Heaven, that shinest there afar, + When shall our homes receive us from the war? + + The wild geese on the bushy jujube-trees + Attempt to settle and are ill at ease;-- + _Suh-suh_ their wings go flapping in the breeze. + The King's affairs admit of no delay; + Our millet still unsown, we haste away. + How shall our parents their requirements get? + How in our absence shall their wants be met? + O azure Heaven, that shinest there afar, + When shall our homes receive us from the war? + + The bushy mulberry-trees the geese in rows + Seek eager and to rest around them close-- + With rustling loud, as disappointment grows. + The King's affairs admit of no delay; + To plant our rice and maize we cannot stay. + How shall our parents find their wonted food? + When we are gone, who will to them be good? + O azure Heaven, that shinest there afar, + When shall our homes receive us from the war? + + + +~Lament of a Bereaved Person~ + + + A russet pear-tree rises all alone, + But rich the growth of leaves upon it shown! + I walk alone, without one brother left, + And thus of natural aid am I bereft. + Plenty of people there are all around, + But none like my own father's sons are found. + Ye travellers, who forever hurry by, + Why on me turn the unsympathizing eye? + No brother lives with whom my cause to plead;-- + Why not perform for me the helping deed? + + A russet pear-tree rises all alone, + But rich with verdant foliage o'ergrown. + I walk alone, without one brother's care, + To whom I might, amid my straits repair. + Plenty of people there are all around, + But none like those of my own name are found. + Ye travellers, who forever hurry by, + Why on me turn the unsympathizing eye? + No brother lives with whom my cause to plead;-- + Why not perform for me the helping deed? + + + +~The Drawbacks of Poverty~ + + On the left of the way, a russet pear-tree + Stands there all alone--a fit image of me. + There is that princely man! O that he would come, + And in my poor dwelling with me be at home! + In the core of my heart do I love him, but say, + Whence shall I procure him the wants of the day? + + At the bend in the way a russet pear-tree + Stands there all alone--a fit image of me. + There is that princely man! O that he would come, + And rambling with me be himself here at home! + In the core of my heart I love him, but say, + Whence shall I procure him the wants of the day? + + + +~A Wife Mourns for Her Husband~ + + The dolichos grows and covers the thorn, + O'er the waste is the dragon-plant creeping. + The man of my heart is away and I mourn-- + What home have I, lonely and weeping? + + Covering the jujubes the dolichos grows, + The graves many dragon-plants cover; + But where is the man on whose breast I'd repose? + No home have I, having no lover! + + Fair to see was the pillow of horn, + And fair the bed-chamber's adorning; + But the man of my heart is not here, and I mourn + All alone, and wait for the morning. + + While the long days of summer pass over my head, + And long winter nights leave their traces, + I'm alone! Till a hundred of years shall have fled, + And then I shall meet his embraces. + + Through the long winter nights I am burdened with fears, + Through the long summer days I am lonely; + But when time shall have counted its hundreds of years + I then shall be his--and his only! + + + +BOOK XI + + + +THE ODES OF TS'IN + + + +~Celebrating the Opulence of the Lords of Ts'in~ + + Our ruler to the hunt proceeds; + And black as iron are his steeds + That heed the charioteer's command, + Who holds the six reins in his hand. + His favorites follow to the chase, + Rejoicing in his special grace. + + The season's males, alarmed, arise-- + The season's males, of wondrous size. + Driven by the beaters, forth they spring, + Soon caught within the hunters' ring. + "Drive on their left," the ruler cries; + And to its mark his arrow flies. + + The hunting done, northward he goes; + And in the park the driver shows + The horses' points, and his own skill + That rules and guides them at his will. + Light cars whose teams small bells display, + The long-and short-mouthed dogs convey. + + +~A Complaint~ + + He lodged us in a spacious house, + And plenteous was our fare. + But now at every frugal meal + There's not a scrap to spare. + Alas! alas that this good man + Could not go on as he began! + + + ~A Wife's Grief Because of Her Husband's Absence~ + + The falcon swiftly seeks the north, + And forest gloom that sent it forth. + Since I no more my husband see, + My heart from grief is never free. + O how is it, I long to know, + That he, my lord, forgets me so? + + Bushy oaks on the mountain grow, + And six elms where the ground is low. + But I, my husband seen no more, + My sad and joyless fate deplore. + O how is it, I long to know, + That he, my lord, forgets me so? + + The hills the bushy wild plums show, + And pear-trees grace the ground below. + But, with my husband from me gone, + As drunk with grief, I dwell alone. + O how is it, I long to know, + That he, my lord, forgets me so? + + +~Lament for Three Brothers~ + + + They flit about, the yellow birds, + And rest upon the jujubes find. + Who buried were in duke Muh's grave, + Alive to awful death consigned? + + 'Mong brothers three, who met that fate, + 'Twas sad the first, Yen-seih to see. + He stood alone; a hundred men + Could show no other such as he. + When to the yawning grave he came, + Terror unnerved and shook his frame. + + Why thus destroy our noblest men, + To thee we cry, O azure Heaven! + To save Yen-seih from death, we would + A hundred lives have freely given. + + They flit about, the yellow birds, + And on the mulberry-trees rest find. + Who buried were in duke Muh's grave, + Alive to awful death consigned? + + 'Mong brothers three, who met that fate, + 'Twas sad the next, Chung-hang to see. + When on him pressed a hundred men, + A match for all of them was he. + When to the yawning grave he came, + Terror unnerved and shook his frame. + + Why thus destroy our noblest men, + To thee we cry, O azure Heaven! + To save Chung-hang from death, we would + A hundred lives have freely given. + + They flit about, the yellow birds, + And rest upon the thorn-trees find. + Who buried were in duke Muh's grave, + Alive to awful death consigned? + + 'Mong brothers three, who met that fate, + 'Twas sad the third, K'ëen-foo, to see. + A hundred men in desperate fight + Successfully withstand could he. + When to the yawning grave he came, + Terror unnerved and shook his frame. + + Why thus destroy our noblest men, + To thee we cry, O azure Heaven! + To save K'ëen-foo from death, we would + A hundred lives have freely given. + + +[NOTE.--The incident related in this poem occurred in the year B.C. 620, +when the duke of Muh died after playing an important part in the affairs +of Northwest China. Muh required the three officers here celebrated, to +be buried with him, and according to the "Historical Records" this +barbarous practice began with duke Ching, Muh's predecessor. In all, 170 +individuals were buried with Muh. The death of the last distinguished +man of the Ts'in dynasty, the Emperor I, was subsequently celebrated by +the entombment with him of all the inmates of his harem.] + + + +~In Praise of a Ruler of Ts'in~ + + What trees grow on the Chung-nan hill? + The white fir and the plum. + In fur of fox, 'neath 'broidered robe, + Thither our prince is come. + His face glows with vermilion hue. + O may he prove a ruler true! + + What find we on the Chung-nan hill? + Deep nook and open glade. + Our prince shows there the double _Ke_ + On lower robe displayed. + His pendant holds each tinkling gem, + Long life be his, and deathless fame! + + + +~The Generous Nephew~ + + I escorted my uncle to Tsin, + Till the Wei we crossed on the way. + Then I gave as I left + For his carriage a gift + Four steeds, and each steed was a bay. + + I escorted my uncle to Tsin, + And I thought of him much in my heart. + Pendent stones, and with them + Of fine jasper a gem, + I gave, and then saw him depart. + + + +BOOK XII + + + +THE ODES OF CH'IN + + + +~The Contentment of a Poor Recluse~ + +My only door some pieces of crossed wood, + Within it I can rest enjoy. +I drink the water wimpling from the spring; + Nor hunger can my peace destroy. + +Purged from ambition's aims I say, "For fish. + We need not bream caught in the Ho; +Nor, to possess the sweets of love, require + To Ts'e, to find a Keang, to go. + +"The man contented with his lot, a meal + Of fish without Ho carp can make; +Nor needs, to rest in his domestic joy, + A Tsze of Sung as wife to take." + + + +~The Disappointed Lover~ + +Where grow the willows near the eastern gate, + And 'neath their leafy shade we could recline, +She said at evening she would me await, + And brightly now I see the day-star shine! + +Here where the willows near the eastern gate + Grow, and their dense leaves make a shady gloom, +She said at evening she would me await. + See now the morning star the sky illume! + + + +~A Love-Song~ + +The moon comes forth, bright in the sky; +A lovelier sight to draw my eye + Is she, that lady fair. +She round my heart has fixed love's chain, +But all my longings are in vain. + 'Tis hard the grief to bear. + +The moon comes forth, a splendid sight; +More winning far that lady bright, + Object of my desire! +Deep-seated is my anxious grief; +In vain I seek to find relief; + While glows the secret fire. + +The rising moon shines mild and fair; +More bright is she, whose beauty rare + My heart with longing fills. +With eager wish I pine in vain; +O for relief from constant pain, + Which through my bosom thrills! + + + +~The Lament of a Lover~ + +There where its shores the marsh surround, +Rushes and lotus plants abound. +Their loveliness brings to my mind +The lovelier one that I would find. +In vain I try to ease the smart +Of wounded love that wrings my heart. +In waking thought and nightly dreams, +From every pore the water streams. + +All round the marsh's shores are seen +Valerian flowers and rushes green. +But lovelier is that Beauty rare, +Handsome and large, and tall and fair, +I wish and long to call her mine, +Doomed with the longing still to pine. +Nor day nor night e'er brings relief; +My inmost heart is full of grief. + +Around the marsh, in rich display, +Grow rush and lotus flowers, all gay. +But not with her do they compare, +So tall and large, majestic, fair. +Both day and night, I nothing speed; +Still clings to me the aching need. +On side, on back, on face, I lie, +But vain each change of posture. + + +THE ODES OF KWEI + + +~The Wish of an Unhappy Man~ + + Where the grounds are wet and low, + There the trees of goat-peach grow, + With their branches small and smooth, + Glossy in their tender youth. + Joy it were to me, O tree, + Consciousness to want like thee. + + Where the grounds are wet and low, + There the trees of goat-peach grow. + Soft and fragrant are their flowers, + Glossy from the vernal showers. + Joy it were to me, O tree, + Ties of home to want like thee. + + Where the grounds are wet and low, + There the trees of goat-peach grow, + What delicious fruits they bear, + Glossy, soft, of beauty rare! + Joy it were to me, O tree, + Household cares to want like thee. + + + +BOOK XIV + + + +THE ODES OF TS'AOU + +~Against Frivolous Pursuits~ + + Like splendid robes appear the wings + Of the ephemeral fly; + And such the pomp of those great men, + Which soon in death shall lie! + I grieve! Would they but come to me! + To teach them I should try. + + The wings of the ephemeral fly + Are robes of colors gay; + And such the glory of those men, + Soon crumbling to decay! + I grieve! Would they but rest with me, + They'd learn a better way! + + The ephemeral fly bursts from its hole, + With gauzy wings like snow; + So quick the rise, so quick the fall, + Of those great men we know! + I grieve! Would they but lodge with me, + Forth they would wiser go. + + +BOOK XV + + + +THE ODES OF PIN + + +~The Duke of Chow Tells of His Soldiers~ + + To the hills of the east we went, + And long had we there to remain. + When the word of recall was sent, + Thick and fast came the drizzling rain. + When told our return we should take, + Our hearts in the West were and sore; + But there did they clothes for us make:-- + They knew our hard service was o'er. + On the mulberry grounds in our sight + The large caterpillars were creeping; + Lonely and still we passed the night, + All under our carriages sleeping. + + To the hills of the East we went, + And long had we there to remain. + When the word of recall was sent, + Thick and fast came the drizzling rain. + The heavenly gourds rise to the eye, + With their fruit hanging under the eave. + In our chambers the sow-bug we spy; + Their webs on our doors spiders weave. + Our paddocks seem crowded with deer, + With the glow-worm's light all about. + Such thoughts, while they filled us with fear, + We tried, but in vain, to keep out. + + To the hills of the East we went, + And long had we there to remain. + When the word of recall was sent, + Thick and fast came the drizzling rain. + + On ant-hills screamed cranes with delight; + In their rooms were our wives sighing sore. + Our homes they had swept and made tight:-- + All at once we arrived at the door. + The bitter gourds hanging are seen, + From branches of chestnut-trees high. + Three years of toil away we had been, + Since such a sight greeted the eye. + + To the hills of the East we went, + And long had we there to remain. + When the word of recall was sent, + Thick and fast came the drizzling rain. + With its wings now here, and now there, + Is the oriole sporting in flight. + Those brides to their husbands repair, + Their steeds red and bay, flecked with white. + Each mother has fitted each sash; + Their equipments are full and complete; + But fresh unions, whatever their dash, + Can ne'er with reunions compete. + + + +~There is a Proper Way for Doing Everything~ + + In hewing an axe-shaft, how must you act? + Another axe take, or you'll never succeed. + In taking a wife, be sure 'tis a fact, + That with no go-between you never can speed. + + In hewing an axe-shaft, hewing a shaft, + For a copy you have the axe in your hand. + + In choosing a wife, you follow the craft, + And forthwith on the mats the feast-vessels stand. + + + +PART II.--MINOR ODES TO THE KINGDOM + + +BOOK I + + + +DECADE OF LUH MING + + +~A Festal Ode~ + + With sounds of happiness the deer + Browse on the celery of the meads. + A nobler feast is furnished here, + With guests renowned for noble deeds. + The lutes are struck; the organ blows, + Till all its tongues in movement heave. + Each basket loaded stands, and shows + The precious gifts the guests receive. + They love me and my mind will teach, + How duty's highest aim to reach. + + With sounds of happiness the deer + The southern-wood crop in the meads, + What noble guests surround me here, + Distinguished for their worthy deeds! + From them my people learn to fly + Whate'er is mean; to chiefs they give + A model and a pattern high;-- + They show the life they ought to live. + Then fill their cups with spirits rare, + Till each the banquet's joy shall share. + + With sounds of happiness the deer + The salsola crop in the fields. + What noble guests surround me here! + Each lute for them its music yields. + Sound, sound the lutes, or great or small. + The joy harmonious to prolong;-- + + And with my spirits rich crown all + The cups to cheer the festive throng. + Let each retire with gladdened heart, + In his own sphere to play his part. + + + +~A Festal Ode Complimenting an Officer~ + + On dashed my four steeds, without halt, without stay, + Though toilsome and winding from Chow was the way. + I wished to return--but the monarch's command + Forbade that his business be done with slack hand; + And my heart was with sadness oppressed. + + On dashed my four steeds; I ne'er slackened the reins. + They snorted and panted--all white, with black manes. + I wished to return, but our sovereign's command + Forbade that his business be done with slack hand;-- + And I dared not to pause or to rest. + + Unresting the Filial doves speed in their flight, + Ascending, then sweeping swift down from the height, + Now grouped on the oaks. The king's high command + Forbade that his business be done with slack hand;-- + And my father I left, sore distressed. + + Unresting the Filial doves speed in their flight, + Now fanning the air and anon they alight + On the medlars thick grouped. But our monarch's command + Forbade that his business be done with slack hand;-- + Of my mother I thought with sad breast. + + My four steeds I harnessed, all white and black-maned, + Which straight on their way, fleet and emulous strained. + I wished to return; and now venture in song + The wish to express, and announce how I long + For my mother my care to attest. + + +[NOTE.--Both Maou and Choo agree that this ode was composed in +honor of the officer who narrates the story in it, although they say it +was not written by the officer himself, but was put into his mouth, as +it were, to express the sympathy of his entertainer with him, and the +appreciation of his devotion to duty.] + + + +~The Value of Friendship~ + + The woodmen's blows responsive ring, + As on the trees they fall; + And when the birds their sweet notes sing, + They to each other call. + From the dark valley comes a bird, + And seeks the lofty tree. + _Ying_ goes its voice, and thus it cries, + "Companion, come to me." + The bird, although a creature small, + Upon its mate depends; + And shall we men, who rank o'er all, + Not seek to have our friends? + All spirits love the friendly man, + And hearken to his prayer. + What harmony and peace they can + Bestow, his lot shall share. + + _Hoo-hoo_ the woodmen all unite + To shout, as trees they fell. + They do their work with all their might;-- + What I have done I'll tell. + I've strained and made my spirits clear, + The fatted lambs I've killed. + With friends who my own surname bear, + My hall I've largely filled. + Some may be absent, casually, + And leave a broken line; + But better this than absence by + An oversight of mine. + My court I've sprinkled and swept clean, + Viands in order set. + Eight dishes loaded stand with grain; + There's store of fatted meat. + My mother's kith and kin I'm sure + I've widely called by name. + That some be hindered better is + Than ~I~ give cause for blame. + + On the hill-side the trees they fell, + All working with good-will + I labor too, with equal zeal. + And the host's part fulfil. + Spirits I've set in order meet, + The dishes stand in rows. + The guests are here; no vacant seat + A brother absent shows. + The loss of kindly feeling oft + From slightest things shall grow, + Where all the fare is dry and spare, + Resentments fierce may glow. + My store of spirits is well strained, + If short prove the supply, + My messengers I straightway send, + And what is needed buy. + I beat the drums, and in the dance + Lead joyously the train. + Oh! good it is, when falls the chance + The sparkling cup to drain. + + + +~The Response to a Festal Ode~ + + Heaven shields and sets thee fast. + It round thee fair has cast + Thy virtue pure. + Thus richest joy is thine;-- + Increase of corn and wine, + And every gift divine, + Abundant, sure. + + Heaven shields and sets thee fast. + From it thou goodness hast; + Right are thy ways. + Its choicest gifts 'twill pour, + That last for evermore, + Nor time exhaust the store + Through endless days. + + Heaven shields and sets thee fast, + Makes thine endeavor last + And prosper well. + Like hills and mountains high, + Whose masses touch the sky; + Like streams aye surging by; + Thine increase swell! + + With rite and auspice fair, + Thine offerings thou dost bear, + And son-like give, + The season's round from spring, + To olden duke and king, + Whose words to thee we bring:-- + "Forever live," + + The spirits of thy dead + Pour blessings on thy head, + Unnumbered sweet. + Thy subjects, simple, good, + Enjoy their drink and food. + Our tribes of every blood + Follow thy feet. + + Like moons that wax in light; + Or suns that scale the height; + Or ageless hill; + Nor change, nor autumn know; + As pine and cypress grow; + The sons that from thee flow + Be lasting still! + + + +~An Ode of Congratulation~ + + The russet pear-tree stands there all alone; + How bright the growth of fruit upon it shown! + The King's affairs no stinting hands require, + And days prolonged still mock our fond desire. + But time has brought the tenth month of the year; + My woman's heart is torn with wound severe. + Surely my warrior lord might now appear! + + The russet pear-tree stands there all alone; + How dense the leafy shade all o'er it thrown! + The King's affairs require no slackening hand, + And our sad hearts their feelings can't command. + The plants and trees in beauty shine; 'tis spring. + From off my heart its gloom I fain would fling. + This season well my warrior home may bring! + + I climbed that northern hill, and medlars sought; + The spring nigh o'er, to ripeness they were brought. + "The King's affairs cannot be slackly done";-- + 'Tis thus our parents mourn their absent son. + But now his sandal car must broken be; + I seem his powerful steeds worn out to see. + Relief has gone! He can't be far from me! + + Alas! they can't have marched; they don't arrive! + More hard it grows with my distress to strive. + The time is passed, and still he is not here! + My sorrows multiply; great is my fear. + But lo! by reeds and shell I have divined, + That he is near, they both assure my mind;-- + Soon at my side my warrior I shall find! + + + +~An Ode on the Return of the Troops~ + + Forth from the city in our cars we drove, + Until we halted at the pasture ground. + The general came, and there with ardor strove + A note of zeal throughout the host to sound. + "Direct from court I come, by orders bound + The march to hasten";--it was thus he spake. + Then with the carriage-officers around, + He strictly charged them quick despatch to make:-- + "Urgent the King's affairs, forthwith the field we take." + + While there we stopped, the second corps appeared, + And 'twixt Us and the city took its place. + The guiding standard was on high upreared, + Where twining snakes the tortoises embrace, + While oxtails, crest-like, did the staff's top grace. + We watched the sheet unfolding grandly wave; + Each flag around showed falcons on its face. + + With anxious care looked on our leader brave; + Watchful the carriage-officers appeared and grave. + + Nan Chung, our chief, had heard the royal call + To go where inroad by Heen-yuns was made, + And 'cross the frontier build a barrier wall. + Numerous his chariots, splendidly arrayed! + The standards--this where dragons were displayed, + And that where snakes round tortoises were coiled-- + Terrific flew. "Northward our host," he said, + "Heaven's son sends forth to tame the Heen-yun wild." + Soon by this awful chief would all their tribes be foiled. + + When first we took the field, and northward went, + The millet was in flower;--a prospect sweet. + Now when our weary steps are homeward bent, + The snow falls fast, the mire impedes our feet. + Many the hardships we were called to meet, + Ere the King's orders we had all fulfilled. + No rest we had; often our friends to greet + The longing came; but vain regrets we stilled; + By tablets stern our hearts with fresh resolve were thrilled. + + "Incessant chirp the insects in the grass; + All round about the nimble hoppers spring. + From them our thoughts quick to our husbands pass? + Although those thoughts our hearts with anguish wring. + Oh! could we see them, what relief 'twould bring! + Our hearts, rejoiced, at once would feel at rest." + Thus did our wives, their case deploring, sing; + The while our leader farther on had pressed, + And smitten with his power the wild Jung of the west. + + The spring days now are lengthening out their light; + The plants and trees are dressed in living green; + The orioles resting sing, or wing their flight; + Our wives amid the southern-wood are seen, + Which white they bring, to feed their silkworms keen. + Our host, returned, sweeps onwards to the hall, + Where chiefs are questioned, shown the captives mean + Nan Chung, majestic, draws the gaze of all, + Proud o'er the barbarous foe his victories to recall. + + + +BOOK II + + + +THE DECADE OF PIH H'WA + + + +~An Ode Appropriate to a Festivity~ + + The dew lies heavy all around, + Nor, till the sun shines, leaves the ground. + Far into night we feasting sit; + We drink, and none his place may quit. + + The dew lies heavy, and its gems + Stud the luxuriant, grassy stems. + The happy night with wassail rings; + So feasted here the former kings. + + The jujube and the willow-tree + All fretted with the dew we see. + Each guest's a prince of noble line, + In whom the virtues all combine. + + The _t'ung_ and _e_ their fruits display, + Pendant from every graceful spray. + My guests are joyous and serene, + No haggard eye, no ruffled mien. + + + +BOOK III + + + +THE DECADE OF TUNG RUNG + + + +~Celebrating a Hunting Expedition~ + + Our chariots were well-built and firm, + Well-matched our steeds, and fleet and strong. + Four, sleek and large, each chariot drew, + And eastward thus we drove along. + + Our hunting cars were light and good, + Each with its team of noble steeds. + Still further east we took the way + To Foo-mere's grassy plains that leads. + + Loud-voiced, the masters of the chase + Arranged the huntsmen, high and low. + While banners streamed, and ox-tails flew, + We sought the prey on distant Gaou. + + Each with full team, the princes came, + A lengthened train in bright array. + In gold-wrought slippers, knee-caps red, + They looked as on an audience day. + + Each right thumb wore the metal guard; + On the left arm its shield was bound. + In unison the arrows flew; + The game lay piled upon the ground. + + The leaders of the tawny teams + Sped on their course, direct and true. + The drivers perfect skill displayed; + Like blow well aimed each arrow flew. + + Neighing and pleased, the steeds returned; + The bannered lines back slowly came. + No jostling rude disgraced the crowd; + The king declined large share of game. + + So did this famous hunt proceed! + So free it was from clamorous sound! + Well does our King become his place, +And high the deeds his reign have crowned! + + + +~The King's Anxiety for His Morning Levée~ + + How goes the night? For heavy morning sleep + Ill suits the king who men would loyal keep. + The courtyard, ruddy with the torch's light, + Proclaims unspent the deepest hour of night. + Already near the gate my lords appear; + Their tinkling bells salute my wakeful ear. + + How goes the night? I may not slumber on. + Although not yet the night is wholly gone, + The paling torch-light in the court below + Gives token that the hours swift-footed go. + Already at the gate my lords appear; + Their tinkling bells with measured sound draw near. + + How goes the night? I may not slumber now. + The darkness smiles with morning on its brow. + The courtyard torch no more gives forth its ray, + But heralds with its smoke the coming day. + My princes pass the gate, and gather there; + I see their banners floating in the air. + + + +~Moral Lessons from Natural Facts~ + + All true words fly, as from yon reedy marsh + The crane rings o'er the wild its screaming harsh. + Vainly you try reason in chains to keep;-- + Freely it moves as fish sweeps through the deep. + + Hate follows love, as 'neath those sandal-trees + The withered leaves the eager searcher sees. + The hurtful ne'er without some good was born;-- + The stones that mar the hill will grind the corn. + + All true words spread, as from the marsh's eye + The crane's sonorous note ascends the sky. + Goodness throughout the widest sphere abides, + As fish round isle and through the ocean glides. + And lesser good near greater you shall see, + As grows the paper shrub 'neath sandal-tree. + And good emerges from what man condemns;-- + Those stones that mar the hill will polish gems. + + + +BOOK IV + + + +THE DECADE OF K'E-FOO + + + +~On the Completion of a Royal Palace~ + + On yonder banks a palace, lo! upshoots, + The tender blue of southern hill behind; + Firm-founded, like the bamboo's clamping roots; + Its roof made pine-like, to a point defined. + Fraternal love here bears its precious fruits, + And unfraternal schemes be ne'er designed! + + Ancestral sway is his. The walls they rear, + Five thousand cubits long; and south and west + The doors are placed. Here will the king appear, + Here laugh, here talk, here sit him down and rest. + + To mould the walls, the frames they firmly tie; + The toiling builders beat the earth and lime. + The walls shall vermin, storm, and bird defy;-- + Fit dwelling is it for his lordly prime. + + Grand is the hall the noble lord ascends;-- + In height, like human form most reverent, grand; + And straight, as flies the shaft when bow unbends; + Its tints, like hues when pheasant's wings expand. + + High pillars rise the level court around; + The pleasant light the open chamber steeps; + And deep recesses, wide alcoves, are found, + Where our good king in perfect quiet sleeps. + + Laid is the bamboo mat on rush mat square;-- + Here shall he sleep, and, waking, say, "Divine + What dreams are good? For bear and grizzly bear, + And snakes and cobras, haunt this couch of mine." + + Then shall the chief diviner glad reply, + "The bears foreshow that Heaven will send you sons. + The snakes and cobras daughters prophesy. + These auguries are all auspicious ones. + + "Sons shall be his--on couches lulled to rest. + The little ones, enrobed, with sceptres play; + Their infant cries are loud as stern behest; + Their knees the vermeil covers shall display. + As king hereafter one shall be addressed; + The rest, our princes, all the States shall sway. + + "And daughters also to him shall be born. + They shall be placed upon the ground to sleep; + Their playthings tiles, their dress the simplest worn; + Their part alike from good and ill to keep, + And ne'er their parents' hearts to cause to mourn; + To cook the food, and spirit-malt to steep." + + + +~The Condition of King Seuen's Flocks~ + + Who dares to say your sheep are few? + The flocks are all three hundred strong. + Who dares despise your cattle too? + There ninety, black-lipped, press along. + Though horned the sheep, yet peaceful each appears; + The cattle come with moist and flapping ears. + + These climb the heights, those drink the pool; + Some lie at rest, while others roam. + With rain-coats, and thin splint hats cool, + And bearing food, your herdsmen come. + In thirties, ranged by hues, the creatures stand; + Fit victims they will yield at your command. + + Your herdsmen twigs and fagots bring, + With prey of birds and beasts for food. + Your sheep, untouched by evil thing, + Approach, their health and vigor good. + The herdsman's waving hand they all behold, + And docile come, and pass into the fold. + + Your herdsmen dream;--fish take the place + Of men; on banners falcons fly, + Displacing snakes and tortoises. + The augur tells his prophecy:-- + "The first betoken plenteous years; the change + Of banners shows of homes a widening range." + + +BOOK V + + + +THE DECADE OF SEAOU MIN + + + +~A Eunuch Complains of His Fate~ + + + A few fine lines, at random drawn, + Like the shell-pattern wrought in lawn + To hasty glance will seem. + My trivial faults base slander's slime + Distorted into foulest crime, + And men me worthless deem. + + A few small points, pricked down on wood, + May be made out a picture good + Of the bright Southern Sieve. + Who planned, and helped those slanderers vile, + My name with base lies to defile? + Unpitied, here I grieve. + + With babbling tongues you go about, + And only scheme how to make out + The lies you scatter round. + Hear me--Be careful what you say; + People ere long your words will weigh, + And liars you'll be found. + + Clever you are with changeful schemes! + How else could all your evil dreams + And slanders work their way? + Men now believe you; by and by, + The truth found out, each vicious lie + Will ill for ill repay. + + The proud rejoice; the sufferer weeps. + O azure Heaven, from out thy deeps + Why look in silence down? + Behold those proud men and rebuke; + With pity on the sufferers look, + And on the evil frown. + + Those slanderers I would gladly take, + With all who help their schemes to make, + And to the tigers throw. + If wolves and tigers such should spare, + Td hurl them 'midst the freezing air, + Where the keen north winds blow. + And should the North compassion feel + I'd fling them to great Heaven, to deal + On them its direst woe. + + As on the sacred heights you dwell, + My place is in the willow dell, + One is the other near. + Before you, officers, I spread + These lines by me, poor eunuch, made. + Think not Mang-tsze severe. + + + +~An Officer Deplores the Misery of the Time~ + + In the fourth month summer shines; + In the sixth the heat declines. + Nature thus grants men relief; + Tyranny gives only grief. + Were not my forefathers men? + Can my suffering 'scape their ken? + + In the cold of autumn days + Each plant shrivels and decays. + Nature then is hard and stern; + Living things sad lessons learn. + Friends dispersed, all order gone, + Place of refuge have I none. + + Winter days are wild and fierce; + Rapid gusts each crevice pierce. + Such is my unhappy lot, + Unbefriended and forgot! + Others all can happy be; + I from misery ne'er am free. + + On the mountains are fine trees; + Chestnuts, plum-trees, there one sees. + All the year their forms they show; + Stately more and more they grow. + Noble turned to ravening thief! + What the cause? This stirs my grief. + + Waters from that spring appear + Sometimes foul, and sometimes clear, + Changing oft as falls the rain, + Or the sky grows bright again. + New misfortunes every day + Still befall me, misery's prey. + + Aid from mighty streams obtained, + Southern States are shaped and drained. + Thus the Keang and Han are thanked, + And as benefactors ranked. + Weary toil my vigor drains; + All unnoticed it remains! + + Hawks and eagles mount the sky; + Sturgeons in deep waters lie. + Out of reach, they safely get, + Arrow fear not, nor the net. + Hiding-place for me there's none; + Here I stay, and make my moan. + + Ferns upon the hills abound; + _Ke_ and _e_ in marshy ground. + Each can boast its proper place, + Where it grows for use or grace. + I can only sing the woe, + Which, ill-starred, I undergo. + + + +~On the Alienation of a Friend~ + + + Gently and soft the east wind blows, + And then there falls the pelting rain. + When anxious fears pressed round you close, + Then linked together were we twain. + Now happy, and your mind at rest, + You turn and cast me from your breast. + + Gently and soft the east wind blows, + And then there comes the whirlwind wild. + When anxious fears pressed round you close, + Your bosom held me as a child. + Now happy, and in peaceful state, + You throw me off and quite forget. + + Gently and soft the east wind blows, + Then round the rocky height it storms. + Each plant its leaves all dying shows; + The trees display their withered forms. + My virtues great forgotten all, + You keep in mind my faults, though small. + + +BOOK VI + + +THE DECADE OF PIH SHAN + + + +~A Picture of Husbandry~ + + Various the toils which fields so large demand! + We choose the seed; we take our tools in hand. + In winter for our work we thus prepare; + Then in the spring, bearing the sharpened 'share, + We to the acres go that south incline, + And to the earth the different seeds consign. + Soon, straight and large, upward each plant aspires;-- + All happens as our noble lord desires. + + The plants will ear; within their sheath confined, + The grains will harden, and be good in kind. + Nor darnel these, nor wolf's-tail grass infests; + From core and leaf we pick the insect pests, + And pick we those that eat the joints and roots:-- + So do we guard from harm the growing fruits. + May the great Spirit, whom each farmer names, + Those insects take, and cast them to the flames! + + The clouds o'erspread the sky in masses dense, + And gentle rain down to the earth dispense. + First may the public fields the blessing get, + And then with it our private fields we wet! + Patches of unripe grain the reaper leaves; + And here and there ungathered are the sheaves. + Handfuls besides we drop upon the ground, + And ears untouched in numbers lie around;-- + + These by the poor and widows shall be found. + When wives and children to the toilers come, + Bringing provisions from each separate home, + Our lord of long descent shall oft appear; + The Inspector also, glad the men to cheer. + They too shall thank the Spirits of the air, + With sacrifices pure for all their care; + Now red, now black, the victims that they slay, + As North or South the sacrifice they pay; + While millet bright the altars always show;-- + And we shall thus still greater blessings know. + + + +~The Complaint of an Officer~ + + O Heaven above, before whose light + Revealed is every deed and thought, + To thee I cry. + Hither on toilsome service brought, + In this wild K'ew I watch time's flight, + And sadly sigh. + The second month had just begun, + When from the east we took our way. + Through summer hot + We passed, and many a wintry day. + Summer again its course has run. + O bitter lot! + There are my compeers, gay at court, + While here the tears my face begrime. + I'd fain return-- + But there is that dread net for crime! + The fear of it the wish cuts short. + In vain I burn! + + Ere we the royal city left, + The sun and moon renewed the year. + We marched in hope. + Now to its close this year is near. + Return deferred, of hope bereft, + All mourn and mope. + My lonesome state haunts aye my breast, + While duties grow, and cares increase, + Too hard to bear. + + Toils that oppress me never cease; + Not for a moment dare I rest, + Nigh to despair. + I think with fond regard of those, + Who in their posts at court remain, + My friends of old. + Fain would I be with them again, + But fierce reproof return would cause. + This post I hold. + + When for the West I left my home, + The sun and moon both mildly shone, + Our hearts to cheer. + We'd soon be back, our service done! + Alas! affairs more urgent come, + And fix us here. + The year is hastening to expire. + We gather now the southern-wood, + The beans we reap;-- + That for its fragrance, these for food. + Such things that constant care require + Me anxious keep. + Thinking of friends still at their posts, + I rise and pass the night outside, + So vexed my mind. + But soon what changes may betide? + I here will stay, whate'er it costs, + And be resigned. + + My honored friends, O do not deem + Your rest which seems secure from ill + Will ever last! + Your duties quietly fulfil, + And hold the upright in esteem, + With friendship fast. + So shall the Spirits hear your cry, + You virtuous make, and good supply, + In measure vast. + + My honored friends, O do not deem + Repose that seems secure from ill + Will lasting prove. + Your duties quietly fulfil, + And hold the upright in esteem, + With earnest love. + So shall the Spirits hear your prayer, + And on you happiness confer, + Your hopes above. + + +BOOK VII + + + +DECADE OF SANG HOO + + + +~The Rejoicings of a Bridegroom~ + + With axle creaking, all on fire I went, + To fetch my young and lovely bride. + No thirst or hunger pangs my bosom rent-- + I only longed to have her by my side. + I feast with her, whose virtue fame had told, + Nor need we friends our rapture to behold. + + The long-tailed pheasants surest covert find, + Amid the forest on the plain. + Here from my virtuous bride, of noble mind, + And person tall, I wisdom gain. + I praise her while we feast, and to her say, + "The love I bear you ne'er will know decay. + + "Poor we may be; spirits and viands fine + My humble means will not afford. + But what we have, we'll taste and not repine; + From us will come no grumbling word. + And though to you no virtue I can add, + Yet we will sing and dance, in spirit glad. + + "I oft ascend that lofty ridge with toil, + And hew large branches from the oaks; + Then of their leafy glory them I spoil, + And fagots form with vigorous strokes. + Returning tired, your matchless grace I see, + And my whole soul dissolves in ecstasy. + + "To the high hills I looked, and urged each steed; + The great road next was smooth and plain. + + Up hill, o'er dale, I never slackened speed; + Like lute-string sounded every rein. + I knew, my journey ended, I should come + To you, sweet bride, the comfort of my home." + + + +~Against Listening to Slanderers~ + + Like the blueflies buzzing round, + And on the fences lighting, + Are the sons of slander found, + Who never cease their biting. + O thou happy, courteous king, + To the winds their slanders fling. + + Buzzing round the blueflies hear, + About the jujubes flocking! + So the slanderers appear, + Whose calumnies are shocking. + By no law or order bound, + All the kingdom they confound. + + How they buzz, those odious flies, + Upon the hazels clust'ring! + And as odious are the lies + Of those slanderers blust'ring. + Hatred stirred between us two + Shows the evil they can do. + + + +BOOK VIII + + + +THE DECADE OF TOO JIN SZE + + + +~In Praise of By-gone Simplicity~ + + + In the old capital they stood, + With yellow fox-furs plain, + Their manners all correct and good, + Speech free from vulgar stain. + Could we go back to Chow's old days, + All would look up to them with praise. + + In the old capital they wore + _T'ae_ hats and black caps small; + And ladies, who famed surnames bore, + Their own thick hair let fall. + Such simple ways are seen no more, + And the changed manners I deplore. + + Ear-rings, made of plainest gold, + In the old days were worn. + Each lady of a noble line + A Yin or Keih seemed born. + Such officers and ladies now + I see not and my sorrows grow. + + With graceful sweep their girdles fell, + Then in the days of old. + The ladies' side-hair, with a swell, + Like scorpion's tail, rose bold. + Such, if I saw them in these days, + I'd follow with admiring gaze. + + So hung their girdles, not for show;-- + To their own length 'twas due. + 'Twas not by art their hair curled so;-- + By nature so it grew. + I seek such manners now in vain, + And pine for them with longing pain. + +[NOTE.--Yin and Keih were clan names of great families, the ladies +of which would be leaders of fashion in the capital.] + + + +~A Wife Bemoans Her Husband's Absence~ + + So full am I of anxious thought, + Though all the morn king-grass I've sought, + To fill my arms I fail. + Like wisp all-tangled is my hair! + To wash it let me home repair. + My lord soon may I hail! + + Though 'mong the indigo I've wrought + The morning long; through anxious thought + My skirt's filled but in part. + Within five days he was to appear; + The sixth has come and he's not here. + Oh! how this racks my heart! + + When here we dwelt in union sweet, + If the hunt called his eager feet, + His bow I cased for him. + Or if to fish he went away, + And would be absent all the day, + His line I put in trim. + + What in his angling did he catch? + Well worth the time it was to watch + How bream and tench he took. + Men thronged upon the banks and gazed; + At bream and tench they looked amazed, + The triumphs of his hook. + + + +~The Earl of Shaou's Work~ + + As the young millet, by the genial rain + Enriched, shoots up luxuriant and tall, + So, when we southward marched with toil and pain, + The Earl of Shaou cheered and inspired us all. + + We pushed our barrows, and our burdens bore; + We drove our wagons, and our oxen led. + "The work once done, our labor there is o'er, + And home we travel," to ourselves we said. + + Close kept our footmen round the chariot track; + Our eager host in close battalions sped. + "When once our work is done, then we go back, + Our labor over," to themselves they said. + + Hard was the work we had at Seay to do, + But Shaou's great earl the city soon upreared. + The host its service gave with ardor true;-- + Such power in all the earl's commands appeared! + + We did on plains and low lands what was meet; + We cleared the springs and streams, the land to drain. + The Earl of Shaou announced his work complete, + And the King's heart reposed, at rest again. + + + +~The Plaint of King Yew's Forsaken Wife~ + + The fibres of the white-flowered rush + Are with the white grass bound. + So do the two together go, + In closest union found. + And thus should man and wife abide, + The twain combined in one; + But this bad man sends me away, + And bids me dwell alone. + + Both rush and grass from the bright clouds + The genial dew partake. + + Kind and impartial, nature's laws + No odious difference make. + But providence appears unkind; + Events are often hard. + This man, to principle untrue, + Denies me his regard. + + Northward the pools their waters send, + To flood each paddy field; + So get the fields the sap they need, + Their store of rice to yield. + But that great man no deed of grace + Deigns to bestow on me. + My songs are sighs. At thought of him + My heart aches wearily. + + The mulberry branches they collect, + And use their food to cook; + But I must use a furnace small, + That pot nor pan will brook. + So me that great man badly treats, + Nor uses as his wife, + Degrades me from my proper place, + And fills with grief my life. + + The bells and drums inside the court + Men stand without and hear; + So should the feelings in my breast, + To him distinct appear. + All-sorrowful, I think of him, + Longing to move his love; + But he vouchsafes no kind response; + His thoughts far from me rove. + + The marabow stands on the dam, + And to repletion feeds; + The crane deep in the forest cries, + Nor finds the food it needs. + So in my room the concubine + By the great man is placed; + While I with cruel banishment + Am cast out and disgraced. + + The yellow ducks sit on the dam, + With left wing gathered low; + So on each other do they lean, + And their attachment show. + And love should thus the man and wife + In closest concord bind; + But that man turns away from me, + And shows a fickle mind. + + When one stands on a slab of stone, + No higher than the ground, + Nothing is added to his height;-- + Low with the stone he's found. + So does the favorite's mean estate + Render that great man mean, + While I by him, to distance sent, + Am pierced with sorrow keen. + + + +~Hospitality~ + + A few gourd leaves that waved about + Cut down and boiled;--the feast how spare! + But the good host his spirits takes, + Pours out a cup, and proves them rare. + + A single rabbit on the mat, + Or baked, or roast:--how small the feast! + But the good host his spirits takes, + And fills the cup of every guest. + + A single rabbit on the mat, + Roasted or broiled:--how poor the meal! + But the guests from the spirit vase + Fill their host's cup, and drink his weal. + + A single rabbit on the mat, + Roasted or baked:--no feast we think! + But from the spirit vase they take, + Both host and guests, and joyous drink. + + + +~On the Misery of Soldiers~ + + Yellow now is all the grass; + All the days in marching pass. + On the move is every man; + Hard work, far and near, they plan. + + Black is every plant become; + Every man is torn from home. + Kept on foot, our state is sad;-- + As if we no feelings had! + + Not rhinoceroses we! + Tigers do we care to be? + Fields like these so desolate + Are to us a hateful fate. + + Long-tailed foxes pleased may hide + 'Mong the grass, where they abide. + We, in box carts slowly borne, + On the great roads plod and mourn. + + + +PART III.--GREATER ODES OF THE KINGDOM + + + +BOOK I + + + +DECADE OF KING WAN + + +~Celebrating King Wan~ + + The royal Wan now rests on high, + Enshrined in brightness of the sky. + Chow as a state had long been known, + And Heaven's decree at last was shown. + Its lords had borne a glorious name; + God kinged them when the season came. + King Wan ruled well when earth he trod; + Now moves his spirit near to God. + + A strong-willed, earnest king was Wan, + And still his fame rolls widening on. + The gifts that God bestowed on Chow + Belong to Wan's descendants now. + Heaven blesses still with gifts divine + The hundred scions of his line; + And all the officers of Chow + From age to age more lustrous grow. + + More lustrous still from age to age, + All reverent plans their zeal engage; + And brilliant statesmen owe their birth + To this much-favored spot of earth. + They spring like products of the land-- + The men by whom the realm doth stand. + Such aid their numerous bands supply, + That Wan rests tranquilly on high. + + Deep were Wan's thoughts, sustained his ways; + His reverence lit its trembling rays. + Resistless came great Heaven's decree; + The sons of Shang must bend the knee;-- + The sons of Shang, each one a king, + In numbers beyond numbering. + Yet as God spoke, so must it be:-- + The sons of Shang all bent the knee. + + Now each to Chow his homage pays-- + So dark and changing are Heaven's ways. + When we pour our libations here, + The officers of Shang appear, + Quick and alert to give their aid:-- + Such is the service by them paid, + While still they do not cast aside + The cap and broidered axe--their pride. + Ye servants of our line of kings, + Remember him from whom it springs. + + Remember him from whom it springs;-- + Let this give to your virtue wings. + Seek harmony with Heaven's great mind;-- + So shall you surest blessing find. + Ere Shang had lost the nation's heart, + Its monarchs all with God had part + In sacrifice. From them you see + 'Tis hard to keep high Heaven's decree. + + 'Tis hard to keep high Heaven's decree! + O sin not, or you cease to be. + To add true lustre to your name, + See Shang expire in Heaven's dread flame. + For Heaven's high dealings are profound, + And far transcend all sense and sound. + From Wan your pattern you must draw, + And all the States will own your law. + + +[Book II. is omitted] + + +BOOK III [*] + + + +DECADE OF TANG + + + +~King Seuen on the Occasion of a Great Drought~ + + Grand shone the Milky Way on high, + With brilliant span athwart the sky, + Nor promise gave of rain. + King Seuen long gazed; then from him broke, + In anguished tones the words he spoke. + Well might he thus complain! + "O Heaven, what crimes have we to own, + That death and ruin still come down? + Relentless famine fills our graves. + Pity the king who humbly craves! + Our miseries never cease. + To every Spirit I have vowed; + The choicest victim's blood has flowed. + As offerings I have freely paid + My store of gems and purest jade. + Hear me, and give release! + + "The drought consumes us. As on wing + Its fervors fly, and torment bring. + With purest mind and ceaseless care + My sacrifices I prepare. + At thine own border altars, Heaven, + And in my father's fane, I've given + What might relief have found. + What Powers above, below, have sway, + To all my precious gifts I pay, + Then bury in the ground. + Yes, every Spirit has received + Due honor, and, still unrelieved, + Our sufferings greater grow. + How-tseih can't give the needed aid, + And help from God is still delayed! + The country lies a ruined waste. + O would that I alone might taste + This bitter cup of woe! + + "The drought consumes us. Nor do I + To fix the blame on others try. + I quake with dread; the risk I feel, + As when I hear the thunders peal, + Or fear its sudden crash. + Our black-haired race, a remnant now, + Will every one be swept from Chow, + As by the lightning's flash. + Nor I myself will live alone. + God from his great and heavenly throne + Will not spare even me. + O friends and officers, come, blend + Your prayers with mine; come, lowly bend. + Chow's dynasty will pass away; + Its altars at no distant day + In ruins all shall be! + + "The drought consumes us. It keeps on + Its fatal course. All hope is gone. + The air more fierce and fiery glows. + Where can I fly? Where seek repose? + Death marks me for its prey. + Above, no saving hand! Around, + No hope, no comfort, can be found. + The dukes and ministers of old + Give us no help. Can ye withhold + Your sympathy, who lately reigned? + And parents, how are you restrained, + In this so dreadful day? + + "The drought consumes us. There on high + The hills are parched. The streams are dry. + Drought's demon stalks abroad in ire, + And scatters wide his flames and fire. + Alas, my woful heart! + The fires within its strength consume; + The heat without creates a gloom + That from it will not part. + The dukes and ministers by-gone + Respond not to my prayer and moan. + God in great Heaven, permission give + That I may in retirement live, + And try to heal my smart! + + "The drought consumes us. Still I strive, + And will not leave while I survive. + Duty to shun I fear. + Why upon me has come this drought? + Vainly I try to search it out, + Vainly, with quest severe. + For a good harvest soon I prayed, + Nor late the rites I duly paid, + To Spirits of the air and land. + There wanted nought they could demand, + Their favor to secure. + God in great heaven, be just, be kind! + Thou dost not bear me in Thy mind. + My cry, ye wisest Spirits, hear! + Ye whom I constantly revere, + Why do I this endure? + + "The drought consumes us. People fly, + And leave their homes. Each social tie + And bond of rule is snapt. + The Heads of Boards are all perplexed; + My premier's mind is sorely vexed; + In trouble all are wrapt. + The Masters of my Horse and Guards; + My cook, and men of different wards:-- + Not one has from the struggle shrunk. + Though feeling weak, they have not sunk, + But done their best to aid. + To the great sky I look with pain;-- + Why do these grievous sorrows rain + On my devoted head? + + "Yes, at the mighty sky I gaze, + And lo! the stars pursue their maze, + And sparkle clear and bright. + Ah! Heaven nor helps, nor seems to ken. + Great officers and noble men, + With all your powers ye well have striven, + And reverently have sought from Heaven + Its aid in our great fight. + My death is near; but oh! keep on, + And do as thus far you have done. + Regard you only me? + No, for yourselves and all your friends, + On whom for rule the land depends, + You seek security. + I turn my gaze to the great sky;-- + When shall this drought be done, and I + Quiet and restful be?" + + +[NOTE *: Selections from Book II. are omitted.--EDITOR.] + + + +PART IV.--ODES OF THE TEMPLE AND ALTAR + + + +BOOK I + + + +SACRIFICIAL ODES OF CHOW + + + +~Appropriate to a Sacrifice to King Wan~ + + My offerings here are given, + A ram, a bull. + Accept them, mighty Heaven, + All-bountiful. + + Thy statutes, O great king, + I keep, I love; + So on the realm to bring + Peace from above. + + From Wan comes blessing rich; + Now on the right + He owns those gifts to which + Him I invite. + + Do I not night and day, + Revere great Heaven, + That thus its favor may + To Chow be given? + + + +~On Sacrificing to the Kings Woo, Ching, and K'ang~ + + The arm of Woo was full of might; + None could his fire withstand; + And Ching and K'ang stood forth to sight, + As kinged by God's own hand. + + We err not when we call them sage. + How grandly they maintained + Their hold of all the heritage + That Wan and Woo had gained! + + As here we worship, they descend, + While bells and drums resound, + And stones and lutes their music blend. + With blessings we are crowned. + + The rites correctly we discharge; + The feast we freely share. + Those Sires Chow's glory will enlarge, + And ever for it care. + + + +THE TRAVELS OF FÂ-HIEN + + + +[Translation by James Legge] + + +TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTION + + +Nothing of great importance is known about Fâ-hien in addition to what +may be gathered from his own record of his travels. I have read the +accounts of him in the "Memoirs of Eminent Monks," compiled in A.D. 519, +and a later work, the "Memoirs of Marvellous Monks," by the third +emperor of the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1403-1424), which, however, is nearly +all borrowed from the other; and all in them that has an appearance of +verisimilitude can be brought within brief compass. + +His surname, they tell us, was Kung, and he was a native of Wu-yang in +P'ing-yang, which is still the name of a large department in Shan-hsî. +He had three brothers older than himself; but when they all died before +shedding their first teeth, his father devoted him to the service of the +Buddhist society, and had him entered as a Srâmanera, still keeping him +at home in the family. The little fellow fell dangerously ill, and the +father sent him to the monastery, where he soon got well and refused to +return to his parents. + +When he was ten years old, his father died; and an uncle, considering +the widowed solitariness and helplessness of the mother, urged him to +renounce the monastic life, and return to her, but the boy replied, "I +did not quit the family in compliance with my father's wishes, but +because I wished to be far from the dust and vulgar ways of life. This +is why I choose monkhood." The uncle approved of his words and gave over +urging him. When his mother also died, it appeared how great had been +the affection for her of his fine nature; but after her burial he +returned to the monastery. + +On one occasion he was cutting rice with a score or two of his +fellow-disciples, when some hungry thieves came upon them to take away +their grain by force. The other Srâmaneras all fled, but our young hero +stood his ground, and said to the thieves, "If you must have the grain, +take what you please. But, sirs, it was your former neglect of charity +which brought you to your present state of destitution; and now, again, +you wish to rob others. I am afraid that in the coming ages you will +have still greater poverty and distress; I am sorry for you beforehand." +With these words he followed his companions to the monastery, while the +thieves left the grain and went away, all the monks, of whom there were +several hundred, doing homage to his conduct and courage. + +When he had finished his novitiate and taken on him the obligations of +the full Buddhist orders, his earnest courage, clear intelligence, and +strict regulation of his demeanor, were conspicuous; and soon after, he +undertook his journey to India in search of complete copies of the +Vinaya-pitaka. What follows this is merely an account of his travels in +India and return to China by sea, condensed from his own narrative, with +the addition of some marvellous incidents that happened to him, on his +visit to the Vulture Peak near Râjagriha. + +It is said in the end that after his return to China, he went to the +capital (evidently Nanking), and there, along with the Indian Sramana +Buddha-bhadra, executed translations of some of the works which he had +obtained in India; and that before he had done all that he wished to do +in this way, he removed to King-chow (in the present Hoo-pih), and died +in the monastery of Sin, at the age of eighty-eight, to the great sorrow +of all who knew him. It is added that there is another larger work +giving an account of his travels in various countries. + +Such is all the information given about our author, beyond what he has +himself told us. Fâ-hien was his clerical name, and means "Illustrious +in the Law," or "Illustrious master of the Law." The Shih which often +precedes it is an abbreviation of the name of Buddha as Sâkyamuni, "the +Sâkya, mighty in Love, dwelling in Seclusion and Silence," and may be +taken as equivalent to Buddhist. He is sometimes said to have belonged +to "the eastern Tsin dynasty" (A.D. 317-419), and sometimes to "the +Sung," that is, the Sung dynasty of the House of Liû (A.D. 420-478). If +he became a full monk at the age of twenty, and went to India when he +was twenty-five, his long life may have been divided pretty equally +between the two dynasties. + +If there were ever another and larger account of Fâ-hien's travels than +the narrative of which a translation is now given, it has long ceased to +be in existence. + +In the catalogue of the imperial library of the Suy dynasty (A.D. +589-618), the name Fâ-hien occurs four times. Towards the end of the +last section of it, after a reference to his travels, his labors in +translation at Kin-ling (another name for Nanking), in conjunction with +Buddha-bhadra, are described. In the second section we find "A Record of +Buddhistic Kingdoms"--with a note, saying that it was the work of "the +Sramana, Fâ-hien"; and again, we have "Narrative of Fâ-hien in two +Books," and "Narrative of Fâ-hien's Travels in one Book." But all these +three entries may possibly belong to different copies of the same work, +the first and the other two being in separate subdivisions of the +catalogue. + +In the two Chinese copies of the narrative in my possession the title is +"Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms." In the Japanese or Corean recension the +title is twofold; first, "Narrative of the Distinguished Monk, Fâ-hien"; +and then, more at large, "Incidents of Travels in India, by the Sramana +of the Eastern Tsîn, Fâ-hien, recorded by himself." + +There is still earlier attestation of the existence of our little work +than the Suy catalogue. The "Catalogue Raisonné" of the imperial library +of the present dynasty mentions two quotations from it by Le Tâo-yüen, a +geographical writer of the dynasty of the Northern Wei (A.D. 386-584), +one of them containing eighty-nine characters, and the other two hundred +and seventy-six; both of them given as from the "Narrative of Fâ-hien." + +In all catalogues subsequent to that of Suy our work appears. The +evidence for its authenticity and genuineness is all that could be +required. It is clear to myself that the "Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms" +and the "Narrative of his Travels by Fâ-hien" were designations of one +and the same work, and that it is doubtful whether any larger work on +the same subject was ever current. With regard to the text subjoined to +my translation, it was published in Japan in 1779. The editor had before +him four recensions of the narrative; those of the Sung and Ming +dynasties, with appendices on the names of certain characters in them; +that of Japan; and that of Corea. He wisely adopted the Corean text, +published in accordance with a royal rescript in 1726, so far as I can +make out; but the different readings of the other texts are all given in +top-notes, instead of foot-notes as with us, this being one of the +points in which customs in the East and West go by contraries. Very +occasionally, the editor indicates by a single character, equivalent to +"right" or "wrong," which reading in his opinion is to be preferred. + +The editors of the "Catalogue Raisonné" intimate their doubts of the +good taste and reliability of all Fâ-hien's statements. It offends them +that he should call central India the "Middle Kingdom," and China, which +to them was the true and only Middle Kingdom, but "a Border-land"--it +offends them as the vaunting language of a Buddhist writer, whereas the +reader will see in the expressions only an instance of what Fâ-hien +calls his "simple straightforwardness." + +As an instance of his unreliability they refer to his account of the +Buddhism of Khoten, whereas it is well-known, they say, that the +Khoteners from ancient times till now have been Mohammedans;--as if they +could have been so one hundred and seventy years before Mohammed was +born, and two hundred twenty-two years before the year of the Hegira! +And this is criticism in China. The catalogue was ordered by the +K'ien-lung emperor in 1722. Between three and four hundred of the "Great +Scholars" of the empire were engaged on it in various departments, and +thus egregiously ignorant did they show themselves of all beyond the +limits of their own country, and even of the literature of that country +itself. + +Much of what Fâ-hien tells his readers of Buddhist miracles and legends +is indeed unreliable and grotesque; but we have from him the truth as to +what he saw and heard. + +In concluding this introduction I wish to call attention to some +estimates of the number of Buddhists in the world which have become +current, believing, as I do, that the smallest of them is much above +what is correct. + +In a note on the first page of his work on the Bhilsa Topes (1854), +General Cunningham says: "The Christians number about two hundred and +seventy millions; the Buddhists about two hundred and twenty-two +millions, who are distributed as follows: China one hundred and seventy +millions, Japan twenty-five millions, Anam fourteen millions, Siam three +millions, Ava eight millions, Nepál one million, and Ceylon one +million." In his article on M.J. Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire's "Le Bouddha +et sa Religion," republished in his "Chips from a German workshop," vol. +i. (1868), Professor Max Müller says, "The young prince became the +founder of a religion which, after more than two thousand years, is +still professed by four hundred and fifty-five millions of human +beings," and he appends the following note: "Though truth is not settled +by majorities, it would be interesting to know which religion counts at +the present moment the largest numbers of believers. Berghaus, in his +'Physical Atlas,' gives the following division of the human race +according to religion: 'Buddhists 31.2 per cent., Christians 30.7, +Mohammedans 15.7, Brahmanists 13.4, Heathens 8.7, and Jews O.3.' As +Berghaus does not distinguish the Buddhists in China from the followers +of Confucius and Laotse, the first place on the scale belongs really to +Christianity. It is difficult in China to say to what religion a man +belongs, as the same person may profess two or three. The emperor +himself, after sacrificing according to the ritual of Confucius, visits +a Tao-tsé temple, and afterwards bows before an image of Fo in a +Buddhist chapel." ("Mélanges Asiatiques de St. Pétersbourg," vol. ii. p. +374.) + +Both these estimates are exceeded by Dr. T.W. Rhys Davids (intimating +also the uncertainty of the statements, and that numbers are no evidence +of truth) in the introduction to his "Manual of Buddhism." The Buddhists +there appear as amounting in all to five hundred millions:--thirty +millions of Southern Buddhists, in Ceylon, Burma, Siam, Anam, and India +(Jains); and four hundred and seventy millions of Northern Buddhists, of +whom nearly thirty-three millions are assigned to Japan, and 414,686,974 +to the eighteen provinces of China proper. According to him, Christians +amount to about 26 per cent, of mankind, Hindus to about 13, Mohammedans +to about 12-1/2, Buddhists to about 40, and Jews to about one-half of +one per cent. + +In regard to all these estimates, it will be observed that the immense +numbers assigned to Buddhism are made out by the multitude of Chinese +with which it is credited. Subtract Cunningham's one hundred and seventy +millions of Chinese from his total of two hundred and twenty-two +millions, and there remain only fifty-two millions of Buddhists. +Subtract Davids's four hundred fourteen and one-half millions of Chinese +from his total of five hundred millions, and there remain only +eighty-five and one-half millions for Buddhism. Of the numbers assigned +to other countries, as well as of their whole populations, I am in +considerable doubt, excepting in the cases of Ceylon and India; but the +greatness of the estimates turns upon the immense multitudes said to be +in China. I do not know what total population Cunningham allowed for +that country, nor on what principle he allotted one hundred and seventy +millions of it to Buddhism; perhaps he halved his estimate of the whole, +whereas Berghaus and Davids allotted to it the highest estimates that +have been given of the people. + +But we have no certain information of the population of China. At an +interview with the former Chinese ambassador, Kwo Sung-tâo, in Paris, in +1878, I begged him to write out for me the amount, with the authority +for it, and he assured me that it could not be done. I have read +probably almost everything that has been published on the subject, and +endeavored by methods of my own to arrive at a satisfactory +conclusion;--without reaching a result which I can venture to lay before +the public. My impression has been that four hundred millions is hardly +an exaggeration. + +But supposing that we had reliable returns of the whole population, how +shall we proceed to apportion that among Confucianists, Tâoists, and +Buddhists? Confucianism is the orthodoxy of China. The common name for +it is Jû Chiâo, "the Doctrines held by the Learned Class," entrance into +the circle of which is, with a few insignificant exceptions, open to all +the people. The mass of them and the masses under their influence are +preponderatingly Confucian; and in the observance of ancestral worship, +the most remarkable feature of the religion proper of China from the +earliest times, of which Confucius was not the author but the prophet, +an overwhelming majority are regular and assiduous. + +Among "the strange principles" which the emperor of the K'ang-hsî +period, in one of his famous Sixteen Precepts, exhorted his people to +"discountenance and put away, in order to exalt the correct doctrine," +Buddhism and Tâoism were both included. If, as stated in the note quoted +from Professor Müller, the emperor countenances both the Tâoist worship +and the Buddhist, he does so for reasons of state; to please especially +his Buddhistic subjects in Thibet and Mongolia, and not to offend the +many whose superstitious fancies incline to Tâoism. + +When I went out and in as a missionary among the Chinese people for +about thirty years, it sometimes occurred to me that only the inmates of +their monasteries and the recluses of both systems should be enumerated +as Buddhists and Taoists; but I was in the end constrained to widen that +judgment, and to admit a considerable following of both among the +people, who have neither received the tonsure nor assumed the yellow +top. Dr. Eitel, in concluding his discussion of this point in his +"Lecture on Buddhism, an Event in History," says: "It is not too much to +say that most Chinese are theoretically Confucianists, but emotionally +Buddhists or Taoists. But fairness requires us to add that, though the +mass of the people are more or less influenced by Buddhist doctrines, +yet the people, as a whole, have no respect for the Buddhist church, and +habitually sneer at Buddhist priests." For the "most" in the former of +these two sentences I would substitute "nearly all;" and between my +friend's "but" and "emotionally" I would introduce "many are," and would +not care to contest his conclusion further. It does seem to me +preposterous to credit Buddhism with the whole of the vast population of +China, the great majority of whom are Confucianists. My own opinion is +that its adherents are not so many as those even of Mohammedanism, and +that instead of being the most numerous of the religions (so-called) of +the world, it is only entitled to occupy the fifth place, ranking below +Christianity, Confucianism, Brahmanism, and Mohammedanism, and followed, +some distance off, by Tâoism. To make a table of percentages of mankind, +and to assign to each system its proportion, are to seem to be wise +where we are deplorably ignorant; and, moreover, if our means of +information were much better than they are, our figures would merely +show the outward adherence. A fractional percentage might tell more for +one system than a very large integral one for another. + +JAMES LEGGE. + + + +THE TRAVELS OF FÂ-HIEN + + + +CHAPTER I + +~From Ch'ang-gan to the Sandy Desert~ + + +Fâ-Hien had been living in Ch'ang-gan. [1] Deploring the mutilated and +imperfect state of the collection of the Books of Discipline, in the +second year of the period Hwang-che, being the Ke-hâe year of the cycle, +[2] he entered into an engagement with Hwuy-king, Tâo-ching, Hwuy-ying, +and Hwuy-wei, that they should go to India and seek for the Disciplinary +Rules. + +After starting from Ch'ang-gan, they passed through Lung, [3] and came +to the kingdom of K'een-kwei,[4] where they stopped for the summer +retreat. When that was over, they went forward to the kingdom of +Now-t'an, crossed the mountain of Yang-low, and reached the emporium of +Chang-yih.[5] There they found the country so much disturbed that +travelling on the roads was impossible for them. Its king, however, was +very attentive to them, kept them in his capital, and acted the part of +their dânapati.[6] + +Here they met with Che-yen, Hwuy-keen, Sang-shâo, Pâo-yun, and +Sang-king; and in pleasant association with them, as bound on the same +journey with themselves, they passed the summer retreat of that year [7] +together, resuming after it their travelling, and going on to +T'un-hwang, [8] the chief town in the frontier territory of defence +extending for about eighty li from east to west, and about forty from +north to south. Their company, increased as it had been, halted there +for some days more than a month, after which Fâ-hien and his four +friends started first in the suite of an envoy, having separated for a +time from Pâo-yun and his associates. + +Le Hâo, the prefect of Tun-hwang, had supplied them with the means of +crossing the desert before them, in which there are many evil demons and +hot winds. Travellers who encounter them perish all to a man. There is +not a bird to be seen in the air above, nor an animal on the ground +below. Though you look all round most earnestly to find where you can +cross, you know not where to make your choice, the only mark and +indication being the dry bones of the dead left upon the sand. + + +[Footnote 1: Ch'ang-gan is still the name of the principal district (and +its city) in the department of Se-gan, Shen-se. It had been the capital +of the first empire of Han (B.C. 202 A.D. 24), as it subsequently was +that of Suy (A.D. 589-618).] + +[Footnote 2: The period Hwang-che embraced from A.D. 399 to 414, being +the greater portion of the reign of Yâo Hing of the After Ts'in, a +powerful prince. He adopted Hwang-che for the style of his reign in 399, +and the cyclical name of that year was Kang-tsze. It is not possible at +this distance of time to explain, if it could be explained, how Fâ-hien +came to say that Ke-hâe was the second year of the period. It seems most +reasonable to suppose that he set out on his pilgrimage in A.D. 399, the +cycle name of which was Ke-hâe. In the "Memoirs of Eminent Monks" it is +said that our author started in the third year of the period Lung-gan of +the Eastern Ts'in, which was A.D. 399.] + +[Footnote 3: Lung embraced the western part of Shen-se and the eastern +part of Kan-suh. The name remains in Lung Chow, in the extreme west of +Shen-se.] + +[Footnote 4: K'een-kwei was the second king of "the Western Ts'in." +Fâ-hien would find him at his capital, somewhere in the present +department of Lan-chow, Kan-suh.] + +[Footnote 5: Chang-yih is still the name of a district in Kan-chow +department, Kan-suh. It is a long way north and west from Lan-chow, and +not far from the Great Wall. Its king at this time was, probably, +Twan-yeh of "the northern Lëang."] + +[Footnote 6: Dâna is the name for religious charity, the first of the +six pâramitâs, or means of attaining to nirvâna; and a dânapati is "one +who practises dâna and thereby crosses the sea of misery."] + +[Footnote 7: This was the second summer since the pilgrims left +Ch'ang-gan. We are now, therefore, probably, in A.D. 400.] + +[Footnote 8: T'un-hwang is still the name of one of the two districts +constituting the department of Gan-se, the most western of the +prefectures of Kan-suh; beyond the termination of the Great Wall.] + + + +CHAPTER II + +~On to Shen-shen and thence to Khoten~ + + +After travelling for seventeen days, a distance we may calculate of +about 1500 li, the pilgrims reached the kingdom of Shen-shen, a country +rugged and hilly, with a thin and barren soil. The clothes of the common +people are coarse, and like those worn in our land of Han, [1] some +wearing felt and others coarse serge or cloth of hair; this was the only +difference seen among them. The king professed our Law, and there might +be in the country more than four thousand monks, who were all students +of the hînayâna. [2] The common people of this and other kingdoms in +that region, as well as the Sramans, [3] all practise the rules of +India, only that the latter do so more exactly, and the former more +loosely. So the travellers found it in all the kingdoms through which +they went on their way from this to the west, only that each had its own +peculiar barbarous speech. The monks, however, who had given up the +worldly life and quitted their families, were all students of Indian +books and the Indian language. Here they stayed for about a month, and +then proceeded on their journey, fifteen days' walking to the northwest +bringing them to the country of Woo-e. In this also there were more than +four thousand monks, all students of the hînayâna. They were very strict +in their rules, so that Sramans from the territory of Ts'in were all +unprepared for their regulations. Fâ-hien, through the management of Foo +Kung-sun, _maître d'hotellerie_, was able to remain with his company in +the monastery where they were received for more than two months, and +here they were rejoined by Pâo-yun and his friends. At the end of that +time the people of Woo-e neglected the duties of propriety and +righteousness, and treated the strangers in so niggardly a manner that +Che-yen, Hwuy-keen, and Hwuy-wei went back towards Kâo-ch'ang, hoping to +obtain there the means of continuing their journey. Fâ-hien and the +rest, however, through the liberality of Foo Kung-sun, managed to go +straight forward in a southwest direction. They found the country +uninhabited as they went along. The difficulties which they encountered +in crossing the streams and on their route, and the sufferings which +they endured, were unparalleled in human experience, but in the course +of a month and five days they succeeded in reaching Yu-teen. + + +[Footnote 1: This is the name which Fâ-hien always uses when he would +speak of China, his native country, as a whole, calling it from the +great dynasty which had ruled it, first and last, for between four and +five centuries. Occasionally, as we shall immediately see, he speaks of +"the territory of Ts'in or Ch'in," but intending thereby only the +kingdom of Ts'in, having its capital in Ch'ang-gan.] + +[Footnote 2: Meaning the "small vehicle, or conveyance." There are in +Buddhism the triyâna, or "three different means of salvation, i.e. of +conveyance across the samsâra, or sea of transmigration, to the shores +of nirvâna. Afterwards the term was used to designate the different +phases of development through which the Buddhist dogma passed, known as +the mahâyâna, hînayâna, and madhyamayâna." "The hînayâna is the simplest +vehicle of salvation, corresponding to the first of the three degrees of +saintship." E.H., pp. 151-2, 45, and 117.] + +[Footnote 3: "Sraman" may in English take the place of Sramana, the name +for Buddhist monks, as those who have separated themselves from (left) +their families, and quieted their hearts from all intrusion of desire +and lust.] + + + +CHAPTER III + +~Khoten--Processions of Images~ + + +Yu-Teen is a pleasant and prosperous kingdom, with a numerous and +flourishing population. The inhabitants all profess our Law, and join +together in its religious music for their enjoyment. The monks amount to +several myriads, most of whom are students of the mahâyâna. [1] They all +receive their food from the common store. Throughout the country the +houses of the people stand apart like separate stars, and each family +has a small tope [2] reared in front of its door. The smallest of these +may be twenty cubits high, or rather more. They make in the monasteries +rooms for monks from all quarters, the use of which is given to +travelling monks who may arrive, and who are provided with whatever else +they require. + +The lord of the country lodged Fâ-hien and the others comfortably, and +supplied their wants, in a monastery called Gomati, of the mahâyâna +school. Attached to it there are three thousand monks, who are called to +their meals by the sound of a bell. When they enter the refectory, their +demeanor is marked by a reverent gravity, and they take their seats in +regular order, all maintaining a perfect silence. No sound is heard from +their alms-bowls and other utensils. When any of these pure men require +food, they are not allowed to call out to the attendants for it, but +only make signs with their hands. + +Hwuy-king, Tâo-ching, and Hwuy-tah set out in advance towards the +country of K'eeh-ch'â; but Fâ-hien and the others, wishing to see the +procession of images, remained behind for three months. There are in +this country four great monasteries, not counting the smaller ones. +Beginning on the first day of the fourth month, they sweep and water the +streets inside the city, making a grand display in the lanes and byways. +Over the city gate they pitch a large tent, grandly adorned in all +possible ways, in which the king and queen, with their ladies +brilliantly arrayed, take up their residence for the time. + +The monks of the Gomati monastery, being mahâyâna students, and held in +greatest reverence by the king, took precedence of all the others in the +procession. At a distance of three or four li from the city, they made a +four-wheeled image car, more than thirty cubits high, which looked like +the great hall of a monastery moving along. The seven precious +substances [3] were grandly displayed about it, with silken streamers +and canopies hanging all around. The chief image stood in the middle of +the car, with two Bodhisattvas [4] in attendance on it, while devas were +made to follow in waiting, all brilliantly carved in gold and silver, +and hanging in the air. When the car was a hundred paces from the gate, +the king put off his crown of state, changed his dress for a fresh suit, +and with bare feet, carrying in his hands flowers and incense, and with +two rows of attending followers, went out at the gate to meet the image; +and, with his head and face bowed to the ground, he did homage at its +feet, and then scattered the flowers and burnt the incense. When the +image was entering the gate, the queen and the brilliant ladies with her +in the gallery above scattered far and wide all kinds of flowers, which +floated about and fell promiscuously to the ground. In this way +everything was done to promote the dignity of the occasion. The +carriages of the monasteries were all different, and each one had its +own day for the procession. The ceremony began on the first day of the +fourth month, and ended on the fourteenth, after which the king and +queen returned to the palace. + +Seven or eight li to the west of the city there is what is called the +King's new monastery, the building of which took eighty years, and +extended over three reigns. It may be two hundred and fifty cubits in +height, rich in elegant carving and inlaid work, covered above with gold +and silver, and finished throughout with a combination of all the +precious substances. Behind the tope there has been built a Hall of +Buddha, of the utmost magnificence and beauty, the beams, pillars, +venetianed doors and windows, being all overlaid with gold-leaf. Besides +this, the apartments for the monks are imposingly and elegantly +decorated, beyond the power of words to express. Of whatever things of +highest value and preciousness the kings in the six countries on the +east of the Ts'ung range of mountains are possessed, they contribute the +greater portion to this monastery, using but a small portion of them +themselves. + + +[Footnote 1: Mahâyâna is a later form of the Buddhist doctrine, the +second phase of its development corresponding to the state of a +Bodhisattva, who, being able to transport himself and all mankind to +nirvâna, may be compared to a huge vehicle.] + +[Footnote 2: A worshipping place, an altar, or temple.] + +[Footnote 3: The Sapta-ratna, gold, silver, lapis lazuli, rock crystal, +rubies, diamonds or emeralds, and agate.] + +[Footnote 4: A Bodhisattva is one whose essence has become intelligence; +a Being who will in some future birth as a man (not necessarily or +usually the next) attain to Buddhahood. The name does not include those +Buddhas who have not yet attained to parinirvâna. The symbol of the +state is an elephant fording a river.] + + + +CHAPTER IV + +~Through the Ts'ung Mountains to K'eech-ch'a~ + + +When the processions of images in the fourth month were over, Sang-shâo, +by himself alone, followed a Tartar who was an earnest follower of the +Law, and proceeded towards Ko-phene. Fâ-hien and the others went forward +to the kingdom of Tsze-hoh, which it took them twenty-five days to +reach. Its king was a strenuous follower of our Law, and had around him +more than a thousand monks, mostly students of the mahâyâna. Here the +travellers abode fifteen days, and then went south for four days, when +they found themselves among the Ts'ung-ling mountains, and reached the +country of Yu-hwuy, where they halted and kept their retreat. [1] When +this was over, they went on among the hills for twenty-five days, and +got to K'eeh-ch'a, there rejoining Hwuy-king and his two companions. + + +[Footnote 1: This was the retreat already twice mentioned as kept by the +pilgrims in the summer, the different phraseology, "quiet rest," without +any mention of the season, indicating their approach to India. Two, if +not three, years had elapsed since they left Ch'ang-gan. Are we now with +them in 402?] + + + +CHAPTER V + +~Great Quinquennial Assembly of Monks~ + + +It happened that the king of the country was then holding the pañcha +parishad; that is, in Chinese, the great quinquennial assembly. When +this is to be held, the king requests the presence of the Sramans from +all quarters of his kingdom. They come as if in clouds; and when they +are all assembled, their place of session is grandly decorated. Silken +streamers and canopies are hung out in it, and water-lilies in gold and +silver are made and fixed up behind the places where the chief of them +are to sit. When clean mats have been spread, and they are all seated, +the king and his ministers present their offerings according to rule and +law. The assembly takes place in the first, second, or third month, for +the most part in the spring. + +After the king has held the assembly, he further exhorts the ministers +to make other and special offerings. The doing of this extends over one, +two, three, five, or even seven days; and when all is finished, he takes +his own riding-horse, saddles, bridles, and waits on him himself, while +he makes the noblest and most important minister of the kingdom mount +him. Then, taking fine white woollen cloth, all sorts of precious +things, and articles which the Sramans require, he distributes them +among them, uttering vows at the same time along with all his ministers; +and when this distribution has taken place, he again redeems whatever he +wishes from the monks. + +The country, being among the hills and cold, does not produce the other +cereals, and only the wheat gets ripe. After the monks have received +their annual portion of this, the mornings suddenly show the hoar-frost, +and on this account the king always begs the monks to make the wheat +ripen [1] before they receive their portion. There is in the country a +spittoon which belonged to Buddha, made of stone, and in color like his +alms-bowl. There is also a tooth of Buddha, for which the people have +reared a tope, connected with which there are more than a thousand monks +and their disciples, all students of the hînayâna. To the east of these +hills the dress of the common people is of coarse materials, as in our +country of Ts'in, but here also there were among them the differences of +fine woollen cloth and of serge or haircloth. The rules observed by the +Sramans are remarkable, and too numerous to be mentioned in detail. The +country is in the midst of the Onion range. As you go forward from these +mountains, the plants, trees, and fruits are all different from those of +the land of Han, excepting only the bamboo, pomegranate, and sugarcane. + + +[Footnote 1: Watters calls attention to this as showing that the monks +of K'eeh-ch'â had the credit of possessing weather-controlling powers.] + + + +CHAPTER VI + +~North India--Image of Maitreya Bodhisattva~ + + +From this the travellers went westward towards North India, and after +being on the way for a month, they succeeded in getting across and +through the range of the Onion mountains. The snow rests on them both +winter and summer. There are also among them venomous dragons, which, +when provoked, spit forth poisonous winds, and cause showers of snow and +storms of sand and gravel. Not one in ten thousand of those who +encounter these dangers escapes with his life. The people of the country +call the range by the name of "The Snow mountains." When the travellers +had got through them, they were in North India, and immediately on +entering its borders, found themselves in a small kingdom called +T'oleih, where also there were many monks, all students of the hînayâna. + +In this kingdom there was formerly an Arhan, [1] who by his supernatural +power took a clever artificer up to the Tushita [2] heaven, to see the +height, complexion, and appearance of Maitreya Bodhisattva, [3] and then +return and make an image of him in wood. First and last, this was done +three times, and then the image was completed, eighty cubits in height, +and eight cubits at the base from knee to knee of the crossed legs. On +fast-days it emits an effulgent light. The kings of the surrounding +countries vie with one another in presenting offerings to it. Here it +is--to be seen now as of old. + +[Footnote 1: Lo-han, Arhat, Arahat are all designations of the perfected +Ârya, the disciple who has passed the different stages of the Noble +Path, or eightfold excellent way, who has conquered all passions, and is +not to be reborn again. Arhatship implies possession of certain +supernatural powers, and is not to be succeeded by Buddhaship, but +implies the fact of the saint having already attained Nirvâna.] + +[Footnote 2: Tushita is the fourth Devaloka, where all Bodhisattvas are +reborn before finally appearing on earth as Buddha. Life lasts in +Tushita four thousand years, but twenty-four hours there are equal to +four hundred years on earth.] + +[Footnote 3: Maitreya was a Bodhisattva, the principal one, indeed, of +Sâkyamuni's retinue, but is not counted among the ordinary disciples, +nor is anything told of his antecedents. It was in the Tushita heaven +that Sâkyamuni met him and appointed him as his successor, to appear as +Buddha after the lapse of five thousand years. Maitreya is therefore the +expected Messiah of the Buddhists, residing at present in Tushita.] + + + +CHAPTER VII + +~The Perilous Crossing of the Indus~ + + +The travellers went on to the southwest for fifteen days at the foot of +the mountains, and following the course of their range. The way was +difficult and rugged, running along a bank exceedingly precipitous, +which rose up there, a hill-like wall of rock, ten thousand cubits from +the base. When one approached the edge of it, his eyes became unsteady; +and if he wished to go forward in the same direction, there was no place +on which he could place his foot; and beneath were the waters of the +river called the Indus. In former times men had chiselled paths along +the rocks, and distributed ladders on the face of them, to the number +altogether of seven hundred, at the bottom of which there was a +suspension bridge of ropes, by which the river was crossed, its banks +being there eighty paces apart. The place and arrangements are to be +found in the Records of the Nine Interpreters, but neither Chang K'een +[1] nor Kan Ying [2] had reached the spot. + +The monks asked Fâ-hien if it could be known when the Law of Buddha +first went to the east. He replied, "When I asked the people of those +countries about it, they all said that it had been handed down by their +fathers from of old that, after the setting up of the image of Maitreya +Bodhisattva, there were Sramans of India who crossed this river, +carrying with them Sútras and Books of Discipline. Now the image was set +up rather more than three hundred years after the Nirvâna of Buddha, +which may be referred to the reign of king P'ing of the Chow dynasty. +According to this account we may say that the diffusion of our great +doctrines in the East began from the setting up of this image. If it had +not been through that Maitreya, the great spiritual master who is to be +the successor of the Sâkya, who could have caused the 'Three Precious +Ones,' [3] to be proclaimed so far, and the people of those border lands +to know our Law? We know of a truth that the opening of the way for such +a mysterious propagation is not the work of man; and so the dream of the +emperor Ming of Han had its proper cause." + + +[Footnote 1: Chang K'een, a minister of the emperor Woo of Han (B.C. +140-87), is celebrated as the first Chinese who "pierced the void," and +penetrated to "the regions of the west," corresponding very much to the +present Turkestan. Through him, by B.C. 115, a regular intercourse was +established between China and the thirty-six kingdoms or states of that +quarter.] + +[Footnote 2: Less is known of Kan Ying than of Chang K'een. Being sent +in A.D. 88 by his patron Pan Châo on an embassy to the Roman empire, he +only got as far as the Caspian sea, and returned to China. He extended, +however, the knowledge of his countrymen with regard to the western +regions.] + +[Footnote 3: "The precious Buddha," "the precious Law," and "the +precious Monkhood"; Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; the whole being +equivalent to Buddhism.] + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +~Woo-chang, or Udyâna--Traces of Buddha~ + + +After crossing the river, the travellers immediately came to the kingdom +of Woo-chang, which is indeed a part of North India. The people all use +the language of Central India, "Central India" being what we should call +the "Middle Kingdom." The food and clothes of the common people are the +same as in that Central Kingdom. The Law of Buddha is very flourishing +in Woo-chang. They call the places where the monks stay for a time or +reside permanently Sanghârâmas; and of these there are in all five +hundred, the monks being all students of the hînayâna. When stranger +bhikshus [1] arrive at one of them, their wants are supplied for three +days, after which they are told to find a resting-place for themselves. + +There is a tradition that when Buddha came to North India, he came at +once to this country, and that here he left a print of his foot, which +is long or short according to the ideas of the beholder on the subject. +It exists, and the same thing is true about it, at the present day. Here +also are still to be seen the rock on which he dried his clothes, and +the place where he converted the wicked dragon. The rock is fourteen +cubits high, and more than twenty broad, with one side of it smooth. + +Hwuy-king, Hwuy-tah, and Tâo-ching went on ahead towards the place of +Buddha's shadow in the country of Nâgara; but Fâ-hien and the others +remained in Woo-chang, and kept the summer retreat. That over, they +descended south, and arrived in the country of Soo-ho-to. + + +[Footnote 1: Bhikshu is the name for a monk as "living by alms," a +mendicant. All bhikshus call themselves Sramans. Sometimes the two names +are used together by our author.] + + + +CHAPTER IX + +~Soo-ho-to--Legends of Buddha~ + + +In that country also Buddhism is flourishing. There is in it the place +where Sakra, [1] Ruler of Devas, in a former age, tried the Bodhisattva, +by producing a hawk in pursuit of a dove, when the Bodhisattva cut off a +piece of his own flesh, and with it ransomed the dove. After Buddha had +attained to perfect wisdom, and in travelling about with his disciples +arrived at this spot, he informed them that this was the place where he +ransomed the dove with a piece of his own flesh. In this way the people +of the country became aware of the fact, and on the spot reared a tope, +adorned with layers of gold and silver plates. + + +[Footnote 1: Sakra is a common name for the Brahmanic Indra, adopted by +Buddhism into the circle of its own great adherents;--it has been said, +"because of his popularity." He is now the representative of the secular +power, the valiant protector of the Buddhist body, but is looked upon as +inferior to Sâkyamuni, and every Buddhist saint.] + + + +CHAPTER X + +~Gandhâra--Legends of Buddha~ + + +The travellers, going downwards from this towards the east, in five days +came to the country of Gandhâra, the place where Dharma-vivardhana, the +son of Asoka, [1] ruled. When Buddha was a Bodhisattva, he gave his eyes +also for another man here; and at the spot they have also reared a large +tope, adorned with layers of gold and silver plates. The people of the +country were mostly students of the hînayâna. + + +[Footnote 1: Asoka is here mentioned for the first time--the Constantine +of the Buddhist society, and famous for the number of vihâras and topes +which he erected. He was the grandson of Chandragupta, a rude +adventurer, who at one time was a refugee in the camp of Alexander the +Great; and within about twenty years afterwards drove the Greeks out of +India, having defeated Seleucus, the Greek ruler of the Indus provinces. +His grandson was converted to Buddhism by the bold and patient demeanor +of an Arhat whom he had ordered to be buried alive, and became a most +zealous supporter of the new faith.] + + + +CHAPTER XI + +~Takshasilâ--Legends--The Four Great Topes~ + + +Seven days' journey from this to the east brought the travellers to the +kingdom of Takshasilâ, which means "the severed head" in the language of +China. Here, when Buddha was a Bodhisattva, he gave away his head to a +man; and from this circumstance the kingdom got its name. + +Going on further for two days to the east, they came to the place where +the Bodhisattva threw down his body to feed a starving tigress. In these +two places also large topes have been built, both adorned with layers of +all the precious substances. The kings, ministers, and peoples of the +kingdoms around vie with one another in making offerings at them. The +trains of those who come to scatter flowers and light lamps at them +never cease. The nations of those quarters call those and the other two +mentioned before "the four great topes." + + + +CHAPTER XII + +~Buddha's Alms-bowl--Death of Hwuy-king~ + + +Going southwards from Gândhâra, the travellers in four days arrived at +the kingdom of Purushapura. [1] Formerly, when Buddha was travelling in +this country with his disciples, he said to Ânanda, [2] "After my +pari-nirvâna, [3] there will be a king named Kanishka, who shall on this +spot build a tope." + +This Kanishka was afterwards born into the world; and once, when he had +gone forth to look about him, Sakra, Ruler of Devas, wishing to excite +the idea in his mind, assumed the appearance of a little herd-boy, and +was making a tope right in the way of the king, who asked what sort of a +thing he was making. The boy said, "I am making a tope for Buddha." The +king said, "Very good;" and immediately, right over the boy's tope, he +proceeded to rear another, which was more than four hundred cubits high, +and adorned with layers of all the precious substances. Of all the topes +and temples which the travellers saw in their journeyings, there was not +one comparable to this in solemn beauty and majestic grandeur. There is +a current saying that this is the finest tope in Jambudvîpa [4]. When +the king's tope was completed, the little tope of the boy came out from +its side on the south, rather more than three cubits in height. + +Buddha's alms-bowl is in this country. Formerly, a king of Yüeh-she +raised a large force and invaded this country, wishing to carry the bowl +away. Having subdued the kingdom, as he and his captains were sincere +believers in the Law of Buddha, and wished to carry off the bowl, they +proceeded to present their offerings on a great scale. When they had +done so to the Three Precious Ones, he made a large elephant be grandly +caparisoned, and placed the bowl upon it. But the elephant knelt down on +the ground, and was unable to go forward. Again he caused a four-wheeled +wagon to be prepared in which the bowl was put to be conveyed away. +Eight elephants were then yoked to it, and dragged it with their united +strength; but neither were they able to go forward. The king knew that +the time for an association between himself and the bowl had not yet +arrived, and was sad and deeply ashamed of himself. Forthwith he built a +tope at the place and a monastery, and left a guard to watch the bowl, +making all sorts of contributions. + +There may be there more than seven hundred monks. When it is near +mid-day, they bring out the bowl, and, along with the common people, +make their various offerings to it, after which they take their mid-day +meal. In the evening, at the time of incense, they bring the bowl out +again. It may contain rather more than two pecks, and is of various +colors, black predominating, with the seams that show its fourfold +composition distinctly marked. Its thickness is about the fifth of an +inch, and it has a bright and glossy lustre. When poor people throw into +it a few flowers, it becomes immediately full, while some very rich +people, wishing to make offering of many flowers, might not stop till +they had thrown in hundreds, thousands, and myriads of bushels, and yet +would not be able to fill it.[5] + +Pâo-yun and Sang-king here merely made their offerings to the alms-bowl, +and then resolved to go back. Hwuy-king, Hwuy-tah, and Tâo-ching had +gone on before the rest to Nagâra, to make their offerings at the places +of Buddha's shadow, tooth, and the flat-bone of his skull. There +Hwuy-king fell ill, and Tâo-ching remained to look after him, while +Hwuy-tah came alone to Purushapura, and saw the others, and then he with +Pâo-yun and Sang-king took their way back to the land of Ts'in. +Hwuy-king came to his end in the monastery of Buddha's alms-bowl, and on +this Fâ-hien went forward alone towards the place of the flat-bone of +Buddha's skull.[6] + + +[Footnote 1: The modern Peshâwur.] + +[Footnote 2: A first cousin of Sâkyamuni, and born at the moment when he +attained to Buddhaship. Under Buddha's teaching, Ânanda became an Arhat, +and is famous for his strong and accurate memory; and he played an +important part at the first council for the formation of the Buddhist +canon. The friendship between Sâkyamuni and Ânanda was very close and +tender; and it is impossible to read much of what the dying Buddha said +to him and of him, as related in the Mahâpari-nirvâna Sûtra, without +being moved almost to tears. Ânanda is to reappear on earth as Buddha in +another Kalpa.] + +[Footnote 3: On his attaining to nirvâna, Sâkyamuni became the Buddha, +and had no longer to mourn his being within the circle of +transmigration, and could rejoice in an absolute freedom from passion, +and a perfect purity. Still he continued to live on for forty-five +years, till he attained to pari-nirvâna, and had done with all the life +of sense and society, and had no more exercise of thought. He died; but +whether he absolutely and entirely ceased to be, in any sense of the +word being, it would be difficult to say. Probably he himself would not +and could not have spoken definitely on the point. So far as our use of +language is concerned, apart from any assured faith in and hope of +immortality, his pari-nirvâna was his death.] + +[Footnote 4: Jambudvîpa is one of the four great continents of the +universe, representing the inhabited world as fancied by the Buddhists, +and so-called because it resembles in shape the leaves of the jambu +tree.] + +[Footnote 5: Compare the narrative in Luke's Gospel, xxi. 1-4.] + +[Footnote 6: This story of Hwuy-king's death differs from the account +given in chapter xiv.--EDITOR.] + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +~Festival of Buddha's Skull-bone~ + + +Going west for sixteen yojanas, [1] he came to the city He-lo [2] in the +borders of the country of Nagâra, where there is the flat-bone of +Buddha's skull, deposited in a vihâra [3] adorned all over with +gold-leaf and the seven sacred substances. The king of the country, +revering and honoring the bone, and anxious lest it should be stolen +away, has selected eight individuals, representing the great families in +the kingdom, and committed to each a seal, with which he should seal its +shrine and guard the relic. At early dawn these eight men come, and +after each has inspected his seal, they open the door. This done, they +wash their hands with scented water and bring out the bone, which they +place outside the vihâra, on a lofty platform, where it is supported on +a round pedestal of the seven precious substances, and covered with a +bell of lapis lazuli, both adorned with rows of pearls. Its color is of +a yellowish white, and it forms an imperfect circle twelve inches round, +curving upwards to the centre. Every day, after it has been brought +forth, the keepers of the vihâra ascend a high gallery, where they beat +great drums, blow conches, and clash their copper cymbals. When the king +hears them, he goes to the vihâra, and makes his offerings of flowers +and incense. When he has done this, he and his attendants in order, one +after another, raise the bone, place it for a moment on the top of their +heads, and then depart, going out by the door on the west as they had +entered by that on the east. The king every morning makes his offerings +and performs his worship, and afterwards gives audience on the business +of his government. The chiefs of the Vaisyas [4] also make their +offerings before they attend to their family affairs. Every day it is +so, and there is no remissness in the observance of the custom. When all +of the offerings are over, they replace the bone in the vihâra, where +there is a vimoksha tope, of the seven precious substances, and rather +more than five cubits high, sometimes open, sometimes shut, to contain +it. In front of the door of the vihâra, there are parties who every +morning sell flowers and incense, and those who wish to make offerings +buy some of all kinds. The kings of various countries are also +constantly sending messengers with offerings. The vihâra stands in a +square of thirty paces, and though heaven should shake and earth be +rent, this place would not move. + +Going on, north from this, for a yojana, Fâ-hien arrived at the capital +of Nagâra, the place where the Bodhisattva once purchased with money +five stalks of flowers, as an offering to the Dipânkara Buddha. In the +midst of the city there is also the tope of Buddha's tooth, where +offerings are made in the same way as to the flat-bone of his skull. + +A yojana to the northeast of the city brought him to the mouth of a +valley, where there is Buddha's pewter staff; and a vihâra also has been +built at which offerings are made. The staff is made of Gosirsha +Chandana, and is quite sixteen or seventeen cubits long. It is contained +in a wooden tube, and though a hundred or a thousand men were to try to +lift it, they could not move it. + +Entering the mouth of the valley, and going west, he found Buddha's +Sanghâli, [5] where also there is reared a vihâra, and offerings are +made. It is a custom of the country when there is a great drought, for +the people to collect in crowds, bring out the robe, pay worship to it, +and make offerings, on which there is immediately a great rain from the +sky. + +South of the city, half a yojana, there is a rock-cavern, in a great +hill fronting the southwest; and here it was that Buddha left his +shadow. Looking at it from a distance of more than ten paces, you seem +to see Buddha's real form, with his complexion of gold, and his +characteristic marks in their nicety, clearly and brightly displayed. +The nearer you approach, however, the fainter it becomes, as if it were +only in your fancy. When the kings from the regions all around have sent +skilful artists to take a copy, none of them have been able to do so. +Among the people of the country there is a saying current that "the +thousand Buddhas must all leave their shadows here." + +Rather more than four hundred paces west from the shadow, when Buddha +was at the spot, he shaved off his hair and clipped his nails, and +proceeded, along with his disciples, to build a tope seventy or eighty +cubits high, to be a model for all future topes; and it is still +existing. By the side of it there is a monastery, with more than seven +hundred monks in it. At this place there are as many as a thousand topes +of Arhans and Pratyeka Buddhas. + + +[Footnote 1: Now in India, Fâ-hien used the Indian measure of distance; +but it is not possible to determine exactly what its length then was. +The estimates of it are very different, and vary from four and a half or +five miles to seven, and sometimes more.] + +[Footnote 2: The present Hidda, west of Peshâwur, and five miles south +of Jellalabad.] + +[Footnote 3: "The vihara," says Hardy, "is the residence of a recluse or +priest;" and so Davids--"the clean little hut where the mendicant +lives."] + +[Footnote 4: The Vaisyas, or the bourgeois caste of Hindu society, are +described here as "resident scholars."] + +[Footnote 5: Or Sanghâti, the double or composite robe, part of a monk's +attire, reaching from the shoulders to the knees, and fastened round the +waist.] + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +~Crossing the Indus to the East~ + + +Having stayed there till the third month of winter, Fâ-hien and the two +others, proceeding southwards, crossed the Little Snowy mountains. On +them the snow lies accumulated both winter and summer. On the north side +of the mountains, in the shade, they suddenly encountered a cold wind +which made them shiver and become unable to speak. Hwuy-king could not +go any farther. A white froth came from his mouth, and he said to +Fâ-hien, "I cannot live any longer. Do you immediately go away, that we +do not all die here"; and with these words he died. Fâ-hien stroked the +corpse, and cried out piteously, "Our original plan has failed; it is +fate. What can we do?" He then again exerted himself, and they succeeded +in crossing to the south of the range, and arrived in the kingdom of +Lo-e, [1] where there were nearly three thousand monks, students of both +the mahâyâna and hînayâna. Here they stayed for the summer retreat, [2] +and when that was over, they went on to the south, and ten days' journey +brought them to the kingdom of Poh-nâ, where there are also more than +three thousand monks, all students of the hînayâna. Proceeding from this +place for three days, they again crossed the Indus, where the country on +each side was low and level. + + +[Footnote 1: Lo-e, or Rohi, or Afghanistan; only a portion of it can be +intended.] + +[Footnote 2: We are now therefore in A.D. 404.] + + + +CHAPTER XV + +~Sympathy of Monks with the Pilgrims~ + + +After they had crossed the river, there was a country named Pe-t'oo, +where Buddhism was very flourishing, and the monks studied both the +mahâyâna and hînayâna. When they saw their fellow-disciples from Ts'in +passing along, they were moved with great pity and sympathy, and +expressed themselves thus: "How is it that these men from a border-land +should have learned to become monks, and come for the sake of our +doctrines from such a distance in search of the Law of Buddha?" They +supplied them with what they needed, and treated them in accordance with +the rules of the Law. + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +~Condition and Customs of Central India~ + + +From this place they travelled southeast, passing by a succession of +very many monasteries, with a multitude of monks, who might be counted +by myriads. After passing all these places, they came to a country named +Ma-t'âou-lo. They still followed the course of the P'oo-na river, on the +banks of which, left and right, there were twenty monasteries, which +might contain three thousand monks; and here the Law of Buddha was still +more flourishing. Everywhere, from the Sandy Desert, in all the +countries of India, the kings had been firm believers in that Law. When +they make their offerings to a community of monks, they take off their +royal caps, and along with their relatives and ministers, supply them +with food with their own hands. That done, the king has a carpet spread +for himself on the ground, and sits down on it in front of the +chairman;--they dare not presume to sit on couches in front of the +community. The laws and ways, according to which the kings presented +their offerings when Buddha was in the world, have been handed down to +the present day. + +All south from this is named the Middle Kingdom. In it the cold and heat +are finely tempered, and there is neither hoarfrost nor snow. The people +are numerous and happy; they have not to register their households, or +attend to any magistrates and their rules; only those who cultivate the +royal land have to pay a portion of the gain from it. If they want to go +they go; if they want to stay on, they stay. The king governs without +decapitation or other corporal punishments. Criminals are simply fined, +lightly or heavily, according to the circumstances of each case. Even in +cases of repeated attempts at wicked rebellion, they only have their +right hands cut off. The king's body-guards and attendants all have +salaries. Throughout the whole country the people do not kill any living +creature, nor drink intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic. The +only exception is that of the Chandâlas. That is the name for those who +are held to be wicked men, and live apart from others. When they enter +the gate of a city or a market-place, they strike a piece of wood to +make themselves known, so that men know and avoid them, and do not come +into contact with them. In that country they do not keep pigs and fowls, +and do not sell live cattle; in the markets there are no butchers' shops +and no dealers in intoxicating drink. In buying and selling commodities +they use cowries. Only the Chandâlas are fishermen and hunters, and sell +flesh meat. + +After Buddha attained to pari-nirvâna the kings of the various countries +and the heads of the Vaisyas built vihâras for the priests, and endowed +them with fields, houses, gardens, and orchards, along with the resident +populations and their cattle, the grants being engraved on plates of +metal, so that afterwards they were handed down from king to king, +without any one daring to annul them, and they remain even to the +present time. + +The regular business of the monks is to perform acts of meritorious +virtue, and to recite their Sûtras and sit wrapped in meditation. When +stranger monks arrive at any monastery, the old residents meet and +receive them, carry for them their clothes and alms-bowl, give them +water to wash their feet, oil with which to anoint them, and the liquid +food permitted out of the regular hours. [1] When the stranger has +enjoyed a very brief rest, they further ask the number of years that he +has been a monk, after which he receives a sleeping apartment with its +appurtenances, according to his regular order, and everything is done +for him which the rules prescribe. + +Where a community of monks resides, they erect topes to Sâriputtra, [2] +to Mahâ-maudgalyâyana, [3] and to Ânanda, and also topes in honor of the +Abhidharma, [4] the Vinaya, [4] and the Sûtras. [4] A month after the +annual season of rest, the families which are looking out for blessing +stimulate one another to make offerings to the monks, and send round to +them the liquid food which may be taken out of the ordinary hours. All +the monks come together in a great assembly, and preach the Law; after +which offerings are presented at the tope of Sâriputtra, with all kinds +of flowers and incense. All through the night lamps are kept burning, +and skilful musicians are employed to perform. + +When Sâriputtra was a great Brahman, he went to Buddha, and begged to be +permitted to quit his family and become a monk. The great Mugalan and +the great Kas'yapa also did the same. The bhikshunis [5] for the most +part make their offerings at the tope of Ã…nanda, because it was he who +requested the World-honored one to allow females to quit their families +and become nuns. The Srâmaneras [6] mostly make their offerings to +Rahula. [7] The professors of the Abhidharma make their offerings to it; +those of the Vinaya to it. Every year there is one such offering, and +each class has its own day for it. Students of the mahâyâna present +offerings to the Prajña-pâramitâ, to Mañjus'ri, and to Kwan-she-yin. +When the monks have done receiving their annual tribute from the +harvests, the Heads of the Vaisyas and all the Brahmans bring clothes +and such other articles as the monks require for use, and distribute +among them. The monks, having received them, also proceed to give +portions to one another. From the nirvâna of Buddha, the forms of +ceremony, laws, and rules, practised by the sacred communities, have +been handed down from one generation to another without interruption. + +From the place where the travellers crossed the Indus to South India, +and on to the Southern Sea, a distance of forty or fifty thousand li, +all is level plain. There are no large hills with streams among them; +there are simply the waters of the rivers. + + +[Footnote 1: No monk can eat solid food except between sunrise and noon, +and total abstinence from intoxicating drinks is obligatory. Food eaten +at any other part of the day is called vikâla, and forbidden; but a +weary traveller might receive unseasonable refreshment, consisting of +honey, butter, treacle, and sesamum oil.] + +[Footnote 2: Sâriputtra was one of the principal disciples of Buddha, +and indeed the most learned and ingenious of them all.] + +[Footnote 3: Mugalan, the Singhalese name of this disciple, is more +pronounceable. He also was one of the principal disciples, called +Buddha's "left-hand attendant." He was distinguished for his power of +vision, and his magic powers.] + +[Footnote 4: The different parts of the tripitaka.] + +[Footnote 5: The bhikshunis are the female monks or nuns, subject to the +same rules as the bhikshus, and also to special ordinances of +restraint.] + +[Footnote 6: The Srâmaneras are the novices, male or female, who have +vowed to observe the Shikshâpada, or ten commandments.] + +[Footnote 7: The eldest son of Sâkyamuni by Yasodharâ. Converted to +Buddhism, he followed his father as an attendant; and after Buddha's +death became the founder of a philosophical realistic school +(vaibhâshika). He is now revered as the patron saint of all novices, and +is to be reborn as the eldest son of every future Buddha.] + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +~Legend of the Trayastrimsas Heaven~ + + +From this they proceeded southeast for eighteen yojanas, and found +themselves in a kingdom called Sankâs'ya, at the place where Buddha +came down, after ascending to the Trayastrims'as heaven [1], and there +preaching for three months his Law for the benefit of his mother [2]. +Buddha had gone up to this heaven by his supernatural power, without +letting his disciples know; but seven days before the completion of the +three months he laid aside his invisibility, and Anuruddha [3], with his +heavenly eyes, saw the World-honored one, and immediately said to the +honored one, the great Mugalan, "Do you go and salute the World-honored +one," Mugalan forthwith went, and with head and face did homage at +Buddha's feet. They then saluted and questioned each other, and when +this was over, Buddha said to Mugalan, "Seven days after this I will go +down to Jambudvîpa"; and thereupon Mugalan returned. At this time the +great kings of eight countries with their ministers and people, not +having seen Buddha for a long time, were all thirstily looking up for +him, and had collected in clouds in this kingdom to wait for the +World-honored one. + +Then the bhikshunî Utpala thought in her heart, "To-day the kings, with +their ministers and people, will all be meeting and welcoming Buddha. I +am but a woman; how shall I succeed in being the first to see him?" +Buddha immediately, by his spirit-like power, changed her into the +appearance of a holy Chakravartti king, and she was the foremost of all +in doing reverence to him. + +As Buddha descended from his position aloft in the Trayastrims'as +heaven, when he was coming down, there were made to appear three flights +of precious steps. Buddha was on the middle flight, the steps of which +were composed of the seven precious substances. The king of Brahma-loka +[4] also made a flight of silver steps appear on the right side, where +he was seen attending with a white chowry in his hand. Sakra, Ruler of +Devas, made a flight of steps of purple gold on the left side, where he +was seen attending and holding an umbrella of the seven precious +substances. An innumerable multitude of the devas followed Buddha in his +descent. When he was come down, the three flights all disappeared in the +ground, excepting seven steps, which continued to be visible. Afterwards +king As'oka, wishing to know where their ends rested, sent men to dig +and see. They went down to the yellow springs without reaching the +bottom of the steps, and from this the king received an increase to his +reverence and faith, and built a vihâra over the steps, with a standing +image, sixteen cubits in height, right over the middle flight. Behind +the vihâra he erected a stone pillar, about fifty cubits high, with a +lion on the top of it. [5] Let into the pillar, on each of its four +sides, there is an image of Buddha, inside and out shining and +transparent, and pure as it were of lapis lazuli. Some teachers of +another doctrine once disputed with the S'ramanas about the right to +this as a place of residence, and the latter were having the worst of +the argument, when they took an oath on both sides on the condition +that, if the place did indeed belong to the S'ramanas, there should be +some marvellous attestation of it. When these words had been spoken, the +lion on the top gave a great roar, thus giving the proof; on which their +opponents were frightened, bowed to the decision, and withdrew. + +Through Buddha having for three months partaken of the food of heaven, +his body emitted a heavenly fragrance, unlike that of an ordinary man. +He went immediately and bathed; and afterwards, at the spot where he did +so, a bathing-house was built, which is still existing. At the place +where the bhikshuni Utpala was the first to do reverence to Buddha, a +tope has now been built. + +At the places where Buddha, when he was in the world, cut his hair and +nails, topes are erected; and where the three Buddhas [6] that preceded +S'âkyamuni Buddha and he himself sat; where they walked, and where +images of their persons were made. At all these places topes were made, +and are still existing. At the place where S'akra, Ruler of the Devas, +and the king of the Brahma-loka followed Buddha down from the +Trayastrimsas heaven they have also raised a tope. + +At this place the monks and nuns may be a thousand, who all receive +their food from the common store, and pursue their studies, some of the +mahayana and some of the hînayâna. Where they live, there is a +white-eared dragon, which acts the part of danapati to the community of +these monks, causing abundant harvests in the country, and the enriching +rains to come in season, without the occurrence of any calamities, so +that the monks enjoy their repose and ease. In gratitude for its +kindness, they have made for it a dragon-house, with a carpet for it to +sit on, and appointed for it a diet of blessing, which they present for +its nourishment. Every day they set apart three of their number to go to +its house, and eat there. Whenever the summer retreat is ended, the +dragon straightway changes its form, and appears as a small snake, with +white spots at the side of its ears. As soon as the monks recognize it, +they fill a copper vessel with cream, into which they put the creature, +and then carry it round from the one who has the highest seat at their +tables to him who has the lowest, when it appears as if saluting them. +When it has been taken round, immediately it disappears; and every year +it thus comes forth once. The country is very productive, and the people +are prosperous, and happy beyond comparison. When people of other +countries come to it, they are exceedingly attentive to them all, and +supply them with what they need. + +Fifty yojanas northwest from the monastery there is another, called "The +Great Heap." Great Heap was the name of a wicked demon, who was +converted by Buddha, and men subsequently at this place reared a vihâra. +When it was being made over to an Arhat by pouring water on his hands, +some drops fell on the ground. They are still on the spot, and however +they may be brushed away and removed, they continue to be visible, and +cannot be made to disappear. + +At this place there is also a tope to Buddha, where a good spirit +constantly keeps all about it swept and watered, without any labor of +man being required. A king of corrupt views once said, "Since you are +able to do this, I will lead a multitude of troops and reside there till +the dirt and filth has increased and accumulated, and see whether you +can cleanse it away or not." The spirit thereupon raised a great wind, +which blew the filth away, and made the place pure. + +At this place there are many small topes, at which a man may keep +counting a whole day without being able to know their exact number. If +he be firmly bent on knowing it, he will place a man by the side of each +tope. When this is done, proceeding to count the number of the men, +whether they be many or few, he will not get to know the number. [7] + +There is a monastery, containing perhaps six hundred or seven hundred +monks, in which there is a place where a Pratyeka Buddha used to take +his food. The nirvâna ground where he was burned after death is as large +as a carriage wheel; and while grass grows all around, on this spot +there is none. The ground also where he dried his clothes produces no +grass, but the impression of them, where they lay on it, continues to +the present day. + + +[Footnote 1: The heaven of Indra or Sâkya, meaning "the heaven of +thirty-three classes," a name which has been explained both historically +and mythologically. "The description of it," says Eitel, "tallies in all +respects with the Svarga of Brahmanic mythology. It is situated between +the four peaks of the Meru, and consists of thirty-two cities of devas, +eight on each of the four corners of the mountain. Indra's capital of +Bellevue is in the centre. There he is enthroned, with a thousand heads +and a thousand eyes, and four arms grasping the vajra, with his wife and +119,000 concubines. There he receives the monthly reports of the four +Mahârâjas, concerning the progress of good and evil in the world," etc., +etc.] + +[Footnote 2: Buddha's mother, Mâyâ and Mahâ-mâyâ, died seven days after +his birth.] + +[Footnote 3: Anuruddha was a first cousin of Sâkyamuni, being the son of +his uncle Amritodana. He is often mentioned in the account we have of +Buddha's last moments. His special gift was the "heavenly eye," the +first of the six "supernatural talents," the faculty of comprehending in +one instantaneous view, or by intuition, all beings in all worlds.] + +[Footnote 4: This was Brahma, the first person of the Brahmanical +Trimurti, adopted by Buddhism, but placed in an inferior position, and +surpassed by every Buddhist saint who attains to bodhi.] + +[Footnote 5: A note of Mr. Beal says on this:--"General Cunningham, who +visited the spot (1862), found a pillar, evidently of the age of Asoka, +with a well-carved elephant on the top, which, however, was minus trunk +and tail. He supposes this to be the pillar seen by Fâ-hien, who mistook +the top of it for a lion. It is possible such a mistake may have been +made, as in the account of one of the pillars at Srâvasti, Fâ-hien says +an ox formed the capital, whilst Hsüan-chwang calls it an elephant."] + +[Footnote 6: These three predecessors of Sakya-muni were the three +Buddhas of the present or Mahâ-bhadra Kalpa, of which he was the fourth, +and Maitreya is to be the fifth and last. They were: (i) Kra-kuchanda, +"he who readily solves all doubts"; a scion of the Kasyapa family. Human +life reached in his time forty thousand years, and so many persons were +converted by him. (2) Kanakamuni, "body radiant with the color of pure +gold"; of the same family. Human life reached in his time thirty +thousand years, and so many persons were converted by him. (3) Kasyapa, +"swallower of light." Human life reached in his time twenty thousand +years, and so many persons were converted by him.] + +[Footnote 7: This would seem to be absurd; but the writer evidently +intended to convey the idea that there was something mysterious about +the number of the topes.] + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +~Buddha's Subjects of Discourse~ + + +Fâ-Hien stayed at the Dragon vihara till after the summer retreat, [1] +and then, travelling to the southeast for seven yojanas, he arrived at +the city of Kanyakubja, lying along the Ganges. There are two +monasteries in it, the inmates of which are students of the hinayâna. At +a distance from the city of six or seven li, on the west, on the +northern bank of the Ganges, is a place where Buddha preached the Law to +his disciples. It has been handed down that his subjects of discourse +were such as "The bitterness and vanity of life as impermanent and +uncertain," and that "The body is as a bubble or foam on the water." At +this spot a tope was erected, and still exists. + +Having crossed the Ganges, and gone south for three yojanas, the +travellers arrived at a village named A-le, containing places where +Buddha preached the Law, where he sat, and where he walked, at all of +which topes have been built. + + +[Footnote 1: This was, probably, in A.D. 405.] + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +~Legend of Buddha's Danta-kâshtha~ + + +Going on from this to the southeast for three yojanas, they came to the +great kingdom of Shâ-che. As you go out of the city of Shâ-che by the +southern gate, on the east of the road is the place where Buddha, after +he had chewed his willow branch, stuck it in the ground, when it +forthwith grew up seven cubits, at which height it remained, neither +increasing nor diminishing. The Brahmans, with their contrary doctrines, +became angry and jealous. Sometimes they cut the tree down, sometimes +they plucked it up, and cast it to a distance, but it grew again on the +same spot as at first. Here also is the place where the four Buddhas +walked and sat, and at which a tope was built that is still existing. + + + +CHAPTER XX + +~The Jetavana Vihâra--Legends of Buddha~ + + +Going on from this to the south, for eight yojanas, the travellers came +to the city of Sravasti in the kingdom of Kosala, in which the +inhabitants were few and far between, amounting in all only to a few +more than two hundred families; the city where king Prasenajit ruled, +and the place of the old vihâra of Maha-prajâpati; [1] of the well and +walls of the house of the Vaisya head Sudatta; [2] and where the +Angulimâlya [3] became an Arhat, and his body was afterwards burned on +his attaining to pari-nirvâna. At all these places topes were +subsequently erected, which are still existing in the city. The +Brahmans, with their contrary doctrine, became full of hatred and envy +in their hearts, and wished to destroy them, but there came from the +heavens such a storm of crashing thunder and flashing lightning that +they were not able in the end to effect their purpose. + +As you go out from the city by the south gate, and one thousand two +hundred paces from it, the Vais'ya head Sudatta built a vihâra, facing +the south; and when the door was open, on each side of it there was a +stone pillar, with the figure of a wheel on the top of that on the left, +and the figure of an ox on the top of that on the right. On the left and +right of the building the ponds of water clear and pure, the thickets of +trees always luxuriant, and the numerous flowers of various hues, +constituted a lovely scene, the whole forming what is called the +Jetavana vihâra. + +When Buddha went up to the Trayastrimsas heaven, and preached the Law +for the benefit of his mother, after he had been absent for ninety days, +Prasenajit, longing to see him, caused an image of him to be carved in +Gosirsha Chandana wood, and put in the place where he usually sat. When +Buddha, on his return entered the vihara, this image immediately left +its place, and came forth to meet him. Buddha said to it, "Return to +your seat. After I have attained to pari-nirvâna, you will serve as a +pattern to the four classes of my disciples," [4] and on this the image +returned to its seat. This was the very first of all the images of +Buddha, and that which men subsequently copied. Buddha then removed, and +dwelt in a small vihara on the south side of the other, a different +place from that containing the image, and twenty paces distant from it. + +The Jetavana vihâra was originally of seven stories. The kings and +people of the countries around vied with one another in their offerings, +hanging up about it silken streamers and canopies, scattering flowers, +burning incense, and lighting lamps, so as to make the night as bright +as the day. This they did day after day without ceasing. It happened +that a rat, carrying in its mouth the wick of a lamp, set one of the +streamers or canopies on fire, which caught the vihâra, and the seven +stories were all consumed. The kings, with their officers and people, +were all very sad and distressed, supposing that the sandalwood image +had been burned; but lo! after four or five days, when the door of a +small vihâra on the east was opened, there was immediately seen the +original image. They were all greatly rejoiced, and cooperated in +restoring the vihâra. When they had succeeded in completing two stories, +they removed the image back to its former place. + +When Fâ-hien and Tâo-ching first arrived at the Jetavana monastery, and +thought how the World-honored one had formerly resided there for +twenty-five years, painful reflections arose in their minds. Born in a +border-land, along with their like-minded friends, they had travelled +through so many kingdoms; some of those friends had returned to their +own land, and some had died, proving the impermanence and uncertainty of +life; and today they saw the place where Buddha had lived now unoccupied +by him. They were melancholy through their pain of heart, and the crowd +of monks came out, and asked them from what kingdom they were come. "We +are come," they replied, "from the land of Han." "Strange," said the +monks with a sigh, "that men of a border country should be able to come +here in search of our Law!" Then they said to one another, "During all +the time that we, preceptors and monks, have succeeded to one another, +we have never seen men of Han, followers of our system, arrive here." + +Four li to the northwest of the vihâra there is a grove called "The +Getting of Eyes." Formerly there were five hundred blind men, who lived +here in order that they might be near the vihâra. Buddha preached his +Law to them, and they all got their eyesight. Full of joy, they stuck +their staves in the earth, and with their heads and faces on the ground, +did reverence. The staves immediately began to grow, and they grew to be +great. People made much of them, and no one dared to cut them down, so +that they came to form a grove. It was in this way that it got its name, +and most of the Jetavana monks, after they had taken their mid-day meal, +went to the grove, and sat there in meditation. + +Six or seven li northeast from the Jetavana, mother Vaisakha built +another vihâra, to which she invited Buddha and his monks, and which is +still existing. + +To each of the great residences for the monks at the Jetavana vihâra +there were two gates, one facing the east and the other facing the +north. The park containing the whole was the space of ground which the +Vaisaya head, Sudatta, purchased by covering it with gold coins. The +vihâra was exactly in the centre. Here Buddha lived for a longer time +than at any other place, preaching his Law and converting men. At the +places where he walked and sat they also subsequently reared topes, each +having its particular name; and here was the place where Sundari [5] +murdered a person and then falsely charged Buddha with the crime. +Outside the east gate of the Jetavana, at a distance of seventy paces to +the north, on the west of the road, Buddha held a discussion with the +advocates of the ninety-six schemes of erroneous doctrine, when the king +and his great officers, the householders, and people were all assembled +in crowds to hear it. Then a woman belonging to one of the erroneous +systems, by name Chañchamana, prompted by the envious hatred in her +heart, and having put on extra clothes in front of her person, so as to +give her the appearance of being with child, falsely accused Buddha +before all the assembly of having acted unlawfully towards her. On this, +Sakra, Ruler of Devas, changed himself and some devas into white mice, +which bit through the strings about her waist; and when this was done, +the extra clothes which she wore dropped down on the ground. The earth +at the same time was rent, and she went down alive into hell. This also +is the place where Devadatta, trying with empoisoned claws to injure +Buddha, went down alive into hell. Men subsequently set up marks to +distinguish where both these events took place. + +Further, at the place where the discussion took place, they reared a +vihâra rather more than sixty cubits high, having in it an image of +Buddha in a sitting posture. On the east of the road there was a +devâlaya [6] of one of the contrary systems, called "The Shadow +Covered," right opposite the vihâra on the place of discussion, with +only the road between them, and also rather more than sixty cubits high. +The reason why it was called "The Shadow Covered" was this: When the sun +was in the west, the shadow of the vihâra of the World-honored one fell +on the devâlaya of a contrary system; but when the sun was in the east, +the shadow of that devâlaya was diverted to the north, and never fell on +the vihâra of Buddha. The malbelievers regularly employed men to watch +their devâlaya, to sweep and water all about it, to burn incense, light +the lamps, and present offerings; but in the morning the lamps were +found to have been suddenly removed, and in the vihâra of Buddha. The +Brahmans were indignant, and said, "Those Sramanas take our lamps and +use them for their own service of Buddha, but we will not stop our +service for you!" [7] On that night the Brahmans themselves kept watch, +when they saw the deva spirits which they served take the lamps and go +three times round the vihâra of Buddha and present offerings. After this +administration to Buddha they suddenly disappeared. The Brahmans +thereupon knowing how great was the spiritual power of Buddha, forthwith +left their families, and became monks. It has been handed down, that, +near the time when these things occurred, around the Jetavana vihâra +there were ninety-eight monasteries, in all of which there were monks +residing, excepting only in one place which was vacant. In this Middle +Kingdom there are ninety-six sorts of views, erroneous and different +from our system, all of which recognize this world and the future world +and the connection between them. Each has its multitude of followers, +and they all beg their food: only they do not carry the alms-bowl. They +also, moreover, seek to acquire the blessing of good deeds on +unfrequented ways, setting up on the roadside houses of charity, where +rooms, couches, beds, and food and drink are supplied to travellers, and +also to monks, coming and going as guests, the only difference being in +the time for which those parties remain. + +There are also companies of the followers of Devadatta still existing. +They regularly make offerings to the three previous Buddhas, but not to +Sâkyamuni Buddha. + +Four li southeast from the city of Srâvastî, a tope has been erected at +the place where the World-honored one encountered king Virûdhaha, when +he wished to attack the kingdom of Shay-e, and took his stand before him +at the side of the road. + + +[Footnote 1: Explained by "Path of Love," and "Lord of Life." Prajâpati +was aunt and nurse of Sâkyamuni, the first woman admitted to the +monkhood, and the first superior of the first Buddhistic convent. She is +yet to become a Buddha.] + +[Footnote 2: Sudatta, meaning "almsgiver," was the original name of +Anâtha-pindika, a wealthy householder, or Vaisya head, of Srâvasti, +famous for his liberality. Of his old house, only the well and walls +remained at the time of Fâ-hien's visit to Srâvasti.] + +[Footnote 3: The Angulimâlya were a sect or set of Sivaitic fanatics, +who made assassination a religious act. The one of them here mentioned +had joined them by the force of circumstances. Being converted by +Buddha, he became a monk.] + +[Footnote 4: Ârya, meaning "honorable," "venerable," is a title given +only to those who have mastered the four spiritual truths:--(i) that +"misery" is a necessary condition of all sentient existence; this is +duhka: (ii) that the "accumulation" of misery is caused by the passions; +this is samudaya: (iii) that the "extinction" of passion is possible; +this is nirodha: and (iv) that the "path" leads to the extinction of +passion; which is marga. According to their attainment of these truths, +the Aryas, or followers of Buddha, are distinguished into four +classes--Srotâpannas, Sakridâgamins, Anâgâmins, and Arhats.] + +[Footnote 5: Hsüan-chwang does not give the name of this murderer; see +in Julien's "Vie et Voyages de Hiouen-thsang "--"a heretical Brahman +killed a woman and calumniated Buddha." See also the fuller account in +Beal's "Records of Western Countries," where the murder is committed by +several Brahmacharins. In this passage Beal makes Sundari to be the name +of the murdered person. But the text cannot be so construed.] + +[Footnote 6: A devâlaya is a place in which a deva is worshipped--a +general name for all Brahmanical temples.] + +[Footnote 7: Their speech was somewhat unconnected, but natural enough +in the circumstances. Compare the whole account with the narrative in 1 +Samuel v. about the Ark and Dagon, that "twice-battered god of +Palestine."] + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +~The Three Predecessors of Sâkyamuni~ + + +Fifty li to the west of the city brings the traveller to a town +named Too-wei, the birthplace of Kâsyapa Buddha. At the +place where he and his father met, and at that where he attained +to pari-nirvâna, topes were erected. Over the entire relic +of the whole body of him, the Kâsyapa Tathâgata, a great tope +was also erected. + +Going on southeast from the city of Srâvasti for twelve yojanas, +the travellers came to a town named Na-pei-keâ, the birthplace +of Krakuchanda Buddha. At the place where he and his father met, +and at that where he attained to pari-nirvâna, topes were erected. +Going north from here less than a yojana, they came to a town +which had been the birthplace of Kanakamuni Buddha. At the place +where he and his father met, and where he attained to pari-nirvâna, +topes were erected. + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +~Legends of Buddha's Birth~ + + +Less than a yojana to the east from this brought them to the city of +Kapilavastu; but in it there was neither king nor people. All was mound +and desolation. Of inhabitants there were only some monks and a score or +two of families of the common people. At the spot where stood the old +palace of king Suddhodana there have been made images of his eldest son +and his mother; and at the places where that son appeared mounted on a +white elephant when he entered his mother's womb, and where he turned +his carriage round on seeing the sick man after he had gone out of the +city by the eastern gate, topes have been erected. The places were also +pointed out where the rishi Â-e inspected the marks of Buddhaship on the +body of the heir-apparent when an infant; where, when he was in company +with Nanda and others, on the elephant being struck down and drawn on +one side, he tossed it away; [1] where he shot an arrow to the +southeast, and it went a distance of thirty li, then entering the ground +and making a spring to come forth, which men subsequently fashioned into +a well from which travellers might drink; where, after he had attained +to Wisdom, Buddha returned and saw the king, his father; where five +hundred Sâkyas quitted their families and did reverence to Upâli [2] +while the earth shook and moved in six different ways; where Buddha +preached his Law to the devas, and the four deva kings and others kept +the four doors of the hall, so that even the king, his father, could not +enter; where Buddha sat under a nyagrodha tree, which is still standing, +with his face to the east, and his aunt Mahâ-prajâpati presented him +with a Sanghâli; and where king Vaidûrya slew the seed of Sâkya, and +they all in dying became Srotâpannas. [3] A tope was erected at this +last place, which is still existing. + +Several li northeast from the city was the king's field, where the +heir-apparent sat under a tree, and looked at the ploughers. + +Fifty li east from the city was a garden, named Lumbinî, where the queen +entered the pond and bathed. Having come forth from the pond on the +northern bank, after walking twenty paces, she lifted up her hand, laid +hold of a branch of a tree, and, with her face to the east, gave birth +to the heir-apparent. When he fell to the ground, he immediately walked +seven paces. Two dragon-kings appeared and washed his body. At the place +where they did so, there was immediately formed a well, and from it, as +well as from the above pond, where the queen bathed, the monks even now +constantly take the water, and drink it. + +There are four places of regular and fixed occurrence in the history of +all Buddhas: first, the place where they attained to perfect Wisdom and +became Buddha; second, the place where they turned the wheel of the Law; +third, the place where they preached the Law, discoursed of +righteousness, and discomfited the advocates of erroneous doctrines; and +fourth, the place where they came down, after going up to the +Trayastrimsas heaven to preach the Law for the benefit of their +mothers. Other places in connection with them became remarkable, +according to the manifestations which were made at them at particular +times. + +The country of Kapilavastu is a great scene of empty desolation. The +inhabitants are few and far between. On the roads people have to be on +their guard against white elephants [4] and lions, and should not travel +incautiously. + + +[Footnote 1: The Lichchhavis of Vaisâlî had sent to the young prince a +very fine elephant; but when it was near Kapilavastu, Deva-datta, out of +envy, killed it with a blow of his fist. Nanda (not Ânanda, but a +half-brother of Siddhartha), coming that way, saw the carcass lying on +the road, and pulled it on one side; but the Bodhisattva, seeing it +there, took it by the tail, and tossed it over seven fences and ditches, +when the force of its fall made a great ditch.] + +[Footnote 2: They did this, probably, to show their humility, for Upâli +was only a Sûdra by birth, and had been a barber; so from the first did +Buddhism assert its superiority to the conditions of rank and caste. +Upâli was distinguished by his knowledge of the rules of discipline, and +praised on that account by Buddha. He was one of the three leaders of +the first synod, and the principal compiler of the original Vinaya +books.] + +[Footnote 3: The Srotâpannas are the first class of saints, who are not +to be reborn in a lower sphere, but attain to nirvà na after having been +reborn seven times consecutively as men or devas. The Chinese editions +state there were one thousand of the Sãkya seed. The general account is +that they were five hundred, all maidens, who refused to take their +place in king Vaidurya's harem, and were in consequence taken to a pond, +and had their hands and feet cut off. There Buddha came to them, had +their wounds dressed, and preached to them the Law. They died in the +faith, and were reborn in the region of the four Great Kings. Thence +they came back and visited Buddha at Jetavana in the night, and there +they obtained the reward of Srotâpanna.] + +[Footnote 4: Fâ-hien does not say that he himself saw any of these white +elephants, nor does he speak of the lions as of any particular color. We +shall find by and by, in a note further on, that, to make them appear +more terrible, they are spoken of as "black."] + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +~Legends of Râma and its Tope~ + + +East from Buddha's birthplace, and at a distance of five yojanas, there +is a kingdom called Râma. The king of this country, having obtained one +portion of the relics of Buddha's body, returned with it and built over +it a tope, named the Râma tope. By the side of it there was a pool, and +in the pool a dragon, which constantly kept watch over the tope, and +presented offerings at it day and night. When king Asoka came forth +into the world, he wished to destroy the eight topes over the relics, +and to build instead of them eighty-four thousand topes. [1] After he +had thrown down the seven others, he wished next to destroy this tope. +But then the dragon showed itself, and took the king into its palace; +when he had seen all the things provided for offerings, it said to him, +"If you are able with your offerings to exceed these, you can destroy +the tope, and take it all away. I will not contend with you." The king, +however, knew that such appliances for offerings were not to be had +anywhere in the world, and thereupon returned without carrying out his +purpose. + +Afterwards, the ground all about became overgrown with vegetation, and +there was nobody to sprinkle and sweep about the tope; but a herd of +elephants came regularly, which brought water with their trunks to water +the ground, and various kinds of flowers and incense, which they +presented at the tope. Once there came from one of the kingdoms a +devotee to worship at the tope. When he encountered the elephants he was +greatly alarmed, and screened himself among the trees; but when he saw +them go through with the offerings in the most proper manner, the +thought filled him with great sadness--that there should be no monastery +here, the inmates of which might serve the tope, but the elephants have +to do the watering and sweeping. Forthwith he gave up the great +prohibitions by which he was bound, and resumed the status of a +Srâmanera. With his own hands he cleared away the grass and trees, put +the place in good order, and made it pure and clean. By the power of his +exhortations, he prevailed on the king of the country to form a +residence for monks; and when that was done, he became head of the +monastery. At the present day there are monks residing in it. This event +is of recent occurrence; but in all the succession from that time till +now, there has always been a Srâmanera head of the establishment. + +[Footnote 1: The bones of the human body are supposed to consist of +84,000 atoms, and hence the legend of Asoka's wish to build 84,000 +topes, one over each atom of Sakyamuni's skeleton.] + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +~Where Buddha Renounced the World~ + + +East from here four yojanas, there is the place where the heir-apparent +sent back Chandaka, with his white horse; and there also a tope was +erected. + +Four yojanas to the east from this, the travellers came to the Charcoal +tope, where there is also a monastery. + +Going on twelve yojanas, still to the east, they came to the city of +Kusanagara, on the north of which, between two trees, on the bank of the +Nairañjanâ river, is the place where the World-honored one, with his +head to the north, attained to pan-nirvâna and died. There also are the +places where Subhadra, [1] the last of his converts, attained to Wisdom +and became an Arhat; where in his coffin of gold they made offerings to +the World-honored one for seven days, where the Vajrapâni laid aside his +golden club, and where the eight kings divided the relics of the burnt +body: at all these places were built topes and monasteries, all of which +are now existing. + +In the city the inhabitants are few and far between, comprising only the +families belonging to the different societies of monks. + +Going from this to the southeast for twelve yojanas, they came to the +place where the Lichchhavis wished to follow Buddha to the place of his +pari-nirvâna, and where, when he would not listen to them and they kept +cleaving to him, unwilling to go away, he made to appear a large and +deep ditch which they could not cross over, and gave them his alms-bowl, +as a pledge of his regard, thus sending them back to their families. +There a stone pillar was erected with an account of this event engraved +upon it. + + +[Footnote 1: A Brahman of Benâres, said to have been one hundred and +twenty years old, who came to learn from Buddha the very night he died. +Ânanda would have repulsed him; but Buddha ordered him to be introduced; +and then putting aside the ingenious but unimportant question which he +propounded, preached to him the Law. The Brahman was converted and +attained at once to Arhatship.] + + + +CHAPTER XXV + +~The Kingdom of Vaisâlî~ + + +East from this city ten yojanas, the travellers came to the kingdom of +Vaisâlî. North of the city so named is a large forest, having in it the +double-galleried vihâra where Buddha dwelt, and the tope over half the +body of Ânanda. Inside the city the woman Âmbapâlî [1] built a vihâra in +honor of Buddha, which is now standing as it was at first. Three li +south of the city, on the west of the road, is the garden which the same +Âmbapâlî presented to Buddha, in which he might reside. When Buddha was +about to attain to his pari-nirvâna, as he was quitting the city by the +west gate, he turned round, and, beholding the city on his right, said +to them, "Here I have taken my last walk." Men subsequently built a tope +at this spot. + +Three li northwest of the city there is a tope called, "Bows and weapons +laid down." The reason why it got that name was this: The inferior wife +of a king, whose country lay along the river Ganges, brought forth from +her womb a ball of flesh. The superior wife, jealous of the other, said, +"You have brought forth a thing of evil omen," and immediately it was +put into a box of wood and thrown into the river. Farther down the +stream another king was walking and looking about, when he saw the +wooden box floating in the water. He had it brought to him, opened it, +and found a thousand little boys, upright and complete, and each one +different from the others. He took them and had them brought up. They +grew tall and large, and very daring and strong, crushing all opposition +in every expedition which they undertook. By and by they attacked the +kingdom of their real father, who became in consequence greatly +distressed and sad. His inferior wife asked what it was that made him +so, and he replied, "That king has a thousand sons, daring and strong +beyond compare, and he wishes with them to attack my kingdom; this is +what makes me sad." The wife said, "You need not be sad and sorrowful. +Only make a high gallery on the wall of the city on the east; and when +the thieves come, I shall be able to make them retire." The king did as +she said; and when the enemies came, she said to them from the tower, +"You are my sons; why are you acting so unnaturally and rebelliously?" +They replied, "Who are you that say you are our mother?" "If you do not +believe me," she said, "look, all of you, towards me, and open your +mouths." She then pressed her breasts with her two hands, and each sent +forth five hundred jets of milk, which fell into the mouths of the +thousand sons. The thieves thus knew that she was their mother, and laid +down their bows and weapons. The two kings, the fathers, hereupon fell +into reflection, and both got to be Pratyeka Buddhas. The tope of the +two Pratyeka Buddhas is still existing. + +In a subsequent age, when the World-honored one had attained to perfect +Wisdom and become Buddha, he said to his disciples, "This is the place +where I in a former age laid down my bow and weapons." [2] It was thus +that subsequently men got to know the fact, and raised the tope on this +spot, which in this way received its name. The thousand little boys were +the thousand Buddhas of this Bhadra-kalpa. [3] + +It was by the side of the "Weapons-laid-down" tope that Buddha, having +given up the idea of living longer, said to Ânanda, "In three months +from this I will attain to pari-nirvâna"; and king Mâra [4] had so +fascinated and stupefied Ânanda, that he was not able to ask Buddha to +remain longer in this world. + +Three or four li east from this place there is a tope commemorating the +following occurrence: A hundred years after the pari-nirvâna of Buddha, +some Bhikshus of Vaisâlî went wrong in the matter of the disciplinary +rules in ten particulars, and appealed for their justification to what +they said were the words of Buddha. Hereupon the Arhats and Bhikshus +observant of the rules, to the number in all of seven hundred monks, +examined afresh and collated the collection of disciplinary books [5]. +Subsequently men built at this place the tope in question, which is +still existing. + + +[Footnote 1: Âmbapâlî, Âmrapâlî, or Âmradarikâ, "the guardian of the +Âmra (probably the mango) tree," is famous in Buddhist annals. She was a +courtesan. She had been in many nârakas or hells, was one hundred +thousand times a female beggar, and ten thousand times a prostitute; but +maintaining perfect continence during the period of Kâsyana Buddha, +Sakyamuni's predecessor, she had been born a devî, and finally appeared +in earth under an Âmra tree in Vaisâlî. There again she fell into her +old ways, and had a son by king Bimbisâra; but she was won over by +Buddha to virtue and chastity, renounced the world, and attained to the +state of an Arhat.] + +[Footnote 2: Thus Sâkyamuni had been one of the thousand little boys who +floated in the box in the Ganges. How long back the former age was we +cannot tell. I suppose the tope of the two fathers who became Pratyeka +Buddhas had been built like the one commemorating the laying down of +weapons after Buddha had told his disciples of the strange events in the +past.] + +[Footnote 3: Bhadra-kalpa, "the Kalpa of worthies or sages." "This," +says Eitel, "is a designation for a Kalpa of stability, so-called +because one thousand Buddhas appear in the course of it. Our present +period is a Bhadra-kalpa, and four Buddhas have already appeared. It is +to last two hundred and thirty-six millions of years, but over one +hundred and fifty-one millions have already elapsed."] + +[Footnote 4: "The king of demons." The name Mara is explained by "the +murderer," "the destroyer of virtue," and similar appellations. "He is," +says Eitel, "the personification of lust, the god of love, sin, and +death, the arch-enemy of goodness, residing in the heaven Paranirmita +Vasavartin on the top of the Kamadhatu. He assumes different forms, +especially monstrous ones, to tempt or frighten the saints, or sends his +daughters, or inspires wicked men like Devadatta or the Nirgranthas to +do his work. He is often represented with 100 arms, and riding on an +elephant."] + +[Footnote 5: Or the Vinaya-pitaka. The meeting referred to was an +important one, and is generally spoken of as the second Great Council of +the Buddhist Church. The first Council was that held at Râjagriha, +shortly after Buddha's death, under the presidency of Kâsyapa--say about +B.C. 410. The second was that spoken of here--say about B.C. 300.] + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +~Remarkable Death of Ânanda~ + + +Four yojanas on from this place to the east brought the travellers to +the confluence of the five rivers. When Ânanda was going from Magadha to +Vaisâlî, wishing his pari-nirvâna to take place there, the devas +informed king Ajâtasatru [1] of it, and the king immediately pursued +him, in his own grand carriage, with a body of soldiers, and had reached +the river. On the other hand, the Lichchhavis of Vaisâlî had heard that +Ânanda was coming to their city, and they on their part came to meet +him. In this way, they all arrived together at the river, and Ânanda +considered that, if he went forward, king Ajâtasatru would be very +angry, while, if he went back, the Lichchhavis would resent his conduct. +He thereupon in the very middle of the river burnt his body in a fiery +ecstasy of Samâdhi [2], and his pari-nirvâna was attained. He divided +his body into two parts, leaving one part on each bank; so that each of +the two kings got one part as a sacred relic, and took it back to his +own capital, and there raised a tope over it. + + +[Footnote 1: He was the son of king Bimbisâra, who was one of the first +royal converts to Buddhism. Ajasat murdered his father, or at least +wrought his death; and was at first opposed to Sakyamuni, and a favorer +of Devadotta. When converted, he became famous for his liberality in +almsgiving.] + +[Footnote 2: "Samâdhi," says Eitel, "signifies the highest pitch of +abstract, ecstatic meditation; a state of absolute indifference to all +influences from within or without; a state of torpor of both the +material and spiritual forces of vitality; a sort of terrestrial +Nirvâna, consistently culminating in total destruction of life."] + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +~King Asoka's Spirit-built Palace and Halls~ + + +Having crossed the river, and descended south for a yojana, the +travellers came to the town of Pâtaliputtra [1], in the kingdom of +Magadha, the city where king Asoka ruled. The royal palace and halls +in the midst of the city, which exist now as of old, were all made by +spirits which he employed, and which piled up the stones, reared the +walls and gates, and executed the elegant carving and inlaid +sculpture-work--in a way which no human hands of this world could +accomplish. + +King Asoka had a younger brother who had attained to be an Arhat, and +resided on Gridhra-kûta hill, finding his delight in solitude and quiet. +The king, who sincerely reverenced him, wished and begged him to come +and live in his family, where he could supply all his wants. The other, +however, through his delight in the stillness of the mountain, was +unwilling to accept the invitation, on which the king said to him, "Only +accept my invitation, and I will make a hill for you inside the city." +Accordingly, he provided the materials of a feast, called to him the +spirits, and announced to them, "Tomorrow you will all receive my +invitation; but as there are no mats for you to sit on, let each one +bring his own seat." Next day the spirits came, each one bringing with +him a great rock, like a wall, four or five paces square, for a seat. +When their sitting was over, the king made them form a hill with the +large stones piled on one another, and also at the foot of the hill, +with five large square stones, to make an apartment, which might be more +than thirty cubits long, twenty cubits wide, and more than ten cubits +high. + +In this city there had resided a great Brahman, named Râdha-sâmi, a +professor of the mahâyâna, of clear discernment and much wisdom, who +understood everything, living by himself in spotless purity. The king of +the country honored and reverenced him, and served him as his teacher. +If he went to inquire for and greet him, the king did not presume to sit +down alongside of him; and if, in his love and reverence, he took hold +of his hand, as soon as he let it go, the Brahman made haste to pour +water on it and wash it. He might be more than fifty years old, and all +the kingdom looked up to him. By means of this one man, the Law of +Buddha was widely made-known, and the followers of other doctrines did +not find it in their power to persecute the body of monks in any way. + +By the side of the tope of Asoka, there has been made a mahâyâna +monastery, very grand and beautiful; there is also a hînayâna one; the +two together containing six hundred or seven hundred monks. The rules of +demeanor and the scholastic arrangements in them are worthy of +observation. + +Shamans of the highest virtue from all quarters, and students, inquirers +wishing to find out truth and the grounds of it, all resort to these +monasteries. There also resides in this monastery a Brahman teacher, +whose name also is Mañjusrî, whom the Shamans of greatest virtue in +the kingdom, and the mahâyâna Bhikshus honor and look up to. + +The cities and towns of this country are the greatest of all in the +Middle Kingdom. The inhabitants are rich and prosperous, and vie with +one another in the practice of benevolence and righteousness. Every year +on the eighth day of the second month they celebrate a procession of +images. They make a four-wheeled car, and on it erect a structure of +five stories by means of bamboos tied together. This is supported by a +king-post, with poles and lances slanting from it, and is rather more +than twenty cubits high, having the shape of a tope. White and silk-like +cloth of hair is wrapped all round it, which is then painted in various +colors. They make figures of devas, with gold, silver, and lapis lazuli +grandly blended and having silken streamers and canopies hung out over +them. On the four sides are niches, with a Buddha seated in each, and a +Bodhisattva standing in attendance on him. There may be twenty cars, all +grand and imposing, but each one different from the others. On the day +mentioned, the monks and laity within the borders all come together; +they have singers and skilful musicians: they say their devotions with +flowers and incense. The Brahmans come and invite the Buddhas to enter +the city. These do so in order, and remain two nights in it. All through +the night they keep lamps burning, have skilful music, and present +offerings. This is the practice in all the other kingdoms as well. The +Heads of the Vaisya families in them establish in the cities houses for +dispensing charity and medicines. All the poor and destitute in the +country, orphans, widowers, and childless men, maimed people and +cripples, and all who are diseased, go to those houses, and are provided +with every kind of help, and doctors examine their diseases. They get +the food and medicines which their cases require, and are made to feel +at ease; and when they are better, they go away of themselves. + +When king Asoka destroyed the seven topes, intending to make eighty-four +thousand, the first which he made was the great tope, more than three li +to the south of this city. In front of this there is a footprint of +Buddha, where a vihara has been built. The door of it faces the north, +and on the south of it there is a stone pillar, fourteen or fifteen +cubits in circumference, and more than thirty cubits high, on which +there is an inscription, saying, "Asoka gave the Jambudvipa to the +general body of all the monks, and then redeemed it from them with +money. This he did three times." North from the tope three hundred or +four hundred paces, king Asoka built the city of Ne-le. In it there is a +stone pillar, which also is more than thirty feet high, with a lion on +the top of it. On the pillar there is an inscription recording the +things which led to the building of Ne-le, with the number of the year, +the day, and the month. + + +[Footnote 1: The modern Patna. The Sanscrit name means "The city of +flowers." It is the Indian Florence.] + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +~Râjagriha, New and Old--Legends Connected with It~ + + +The travellers went on from this to the southeast for nine yojanas, and +came to a small solitary rocky hill, at the head or end of which was an +apartment of stone, facing the south--the place where Buddha sat, when +Sakra, Ruler of Devas, brought the deva-musician, Pañchasikha, to give +pleasure to him by playing on his lute. Sakra then asked Buddha about +forty-two subjects, tracing the questions out with his finger one by one +on the rock. The prints of his tracing are still there; and here also +there is a monastery. + +A yojana southwest from this place brought them to the village of Nâla, +where Sâriputtra was born, and to which also he returned, and attained +here his pari-nirvâna. Over the spot where his body was burned there was +built a tope, which is still in existence. + +Another yojana to the west brought them to New Râjagriha--the new city +which was built by king Ajâtasatru. There were two monasteries in it. +Three hundred paces outside the west gate, king Ajâtasatru, having +obtained one portion of the relics of Buddha, built over them a tope, +high, large, grand, and beautiful. Leaving the city by the south gate, +and proceeding south four li, one enters a valley, and comes to a +circular space formed by five hills, which stand all round it, and have +the appearance of the suburban wall of a city. Here was the old city of +king Bimbisâra; from east to west about five or six li, and from north +to south seven or eight. It was here that Sâriputtra and Maudgalyâyana +first saw Upasena [1]; that the Nirgrantha made a pit of fire and +poisoned the rice, and then invited Buddha to eat with him; that king +Ajâtasatru made a black elephant intoxicated with liquor, wishing him to +injure Buddha; and that at the northeast corner of the city in a large +curving space Jîvaka built a vihâra in the garden of Âmbapâlî, and +invited Buddha with his one thousand two hundred and fifty disciples to +it, that he might there make his offerings to support them. These places +are still there as of old, but inside the city all is emptiness and +desolation; no man dwells in it. + +[Footnote 1: One of the five first followers of Sakyamuni. He is also +called Asvajit; in Pali Assaji; but Asvajit seems to be a military +title, "Master or trainer of horses." The two more famous disciples met +him, not to lead him, but to be directed by him, to Buddha.] + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + +~Fâ-Hien Passes a Night on Gridhra-kûta Hill~ + + +Entering the valley, and keeping along the mountains on the southeast, +after ascending fifteen li, the travellers came to mount Gridhra-kûta. +Three li before you reach the top, there is a cavern in the rocks, +facing the south, in which Buddha sat in meditation. Thirty paces to the +northwest there is another, where Ânanda was sitting in meditation, when +the deva Mâra Pisuna, having assumed the form of a large vulture, took +his place in front of the cavern, and frightened the disciple. Then +Buddha, by his mysterious, supernatural power, made a cleft in the rock, +introduced his hand, and stroked Ânanda's shoulder, so that his fear +immediately passed away. The footprints of the bird and the cleft for +Buddha's hand are still there, and hence comes the name of "The Hill of +the Vulture Cavern." + +In front of the cavern there are the places where the four Buddhas sat. +There are caverns also of the Arhats, one where each sat and meditated, +amounting to several hundred in all. At the place where in front of his +rocky apartment Buddha was walking from east to west in meditation, and +Devadatta, from among the beetling cliffs on the north of the mountain, +threw a rock across, and hurt Buddha's toes, the rock is still there. + +The hall where Buddha preached his Law has been destroyed, and only the +foundations of the brick walls remain. On this hill the peak is +beautifully green, and rises grandly up; it is the highest of all the +five hills. In the New City Fâ-hien bought incense-sticks, flowers, oil +and lamps, and hired two bhikshus, long resident at the place, to carry +them to the peak. When he himself got to it, he made his offerings with +the flowers and incense, and lighted the lamps when the darkness began +to come on. He felt melancholy, but restrained his tears and said, "Here +Buddha delivered the Sûrângama Sûtra. I, Fâ-hien, was born when I could +not meet with Buddha; and now I only see the footprints which he has +left, and the place where he lived, and nothing more." With this, in +front of the rock cavern, he chanted the Sûrângama Sûtra, remained there +over the night, and then returned towards the New City. + + + +CHAPTER XXX + +~Srataparna Cave, or Cave of the First Council~ + + +Out from the old city, after walking over three hundred paces, on the +west of the road, the travellers found the Karanda Bamboo garden, where +the old vihâra is still in existence, with a company of monks, who keep +the ground about it swept and watered. + +North of the vihâra two or three li there was the Smasânam, which name +means in Chinese "the field of graves into which the dead are thrown." + +As they kept along the mountain on the south, and went west for three +hundred paces, they found a dwelling among the rocks, named the Pippala +cave, in which Buddha regularly sat in meditation after taking his +mid-day meal. + +Going on still to the west for five or six li, on the north of the hill, +in the shade, they found the cavern called Srataparna, [1] the place +where, after the nirvâna of Buddha, five hundred Arhats collected the +Sûtras. When they brought the Sûtras forth, three lofty seats had been +prepared and grandly ornamented. Sâriputtra occupied the one on the +left, and Maudgalyâyana that on the right. Of the number of five hundred +one was wanting. Mahâkasyapa was president on the middle seat. Ânanda +was then outside the door, and could not get in. At the place there was +subsequently raised a tope, which is still existing. + +Along the sides of the hill, there are also a very great many cells +among the rocks, where the various Arhans sat and meditated. As you +leave the old city on the north, and go down east for three li, there is +the rock dwelling of Devadatta, and at a distance of fifty paces from it +there is a large, square, black rock. Formerly there was a bhikshu, who, +as he walked backwards and forwards upon it, thought with +himself:--"This body is impermanent, a thing of bitterness and vanity, +and which cannot be looked on as pure. I am weary of this body, and +troubled by it as an evil." With this he grasped a knife, and was about +to kill himself. But he thought again:--"The World-honored one laid down +a prohibition against one's killing himself." [2] Further it occurred to +him:--"Yes, he did; but I now only wish to kill three poisonous +thieves." Immediately with the knife he cut his throat. With the first +gash into the flesh he attained the state of a Srotâpanna; when he had +gone half through, he attained to be an Anâgâmin; and when he had cut +right through, he was an Arhat, and attained to pari-nirvâna, and died. + + +[Footnote 1: A very great place in the annals of Buddhism. The Council +in the Srataparna cave did not come together fortuitously, but appears +to have been convoked by the older members to settle the rules and +doctrines of the order. The cave was prepared for the occasion by king +Ajâtasatru.] + +[Footnote 2: Buddha made a law forbidding the monks to commit suicide. +He prohibited any one from discoursing on the miseries of life in such a +manner as to cause desperation.] + + + +CHAPTER XXXI + +~Sâkyamuni's Attaining to the Buddhaship~ + + +From this place, after travelling to the west for four yojanas, the +pilgrims came to the city of Gayâ; but inside the city all was emptiness +and desolation. Going on again to the south for twenty li, they arrived +at the place where the Bodhisattva for six years practised with himself +painful austerities. All around was forest. + +Three li west from here they came to the place where, when Buddha had +gone into the water to bathe, a deva bent down the branch of a tree, by +means of which he succeeded in getting out of the pool. + +Two li north from this was the place where the Grâmika girls presented +to Buddha the rice-gruel made with milk; and two li north from this was +the place where, seated on a rock under a great tree, and facing the +east, he ate the gruel. The tree and the rock are there at the present +day. The rock may be six cubits in breadth and length, and rather more +than two cubits in height. In Central India the cold and heat are so +equally tempered that trees live for several thousand and even for ten +thousand years. + +Half a yojana from this place to the northeast there was a cavern in the +rocks, into which the Bodhisattva entered, and sat cross-legged with his +face to the west. As he did so, he said to himself, "If I am to attain +to perfect wisdom and become Buddha, let there be a supernatural +attestation of it." On the wall of the rock there appeared immediately +the shadow of a Buddha, rather more than three feet in length, which is +still bright at the present day. At this moment heaven and earth were +greatly moved, and devas in the air spoke plainly, "This is not the +place where any Buddha of the past, or he that is to come, has attained, +or will attain, to perfect Wisdom. Less than half a yojana from this to +the southwest will bring you to the patra tree, where all past Buddhas +have attained, and all to come must attain, to perfect Wisdom." When +they had spoken these words, they immediately led the way forward to the +place, singing as they did so. As they thus went away, the Bodhisattva +arose and walked after them. At a distance of thirty paces from the +tree, a deva gave him the grass of lucky omen, which he received and +went on. After he had proceeded fifteen paces, five hundred green birds +came flying towards him, went round him thrice, and disappeared. The +Bodhisattva went forward to the patra tree, placed the kusa grass at the +foot of it, and sat down with his face to the east. Then king Mâra sent +three beautiful young ladies, who came from the north, to tempt him, +while he himself came from the south to do the same. The Bodhisattva put +his toes down on the ground, and the demon soldiers retired and +dispersed, and the three young ladies were changed into old +grandmothers. + +At the place mentioned above of the six years' painful austerities, and +at all these other places, men subsequently reared topes and set up +images, which all exist at the present day. + +Where Buddha, after attaining to perfect Wisdom, for seven days +contemplated the tree, and experienced the joy of vimukti; where, under +the patra tree, he walked to and fro from west to east for seven days; +where the devas made a hall appear, composed of the seven precious +substances, and presented offerings to him for seven days; where the +blind dragon Muchilinda [1] encircled him for seven days; where he sat +under the nyagrodha tree, on a square rock, with his face to the east, +and Brahma-deva came and made his request to him; where the four deva +kings brought to him their alms-bowls; where the five hundred merchants +presented to him the roasted flour and honey; and where he converted the +brothers Kasyapa and their thousand disciples;--at all these places +topes were reared. + +At the place where Buddha attained to perfect Wisdom, there are three +monasteries, in all of which there are monks residing. The families of +their people around supply the societies of these monks with an abundant +sufficiency of what they require, so that there is no lack or stint. The +disciplinary rules are strictly observed by them. The laws regulating +their demeanor in sitting, rising, and entering when the others are +assembled, are those which have been practised by all the saints since +Buddha was in the world down to the present day. The places of the four +great topes have been fixed, and handed down without break, since Buddha +attained to nirvâna. Those four great topes are those at the places +where Buddha was born; where he attained to Wisdom; where he began to +move the wheel of his Law; and where he attained to pari-nirvâna. + + +[Footnote 1: Called also Maha, or the Great Muchilinda. Eitel says: "A +naga king, the tutelary deity of a lake near which Sakyamuni once sat +for seven days absorbed in meditation, whilst the king guarded him." The +account in "The Life of the Buddha" is:--"Buddha went to where +lived the naga king Muchilinda, and he, wishing to preserve him from the +sun and rain, wrapped his body seven times round him, and spread out his +hood over his head; and there he remained seven days in thought."] + + + +CHAPTER XXXII + +~Legend of King Asoka in a Former Birth~ + + +When king Asoka, in a former birth, was a little boy and playing on the +road, he met Kasyapa Buddha walking. The stranger begged food, and the +boy pleasantly took a handful of earth and gave it to him. The Buddha +took the earth, and returned it to the ground on which he was walking; +but because of this the boy received the recompense of becoming a king +of the iron wheel, to rule over Jambudvîpa. Once when he was making a +judicial tour of inspection through Jambudvîpa, he saw, between the iron +circuit of the two hills, a naraka for the punishment of wicked men. +Having thereupon asked his ministers what sort of a thing it was, they +replied, "It belongs to Yama, [1] king of demons, for punishing wicked +people." The king thought within himself:--"Even the king of demons is +able to make a naraka in which to deal with wicked men; why should not +I, who am the lord of men, make a naraka in which to deal with wicked +men?" He forthwith asked his ministers who could make for him a naraka +and preside over the punishment of wicked people in it. They replied +that it was only a man of extreme wickedness who could make it; and the +king thereupon sent officers to seek everywhere for such a bad man; and +they saw by the side of a pond a man tall and strong, with a black +countenance, yellow hair, and green eyes, hooking up the fish with his +feet, while he called to him birds and beasts, and, when they came, then +shot and killed them, so that not one escaped. Having got this man, they +took him to the king, who secretly charged him, "You must make a square +enclosure with high walls. Plant in it all kinds of flowers and fruits; +make good ponds in it for bathing; make it grand and imposing in every +way, so that men shall look to it with thirsting desire; make its gates +strong and sure; and when any one enters, instantly seize him and punish +him as a sinner, not allowing him to get out. Even if I should enter, +punish me as a sinner in the same way, and do not let me go. I now +appoint you master of that naraka." + +Soon after this a bhikshu, pursuing his regular course of begging his +food, entered the gate of the place. When the lictors of the naraka saw +him, they were about to subject him to their tortures; but he, +frightened, begged them to allow him a moment in which to eat his +mid-day meal. Immediately after, there came in another man, whom they +thrust into a mortar and pounded till a red froth overflowed. As the +bhikshu looked on, there came to him the thought of the impermanence, +the painful suffering and inanity of this body, and how it is but as a +bubble and as foam; and instantly he attained to Arhatship. Immediately +after, the lictors seized him, and threw him into a caldron of boiling +water. There was a look of joyful satisfaction, however, in the +bhikshu's countenance. The fire was extinguished, and the water became +cold. In the middle of the caldron there rose up a lotus flower, with +the bhikshu seated on it. The lictors at once went and reported to the +king that there was a marvellous occurrence in the naraka, and wished +him to go and see it; but the king said, "I formerly made such an +agreement that now I dare not go to the place." The lictors said, "This +is not a small matter. Your Majesty ought to go quickly. Let your former +agreement be altered." The king thereupon followed them, and entered the +naraka, when the bhikshu preached the Law to him, and he believed, and +was made free. Forthwith he demolished the naraka, and repented of all +the evil which he had formerly done. From this time he believed in and +honored the Three Precious Ones, and constantly went to a patra tree, +repenting under it, with self-reproach, of his errors, and accepting the +eight rules of abstinence. + +The queen asked where the king was constantly going to, and the +ministers replied that he was constantly to be seen under such and such +a patra tree. She watched for a time when the king was not there, and +then sent men to cut the tree down. When the king came, and saw what had +been done, he swooned away with sorrow, and fell to the ground. His +ministers sprinkled water on his face, and after a considerable time he +revived. He then built all round the stump with bricks, and poured a +hundred pitchers of cows' milk on the roots; and as he lay with his four +limbs spread out on the ground, he took this oath, "If the tree do not +live, I will never rise from this." When he had uttered this oath, the +tree immediately began to grow from the roots, and it has continued to +grow till now, when it is nearly one hundred cubits in height. + + +[Footnote 1: Yama was originally the Âryan god of the dead, living in a +heaven above the world, the regent of the south; but Brahmanism +transferred his abode to hell. Both views have been retained by +Buddhism. The Yama of the text is the "regent of the narakas, residing +south of Jambudvîpa, outside the Chakravâlas (the double circuit of +mountains above), in a palace built of brass and iron. He has a sister +who controls all the female culprits, as he exclusively deals with the +male sex. Three times, however, in every twenty-four hours, a demon +pours boiling copper into Yama's mouth, and squeezes it down his throat, +causing him unspeakable pain." Such, however, is the wonderful +"transrotation of births," that when Yama's sins have been expiated, he +is to be reborn as Buddha, under the name of "The Universal King."] + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII + +~Kasyapa Buddha's Skeleton on Mount Gurupada~ + + +The travellers, going on from this three li to the south, came to a +mountain named Gurupada, inside which Mahâkasyapa even now is. He made a +cleft, and went down into it, though the place where he entered would +not now admit a man. Having gone down very far, there was a hole on one +side, and there the complete body of Kasyapa still abides. Outside the +hole at which he entered is the earth with which he had washed his +hands. If the people living thereabouts have a sore on their heads, they +plaster on it some of the earth from this, and feel immediately easier. +On this mountain, now as of old, there are Arhats abiding. Devotees of +our Law from the various countries in that quarter go year by year to +the mountain, and present offerings to Kasyapa; and to those whose +hearts are strong in faith there come Arhats at night, and talk with +them, discussing and explaining their doubts, and disappearing suddenly +afterwards. + +On this hill hazels grow luxuriantly; and there are many lions, tigers, +and wolves, so that people should not travel incautiously. + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV + +~On the Way Returning to Patna~ + + +Fâ-Hien returned from here towards Pâtaliputtra, keeping along the +course of the Ganges and descending in the direction of the west. After +going ten yojanas he found a vihâra, named "The Wilderness"--a place +where Buddha had dwelt, and where there are monks now. + +Pursuing the same course, and going still to the west, he arrived, after +twelve yojanas, at the city of Vârânasî in the kingdom of Kâsî. Rather +more than ten li to the northeast of the city, he found the vihâra in +the park of "The rishi's Deer-wild." [1] In this park there formerly +resided a Pratyeka Buddha, with whom the deer were regularly in the +habit of stopping for the night. When the World-honored one was about to +attain to perfect Wisdom, the devas sang in the sky, "The son of king +Suddhodana, having quitted his family and studied the Path of Wisdom, +will now in seven days become Buddha." The Pratyeka Buddha heard their +words, and immediately attained to nirvâna; and hence this place was +named "The Park of the rishi's Deer-wild." After the World-honored one +had attained to perfect Wisdom, men built the vihâra in it. + +Buddha wished to convert Kaundinya and his four companions; but they, +being aware of his intention, said to one another, "This Sramana Gotama +[2] for six years continued in the practice of painful austerities, +eating daily only a single hemp-seed, and one grain of rice, without +attaining to the Path of Wisdom; how much less will he do so now that he +has entered again among men, and is giving the reins to the indulgence +of his body, his speech, and his thoughts! What has he to do with the Path +of Wisdom? To-day, when he comes to us, let us be on our guard not to +speak with him." At the places where the five men all rose up, and +respectfully saluted Buddha, when he came to them; where, sixty paces +north from this, he sat with his face to the east, and first turned the +wheel of the Law, converting Kaundinya and the four others; where, +twenty paces further to the north, he delivered his prophecy concerning +Maitreya; and where, at a distance of fifty paces to the south, the +dragon Elâpattra asked him, "When shall I get free from this nâga +body?"--at all these places topes were reared, and are still existing. +In the park there are two monasteries, in both of which there are monks +residing. + +When you go northwest from the vihâra of the Deer-wild park for thirteen +yojanas, there is a kingdom named Kausâmbi. Its vihâra is named +Ghochiravana--a place where Buddha formerly resided. Now, as of old, +there is a company of monks there, most of whom are students of the +hînayâna. + +East from this, when you have travelled eight yojanas, is the place +where Buddha converted the evil demon. There, and where he walked in +meditation and sat at the place which was his regular abode, there have +been topes erected. There is also a monastery, which may contain more +than a hundred monks. + + +[Footnote 1: "The rishi," says Eitel, "is a man whose bodily frame has +undergone a certain transformation by dint of meditation and asceticism, +so that he is, for an indefinite period, exempt from decrepitude, age, +and death. As this period is believed to extend far beyond the usual +duration of human life, such persons are called, and popularly believed +to be, immortals." Rishis are divided into various classes; and +rishi-ism is spoken of as a seventh path of transrotation, and rishis +are referred to as the seventh class of sentient beings.] + +[Footnote 2: This is the only instance in Fâ-hien's text where the +Bodhisattva or Buddha is called by the surname "Gotama." For the most +part our traveller uses Buddha as a proper name, though it properly +means "The Enlightened." He uses also the combinations "Sâkya Buddha," +which means "The Buddha of the Sâkya tribe," and "Sâkyamuni," which +means "The Sâkya sage." This last is the most common designation of the +Buddha in China. Among other Buddhistic peoples "Gotama" and "Gotama +Buddha" are the more frequent designations.] + + + +CHAPTER XXXV + +~Dakshina, and the Pigeon Monastery~ + + +South from this two hundred yojanas, there is a country named Dakshina, +where there is a monastery dedicated to the by-gone Kasyapa Buddha, and +which has been hewn out from a large hill of rock. It consists in all of +five stories;--the lowest, having the form of an elephant, with five +hundred apartments in the rock; the second, having the form of a lion, +with four hundred apartments; the third, having the form of a horse, +with three hundred apartments; the fourth, having the form of an ox, +with two hundred apartments; and the fifth, having the form of a pigeon, +with one hundred apartments. At the very top there is a spring, the +water of which, always in front of the apartments in the rock, goes +round among the rooms, now circling, now curving, till in this way it +arrives at the lowest story, having followed the shape of the structure, +and flows out there at the door. Everywhere in the apartments of the +monks, the rock has been pierced so as to form windows for the admission +of light, so that they are all bright, without any being left in +darkness. At the four corners of the tiers of apartments, the rock has +been hewn so as to form steps for ascending to the top of each. The men +of the present day, being of small size, and going up step by step, +manage to get to the top; but in a former age they did so at one step. +Because of this, the monastery is called Paravata, that being the Indian +name for a pigeon. There are always Arhats residing in it. + +The country about is a tract of uncultivated hillocks, without +inhabitants. At a very long distance from the hill there are villages, +where the people all have bad and erroneous views, and do not know the +Sramanas of the Law of Buddha, Brahmanas, or devotees of any of the +other and different schools. The people of that country are constantly +seeing men on the wing, who come and enter this monastery. On one +occasion, when devotees of various countries came to perform their +worship at it, the people of those villages said to them, "Why do you +not fly? The devotees whom we have seen hereabouts all fly"; and the +strangers answered, on the spur of the moment, "Our wings are not yet +fully formed." + +The kingdom of Dakshina is out of the way, and perilous to traverse. +There are difficulties in connection with the roads; but those who know +how to manage such difficulties and wish to proceed should bring with +them money and various articles, and give them to the king. He will then +send men to escort them. These will, at different stages, pass them over +to others, who will show them the shortest routes. Fâ-hien, however, was +after all unable to go there; but having received the above accounts +from men of the country, he has narrated them. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI + +~Fâ-Hien's Indian Studies~ + + +From Vârânasî the travellers went back east to Pâtaliputtra. Fâ-hien's +original object had been to search for copies of the Vinaya. In the +various kingdoms of North India, however, he had found one master +transmitting orally the rules to another, but no written copies which he +could transcribe. He had therefore travelled far and come on to Central +India. Here, in the mahâyâna monastery, he found a copy of the Vinaya, +containing the Mahâsânghikâ [1] rules--those which were observed in the +first Great Council, while Buddha was still in the world. The original +copy was handed down in the Jetavana vihâra. As to the other eighteen +schools, each one has the views and decisions of its own masters. Those +agree with this in the general meaning, but they have small and trivial +differences, as when one opens and another shuts. This copy of the +rules, however, is the most complete, with the fullest explanations. [2] + +He further got a transcript of the rules in six or seven thousand +gâthas, [3] being the sarvâstivâdâh [4] rules--those which are observed +by the communities of monks in the land of Ts'in; which also have all +been handed down orally from master to master without being committed to +writing. In the community here, moreover, he got the +Samyuktâbhi-dharma-hridaya-sâstra, containing about six or seven +thousand gâthas; he also got a Sûtra of two thousand five hundred +gâthas; one chapter of the Pari-nirvâna-vaipulya Sûtra, of about five +thousand gâthas; and the Mahâsânghikâ Abhidharma. + +In consequence of this success in his quest Fâ-hien stayed here for +three years, learning Sanscrit books and the Sanscrit speech, and +writing out, the Vinaya rules. When Tâo-ching arrived in the Central +Kingdom, and saw the rules observed by the Sramanas, and the dignified +demeanor in their societies which he remarked under all occurring +circumstances, he sadly called to mind in what a mutilated and imperfect +condition the rules were among the monkish communities in the land of +Ts'in, and made the following aspiration: "From this time forth till I +come to the state of Buddha, let me not be born in a frontier-land." He +remained accordingly in India, and did not return to the land of Han. +Fâ-hien, however, whose original purpose had been to secure the +introduction of the complete Vinaya rules into the land of Han, returned +there alone. + + +[Footnote 1: Mahâsânghikâ simply means "the Great Assembly," that is, of +monks.] + +[Footnote 2: It was afterwards translated by Fâ-hien into Chinese.] + +[Footnote 3: A gâtha is a stanza, generally consisting of a few, +commonly of two, lines somewhat metrically arranged.] + +[Footnote 4: "A branch," says Eitel, "of the great vaibhâshika school, +asserting the reality of all visible phenomena, and claiming the +authority of Râhula."] + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII + +~Fâ-hien's Stay in Champâ and Tâmaliptî~ + + +Following the course of the Ganges, and descending eastward for eighteen +yojanas, he found on the southern bank the great kingdom of Champâ, with +topes reared at the places where Buddha walked in meditation by his +vihâra, and where he and the three Buddhas, his predecessors, sat. There +were monks residing at them all. Continuing his journey east for nearly +fifty yojanas, he came to the country of Tâmaliptî, the capital of which +is a seaport. In the country there are twenty-two monasteries, at all of +which there are monks residing. The Law of Buddha is also flourishing in +it. Here Fâ-hien stayed two years, writing out his Sûtras, and drawing +pictures of images. + +After this he embarked in a large merchant-vessel, and went floating +over the sea to the southwest. It was the beginning of winter, and the +wind was favorable; and, after fourteen days, sailing day and night, +they came to the country of Singhala. The people said that it was +distant from Tâmaliptî about seven hundred yojanas. + +The kingdom is on a large island, extending from east to west fifty +yojanas, and from north to south thirty. Left and right from it there +are as many as one hundred small islands, distant from one another ten, +twenty, or even two hundred li; but all subject to the large island. +Most of them produce pearls and precious stones of various kinds; there +is one which produces the pure and brilliant pearl--an island which +would form a square of about ten li. The king employs men to watch and +protect it, and requires three out of every ten pearls which the +collectors find. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII + +~At Ceylon--Feats of Buddha--His Statue in Jade~ + + +The country originally had no human inhabitants, but was occupied only +by spirits and nâgas, with which merchants of various countries carried +on a trade. When the trafficking was taking place, the spirits did not +show themselves. They simply set forth their precious commodities, with +labels of the price attached to them; while the merchants made their +purchases according to the price; and took the things away. + +Through the coming and going of the merchants in this way, when they +went away, the people of their various countries heard how pleasant the +land was, and flocked to it in numbers till it became a great nation. +The climate is temperate and attractive, without any difference of +summer and winter. The vegetation is always luxuriant. Cultivation +proceeds whenever men think fit: there are no fixed seasons for it. + +When Buddha came to this country, wishing to transform the wicked nâgas +by his supernatural power, he planted one foot at the north of the royal +city, and the other on the top of a mountain, [1] the two being fifteen +yojanas apart. Over the footprint at the north of the city the king +built a large tope, four hundred cubits high, grandly adorned with gold +and silver, and finished with a combination of all the precious +substances. By the side of the tope he further built a monastery, called +the Abhayagiri, where there are now five thousand monks. There is in it +a hall of Buddha, adorned with carved and inlaid work of gold and +silver, and rich in the seven precious substances, in which there is an +image of Buddha in green jade, more than twenty cubits in height, +glittering all over with those substances, and having an appearance of +solemn dignity which words cannot express. In the palm of the right hand +there is a priceless pearl. Several years had now elapsed since Fâ-hien +left the land of Han; the men with whom he had been in intercourse had +all been of regions strange to him; his eyes had not rested on an old +and familiar hill or river, plant or tree: his fellow-travellers, +moreover, had been separated from him, some by death, and others flowing +off in different directions; no face or shadow was now with him but his +own, and a constant sadness was in his heart. Suddenly one day, when by +the side of this image of jade, he saw a merchant presenting as his +offering a fan of white silk; [2] and the tears of sorrow involuntarily +filled his eyes and fell down. + +A former king of the country had sent to Central India and got a slip of +the patra tree, which he planted by the side of the hall of Buddha, +where a tree grew up to the height of about two hundred cubits. As it +bent on one side towards the southeast, the king, fearing it would fall, +propped it with a post eight or nine spans around. The tree began to +grow at the very heart of the prop, where it met the trunk; a shoot +pierced through the post, and went down to the ground, where it entered +and formed roots, that rose to the surface and were about four spans +round. Although the post was split in the middle, the outer portions +kept hold of the shoot, and people did not remove them. Beneath the tree +there has been built a vihâra, in which there is an image of Buddha +seated, which the monks and commonalty reverence and look up to without +ever becoming wearied. In the city there has been reared also the vihâra +of Buddha's tooth, in which, as well as on the other, the seven precious +substances have been employed. + +The king practises the Brahmanical purifications, and the sincerity of +the faith and reverence of the population inside the city are also +great. Since the establishment of government in the kingdom there has +been no famine or scarcity, no revolution or disorder. In the treasuries +of the monkish communities there are many precious stones, and the +priceless manis. One of the kings once entered one of those treasuries, +and when he looked all round and saw the priceless pearls, his covetous +greed was excited, and he wished to take them to himself by force. In +three days, however, he came to himself, and immediately went and bowed +his head to the ground in the midst of the monks, to show his repentance +of the evil thought. As a sequel to this, he informed the monks of what +had been in his mind, and desired them to make a regulation that from +that day forth the king should not be allowed to enter the treasury and +see what it contained, and that no bhikshu should enter it till after he +had been in orders for a period of full forty years. + +In the city there are many Vaisya elders and Sabaean merchants, whose +houses are stately and beautiful. The lanes and passages are kept in +good order. At the heads of the four principal streets there have been +built preaching halls, where, on the eighth, fourteenth, and fifteenth +days of the month, they spread carpets, and set forth a pulpit, while +the monks and commonalty from all quarters come together to hear the +Law. The people say that in the kingdom there may be altogether sixty +thousand monks, who get their food from their common stores. The king, +besides, prepares elsewhere in the city a common supply of food for five +or six thousand more. When any want, they take their great bowls, and go +to the place of distribution, and take as much as the vessels will hold, +all returning with them full. + +The tooth of Buddha is always brought forth in the middle of the third +month. Ten days beforehand the king grandly caparisons a large elephant, +on which he mounts a man who can speak distinctly, and is dressed in +royal robes, to beat a large drum, and make the following proclamation: +"The Bodhisattva, during three Asankhyeya-kalpas, [3] manifested his +activity, and did not spare his own life. He gave up kingdom, city, +wife, and son; he plucked out his eyes and gave them to another; he cut +off a piece of his flesh to ransom the life of a dove; he cut off his +head and gave it as an alms; he gave his body to feed a starving +tigress; he grudged not his marrow and brains. In many such ways as +these did he undergo pain for the sake of all living. And so it was, +that, having become Buddha, he continued in the world for forty-five +years, preaching his Law, teaching and transforming, so that those who +had no rest found rest, and the unconverted were converted. When his +connection with the living was completed, he attained to pari-nirvana +and died. Since that event, for one thousand four hundred and +ninety-seven years, the light of the world has gone out, and all living +things have had long-continued sadness. Behold! ten days after this, +Buddha's tooth will be brought forth, and taken to the Abhayagiri +-vihâra. Let all and each, whether monks or laics, who wish to amass +merit for themselves, make the roads smooth and in good condition, +grandly adorn the lanes and by-ways, and provide abundant store of +flowers and incense to be used as offerings to it." + +When this proclamation is over, the king exhibits, so as to line both +sides of the road, the five hundred different bodily forms in which the +Bodhisattva has in the course of his history appeared:--here as Sudâna, +there as Sâma; now as the king of elephants, and then as a stag or a +horse. All these figures are brightly colored and grandly executed, +looking as if they were alive. After this the tooth of Buddha is brought +forth, and is carried along in the middle of the road. Everywhere on the +way offerings are presented to it, and thus it arrives at the hall of +Buddha in the Abhayagiri-vihâra. There monks and laics are collected in +crowds. They burn incense, light lamps, and perform all the prescribed +services, day and night without ceasing, till ninety days have been +completed, when the tooth is returned to the vihâra within the city. On +fast-days the door of that vihâra is opened, and the forms of ceremonial +reverence are observed according to the rules. + +Forty li to the east of the Abhayagiri-vihâra there is a hill, with a +vihâra on it, called the Chaitya, where there may be two thousand monks. +Among them there is a Sramana of great virtue, named Dharma-gupta, +honored and looked up to by all the kingdom. He has lived for more than +forty years in an apartment of stone, constantly showing such gentleness +of heart, that he has brought snakes and rats to stop together in the +same room, without doing one another any harm. + + +[Footnote 1: This would be what is known as "Adam's peak," having, +according to Hardy, the three names of Selesumano, Samastakûta, and +Samanila. There is an indentation on the top of it, a superficial +hollow, 5 feet 3 3/4 inches long, and 2 1/2 feet wide. The Hindus regard +it as the footprint of Siva; the Mohammedans, as that of Adam; and the +Buddhists, as in the text--as having been, made by Buddha.] + +[Footnote 2: We naturally suppose that the merchant-offerer was a +Chinese, as indeed the Chinese texts say, and the fan such as Fâ-hien +had seen and used in his native land.] + +[Footnote 3: A Kalpa, we have seen, denotes a great period of time; a +period during which a physical universe is formed and destroyed. +Asankhyeya denotes the highest sum for which a conventional term +exists--according to Chinese calculations equal to one followed by +seventeen ciphers; according to Thibetan and Singhalese, equal to one +followed by ninety-seven ciphers. Every Maha-kalpa consists of four +Asankhye-yakalpas.] + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX + +~Cremation of an Arhat--Sermon of a Devotee~ + + +South of the city seven li there is a vihâra, called the Mahâ-vihâra, +where three thousand monks reside. There had been among them a Sramana, +of such lofty virtue, and so holy and pure in his observance of the +disciplinary rules, that the people all surmised that he was an Arhat. +When he drew near his end, the king came to examine into the point; and +having assembled the monks according to rule, asked whether the bhikshu +had attained to the full degree of Wisdom. They answered in the +affirmative, saying that he was an Arhat. The king accordingly, when he +died, buried him after the fashion of an Arhat, as the regular rules +prescribed. Four or five li east from the vihâra there was reared a +great pile of firewood, which might be more than thirty cubits square, +and the same in height. Near the top were laid sandal, aloe, and other +kinds of fragrant wood. + +On the four sides of the pile they made steps by which to ascend it. +With clean white hair-cloth, almost like silk, they wrapped the body +round and round. They made a large carriage-frame, in form like our +funeral car, but without the dragons and fishes. + +At the time of the cremation, the king and the people, in multitudes +from all quarters, collected together, and presented offerings of +flowers and incense. While they were following the car to the +burial-ground, the king himself presented flowers and incense. When this +was finished, the car was lifted on the pile, all over which oil of +sweet basil was poured, and then a light was applied. While the fire was +blazing, every one, with a reverent heart, pulled off his upper garment, +and threw it, with his feather-fan and umbrella, from a distance into +the midst of the flames, to assist the burning. When the cremation was +over, they collected and preserved the bones, and proceeded to erect a +tope. Fâ-hien had not arrived in time to see the distinguished Shaman +alive, and only saw his burial. + +At that time the king, who was a sincere believer in the Law of Buddha +and wished to build a new vihâra for the monks, first convoked a great +assembly. After giving the monks a meal of rice, and presenting his +offerings on the occasion, he selected a pair of first-rate oxen, the +horns of which were grandly decorated with gold, silver, and the +precious substances. A golden plough had been provided, and the king +himself turned up a furrow on the four sides of the ground within which +the building was to be. He then endowed the community of the monks with +the population, fields, and houses, writing the grant on plates of +metal, to the effect that from that time onwards, from generation to +generation, no one should venture to annul or alter it. + +In this country Fâ-hien heard an Indian devotee, who was reciting a +Sûtra from the pulpit, say: "Buddha's alms-bowl was at first in Vaisâlî, +and now it is in Gandhâra. After so many hundred years (he gave, when +Fâ-hien heard him, the exact number of years, but he has forgotten it), +it will go to Western Tukhâra; after so many hundred years, to Khoten; +after so many hundred years, to Kharachar; after so many hundred years, +to the land of Han; after so many hundred years, it will come to +Sinhala; and after so many hundred years, it will return to Central +India. After that, it will ascend to the Tushita heaven; and when the +Bodhisattva Maitreya sees it, he will say with a sigh, 'The alms-bowl of +Sâkyamuni Buddha is come'; and with all the devas he will present to it +flowers and incense for seven days. When these have expired, it will +return to Jambudvîpa, where it will be received by the king of the sea +nâgas, and taken into his nâga palace. When Maitreya shall be about to +attain to perfect Wisdom and become Buddha, it will again separate into +four bowls, which will return to the top of mount Anna, whence they +came. After Maitreya has become Buddha, the four deva kings will again +think of the Buddha with their bowls as they did in the case of the +previous Buddha. The thousand Buddhas of this Bhadra-kalpa, indeed, will +all use the same alms-bowl; and when the bowl has disappeared, the Law +of Buddha will go on gradually to be extinguished. After that extinction +has taken place, the life of man will be shortened, till it is only a +period of five years. During this period of a five years' life, rice, +butter, and oil will all vanish away, and men will become exceedingly +wicked. The grass and trees which they lay hold of will change into +swords and clubs, with which they will hurt, cut, and kill one another. +Those among them on whom there is blessing will withdraw from society +among the hills; and when the wicked have exterminated one another, they +will again come forth, and say among themselves, 'The men of former +times enjoyed a very great longevity; but through becoming exceedingly +wicked, and doing all lawless things, the length of our life has been +shortened and reduced even to five years. Let us now unite together in +the practice of what is good, cherishing a gentle and sympathizing +heart, and carefully cultivating good faith and righteousness. When each +one in this way practises that faith and righteousness, life will go on +to double its length till it reaches eighty thousand years. When +Maitreya appears in the world, and begins to turn the wheel of this Law, +he will in the first place save those among the disciples of the Law +left by the Sâkya who have quitted their families, and those who have +accepted the three Refuges, undertaken the five Prohibitions and the +eight Abstinences, and given offerings to the Three Precious Ones; +secondly and thirdly, he will save those between whom and conversion +there is a connection transmitted from the past.'" [1] + +Such was the discourse, and Fâ-hien wished to write it down as a portion +of doctrine; but the man said, "This is taken from no Sûtra, it is only +the utterance of my own mind." + + +[Footnote 1: That is, those whose Karma in the past should be rewarded +by such conversion in the present.] + + + +CHAPTER XL + +~After Two Years Fâ-hien Takes Ship for China~ + + +Fâ-hien abode in this country two years; and, in addition to his +acquisitions in Patna, succeeded in getting a copy of the Vinaya-pitaka +of the Mahîsâsakâh school; the Dîrghâgama and Samyuktâgama Sûtras; and +also the Samyukta-sañchaya-pitaka;--all being works unknown in the land +of Han. Having obtained these Sanscrit works, he took passage in a large +merchantman, on board of which there were more than two hundred men, and +to which was attached by a rope a smaller vessel, as a provision against +damage or injury to the large one from the perils of the navigation. +With a favorable wind, they proceeded eastward for three days, and then +they encountered a great wind. The vessel sprang a leak and the water +came in. The merchants wished to go to the smaller vessel; but the men +on board it, fearing that too many would come, cut the connecting rope. +The merchants were greatly alarmed, feeling their risk of instant death. +Afraid that the vessel would fill, they took their bulky goods and threw +them into the water. Fâ-hien also took his pitcher and washing-basin, +with some other articles, and cast them into the sea; but fearing that +the merchants would cast overboard his books and images, he could only +think with all his heart of Kwan-she-yin, and commit his life to the +protection of the church of the land of Han, saying in effect, "I have +travelled far in search of our Law. Let me, by your dread and +supernatural power, return from my wanderings, and reach my +resting-place!" + +In this way the tempest continued day and night, till on the thirteenth +day the ship was carried to the side of an island, where, on the ebbing +of the tide, the place of the leak was discovered, and it was stopped, +on which the voyage was resumed. On the sea hereabouts there are many +pirates, to meet with whom is speedy death. The great ocean spreads out, +a boundless expanse. There is no knowing east or west; only by observing +the sun, moon, and stars was it possible to go forward. If the weather +were dark and rainy, the ship went as she was carried by the wind, +without any definite course. In the darkness of the night, only the +great waves were to be seen, breaking on one another, and emitting a +brightness like that of fire, with huge turtles and other monsters of +the deep all about. The merchants were full of terror, not knowing where +they were going. The sea was deep and bottomless, and there was no place +where they could drop anchor and stop. But when the sky became clear, +they could tell east and west, and the ship again went forward in the +right direction. If she had come on any hidden rock, there would have +been no way of escape. + +After proceeding in this way for rather more than ninety days, they +arrived at a country called Java-dvipa, where various forms of error and +Brahmanism are flourishing, while Buddhism in it is not worth speaking +of. After staying there for five months, Fâ-hien again embarked in +another large merchantman, which also had on board more than two hundred +men. They carried provisions for fifty days, and commenced the voyage on +the sixteenth day of the fourth month. + +Fâ-hien kept his retreat on board the ship. They took a course to the +northeast, intending to fetch Kwang-chow. After more than a month, when +the night-drum had sounded the second watch, they encountered a black +wind and tempestuous rain, which threw the merchants and passengers into +consternation. Fâ-hien again, with all his heart, directed his thoughts +to Kwan-she-yin and the monkish communities of the land of Han; and, +through their dread and mysterious protection, was preserved to +daybreak. After daybreak, the Brahmans deliberated together and said, +"It is having this Sramana on board which has occasioned our misfortune +and brought us this great and bitter suffering. Let us land the bhikshu +and place him on some island-shore. We must not for the sake of one man +allow ourselves to be exposed to such imminent peril." A patron of +Fâ-hien, however, said to them, "If you land the bhikshu, you must at +the same time land me; and if you do not, then you must kill me. If you +land this Sramana, when I get to the land of Han, I will go to the king, +and inform against you. The king also reveres and believes the Law of +Buddha, and honors the bhikshus." The merchants hereupon were perplexed, +and did not dare immediately to land Fâ-hien. + +At this time the sky continued very dark and gloomy, and the +sailing-masters looked at one another and made mistakes. More than +seventy days passed from their leaving Java, and the provisions and +water were nearly exhausted. They used the salt-water of the sea for +cooking, and carefully divided the fresh water, each man getting two +pints. Soon the whole was nearly gone, and the merchants took counsel +and said, "At the ordinary rate of sailing we ought to have reached +Kwang-chow, and now the time is passed by many days;--must we not have +held a wrong course?" Immediately they directed the ship to the +northwest, looking out for land; and after sailing day and night for +twelve days, they reached the shore on the south of mount Lao, on the +borders of the prefecture of Ch'ang-kwang, and immediately got good +water and vegetables. They had passed through many perils and hardships, +and had been in a state of anxious apprehension for many days together; +and now suddenly arriving at this shore, and seeing those well-known +vegetables, the lei and kwoh, [1] they knew indeed that it was the land +of Han. Not seeing, however, any inhabitants nor any traces of them, +they did not know whereabouts they were. Some said that they had not yet +got to Kwang-chow, and others that they had passed it. Unable to come to +a definite conclusion, some of them got into a small boat and entered a +creek, to look for someone of whom they might ask what the place was. +They found two hunters, whom they brought back with them, and then +called on Fâ-hien to act as interpreter and question them. Fâ-hien first +spoke assuringly to them, and then slowly and distinctly asked them, +"Who are you?" They replied, "We are disciples of Buddha." He then +asked, "What are you looking for among these hills?" They began to +lie,[2] and said, "To-morrow is the fifteenth day of the seventh month. +We wanted to get some peaches to present to Buddha." He asked further, +"What country is this?" They replied, "This is the border of the +prefecture of Ch'ang-kwang, a part of Ts'ing-chow under the ruling House +of Ts'in." When they heard this, the merchants were glad, immediately +asked for a portion of their money and goods, and sent men to +Ch'ang-kwang city. + +The prefect Le E was a reverent believer in the Law of Buddha. When he +heard that a Sramana had arrived in a ship across the sea, bringing with +him books and images, he immediately came to the sea-shore with an +escort to meet the traveller, and receive the books and images, and took +them back with him to the seat of his government. On this the merchants +went back in the direction of Yang-chow; but when Fâ-hien arrived at +Ts'ing-chow, the prefect there begged him to remain with him for a +winter and a summer. After the summer retreat was ended, Fâ-hien, having +been separated for a long time from his fellows, wished to hurry to +Ch'ang-gan; but as the business which he had in hand was important, he +went south to the Capital; and at an interview with the masters there +exhibited the Sûtras and the collection of the Vinaya which he had +procured. + +After Fâ-hien set out from Ch'ang-gan, it took him six years to reach +Central India; stoppages there extended over six years; and on his +return it took him three years to reach Ts'ing-chow. The countries +through which he passed were a few under thirty. From the sandy desert +westwards on to India, the beauty of the dignified demeanor of the +monkhood and of the transforming influence of the Law was beyond the +power of language fully to describe; and reflecting how our masters had +not heard any complete account of them, he therefore went on without +regarding his own poor life, or the dangers to be encountered on the sea +upon his return, thus incurring hardships and difficulties in a double +form. He was fortunate enough, through the dread power of the three +Honored Ones, to receive help and protection in his perils; and +therefore he wrote out an account of his experiences, that worthy +readers might share with him in what he had heard and said. + + +[Footnote 1: What these vegetables exactly were it is difficult to say; +and there are different readings of the characters for kwoh, brings the +two names together in a phrase, but the rendering of it is simply "a +soup of simples."] + +[Footnote 2: It is likely that these men were really hunters; and, when +brought before Fâ-hien, because he was a Sramana, they thought they +would please him by saying they were disciples of Buddha. But what had +disciples of Buddha to do with hunting and taking life? They were caught +in their own trap, and said they were looking for peaches.] + + + + + +~THE SORROWS OF HAN~ + + +[Translated into English by John Francis Davis] + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +"The Sorrows of Han" is considered by Chinese scholars to be one of the +largest tragedies in the whole range of the Chinese drama, which is very +voluminous. Although, properly speaking, there are no theatres in China, +the Chinese are passionately fond of dramatic representations. Chinese +acting is much admired and praised by travellers who are competent to +follow the dialogue. The stage is generally a temporary erection +improvised in a market-place, and the stage arrangements are of the most +primitive character; no scenery is employed, and the actors introduce +themselves in a sort of prologue, in which they state the name and +character they represent in the drama. They also indicate the place +where they are in the story, or the house which they have entered. Yet +the Chinese stage has many points in common with that of Ancient Greece. +It is supported and controlled by government, and has something of a +religious and national character, being particularly employed for +popular amusement in the celebration of religious festivals. Only two +actors are allowed to occupy the stage at the same time, and this is +another point in common with the early Greek drama. The plots or stories +of the Chinese plays are simple and effective, and Voltaire is known to +have taken the plot of a Chinese drama, as Molière took a comedy of +Plautus, and applied it in writing a drama for the modern French stage. +"The Sorrows of Han" belongs to the famous collection entitled "The +Hundred Plays of the Yuen Dynasty." It is divided into acts and is made +up of alternate prose and verse. The movement of the drama is good, and +the dénouement arranged with considerable skill. + +E.W. + + + + +TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE + + +The following drama was selected from the "Hundred Plays of Yuen," which +has already supplied to Europe two specimens of the Chinese stage--the +first, called the "Orphan of Chaou," translated by Père Premare; and the +second, entitled an "Heir in Old Age," by the author of the present +version. "The Sorrows of Han" is historical, and relates to one of the +most interesting periods of the Chinese annals, when the growing +effeminacy of the court, and consequent weakness of the government, +emboldened the Tartars in their aggressions, and first gave rise to the +temporizing and impolitic system of propitiating those barbarians by +tribute, which long after produced the downfall of the empire and the +establishment of the Mongol dominion. + +The moral of the piece is evidently to expose the evil consequences of +luxury, effeminacy, and supineness in the sovereign. + + "When love was all an easy monarch's care, + Seldom at council--never in a war." + +The hero, or rather the chief personage, of the drama, came to the +throne very near the beginning of the Christian era, about B.C. 42. The +fate of the Lady Chaoukeun is a favorite incident in history, of which +painters, poets, and romancers frequently avail themselves; her "Verdant +Lamb" is said to exist at the present day, and to remain green all the +year round, while the vegetation of the desert in which it stands is +parched by the summer sun. + +In selecting this single specimen from among so many, the translator was +influenced by the consideration of its remarkable accordance with our +own canons of criticism. The Chinese themselves make no regular +classification of comedy and tragedy; but we are quite at liberty to +give the latter title to a play which so completely answers to the +European definition. The unity of action is complete, and the unities of +time and place much less violated than they frequently are on our own +stage. The grandeur and gravity of the subject, the rank and dignity of +the personages, the tragical catastrophe, and the strict award of +poetical justice, might satisfy the most rigid admirer of Grecian rules. +The translator has thought it necessary to adhere to the original by +distinguishing the first act (or Proëm) from the four which follow it: +but the distinction is purely nominal, and the piece consists, to all +intents and purposes, of five acts. It is remarkable that this peculiar +division holds true with regard to a large number of the "Hundred Plays +of Yuen." + +The reader will doubtless be struck by the apparent shortness of the +drama which is here presented to him; but the original is eked out, in +common with all Chinese plays, by an irregular operatic species of song, +which the principal character occasionally chants forth in unison with a +louder or a softer accompaniment of music, as may best suit the +sentiment or action of the moment. Some passages have been embodied in +our version: but the translator did not give all, for the same reasons +that prompted Père Premare to give none--"they are full of allusions to +things unfamiliar to us, and figures of speech very difficult for us to +observe." They are frequently, moreover, mere repetitions or +amplifications of the prose parts; and being intended more for the ear +than the eye, are rather adapted to the stage than to the closet. + +His judgment may perhaps be swayed by partiality towards the subject of +his own labors; but the translator cannot help thinking the plot and +incidents of "The Sorrows of Han" superior to those of the "Orphan of +Chaou"--though the genius of Voltaire contrived to make the last the +ground-work of an excellent French tragedy. Far is he, however, from +entertaining the presumptuous expectation that a destiny of equal +splendor awaits the present drama; and he will be quite satisfied if the +reader has patience to read it to the end, and then pronounces it to be +a somewhat curious sample of a very foreign literature. + +JOHN FRANCIS DAVIS. + + + + +DRAMATIS PERSONAE + +YUENTE, Emperor of China of the Dynasty Han. +HANCHENYU, K'han of the Tartars. +MAOUYENSHOW, a worthless Minister of the Emperor. +SHANGSHOO (a title), President of the Imperial Council. +CHANGSHEE (a title), Officer in waiting. +FANSHE (a title), Envoy of the K'han. +CHAOUKEUN, Lady, raised to be Princess of Han. + Tartar Soldiers, Female Attendants, Eunuchs. + +The Scene is laid in the Tartar Camp on the Frontiers; and +in the Palace of Han. + + + + +~THE SORROWS OF HAN~ [1] + + + +~PROLOGUE~ + + +_Enter Hanchenyu, K'han [2] of the Tartars, reciting four verses_. + + +K'HAN. The autumnal gale blows wildly through the grass, + amidst our woolen tents. + And the moon of night, shining on the rude huts, hears the + lament of the mournful pipe: + The countless hosts, with their bended horns, obey me as + their leader. + + Our tribes are ten distinguished friends of the family of Han. I am + Hanchenyu, the old inhabitant of the sandy waste; the sole ruler of + the northern regions. The wild chase is our trade; battle and + conquest our chief occupation. The Emperor Wunwong retired before + our Eastern tribes; Weikeang trembled at us, and sued for our + friendship. The ancient title of our chiefs has in the course of + time been changed to that which I now bear. When the two races of + Tsin and Han contended in battle, and filled the empire with tumult, + our tribes were in full power: numberless was the host of armed + warriors with their bended horns. For seven days my ancestor hemmed + in with his forces the Emperor Kaoute; until, by the contrivance of + the minister, a treaty was concluded, and the Princesses of China + were yielded in marriage to our K'hans. Since the time of Hoeyte and + the Empress Leuhow, [3] each successive generation has adhered to + the established rule, and sought our alliance with its daughters. In + the reign of the late Emperor Seuente, my brothers contended with + myself for the rule of our nation, and its power was weakened until + the tribes elected me as their chief. I am a real descendant of the + empire of Han. I command a hundred thousand armed warriors. We have + moved to the South, and approached the border, claiming an alliance + with the Imperial race. Yesterday I despatched an envoy with + tributary presents to demand a princess in marriage; but know not if + the Emperor will ratify the engagement with the customary oaths. The + fineness of the season has drawn away our chiefs on a hunting + excursion amidst the sandy steppes. May they meet with success, for + we Tartars have no fields--our bows and arrows are our sole means of + subsistence. + +_Enter Minister of Han, reciting verses_. + +MINISTER. Let a man have the heart of a kite, and the talons + of an eagle. + Let him deceive his superiors, and oppress those below + him; + Let him enlist flattery, insinuation, profligacy, and avarice + on his side, + + And he will find them a lasting assistance through life. I am no + other than Maouyenshow, a minister of the sovereign of Han. By a + hundred arts of specious flattery and address I have deceived the + Emperor, until he places his whole delight in me alone. My words he + listens to; and he follows my counsel. Within the precincts of the + palace, as without them, who is there but bows before me--who is + there but trembles at my approach? But observe the chief art which I + have learned: It is this: to persuade the Emperor to keep aloof from + his wise counsellors, and seek all his pleasures amidst the women of + his palace. Thus it is that I strengthen my power and greatness. + But, in the midst of my lucubrations--Here comes the Emperor. + +_Enter Emperor Yuente, attended by Eunuchs and Women_. + +EMPEROR [_recites verses]_. During the ten generations that + have succeeded our acquisition of Empire, my race has alone + possessed the four hundred districts of the world. Long have the + frontiers been bound in tranquillity by the ties of mutual oaths. + And our pillow has been undisturbed by grief or anxiety. Behold in + us the Emperor Yuente, of the race of Han. Our ancestor Kaoute + emerged from a private station, and raised his family by + extinguishing the dynasty of Tsin, and slaughtering their race. Ten + generations have passed away since he left this inheritance to us. + The four boundaries of the empire have been tranquil; the eight + regions at rest! But not through our personal merits; we have wholly + depended on the exertions of our civil and military rulers. On the + demise of our late father, the female inmates of the palace were all + dispersed, and our harem is now solitary and untenanted; but how + shall this be endured! + +MINISTER. Consider, sir, that even the thriving husbandman + may desire to change his partner; then why not your Majesty, whose + title is the Law of Heaven, whose possessions are the whole world! + May I advise that commissioners be despatched to search throughout + the empire for all of whatever rank that is most beautiful between + the ages of fifteen and twenty, for the peopling of the inner + palace. + + EMPEROR. You say well. We appoint you at once our minister of + selection, and will invest you with a written authority. Search + diligently through our realms; and when you have selected the most + worthy, let us be provided with portraits of each, as a means of + fixing our choice. By the merits of your services, you may supply us + with an occasion of rewarding you on your return. [_Exeunt_. + + + +[Footnote 1: Han Koong Tsew, literally "Autumn in the Palace of Han"; +but in Chinese, Autumn is emblematic of Sorrow, as Spring is of Joy, and +may therefore be rendered by what it represents.] + +[Footnote 2: In Chinese, Ko-ban.] + +[Footnote 3: The mother of Hoeyte, a bold and able woman, who ruled for +her son, the second emperor of Han.] + + + +~ACT FIRST~ + + + +MINISTER [_repeats verses_]. The huge ingots of yellow gold I + appropriate to myself. + I heed not the seas of blood which flow by perverting the + laws. + + During life I am determined to have abundance of riches; what care I + for the curses of mankind after my death? Having received the + Emperor's commission to search far and wide for the most beautiful + damsels, I have fixed upon ninety and nine. Their families were glad + to invite my selection by rich gifts, and the treasure that I have + amassed is not small. On arriving yesterday at a district pertaining + to Chingtoo city, I met with a maiden, daughter of one Wongchang. + The brightness of her charms was piercing as an arrow. She was + perfectly beautiful--and doubtless unparalleled in the whole empire. + But, unfortunately, her father is a cultivator of the land, not + possessed of much wealth. When I insisted on a hundred ounces of + gold to secure her being the chief object of the imperial choice, + they first pleaded their poverty--and then, relying on her + extraordinary beauty, rejected my offers altogether. I therefore + left them. [_Considers awhile_.] But no!----I have a better plan. + [_He knits his brows and matures his scheme_.] I will disfigure her + portrait in such a manner that when it reaches the Emperor it shall + secure her being doomed to neglected seclusion. Thus I shall + contrive to make her unhappy for life--Base is the man who delights + not in revenge! [_Exit._ + + +_Night_.--_Enter the Lady Chaoukeun, with two female attendants_. + + +CHAOUKEUN [_recites verses_]. Though raised to be an inhabitant + of the imperial dwelling + I have long been here without the good fortune to see + my prince. + + This beautiful night must I pass in lonely solitude, with no + companion but my lute to solace my retirement. I am a native of + Chingtoo city; and my father's occupation is husbandry. My mother + dreamed on the day I was born that the light of the moon shone on + her bosom, but was soon cast low to the earth.[1] I was just + eighteen years of age when chosen as an inhabitant of the imperial + palace; but the minister Maouyenshow, disappointed in the treasure + which he demanded on my account, disfigured my portrait in such a + manner as to keep me out of the Emperor's presence; and now I live + in neglected solitude. While at home, I learned a little music, and + could play a few airs on the lute. Thus sorrowing in the stillness + of midnight, let me practise one of my songs to dispel my griefs. + [_Begins to play on the lute_. + +_Enter Emperor, attended by a Eunuch, carrying a light_. + +EMPEROR. Since the beauties were selected to grace our palace, + we have not yet discovered a worthy object on whom to fix our + preference. Vexed and disappointed, we pass this day of leisure + roaming in search of her who may be destined for our imperial + choice. [_Hears the lute._] Is not that some lady's lute? + +ATTENDANT. It is.--I hasten to advise her of your Majesty's + approach. + +EMPEROR. No, hold! Keeper of the yellow gate, discover to + what part of our palace that lady pertains; and bid her approach our + presence; but beware lest you alarm her. + +ATTENDANT [_approaches in the direction of the sound, and + speaks_]. What lady plays there? The Emperor comes! approach to meet + him. [_Lady advances_. + +EMPEROR. Keeper of the yellow gate, see that the light burns + brightly within your gauze [2] lamp, and hold it nearer to us. + +LADY _[approaching_]. Had your handmaid but known it was + your Majesty, she would have been less tardy; forgive, then, this + delay. + +EMPEROR. Truly this is a very perfect beauty! From what + quarter come such superior charms? + +LADY. My name is Chaoukeun: my father cultivates at Chingtoo + the fields which he has derived from his family. Born in an humble + station, I am ignorant of the manners that befit a palace. + +EMPEROR. But with such uncommon attractions, what chance + has kept you from our sight? + +LADY. When I was chosen by the minister Maouyenshow, he + demanded of my father an amount of treasure which our poverty could + not supply; he therefore disfigured my portrait, by representing a + scar under the eyes, and caused me to be consigned to seclusion and + neglect. + +EMPEROR. Keeper of the yellow gate, bring us that picture, + that we may view it. [_Sees the picture_.] Ah, how has he dimmed the + purity of the gem, bright as the waves in autumn. [_To the + attendant_] Transmit our pleasure to the officer of the guard, to + behead Maouyenshow and report to us his execution. + +LADY. My parents, sir, are subject to the tax [3] in our native + district. Let me entreat your Majesty to remit their contributions + and extend favor towards them! + +EMPEROR. That shall readily be done. Approach and hear our + imperial pleasure. We create you a Princess of our palace. + +LADY. How unworthy is your handmaid of such gracious distinction! + [_Goes through the form of returning thanks_.] Early to-morrow I + attend your Majesty's commands in this place. The Emperor is gone: + let the attendants close the doors:--I will retire to rest. _[Exit._ + + + +[Footnote 1: Boding a short but fatal distinction to her offspring.] + +[Footnote 2: Instead of glass, to defend it from the wind.] + +[Footnote 3: The principal taxes in China are the land-tax, customs, +salt monopoly, and personal service; which last is the source of much +oppression to the lowest orders, who have nothing but their labor to +contribute.] + + + +~ACT SECOND~ + + + +_Enter K'han of the Tartars, at the head of his Tribes_. + +K'HAN. I lately sent an envoy to the sovereign of Han, with + the demand of a princess in marriage; but the Emperor has returned a + refusal, under the plea that the princess is yet too young. This + answer gives me great trouble. Had he not plenty of ladies in his + palace, of whom he might have sent me one? The difference was of + little consequence. [1] Let me recall my envoy with all speed, for I + must invade the South with out forces. And yet I am unwilling to + break a truce of so many years' standing! We must see how matters + turn out, and be guided by the event. + +_Enter Minister of Han_. + +MINISTER. The severity with which I extorted money, in the + selection of beauties for the palace, led me to disfigure the + picture of Chaoukeun, and consign her to neglected seclusion. But + the Emperor fell in with her, obtained the truth, and condemned me + to lose my head. I contrived to make my escape--though I have no + home to receive me. I will take this true portrait of Chaoukeun and + show it to the Tartar K'han, persuading him to demand her from the + Emperor, who will no doubt be obliged to yield her up. A long + journey has brought me to this spot, and from the troops of men and + horses I conclude I have reached the Tartar camp. [_Addresses + himself to somebody_] Leader, inform King Hanchenyu that a great + minister of the empire of Han is come to wait on him. + +K'HAN [_on being informed_]. Command him to approach. + [_Seeing Maouyenshow_] What person are you? + +MINISTER. I am a minister of Han. In the western palace of + the Emperor is a lady, named Chaoukeun, of rare and surpassing + charms. When your envoy, great king, came to demand a princess, this + lady would have answered the summons, but the Emperor of Han could + not bring himself to part with her, and refused to yield her up. I + repeatedly renewed my bitter reproaches, and asked how he could + bear, for the sake of a woman's beauty, to implicate the welfare of + two nations. For this the Emperor would have beheaded me; and I + therefore escaped with the portrait of the lady, which I present, + great king, to yourself. Should you send away an envoy with the + picture to demand her, she must certainly be delivered up. Here is + the portrait. [_Hands it up_. + +K'HAN. Whence could so beautiful a female have appeared + in the world! If I can only obtain her, my wishes are complete. + Immediately shall an envoy be despatched, and my ministers prepare a + letter to the Emperor of Han, demanding her in marriage as the + condition of peace. Should he refuse, I will presently invade the + South: his hills and rivers shall be exposed to ravage. Our warriors + will commence by hunting, as they proceed on their way; and thus + gradually entering the frontiers, I shall be ready to act as may + best suit the occasion. [_Exit._ + +_The Palace of Han. Enter Lady, attended by females_. + +PRINCESS. A long period has elapsed since I had to thank his + Majesty for his choice. The Emperor's fondness for me is so great, + that he has still neglected to hold a court. I hear he is now gone + to the hall of audience, and will therefore ornament myself at my + toilet and be ready to wait on him at his return. [_Stands opposite + a mirror_. + +_Enter Emperor_. + +EMPEROR. Since we first met with Chaoukeun in the western + palace, we have been as it were deranged and intoxicated; a long + interval has elapsed since we held a court; and on entering the hall + of audience this day, we waited not until the assembly had + dispersed, but returned hither to obtain a sight of her. + [_Perceiving the Princess_.] Let us not alarm her, but observe in + secret what she is doing. + [_Comes close behind and looks over her._] Reflected in that round + mirror, she resembles the Lady in the Moon. [2] + +_Enter President, and an Officer in waiting_. + +PRESIDENT [_recites verses._] Ministers should devote themselves + to the regulation of the empire; They should be occupied with public + cares in the hall of government. But they do nought but attend at + the banquets in the palace. When have they employed a single day in + the service of their prince? + + This day, when the audience was concluded, an envoy arrived from the + Tartars to demand Chaoukeun in marriage, as the only condition of + peace. It is my duty to report this to his Majesty, who has retired + to his western palace. Here I must enter. [_Perceiving the + Emperor._] I report to your Majesty that Hanchenyu, the leader of + the northern foreigners, sends an envoy to declare that Maouyenshow + has presented to him the portrait of the princess, and that he + demands her in marriage as the only condition of peace. If refused, + he will invade the South with a great power, and our rivers and + hills will be exposed to rapine. + +EMPEROR. In vain do we maintain and send forth armies; vain + are the crowds of civil and military officers about our palace! + Which of them will drive back for us these foreign troops? They are + all afraid of the Tartar swords and arrows! But if they cannot exert + themselves to expel the barbarians, why call for the princess to + propitiate them? + +PRESIDENT. The foreigners say that through your Majesty's + devoted fondness for the princess, the affairs of your empire are + falling into ruin. They declare that if the government does not + yield her up, they will put their army in motion, and subdue the + country. Your servant reflects, that Chow-wong [3] who lost his + empire and life entirely through his blind devotion to Takee, is a + fit example to warn your Majesty. Our army is weak, and needs the + talents of a fit general. Should we oppose the Tartars, and be + defeated, what will remain to us? Let your Majesty give up your + fondness for the princess, to save your people. + +OFFICER. The envoy waits without for an audience. + +EMPEROR. Well; command that he approach us. + +_Enter Envoy_. + +ENVOY. Hanchenyu, K'han of the Tartars, sends me, his minister, + to state before the great Sovereign of Han, that the Northern tribes + and the Southern empire have long been bound in peace by mutual + alliances; but that envoys being twice sent to demand a princess, + his requisitions have been refused. The late minister, Maouyenshow, + took with him the portrait of a beautiful lady, and presented it to + the K'ban, who now sends me, his envoy, on purpose to demand the + Lady Chaoukeun, and no other, as the only condition of peace between + the two nations. Should your Majesty refuse, the K'han has a + countless army of brave warriors, and will forthwith invade the + South to try the chances of war. I trust your Majesty will not err + in your decision. + +EMPEROR. The envoy may retire to repose himself in his lodging. + [_Exit the Envoy_.] Let our civil and military officers consult, and + report to us the best mode of causing the foreign troops to retire, + without yielding up the princess to propitiate them. They take + advantage of the compliant softness of her temper. Were the Empress + Leuhow alive--let her utter a word--which of them would dare to be + of a different opinion? It would seem that, for the future, instead + of men for ministers, we need only have fair women to keep our + empire in peace. + +PRINCESS. In return for your Majesty's bounties, it is your + handmaid's duty to brave death to serve you. I can cheerfully enter + into this foreign alliance, for the sake of producing peace, and + shall leave behind me a name still green in history.--But my + affection for your Majesty, how am I to lay aside! + +EMPEROR. Alas, I [4] know too well that I can do no more than + yourself! + +PRESIDENT. I entreat your Majesty to sacrifice your love, and + think of the security of your Dynasty. Hasten, sir, to send the + princess on her way! + +EMPEROR. Let her this day advance a stage on her journey, + and be presented to the envoy.--To-morrow we will repair as far as + the bridge of Pahling, and give her a parting feast. + +PRESIDENT. Alas! Sir, this may not be! It will draw on us + the contempt of these barbarians. + +EMPEROR. We have complied with all our minister's propositions--shall + they not, then, accede to ours? Be it as it may, we will witness her + departure--and then return home to hate the traitor Maouyenshow! + +PRESIDENT. Unwillingly we advise that the princess be sacrificed + for the sake of peace; but the envoy is instructed to insist upon + her alone--and from ancient times, how often hath a nation suffered + for a woman's beauty! + +PRINCESS. Though I go into exile for the nation's good, yet ill + can I bear to part from your Majesty! _[Exeunt._ + + +[Footnote 1: The honor of the imperial alliance being the chief object.] + +[Footnote 2: Changngo, the goddess of the moon, gives her name to the +finely curved eyebrows of the Chinese ladies, which are compared to the +lunar crescent when only a day or two old.] + +[Footnote 3: Chow-wong was the last of the Shang dynasty, and infamous +by his debaucheries and cruelties, in concert with his empress Takee, +the Theodora of Chinese history.] + +[Footnote 4: The imperial pronoun "Tchin," _me_, is with very good taste +supplied by _I_ in these impassioned passages.] + + + +~ACT THIRD~ + + + +_Enter Envoy, escorting the Princess, with a band of music_. + +PRINCESS. Thus was I, in spite of the treachery of Maouyenshow, + who disfigured my portrait, seen and exalted by his Majesty; but the + traitor presented a truer likeness to the Tartar king, who comes at + the head of an army to demand me, with a threat of seizing the + country. There is no remedy--I must be yielded up to propitiate the + invaders! How shall I bear the rigors--the winds and frosts of that + foreign land! It has been said of old, that "surpassing beauty is + often coupled with an unhappy fate." Let me grieve, then, without + entertaining fruitless resentment at the effects of my own + attractions. + +_Enter Emperor, attended by his several officers_. + +EMPEROR. This day we take leave of the princess at Pahling + bridge! [_To his ministers_.] Can ye not devise a way to send out + these foreign troops, without yielding up the princess for the sake + of peace? [_Descends from his horse and seems to grieve with + Chaoukeun_.] Let our attendants delay awhile, till we have conferred + the parting cup. + +ENVOY. Lady, let us urge you to proceed on your way--the + sky darkens, and night is coming on. + +PRINCESS. Alas! when shall I again behold your Majesty? I + will take off my robes of distinction and leave them behind me. + To-day in the palace of Han--to-morrow I shall be espoused to a + stranger. I cease to wear these splendid vestments--they shall no + longer adorn my beauty in the eyes of men. + +ENVOY. Again let us urge you, princess, to depart; we have + delayed but too long already! + +EMPEROR. 'Tis done!--Princess, when you are gone, let your + thoughts forbear to dwell with sorrow and resentment upon us! [_They + part_.] And am I the great Monarch of the line of Han? + +PRESIDENT. Let your Majesty cease to dwell with such grief + upon this subject! + +EMPEROR. She is gone! In vain have we maintained those + armed heroes on the frontier. [1] Mention but swords and spears, and + they tremble at their hearts like a young deer. The princess has + this day performed what belonged to themselves: and yet they affect + the semblance of men! + +PRESIDENT. Your Majesty is entreated to return to the palace: + dwell not so bitterly, Sir, on her memory:--allow her to depart! + +EMPEROR. Did I not think of her, I had a heart of iron--a + heart of iron! The tears of my grief stream in thousand + channels--this evening shall her likeness be suspended in the + palace, where I will sacrifice to it--and tapers with their silver + lights shall illuminate her chamber. + +PRESIDENT. Let your Majesty return to the palace--the princess + is already far distant! [_Exeunt_. + + +_The Tartar Camp. Enter K'han at the head of his tribes, leading +in the Princess_. + + +K'HAN. The Emperor of Han having now, in observance of + old treaties, yielded up to me the Lady Chaoukeun in marriage, I + take her as my rightful queen. The two nations shall enjoy the + benefits of peace. [_To his generals_] Leaders, transmit my + commands to the army to strike our encampment, and proceed to the + north. [_They march_. + + +_The river Amoor. [2] Tartar army on its march_. + + +PRINCESS. What place is this? + +ENVOY. It is the River of the Black Dragon, the frontier of + the Tartar territories and those of China. This southern shore is + the Emperor's; on the northern side commences our Tartar dominion. + +PRINCESS [_to the K'han_]. Great King, I take a cup of wine, + and pour a libation towards the South--my last farewell to the + Emperor--[_pours the libation_] of Han, this life is finished. I + await thee in the next! + +[_Throws herself into the river. The K'han, in great consternation, +endeavors to save her, but in vain_. + +K'HAN. Alas! alas!--so determined was her purpose against + this foreign alliance--she has thrown herself into the stream, and + perished! Tis done, and remediless! Let her sepulchre be on this + river's bank, and be it called "the verdant tomb," [3] She is no + more; and vain has been our enmity with the dynasty of Han! The + traitor Maouyenshow was the author of all this misery. [_To an + officer_] Take Maouyenshow and let him be delivered over to the + Emperor for punishment. I will return to our former friendship with + the dynasty of Han. We will renew and long preserve the sentiments + of relationship. The traitor disfigured the portrait to injure + Chaoukeun--then deserted his sovereign, and stole over to me, whom + he prevailed on to demand the lady in marriage. How little did I + think that she would thus precipitate herself into the stream, and + perish!--In vain did my spirit melt at the sight of her! But if I + detained this profligate and traitorous rebel, he would certainly + prove to us a root of misfortune: it is better to deliver him for + his reward to the Emperor of Han, with whom I will renew, and long + retain, our old feelings of friendship and amity. _[Exeunt._ + + + +[Footnote 1: It may be observed that the great wall is never once +expressly mentioned through this drama. The expression used is Pëensih, +the border, or frontier. The wall had existed two hundred years at this +time, but the real frontier was beyond it.] + +[Footnote 2: Or Saghalien, which falls into the sea of Ochotsk.] + +[Footnote 3: Said to exist now and to be green all the year.] + + + +~ACT FOURTH~ + + + +_Enter Emperor, with an attendant_. + +EMPEROR. Since the princess was yielded to the Tartars, we + have not held an audience. The lonely silence of night but increases + our melancholy! We take the picture of that fair one and suspend it + here, as some small solace to our griefs, [_To the attendant_] + Keeper of the yellow gate, behold, the incense in yonder vase is + burnt out: hasten then to add some more. Though we cannot see her, + we may at least retain this shadow; and, while life remains, betoken + our regard. But oppressed and weary, we would fain take a little + repose. + +[_Lies down to sleep. The Princess appears before him in a +vision_.] [1] + +PRINCESS. Delivered over as a captive to appease the barbarians, + they would have conveyed me to their Northern country: but I took an + occasion to elude them and have escaped back. Is not this the + Emperor, my sovereign? Sir, behold me again restored. + +[_A Tartar soldier appears in the vision_.] + +SOLDIER. While I chanced to sleep, the lady, our captive, has + made her escape, and returned home. In eager pursuit of her, I have + reached the imperial palace.--Is not this she? + +[_Carries her off. The Emperor starts from his sleep_.] + +EMPEROR. We just saw the Princess returned--but alas, how + quickly has she vanished! In bright day she answered not to our + call--but when morning dawned on our troubled sleep, a vision + presented her in this spot. [_Hears the wild fowl's [2] cry_] Hark, + the passing fowl screamed twice or thrice!--Can it know there is no + one so desolate as I? [_Cries repeated_] Perhaps worn out and weak, + hungry and emaciated, they bewail at once the broad nets of the + South and the tough bows of the North. [_Cries repeated_] The + screams of those water-birds but increase our melancholy. + +ATTENDANT. Let your Majesty cease this sorrow, and have + some regard to your sacred [3] person. + +EMPEROR. My sorrows are beyond control. Cease to upbraid + this excess of feeling, since ye are all subject to the same. Yon + doleful cry is not the note of the swallow on the carved rafters, + nor the song of the variegated bird upon the blossoming tree. The + princess has abandoned her home! Know ye in what place she grieves, + listening like me to the screams of the wild bird? + +_Enter President_. + +PRESIDENT. This day after the close of the morning council, + a foreign envoy appeared, bringing with him the fettered traitor + Maouyenshow. He announces that the renegade, by deserting his + allegiance, led to the breach of truce, and occasioned all these + calamities. The princess is no more! and the K'han wishes for peace + and friendship between the two nations. The envoy attends, with + reverence, your imperial decision. + +EMPEROR. Then strike off the traitor's head, and be it presented + as an offering to the shade of the princess! Let a fit banquet be + got ready for the envoy, preparatory to his return. _[Recites these + verses_. + +At the fall of the leaf, when the wild-fowl's cry was heard + in the recesses of the palace. +Sad dreams returned to our lonely pillow; we thought of + her through the night: +Her verdant tomb remains--but where shall we seek her + self? +The perfidious painter's head shall atone for the beauty + which he wronged. + + +[Footnote 1: There is nothing in this more extravagant than the similar +vision in the tragedy of Richard III.] + +[Footnote 2: Yengo, a species of wild goose, is the emblem in China of +intersexual attachment and fidelity, being said never to pair again +after the loss of its mate. An image of it is worshipped by newly +married couples.] + +[Footnote 3: Literally, "dragon person." The emperor's throne is often +called the "dragon seat."] + + + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chinese Literature, by Anonymous + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10056 *** diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..25c1b96 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #10056 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/10056) diff --git a/old/10056-8.txt b/old/10056-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..aae234f --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10056-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,12006 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Chinese Literature, by Anonymous + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Chinese Literature + Comprising The Analects of Confucius, The Sayings of Mencius, The Shi-King, The Travels of Fâ-Hien, and The Sorrows of Han + +Author: Anonymous + +Release Date: November 17, 2003 [EBook #10056] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO Latin-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHINESE LITERATURE *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tam and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +CHINESE LITERATURE + + + +COMPRISING + +THE ANALECTS OF CONFUCIUS, +THE SAYINGS OF MENCIUS, +THE SHI-KING, +THE TRAVELS OF FÂ-HIEN, AND +THE SORROWS OF HAN + + +WITH CRITICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES BY + +EPIPHANIUS WILSON, A.M. + + +REVISED EDITION + +1900 + + + + +THE ANALECTS OF CONFUCIUS + +Introduction + +BOOK + +I. On Learning--Miscellaneous Sayings +II. Good Government--Filial Piety--The Superior Man +III. Abuse of Proprieties in Ceremonial and Music +IV. Social Virtue--Superior and Inferior Man +V. A Disciple and the Golden Rule--Miscellaneous +VI. More Characteristics--Wisdom--Philanthropy +VII. Characteristics of Confucius--An Incident +VIII. Sayings of Tsang--Sentences of the Master +IX. His Favorite Disciple's Opinion of Him +X. Confucius in Private and Official Life +XI. Comparative Worth of His Disciples +XII. The Master's Answers--Philanthropy--Friendships +XIII. Answers on the Art of Governing--Consistency +XIV. Good and Bad Government--Miscellaneous Sayings +XV. Practical Wisdom--Reciprocity the Rule of Life +XVI. Against Intestine Strife--Good and Bad Friendships +XVII. The Master Induced to Take Office--Nature and Habit +XVIII. Good Men in Seclusion--Duke of Chow to His Son +XIX. Teachings of Various Chief Disciples +XX. Extracts from the Book of History + + + +THE SAYINGS OF MENCIUS + +Introduction + +Book I. King Hwuy of Lëang.-- + Part I + +[_Books II., III., and IV. are omitted_] + +Book V. Wan Chang.-- + Part I + + + +THE SHI-KING + +Introduction + +_Part I.--Lessons from the States_. + +BOOK I.--THE ODES OF CHOW AND THE SOUTH.-- + Celebrating the Virtue of King Wan's Bride + Celebrating the Industry of King Wan's Queen + In Praise of a Bride + Celebrating T'ae-Sze's Freedom from Jealousy + The Fruitfulness of the Locust + Lamenting the Absence of a Cherished Friend + Celebrating the Goodness of the Descendants of King Wan + The Virtuous Manners of the Young Women + Praise of a Rabbit-Catcher + The Song of the Plantain-Gatherers + The Affection of the Wives on the Joo + +BOOK II.--THE ODES OF SHAOU AND THE SOUTH.-- + The Marriage of a Princess + The Industry and Reverence of a Prince's Wife + The Wife of Some Great Officer Bewails his Absence + The Diligence of the Young Wife of an Officer + The Love of the People for the Duke of Shaou + The Easy Dignity of the Officers at Some Court + Anxiety of a Young Lady to Get Married + +BOOK III.--THE ODES OF P'EI.-- + An Officer Bewails the Neglect with which He is Treated + A Wife Deplores the Absence of Her Husband + The Plaint of a Rejected Wife + Soldiers of Wei Bewail Separation from their Families + An Officer Tells of His Mean Employment + An Officer Sets Forth His Hard Lot + The Complaint of a Neglected Wife + In Praise of a Maiden + Discontent + Chwang Keang Bemoans Her Husband's Cruelty + +[_Books IV., V., and VI. are omitted_] + +BOOK VII.--THE ODES OF CH'ING.--- + The People's Admiration for Duke Woo + A Wife Consoled by Her Husband's Arrival + In Praise of Some Lady + A Man's Praise of His Wife + An Entreaty + A Woman Scorning Her Lover + A Lady Mourns the Absence of Her Student Lover--- + +BOOK VIII.--THE ODES OF TS'E.-- + A Wife Urging Her Husband to Action + The Folly of Useless Effort + The Prince of Loo + +BOOK IX.--THE ODES OF WEI.-- + On the Misgovernment of the State + The Mean Husband + A Young Soldier on Service + +BOOK X.--THE ODES OF T'ANG.-- + The King Goes to War + Lament of a Bereaved Person + The Drawbacks of Poverty + A Wife Mourns for Her Husband + +BOOK XI.--THE ODES OF TS'IN.-- + Celebrating the Opulence of the Lords of Ts'in + A Complaint + A Wife's Grief Because of Her Husband's Absence + Lament for Three Brothers + In Praise of a Ruler of Ts'in + The Generous Nephew + +BOOK XII.--THE ODES OF CH'IN.-- + The Contentment of a Poor Recluse + The Disappointed Lover + A Love-Song + The Lament of a Lover + +BOOK XIII.--THE ODES OF KWEI-- + The Wish of an Unhappy Man + +BOOK XIV.--THE ODES OF TS'AOU.-- + Against Frivolous Pursuits + +BOOK XV.--THE ODES OF PIN.-- + The Duke of Chow Tells of His Soldiers + There is a Proper Way for Doing Everything + + +_Part II.--Minor Odes of the Kingdom_. + +BOOK I.--DECADE OF LUH MING.-- + A Festal Ode + A Festal Ode Complimenting an Officer + The Value of Friendship + The Response to a Festal Ode + An Ode of Congratulation + An Ode on the Return of the Troops + +BOOK II.--THE DECADE OF PIH HWA.-- + An Ode Appropriate to a Festivity + +BOOK III.--THE DECADE OF T'UNG KUNG.-- + Celebrating a Hunting Expedition + The King's Anxiety for His Morning Levee + Moral Lessons from Natural Facts + +BOOK IV.--THE DECADE OF K'E-FOO.-- + On the Completion of a Royal Palace + The Condition of King Seuen's Flocks + +BOOK V.--THE DECADE OF SEAOU MIN.-- + A Eunuch Complains of His Fate + An Officer Deplores the Misery of the Time + On the Alienation of a Friend + +BOOK VI.--THE DECADE OF PIH SHAN.-- + A Picture of Husbandry + The Complaint of an Officer + +BOOK VII.--DECADE OF SANG HOO.-- + The Rejoicings of a Bridegroom + Against Listening to Slanderers + +BOOK VIII.--THE DECADE OF TOO JIN SZE.-- + In Praise of By-gone Simplicity + A Wife Bemoans Her Husband's Absence + The Earl of Shaou's Work + The Plaint of King Yew's Forsaken Wife + Hospitality + On the Misery of Soldiers + + +_Part III.--Greater Odes of the Kingdom_. + +BOOK I.--DECADE OF KING WAN.-- + Celebrating King Wan + +[_Book II. is omitted_] + +BOOK III.--DECADE OF TANG.-- + King Seuen on the Occasion of a Great Drought + + +_Part IV.--Odes of the Temple and Altar_. + +BOOK I.--SACRIFICIAL ODES OF CHOW.-- + Appropriate to a Sacrifice to King Wan + On Sacrificing to the Kings Woo, Ching, and K'ang + +THE TRAVELS OF FÂ-HIEN +Translator's Introduction +CHAPTER +I. From Ch'ang-gan to the Sandy Desert +II. On to Shen-shen and thence to Khoten +III. Khoten--Processions of Images +IV. Through the Ts'ung Mountains to K'eech-ch'a +V. Great Quinquennial Assembly of Monks +VI. North India--Image of Maitreya Bodhisattva +VII. The Perilous Crossing of the Indus +VIII. Woo-chang, or Udyana--Traces of Buddha +IX. Soo ho-to--Legends of Buddha +X. Gandhara--Legends of Buddha +XI. Takshasila--Legends--The Four Great Topes +XII. Buddha's Alms-bowl--Death of Hwuy-king +XIII. Festival of Buddha's Skull-bone +XIV. Crossing the Indus to the East +XV. Sympathy of Monks with the Pilgrims +XVI. Condition and Customs of Central India +XVII. Legend of the Trayastrimsas Heaven +XVIII. Buddha's Subjects of Discourse +XIX. Legend of Buddha's Danta-kashtha +XX. The Jetavana Vihara--Legends of Buddha +XXI. The Three Predecessors of Sakyamuni +XXII. Legends of Buddha's Birth +XXIII. Legends of Rama and its Tope +XXIV. Where Buddha Renounced the World +XXV. The Kingdom of Vaisali +XXVI. Remarkable Death of Ânanda +XXVII. King Asoka's Spirit-built Palace and Halls +XXVIII. Rajagriha, New and Old--Legends Connected with It +XXIX. Fâ-Hien Passes a Night on Gridhra-kuta Hill +XXX. Srataparna Cave, or Cave of the First Council +XXXI. Sakyamuni's Attaining to the Buddhaship +XXXII. Legend of King Asoka in a Former Birth +XXXIII. Kasyapa Buddha's Skeleton on Mount Gurupada +XXXIV. On the Way Returning to Patna +XXXV. Dakshina, and the Pigeon Monastery +XXXVI. Fâ-Hien's Indian Studies +XXXVII. Fâ-Hien's Stay in Champa and Tamalipti +XXXVIII. At Ceylon--Feats of Buddha--His Statue in Jade +XXXIX. Cremation of an Arhat--Sermon of a Devotee +XL. After Two Years Fâ-Hien Takes Ship for China + +Conclusion + + +THE SORROWS OF HAN + +Introduction +Translator's Preface +Dramatis Personae +Prologue +Act First +Act Second +Act Third +Act Fourth + + + + +THE ANALECTS + +OF + +CONFUCIUS + +[_Translated into English by William Jennings_] + + + +PRONUNCIATION OF PROPER NAMES + +_j_, as in French. +_ng_, commencing a word, like the same letters terminating one. +_ai_ or _ei_, as in _aisle_ or _eider_. +_au_, as in German, or like _ow_ in _cow_. +_é_, as in _fête_. +_i_ (not followed by a consonant), as _ee_ in _see_. +_u_ (followed by a consonant), as in _bull_. +_iu_, as _ew_ in _new_. +_ui_, as _ooi_ in _cooing_. +_h_ at the end of a name makes the preceding vowel short. +_i_ in the middle of a word denotes an aspirate (_h_), as _K'ung_=Khung. + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +The strangest figure that meets us in the annals of Oriental thought is +that of Confucius. To the popular mind he is the founder of a religion, +and yet he has nothing in common with the great religious teachers of +the East. We think of Siddartha, the founder of Buddhism, as the very +impersonation of romantic asceticism, enthusiastic self-sacrifice, and +faith in the things that are invisible. Zoroaster is the friend of God, +talking face to face with the Almighty, and drinking wisdom and +knowledge from the lips of Omniscience. Mohammed is represented as +snatched up into heaven, where he receives the Divine communication +which he is bidden to propagate with fire and sword throughout the +world. These great teachers lived in an atmosphere of the supernatural. +They spoke with the authority of inspired prophets. They brought the +unseen world close to the minds of their disciples. They spoke +positively of immortality, of reward or punishment beyond the grave. The +present life they despised, the future was to them everything in its +promised satisfaction. The teachings of Confucius were of a very +different sort. Throughout his whole writings he has not even mentioned +the name of God. He declined to discuss the question of immortality. +When he was asked about spiritual beings, he remarked, "If we cannot +even know men, how can we know spirits?" + +Yet this was the man the impress of whose teaching has formed the +national character of five hundred millions of people. A temple to +Confucius stands to this day in every town and village of China. His +precepts are committed to memory by every child from the tenderest age, +and each year at the royal university at Pekin the Emperor holds a +festival in honor of the illustrious teacher. + +The influence of Confucius springs, first of all, from the narrowness +and definiteness of his doctrine. He was no transcendentalist, and never +meddled with supramundane things. His teaching was of the earth, earthy; +it dealt entirely with the common relations of life, and the Golden Rule +he must necessarily have stumbled upon, as the most obvious canon of his +system. He strikes us as being the great Stoic of the East, for he +believed that virtue was based on knowledge, knowledge of a man's own +heart, and knowledge of human-kind. There is a pathetic resemblance +between the accounts given of the death of Confucius and the death of +Zeno. Both died almost without warning in dreary hopelessness, without +the ministrations of either love or religion. This may be a mere +coincidence, but the lives and teachings of both men must have led them +to look with indifference upon such an end. For Confucius in his +teaching treated only of man's life on earth, and seems to have had no +ideas with regard to the human lot after death; if he had any ideas he +preserved an inscrutable silence about them. As a moralist he prescribed +the duties of the king and of the father, and advocated the cultivation +by the individual man of that rest or apathy of mind which resembles so +much the disposition aimed at by the Greek and Roman Stoic. Even as a +moralist, he seems to have sacrificed the ideal to the practical, and +his loose notions about marriage, his tolerance of concubinage, the +slight emphasis which he lays on the virtue of veracity--of which indeed +he does not seem himself to have been particularly studious in his +historic writings--place him low down in the rank of moralists. Yet he +taught what he felt the people could receive, and the flat mediocrity of +his character and his teachings has been stamped forever upon a people +who, while they are kindly, gentle, forbearing, and full of family +piety, are palpably lacking not only in the exaltation of Mysticism, but +in any religious feeling, generally so-called. + +The second reason that made the teaching of Confucius so influential is +based on the circumstances of the time. When this thoughtful, earnest +youth awoke to the consciousness of life about him, he saw that the +abuses under which the people groaned sprang from the feudal system, +which cut up the country into separate territories, over which the power +of the king had no control. China was in the position of France in the +years preceding Philippe-Auguste, excepting that there were no places of +sanctuary and no Truce of God. The great doctrine of Confucius was the +unlimited despotism of the Emperor, and his moral precepts were intended +to teach the Emperor how to use his power aright. But the Emperor was +only typical of all those in authority--the feudal duke, the judge on +the bench, and the father of the family. Each could discharge his duties +aright only by submitting to the moral discipline which Confucius +prescribed. A vital element in this system is its conservatism, its +adherence to the imperial idea. As James I said, "No bishop, no king," +so the imperialists of China have found in Confucianism the strongest +basis for the throne, and have supported its dissemination accordingly. + +The Analects of Confucius contain the gist of his teachings, and is +worthy of study. We find in this work most of the precepts which his +disciples have preserved and recorded. They form a code remarkable for +simplicity, even crudity, and we are compelled to admire the force of +character, the practical sagacity, the insight into the needs of the +hour, which enabled Confucius, without claiming any Divine sanction, to +impose this system upon his countrymen. + +The name Confucius is only the Latinized form of two words which mean +"Master K'ung." He was born 551 B.C., his father being governor of +Shantung. He was married at nineteen, and seems to have occupied some +minor position under the government. In his twenty-fourth year he +entered upon the three years' mourning for the death of his mother. His +seclusion gave him time for deep thought and the study of history, and +he resolved upon the regeneration of his unhappy country. By the time he +was thirty he became known as a great teacher, and disciples flocked to +him. But he was yet occupied in public duties, and rose through +successive stages to the office of Chief Judge in his own country of Lu. +His tenure of office is said to have put an end to crime, and he became +the "idol of the people" in his district. The jealousy of the feudal +lords was roused by his fame as a moral teacher and a blameless judge. +Confucius was driven from his home, and wandered about, with a few +disciples, until his sixty-ninth year, when he returned to Lu, after +accomplishing a work which has borne fruit, such as it is, to the +present day. He spent the remaining five years of his life in editing +the odes and historic monuments in which the glories of the ancient +Chinese dynasty are set forth. He died in his seventy-third year, 478 +B.C. There can be no doubt that the success of Confucius has been +singularly great, owing especially to the narrow scope of his scheme, +which has become crystallized in the habits, usages, and customs of the +people. Especially has it been instrumental in consolidating the empire, +and in strengthening the power of the monarch, who, as he every year +burns incense in the red-walled temple at Pekin, utters sincerely the +invocation: "Great art thou, O perfect Sage! Thy virtue is full, thy +doctrine complete. Among mortal men there has not been thine equal. All +kings honor thee. Thy statutes and laws have come gloriously down. Thou +art the pattern in this imperial school. Reverently have the sacrificial +vessels been set out. Full of awe, we sound our drums and bells." + +E. W. + + +THE ANALECTS + + +BOOK I + +On Learning--Miscellaneous Sayings:-- + + +"To learn," said the Master, "and then to practise opportunely what one +has learnt--does not this bring with it a sense of satisfaction? + +"To have associates in study coming to one from distant parts--does not +this also mean pleasure in store? + +"And are not those who, while not comprehending all that is said, still +remain not unpleased to hear, men of the superior order?" + + +A saying of the Scholar Yu:-- + +"It is rarely the case that those who act the part of true men in regard +to their duty to parents and elder brothers are at the same time willing +to turn currishly upon their superiors: it has never yet been the case +that such as desire not to commit that offence have been men willing to +promote anarchy or disorder. + +"Men of superior mind busy themselves first in getting at the root of +things; and when they have succeeded in this the right course is open to +them. Well, are not filial piety and friendly subordination among +brothers a root of that right feeling which is owing generally from man +to man?" + +The Master observed, "Rarely do we meet with the right feeling due from +one man to another where there is fine speech and studied mien." + +The Scholar Tsang once said of himself: "On three points I examine +myself daily, viz., whether, in looking after other people's interests, +I have not been acting whole-heartedly; whether, in my intercourse with +friends, I have not been true; and whether, after teaching, I have not +myself been practising what I have taught." + +The Master once observed that to rule well one of the larger States +meant strict attention to its affairs and conscientiousness on the part +of the ruler; careful husbanding of its resources, with at the same time +a tender care for the interests of all classes; and the employing of the +masses in the public service at suitable seasons. + +"Let young people," said he, "show filial piety at home, respectfulness +towards their elders when away from home; let them be circumspect, be +truthful; their love going out freely towards all, cultivating good-will +to men. And if, in such a walk, there be time or energy left for other +things, let them employ it in the acquisition of literary or artistic +accomplishments." + +The disciple Tsz-hiá said, "The appreciation of worth in men of worth, +thus diverting the mind from lascivious desires--ministering to parents +while one is the most capable of so doing--serving one's ruler when one +is able to devote himself entirely to that object--being sincere in +one's language in intercourse with friends: this I certainly must call +evidence of learning, though others may say there has been 'no +learning.'" + + +Sayings of the Master:-- + +"If the great man be not grave, he will not be revered, neither can his +learning be solid. + +"Give prominent place to loyalty and sincerity. + +"Have no associates in study who are not advanced somewhat like +yourself. + +"When you have erred, be not afraid to correct yourself." + + +A saying of the Scholar Tsang:-- + +"The virtue of the people is renewed and enriched when attention is seen +to be paid to the departed, and the remembrance of distant ancestors +kept and cherished." + +Tsz-k'in put this query to his fellow disciple Tsz-kung: said he, "When +our Master comes to this or that State, he learns without fail how it is +being governed. Does he investigate matters? or are the facts given +him?" + +Tsz-kung answered, "Our Master is a man of pleasant manners, and of +probity, courteous, moderate, and unassuming: it is by his being such +that he arrives at the facts. Is not his way of arriving at things +different from that of others?" + + +A saying of the Master:-- + +"He who, after three years' observation of the will of his father when +alive, or of his past conduct if dead, does not deviate from that +father's ways, is entitled to be called 'a dutiful son.'" + + +Sayings of the Scholar Yu:-- + +"For the practice of the Rules of Propriety,[1] one excellent way is to +be natural. This naturalness became a great grace in the practice of +kings of former times; let everyone, small or great, follow their +example. + +"It is not, however, always practicable; and it is not so in the case of +a person who does things naturally, knowing that he should act so, and +yet who neglects to regulate his acts according to the Rules. + +"When truth and right are hand in hand, a statement will bear +repetition. When respectfulness and propriety go hand in hand, disgrace +and shame are kept afar-off. Remove all occasion for alienating those to +whom you are bound by close ties, and you have them still to resort to." + + +A saying of the Master:-- + +"The man of greater mind who, when he is eating, craves not to eat to +the full; who has a home, but craves not for comforts in it; who is +active and earnest in his work and careful in his words; who makes +towards men of high principle, and so maintains his own rectitude--that +man may be styled a devoted student." + +Tsz-kung asked, "What say you, sir, of the poor who do not cringe and +fawn; and what of the rich who are without pride and haughtiness?" "They +are passable," the Master replied; "yet they are scarcely in the same +category as the poor who are happy, and the rich who love propriety." + +"In the 'Book of the Odes,'" Tsz-kung went on to say, "we read of one + + Polished, as by the knife and file, + The graving-tool, the smoothing-stone. + +Does that coincide with your remark?" + +"Ah! such as you," replied the Master, "may well commence a discussion +on the Odes. If one tell you how a thing goes, you know what ought to +come." + +"It does not greatly concern me," said the Master, "that men do not know +me; my great concern is, my not knowing them." + + +[Footnote 1: An important part of a Chinaman's education still. The +text-book, "The Li Ki," contains rules for behavior and propriety for +the whole life, from the cradle to the grave.] + + + +BOOK II + +Good Government--Filial Piety--The Superior Man + + +Sayings of the Master:-- + +"Let a ruler base his government upon virtuous principles, and he will +be like the pole-star, which remains steadfast in its place, while all +the host of stars turn towards it. + +"The 'Book of Odes' contains three hundred pieces, but one expression in +it may be taken as covering the purport of all, viz., Unswerving +mindfulness. + +"To govern simply by statute, and to reduce all to order by means of +pains and penalties, is to render the people evasive, and devoid of any +sense of shame. + +"To govern upon principles of virtue, and to reduce them to order by the +Rules of Propriety, would not only create in them the sense of shame, +but would moreover reach them in all their errors. + +"When I attained the age of fifteen, I became bent upon study. At +thirty, I was a confirmed student. At forty, nought could move me from +my course. At fifty, I comprehended the will and decrees of Heaven. At +sixty, my ears were attuned to them. At seventy, I could follow my +heart's desires, without overstepping the lines of rectitude." + +To a question of Mang-i, as to what filial piety consisted in, the +master replied, "In not being perverse." Afterwards, when Fan Ch'i was +driving him, the Master informed him of this question and answer, and +Fan Ch'i asked, "What was your meaning?" The Master replied, "I meant +that the Rules of Propriety should always be adhered to in regard to +those who brought us into the world: in ministering to them while +living, in burying them when dead, and afterwards in the offering to +them of sacrificial gifts." + +To a query of Mang Wu respecting filial piety, the Master replied, +"Parents ought to bear but one trouble--that of their own sickness." + +To a like question put by Tsz-yu, his reply was this: "The filial piety +of the present day simply means the being able to support one's +parents--which extends even to the case of dogs and horses, all of which +may have something to give in the way of support. If there be no +reverential feeling in the matter, what is there to distinguish between +the cases?" + +To a like question of Tsz-hia, he replied: "The manner is the +difficulty. If, in the case of work to be done, the younger folks simply +take upon themselves the toil of it; or if, in the matter of meat and +drink, they simply set these before their elders--is this to be taken as +filial piety?" + +Once the Master remarked, "I have conversed with Hwúi the whole day +long, and he has controverted nothing that I have said, as if he were +without wits. But when his back was turned, and I looked attentively at +his conduct apart from me, I found it satisfactory in all its issues. +No, indeed! Hwúi is not without his wits." + + +Other observations of the Master:-- + +"If you observe what things people (usually) take in hand, watch their +motives, and note particularly what it is that gives them satisfaction, +shall they be able to conceal from you what they are? Conceal +themselves, indeed! + +"Be versed in ancient lore, and familiarize yourself with the modern; +then may you become teachers. + +"The great man is not a mere receptacle." + +In reply to Tsz-kung respecting the great man:-- + +"What he first says, as a result of his experience, he afterwards +follows up. + +"The great man is catholic-minded, and not one-sided. The common man is +the reverse. + +"Learning, without thought, is a snare; thought, without learning, is a +danger. + +"Where the mind is set much upon heterodox principles--there truly and +indeed is harm." + +To the disciple Tsz-lu the Master said, "Shall I give you a lesson about +knowledge? When you know a thing, maintain that you know it; and when +you do not, acknowledge your ignorance. This is characteristic of +knowledge." + +Tsz-chang was studying with an eye to official income. The Master +addressed him thus: "Of the many things you hear hold aloof from those +that are doubtful, and speak guardedly with reference to the rest; your +mistakes will then be few. Also, of the many courses you see adopted, +hold aloof from those that are risky, and carefully follow the others; +you will then seldom have occasion for regret. Thus, being seldom +mistaken in your utterances, and having few occasions for regret in the +line you take, you are on the high road to your preferment." + +To a question put to him by Duke Ngai [2] as to what should be done in +order to render the people submissive to authority, Confucius replied, +"Promote the straightforward, and reject those whose courses are +crooked, and the thing will be effected. Promote the crooked and reject +the straightforward, and the effect will be the reverse." + +When Ki K'ang [3] asked of him how the people could be induced to show +respect, loyalty, and willingness to be led, the Master answered, "Let +there be grave dignity in him who has the oversight of them, and they +will show him respect; let him be seen to be good to his own parents, +and kindly in disposition, and they will be loyal to him; let him +promote those who have ability, and see to the instruction of those who +have it not, and they will be willing to be led." + +Some one, speaking to Confucius, inquired, "Why, sir, are you not an +administrator of government?" The Master rejoined, "What says the 'Book +of the Annals,' with reference to filial duty?--'Make it a point to be +dutiful to your parents and amicable with your brethren; the same duties +extend to an administrator.' If these, then, also make an administrator, +how am I to take your words about being an administrator?" + +On one occasion the Master remarked, "I know not what men are good for, +on whose word no reliance can be placed. How should your carriages, +large or little, get along without your whipple-trees or swing-trees?" + +Tsz-chang asked if it were possible to forecast the state of the country +ten generations hence. The Master replied in this manner: "The Yin +dynasty adopted the rules and manners of the Hiá line of kings, and it +is possible to tell whether it retrograded or advanced. The Chow line +has followed the Yin, adopting its ways, and whether there has been +deterioration or improvement may also be determined. Some other line may +take up in turn those of Chow; and supposing even this process to go on +for a hundred generations, the result may be known." + +Other sayings of the Master:-- + +"It is but flattery to make sacrificial offerings to departed spirits +not belonging to one's own family. + +"It is moral cowardice to leave undone what one perceives to be right to +do." + + +[Footnote 2: Of Lu (Confucius's native State).] + +[Footnote 3: Head of one of the "Three Families" of Lu.] + + + +BOOK III + +Abuse of Proprieties in Ceremonial and Music + + +Alluding to the head of the Ki family, [4] and the eight lines of +posturers [5] before their ancestral hall, Confucius remarked, "If the +Ki can allow himself to go to this extent, to what extent will he not +allow himself to go?" + +The Three Families [6] were in the habit, during the Removal of the +sacred vessels after sacrifice, of using the hymn commencing, + + "Harmoniously the Princes + Draw near with reverent tread, + Assisting in his worship + Heaven's Son, the great and dread." + +"How," exclaimed the Master, "can such words be appropriated in the +ancestral hall of the Three Families?" + +"Where a man," said he again, "has not the proper feelings due from one +man to another, how will he stand as regards the Rules of Propriety? And +in such a case, what shall we say of his sense of harmony?" + +On a question being put to him by Lin Fang, a disciple, as to what was +the radical idea upon which the Rules of Propriety were based, the +Master exclaimed, "Ah! that is a large question. As to some rules, where +there is likelihood of extravagance, they would rather demand economy; +in those which relate to mourning, and where there is likelihood of +being easily satisfied, what is wanted is real sorrow." + +Speaking of the disorder of the times he remarked that while the +barbarians on the North and East had their Chieftains, we here in this +great country had nothing to compare with them in that respect:--we had +lost these distinctions! + +Alluding to the matter of the Chief of the Ki family worshipping on +Tai-shan, [7] the Master said to Yen Yu, "Cannot you save him from this?" +He replied, "It is beyond my power." "Alas, alas!" exclaimed the Master, +"are we to say that the spirits of T'ai-shan have not as much +discernment as Lin Fang?" + +Of "the superior man," the Master observed, "In him there is no +contentiousness. Say even that he does certainly contend with others, as +in archery competitions; yet mark, in that case, how courteously he will +bow and go up for the forfeit-cup, and come down again and give it to +his competitor. In his very contest he is still the superior man." + +Tsz-hiá once inquired what inference might be drawn from the lines-- + + "Dimples playing in witching smile, + Beautiful eyes, so dark, so bright! + Oh, and her face may be thought the while + Colored by art, red rose on white!" + +"Coloring," replied the Master, "requires a pure and clear background." +"Then," said the other, "rules of ceremony require to have a +background!" "Ah!" exclaimed the Master, "you are the man to catch the +drift of my thought. Such as you may well introduce a discussion on the +Odes." + +Said the Master, "As regards the ceremonial adopted and enforced by the +Hiá dynasty, I am able to describe it, although their own descendants in +the State of Ki can adduce no adequate testimony in favor of its use +there. So, too, I am able to describe the ceremonial of the Yin dynasty, +although no more can the Sung people show sufficient reason for its +continuance amongst themselves. And why cannot they do so? Because they +have not documents enough, nor men learned enough. If only they had +such, I could refer them to them in support of their usages. + +"When I am present at the great quinquennial sacrifice to the _manes_ of +the royal ancestors," the Master said, "from the pouring-out of the +oblation onwards, I have no heart to look on." + +Some one asked what was the purport of this great sacrifice, and the +Master replied, "I cannot tell. The position in the empire of him who +could tell you is as evident as when you look at this"--pointing to the +palm of his hand. + +When he offered sacrifices to his ancestors, he used to act as if they +were present before him. In offering to other spirits it was the same. + +He would say, "If I do not myself take part in my offerings, it is all +the same as if I did not offer them." + +Wang-sun Kiá asked him once, "What says the proverb, 'Better to court +favor in the kitchen than in the drawing-room'?" The Master replied, +"Nay, better say, He who has sinned against Heaven has none other to +whom prayer may be addressed." + +Of the Chow dynasty the Master remarked, "It looks back upon two other +dynasties; and what a rich possession it has in its records of those +times! I follow Chow!" + +On his first entry into the grand temple, he inquired about every matter +connected with its usages. Some one thereupon remarked, "Who says that +the son of the man of Tsou [8] understands about ceremonial? On entering +the grand temple he inquired about everything." This remark coming to +the Master's ears, he said, "What I did is part of the ceremonial!" + +"In archery," he said, "the great point to be observed is not simply the +perforation of the leather; for men have not all the same strength. That +was the fashion in the olden days." + +Once, seeing that his disciple Tsz-kung was desirous that the ceremonial +observance of offering a sheep at the new moon might be dispensed with, +the Master said, "Ah! you grudge the loss of the sheep; I grudge the +loss of the ceremony." + +"To serve one's ruler nowadays," he remarked, "fully complying with the +Rules of Propriety, is regarded by others as toadyism!" + +When Duke Ting questioned him as to how a prince should deal with his +ministers, and how they in turn should serve their prince, Confucius +said in reply, "In dealing with his ministers a prince should observe +the proprieties; in serving his prince a minister should observe the +duty of loyalty." + +Referring to the First of the Odes, he remarked that it was mirthful +without being lewd, and sad also without being painful. + +Duke Ngai asked the disciple Tsai Wo respecting the places for +sacrificing to the Earth. The latter replied, "The Family of the Great +Yu, of the Hiá dynasty, chose a place of pine trees; the Yin founders +chose cypresses; and the Chow founders chestnut trees, solemn and +majestic, to inspire, 'tis said, the people with feelings of awe." + +The Master on hearing of this exclaimed, "Never an allusion to things +that have been enacted in the past! Never a remonstrance against what is +now going on! He has gone away without a word of censure." + +The Master once said of Kwan Chung, [9] "A small-minded man indeed!" + +"Was he miserly?" some one asked. + +"Miserly, indeed!" said he; "not that: he married three rimes, and he +was not a man who restricted his official business to too few hands--how +could he be miserly?" + +"He knew the Rules of Propriety, I suppose?" + +"Judge:--Seeing that the feudal lords planted a screen at their gates, +he too would have one at his! Seeing that when any two of the feudal +lords met in friendly conclave they had an earthenware stand on which to +place their inverted cups after drinking, he must have the same! If he +knew the Rules of Propriety, who is there that does not know them?" + +In a discourse to the Chief Preceptor of Music at the court of Lu, the +Master said, "Music is an intelligible thing. When you begin a +performance, let all the various instruments produce as it were one +sound (inharmonious); then, as you go on, bring out the harmony fully, +distinctly, and with uninterrupted flow, unto the end." + +The warden of the border-town of I requested an interview with +Confucius, and said, "When great men have come here, I have never yet +failed to obtain a sight of them." The followers introduced him; and, on +leaving, he said to them, "Sirs, why grieve at his loss of office? The +empire has for long been without good government; and Heaven is about to +use your master as its edict-announcer." + +Comparing the music of the emperor Shun with the music of King Wu, the +Master said, "That of Shun is beautiful throughout, and also good +throughout. That of Wu is all of it beautiful, but scarcely all of it +good." + +"High station," said the Master, "occupied by men who have no large and +generous heart; ceremonial performed with no reverence; duties of +mourning engaging the attention, where there is absence of sorrow;--how +should I look on, where this is the state of things?" + + +[Footnote 4: The Chief of the Ki clan was virtually the Duke of Lu, +under whom Confucius for a time held office.] + +[Footnote 5: These posturers were mutes who took part in the ritual of +the ancestral temple, waving plumes, flags, etc. Each line or rank of +these contained eight men. Only in the sovereign's household should +there have been eight lines of them; a ducal family like the Ki should +have had but six lines; a great official had four, and one of lower +grade two. These were the gradations marking the status of families, and +Confucius's sense of propriety was offended at the Ki's usurping in this +way the appearance of royalty.] + +[Footnote 6: Three great families related to each other, in whose hands +the government of the State of Lu then was, and of which the Ki was the +chief.] + +[Footnote 7: One of the five sacred mountains, worshipped upon only by +the sovereign.] + +[Footnote 8: Tsou was Confucius's birthplace; his father was governor of +the town.] + +[Footnote 9: A renowned statesman who flourished about two hundred years +before Confucius's time. A philosophical work on law and government, +said to have been written by him, is still extant. He was regarded as a +sage by the people, but he lacked, in Confucius's eyes, the one thing +needful--propriety.] + + + +BOOK IV + +Social Virtue--Superior and Inferior Man + + +Sayings of the Master:-- + +"It is social good feeling that gives charm to a neighborhood. And where +is the wisdom of those who choose an abode where it does not abide? + +"Those who are without it cannot abide long, either in straitened or in +happy circumstances. Those who possess it find contentment in it. Those +who are wise go after it as men go after gain. + +"Only they in whom it exists can have right likings and dislikings for +others. + +"Where the will is set upon it, there will be no room for malpractices. + +"Riches and honor are what men desire; but if they arrive at them by +improper ways, they should not continue to hold them. Poverty and low +estate are what men dislike; but if they arrive at such a condition by +improper ways, they should not refuse it. + +"If the 'superior man' make nought of social good feeling, how shall he +fully bear that name? + +"Not even whilst he eats his meal will the 'superior man' forget what he +owes to his fellow-men. Even in hurried leave-takings, even in moments +of frantic confusion, he keeps true to this virtue. + +"I have not yet seen a lover of philanthropy, nor a hater of +misanthropy--such, that the former did not take occasion to magnify that +virtue in himself, and that the latter, in his positive practice of +philanthropy, did not, at times, allow in his presence something +savoring of misanthropy. + +"Say you, is there any one who is able for one whole day to apply the +energy of his mind to this virtue? Well, I have not seen any one whose +energy was not equal to it. It may be there are such, but I have never +met with them. + +"The faults of individuals are peculiar to their particular class and +surroundings; and it is by observing their faults that one comes to +understand the condition of their good feelings towards their fellows. + +"One may hear the right way in the morning, and at evening die. + +"The scholar who is intent upon learning the right way, and who is yet +ashamed of poor attire and poor food, is not worthy of being discoursed +with. + +"The masterly man's attitude to the world is not exclusively this or +that: whatsoever is right, to that he will be a party. + +"The masterly man has an eye to virtue, the common man, to earthly +things; the former has an eye to penalties for error--the latter, to +favor. + +"Where there is habitual going after gain, there is much ill-will. + +"When there is ability in a ruler to govern a country by adhering to the +Rules of Propriety, and by kindly condescension, what is wanted more? +Where the ability to govern thus is wanting, what has such a ruler to do +with the Rules of Propriety? + +"One should not be greatly concerned at not being in office; but rather +about the requirements in one's self for such a standing. Neither should +one be so much concerned at being unknown; but rather with seeking to +become worthy of being known." + +Addressing his disciple Tsang Sin, the Master said, "Tsang Sin, the +principles which I inculcate have one main idea upon which they all +hang." "Aye, surely," he replied. + +When the Master was gone out the other disciples asked what was the +purport of this remark. Tsang's answer was, "The principles of our +Master's teaching are these--whole-heartedness and kindly forbearance; +these and nothing more." + + +Other observations of the Master:-- + +"Men of loftier mind manifest themselves in their equitable dealings; +small-minded men in their going after gain. + +"When you meet with men of worth, think how you may attain to their +level; when you see others of an opposite character, look within, and +examine yourself. + +"A son, in ministering to his parents, may (on occasion) offer gentle +remonstrances; when he sees that their will is not to heed such, he +should nevertheless still continue to show them reverent respect, never +obstinacy; and if he have to suffer, let him do so without murmuring. + +"Whilst the parents are still living, he should not wander far; or, if a +wanderer, he should at least have some fixed address. + +"If for three years he do not veer from the principles of his father, he +may be called a dutiful son. + +"A son should not ignore the years of his parents. On the one hand, they +may be a matter for rejoicing (that they have been so many), and on the +other, for apprehension (that so few remain). + +"People in olden times were loth to speak out, fearing the disgrace of +not being themselves as good as their words. + +"Those who keep within restraints are seldom losers. + +"To be slow to speak, but prompt to act, is the desire of the 'superior +man.' + +"Virtue dwells not alone: she must have neighbors." + + +An observation of Tsz-yu:-- +"Officiousness, in the service of princes, leads to disgrace: among +friends, to estrangement." + + + +BOOK V + +A Disciple and the Golden Rule--Miscellaneous + + +The Master pronounced Kung-ye Ch'ang, a disciple, to be a marriageable +person; for although lying bound in criminal fetters he had committed no +crime. And he gave him his own daughter to wife. + +Of Nan Yung, a disciple, he observed, that in a State where the +government was well conducted he would not be passed over in its +appointments, and in one where the government was ill conducted he would +evade punishment and disgrace. And he caused his elder brother's +daughter to be given in marriage to him. + +Of Tsz-tsien, a disciple, he remarked, "A superior man indeed is the +like of him! But had there been none of superior quality in Lu, how +should this man have attained to this excellence?" + +Tsz-kung asked, "What of me, then?" "You," replied the Master--"You are +a receptacle." "Of what sort?" said he. "One for high and sacred use," +was the answer. + +Some one having observed of Yen Yung that he was good-natured towards +others, but that he lacked the gift of ready speech, the Master said, +"What need of that gift? To stand up before men and pour forth a stream +of glib words is generally to make yourself obnoxious to them. I know +not about his good-naturedness; but at any rate what need of that gift?" + +When the Master proposed that Tsi-tiau K'ai should enter the government +service, the latter replied, "I can scarcely credit it." The Master was +gratified. + +"Good principles are making no progress," once exclaimed the Master. "If +I were to take a raft, and drift about on the sea, would Tsz-lu, I +wonder, be my follower there?" That disciple was delighted at hearing +the suggestion; whereupon the Master continued, "He surpasses me in his +love of deeds of daring. But he does not in the least grasp the pith of +my remark." + +In reply to a question put to him by Mang Wu respecting Tsz-lu--as to +whether he might be called good-natured towards others, the Master said, +"I cannot tell"; but, on the question being put again, he answered, +"Well, in an important State [10] he might be intrusted with the +management of the military levies; but I cannot answer for his good +nature." + +"What say you then of Yen Yu?" + +"As for Yen," he replied, "in a city of a thousand families, or in a +secondary fief, [11] he might be charged with the governorship; but I +cannot answer for his good-naturedness." + +"Take Tsz-hwa, then; what of him?" + +"Tsz-hwa," said he, "with a cincture girt upon him, standing as +attendant at Court, might be charged with the addressing of visitors and +guests; but as to his good-naturedness I cannot answer." + +Addressing Tsz-kung, the Master said, "Which of the two is ahead of the +other--yourself or Hwúi?" "How shall I dare," he replied, "even to look +at Hwúi? Only let him hear one particular, and from that he knows ten; +whereas I, if I hear one, may from it know two." + +"You are not a match for him, I grant you," said the Master. "You are +not his match." + +Tsai Yu, a disciple, used to sleep in the daytime. Said the Master, "One +may hardly carve rotten wood, or use a trowel to the wall of a +manure-yard! In his case, what is the use of reprimand? + +"My attitude towards a man in my first dealings with him," he added, +"was to listen to his professions and to trust to his conduct. My +attitude now is to listen to his professions, and to watch his conduct. +My experience with Tsai Yu has led to this change. + +"I have never seen," said the Master, "a man of inflexible firmness." +Some one thereupon mentioned Shin Ch'ang, a disciple. "Ch'ang," said he, +"is wanton; where do you get at his inflexibleness?" + +Tsz-kung made the remark: "That which I do not wish others to put upon +me, I also wish not to put upon others." "Nay," said the Master, "you +have not got so far as that." + +The same disciple once remarked, "There may be access so as to hear the +Master's literary discourses, but when he is treating of human nature +and the way of Heaven, there may not be such success." + +Tsz-lu, after once hearing him upon some subject, and feeling himself as +yet incompetent to carry into practice what he had heard, used to be +apprehensive only lest he should hear the subject revived. + +Tsz-kung asked how it was that Kung Wan had come to be so styled Wan +(the talented). The Master's answer was, "Because, though a man of an +active nature, he was yet fond of study, and he was not ashamed to stoop +to put questions to his inferiors." + +Respecting Tsz-ch'an,[12] the Master said that he had four of the +essential qualities of the 'superior man':--in his own private walk he +was humble-minded; in serving his superiors he was deferential; in his +looking after the material welfare of the people he was generously kind; +and in his exaction of public service from the latter he was just. + +Speaking of Yen Ping, he said, "He was one who was happy in his mode of +attaching men to him. However long the intercourse, he was always +deferential to them." + +Referring to Tsang Wan, he asked, "What is to be said of this man's +discernment?--this man with his tortoise-house, with the pillar-heads +and posts bedizened with scenes of hill and mere!" + +Tsz-chang put a question relative to the chief Minister of Tsu, Tsz-wan. +He said, "Three times he became chief Minister, and on none of these +occasions did he betray any sign of exultation. Three times his ministry +came to an end, and he showed no sign of chagrin. He used without fail +to inform the new Minister as to the old mode of administration. What +say you of him?" + +"That he was a loyal man," said the Master. + +"But was he a man of fellow-feeling?" said the disciple. + +"Of that I am not sure," he answered; "how am I to get at that?" + +The disciple went on to say:--"After the assassination of the prince of +Ts'i by the officer Ts'ui, the latter's fellow-official Ch'in Wan, who +had half a score teams of horses, gave up all, and turned his back upon +him. On coming to another State, he observed, 'There are here characters +somewhat like that of our minister Ts'ui,' and he turned his back upon +them. Proceeding to a certain other State, he had occasion to make the +same remark, and left. What say you of him?" + +"That he was a pure-minded man," answered the Master. + +"But was he a man of fellow-feeling?" urged the disciple. + +"Of that I am not sure," he replied; "how am I to get at that?" + +Ki Wan was one who thought three times over a thing before he acted. The +Master hearing this of him, observed, "Twice would have been enough." + +Of Ning Wu, the Master said that when matters went well in the State he +used to have his wits about him: but when they went wrong, he lost them. +His intelligence might be equalled, but not his witlessness! + +Once, when the Master lived in the State of Ch'in, he exclaimed, "Let me +get home again! Let me get home! My school-children [13] are wild and +impetuous! Though they are somewhat accomplished, and perfect in one +sense in their attainments, yet they know not how to make nice +discriminations." + +Of Peh-I and Shuh Ts'i he said, "By the fact of their not remembering +old grievances, they gradually did away with resentment." + +Of Wei-shang Kau he said, "Who calls him straightforward? A person once +begged some vinegar of him, and he begged it from a neighbor, and then +presented him with it!" + +"Fine speech," said he, "and studied mien, and superfluous show of +deference--of such things Tso-k'iu Ming was ashamed, I too am ashamed of +such things. Also of hiding resentment felt towards an opponent and +treating him as a friend--of this kind of thing he was ashamed, and so +too am I." + +Attended once by the two disciples Yen Yuen and Tsz-lu, he said, "Come +now, why not tell me, each of you, what in your hearts you are really +after?" + +"I should like," said Tsz-lu, "for myself and my friends and associates, +carriages and horses, and to be clad in light furs! nor would I mind +much if they should become the worse for wear." + +"And I should like," said Yen Yuen, "to live without boasting of my +abilities, and without display of meritorious deeds." + +Tsz-lu then said, "I should like, sir, to hear what your heart is set +upon." + +The Master replied, "It is this:--in regard to old people, to give them +quiet and comfort; in regard to friends and associates, to be faithful +to them; in regard to the young, to treat them with fostering affection +and kindness." + +On one occasion the Master exclaimed, "Ah, 'tis hopeless! I have not yet +seen the man who can see his errors, so as inwardly to accuse himself." + +"In a small cluster of houses there may well be," said he, "some whose +integrity and sincerity may compare with mine; but I yield to none in +point of love of learning." + + +[Footnote 10: Lit., a State of 1,000 war chariots.] + +[Footnote 11: Lit., a House of 100 war chariots.] + +[Footnote 12: A great statesman of Confucius's time.] + +[Footnote 13: A familiar way of speaking of his disciples in their +hearing.] + + + +BOOK VI + +More Characteristics--Wisdom--Philanthropy + + +Of Yen Yung, a disciple, the Master said, "Yung might indeed do for a +prince!" + +On being asked by this Yen Yung his opinion of a certain individual, the +Master replied, "He is passable. Impetuous, though." + +"But," argued the disciple, "if a man habituate himself to a reverent +regard for duty--even while in his way of doing things he is +impetuous--in the oversight of the people committed to his charge, is he +not passable? If, on the other hand, he habituate himself to impetuosity +of mind, and show it also in his way of doing things, is he not then +over-impetuous?" + +"You are right," said the Master. + +When the Duke Ngai inquired which of the disciples were devoted to +learning, Confucius answered him, "There was one Yen Hwúi who loved +it--a man whose angry feelings towards any particular person he did not +suffer to visit upon another; a man who would never fall into the same +error twice. Unfortunately his allotted time was short, and he died, and +now his like is not to be found; I have never heard of one so devoted to +learning." + +While Tsz-hwa, a disciple, was away on a mission to Ts'i, the disciple +Yen Yu, on behalf of his mother, applied for some grain. "Give her three +pecks," said the Master. He applied for more. "Give her eight, then." +Yen gave her fifty times that amount. The Master said, "When Tsz-hwa +went on that journey to Ts'i, he had well-fed steeds yoked to his +carriage, and was arrayed in light furs. I have learnt that the +'superior man' should help those whose needs are urgent, not help the +rich to be more rich." + +When Yuen Sz became prefect under him, he gave him nine hundred measures +of grain, but the prefect declined to accept them.[14] "You must not," +said the Master. "May they not be of use to the villages and hamlets +around you?" + +Speaking of Yen Yung again, the Master said, "If the offspring of a +speckled ox be red in color, and horned, even though men may not wish to +take it for sacrifice, would the spirits of the hills and streams reject +it?" + +Adverting to Hwúi again, he said, "For three months there would not be +in his breast one thought recalcitrant against his feeling of good-will +towards his fellow-men. The others may attain to this for a day or for a +month, but there they end." + +When asked by Ki K'ang whether Tsz-lu was fit to serve the government, +the Master replied, "Tsz-lu is a man of decision: what should prevent +him from serving the government?" + +Asked the same question respecting Tsz-kung and Yen Yu he answered +similarly, pronouncing Tsz-kung to be a man of perspicacity, and Yen Yu +to be one versed in the polite arts. + +When the head of the Ki family sent for Min Tsz-k'ien to make him +governor of the town of Pi, that disciple said, "Politely decline for +me. If the offer is renewed, then indeed I shall feel myself obliged to +go and live on the further bank of the Wan." + +Peh-niu had fallen ill, and the Master was inquiring after him. Taking +hold of his hand held out from the window, he said, "It is taking him +off! Alas, his appointed time has come! Such a man, and to have such an +illness!" + +Of Hwúi, again: "A right worthy man indeed was he! With his simple +wooden dish of rice, and his one gourd-basin of drink, away in his poor +back lane, in a condition too grievous for others to have endured, he +never allowed his cheery spirits to droop. Aye, a right worthy soul was +he!" + +"It is not," Yen Yu once apologized, "that I do not take pleasure in +your doctrines; it is that I am not strong enough." The Master rejoined, +"It is when those who are not strong enough have made some moderate +amount of progress that they fail and give up; but you are now drawing +your own line for yourself." + +Addressing Tsz-hiá, the Master said, "Let your scholarship be that of +gentlemen, and not like that of common men." + +When Tsz-yu became governor of Wu-shing, the Master said to him, "Do you +find good men about you?" The reply was, "There is Tan-t'ai Mieh-ming, +who when walking eschews by-paths, and who, unless there be some public +function, never approaches my private residence." + +"Mang Chi-fan," said the Master, "is no sounder of his own praises. +During a stampede he was in the rear, and as they were about to enter +the city gate he whipped up his horses, and said, 'Twas not my daring +made me lag behind. My horses would not go.'" + +_Obiter dicta_ of the Master:-- + +"Whoever has not the glib utterance of the priest T'o, as well as the +handsomeness of Prince Cháu of Sung, will find it hard to keep out of +harm's way in the present age. + +"Who can go out but by that door? Why walks no one by these guiding +principles? + +"Where plain naturalness is more in evidence than polish, we have--the +man from the country. Where polish is more in evidence than naturalness, +we have--the town scribe. It is when naturalness and polish are equally +evident that we have the ideal man. + +"The life of a man is--his rectitude. Life without it--such may you have +the good fortune to avoid! + +"They who know it are not as those who love it, nor they who love it as +those who rejoice in it--that is, have the fruition of their love for +it. + +"To the average man, and those above the average, it is possible to +discourse on higher subjects; to those from the average downwards, it is +not possible." + +Fan Ch'i put a query about wisdom. The Master replied, "To labor for the +promoting of righteous conduct among the people of the land; to be +serious in regard to spiritual beings, and to hold aloof from +them;--this may be called wisdom." + +To a further query, about philanthropy, he replied, "Those who possess +that virtue find difficulty with it at first, success later. + +"Men of practical knowledge," he said, "find their gratification among +the rivers of the lowland, men of sympathetic social feeling find theirs +among the hills. The former are active and bustling, the latter calm and +quiet. The former take their day of pleasure, the latter look to length +of days." + +Alluding to the States of Ts'i and Lu, he observed, that Ts'i, by one +change, might attain to the condition of Lu; and that Lu, by one change, +might attain to good government. + +An exclamation of the Master (satirizing the times, when old terms +relating to government were still used while bereft of their old +meaning):--"A quart, and not a quart! _quart_, indeed! _quart_, indeed!" + +Tsai Wo, a disciple, put a query. Said he, "Suppose a philanthropic +person were told, 'There's a fellow-creature down in the well!' Would he +go down after him?" + +"Why should he really do so?" answered the Master. "The good man or, a +superior man might be induced to go, but not to go down. He may be +misled, but not befooled." + +"The superior man," said he, "with his wide study of books, and hedging +himself round by the Rules of Propriety, is not surely, after all that, +capable of overstepping his bounds." + +Once when the Master had had an interview with Nan-tsz, which had +scandalized his disciple Tsz-lu, he uttered the solemn adjuration, "If I +have done aught amiss, may Heaven reject me! may Heaven reject me!" + +"How far-reaching," said he, "is the moral excellence that flows from +the Constant Mean! [15] It has for a long time been rare among the +people." + +Tsz-kung said, "Suppose the case of one who confers benefits far and +wide upon the people, and who can, in so doing, make his bounty +universally felt--how would you speak of him? Might he be called +philanthropic?" + +The Master exclaimed, "What a work for philanthropy! He would require +indeed to be a sage! He would put into shade even Yau and Shun!--Well, a +philanthropic person, desiring for himself a firm footing, is led on to +give one to others; desiring for himself an enlightened perception of +things, he is led on to help others to be similarly enlightened. If one +could take an illustration coming closer home to us than yours, that +might be made the starting-point for speaking about philanthropy." + + +[Footnote 14: At this time Confucius was Criminal Judge in his native +State of Lu. Yuen Sz had been a disciple. The commentators add that this +was the officer's proper salary, and that he did wrong to refuse it.] + +[Footnote 15: The doctrine afterwards known by that name, and which gave +its title to a Confucian treatise.] + + + +BOOK VII + +Characteristics of Confucius--An Incident + + +Said the Master:-- + +"I, as a transmitter[16] and not an originator, and as one who believes +in and loves the ancients, venture to compare myself with our old P'ang. + +"What find you indeed in me?--a quiet brooder and memorizer; a student +never satiated with learning; an unwearied monitor of others! + +"The things which weigh heavily upon my mind are these--failure to +improve in the virtues, failure in discussion of what is learnt, +inability to walk according to knowledge received as to what is right +and just, inability also to reform what has been amiss." + +In his hours of recreation and refreshment the Master's manner was easy +and unconstrained, affable and winning. + +Once he exclaimed, "Alas! I must be getting very feeble; 'tis long since +I have had a repetition of the dreams in which I used to see the Duke of +Chow. [17] + +"Concentrate the mind," said he, "upon the Good Way. + +"Maintain firm hold upon Virtue. + +"Rely upon Philanthropy. + +"Find recreation in the Arts. [18] + +"I have never withheld instruction from any, even from those who have +come for it with the smallest offering. + +"No subject do I broach, however, to those who have no eager desire to +learn; no encouraging hint do I give to those who show no anxiety to +speak out their ideas; nor have I anything more to say to those who, +after I have made clear one corner of the subject, cannot from that give +me the other three." + +If the Master was taking a meal, and there were any in mourning beside +him, he would not eat to the full. + +On one day on which he had wept, on that day he would not sing. + +Addressing his favorite disciple, he said, "To you only and myself it +has been given to do this--to go when called to serve, and to go back +into quiet retirement when released from office." + +Tsz-lu, hearing the remark said, "But if, sir, you had the handling of +the army of one of the greater States,[19] whom would you have +associated with you in that case?" + +The Master answered:-- + + "Not the one 'who'll rouse the tiger,' + Not the one 'who'll wade the Ho;' + +not the man who can die with no regret. He must be one who should watch +over affairs with apprehensive caution, a man fond of strategy, and of +perfect skill and effectiveness in it." + +As to wealth, he remarked, "If wealth were an object that I could go in +quest of, I should do so even if I had to take a whip and do grooms' +work. But seeing that it is not, I go after those objects for which I +have a liking." + +Among matters over which he exercised great caution were times of +fasting, war, and sickness. + +When he was in the State of Ts'i, and had heard the ancient Shau music, +he lost all perception of the taste of his meat. "I had no idea," said +he, "that music could have been brought to this pitch." + +In the course of conversation Yen Yu said, "Does the Master take the +part of the Prince of Wei?" "Ah yes!" said Tsz-kung, "I will go and ask +him that." + +On going in to him, that disciple began, "What sort of men were Peh-I +and Shuh Ts'i?" "Worthies of the olden time," the Master replied. "Had +they any feelings of resentment?" was the next question. "Their aim and +object," he answered, "was that of doing the duty which every man owes +to his fellows, and they succeeded in doing it;--what room further for +feelings of resentment?" The questioner on coming out said, "The Master +does not take his part." + +"With a meal of coarse rice," said the Master, "and with water to drink, +and my bent arm for my pillow--even thus I can find happiness. Riches +and honors without righteousness are to me as fleeting clouds." + +"Give me several years more to live," said he, "and after fifty years' +study of the 'Book of Changes' I might come to be free from serious +error." + +The Master's regular subjects of discourse were the "Books of the Odes" +and "History," and the up-keeping of the Rules of Propriety. On all of +these he regularly discoursed. + +The Duke of Shih questioned Tsz-lu about Confucius, and the latter did +not answer. + +Hearing of this, the Master said, "Why did you not say, He is a man with +a mind so intent on his pursuits that he forgets his food, and finds +such pleasure in them that he forgets his troubles, and does not know +that old age is coming upon him?" + +"As I came not into life with any knowledge of it," he said, "and as my +likings are for what is old, I busy myself in seeking knowledge there." + +Strange occurrences, exploits of strength, deeds of lawlessness, +references to spiritual beings--such-like matters the Master avoided in +conversation. + +"Let there," he said, "be three men walking together: from that number I +should be sure to find my instructors; for what is good in them I should +choose out and follow, and what is not good I should modify." + +On one occasion he exclaimed, "Heaven begat Virtue in me; what can man +do unto me?" + +To his disciples he once said, "Do you look upon me, my sons, as keeping +anything secret from you? I hide nothing from you. I do nothing that is +not manifest to your eyes, my disciples. That is so with me." + +Four things there were which he kept in view in his +teaching--scholarliness, conduct of life, honesty, faithfulness. + +"It is not given to me," he said, "to meet with a sage; let me but +behold a man of superior mind, and that will suffice. Neither is it +given to me to meet with a good man; let me but see a man of constancy, +and it will suffice. It is difficult for persons to have constancy, when +they pretend to have that which they are destitute of, to be full when +they are empty, to do things on a grand scale when their means are +contracted!" + +When the Master fished with hook and line, he did not also use a net. +When out with his bow, he would never shoot at game in cover. + +"Some there may be," said he, "who do things in ignorance of what they +do. I am not of these. There is an alternative way of knowing things, +viz.--to sift out the good from the many things one hears, and follow +it; and to keep in memory the many things one sees." + +Pupils from Hu-hiang were difficult to speak with. One youth came to +interview the Master, and the disciples were in doubt whether he ought +to have been seen. "Why so much ado," said the Master, "at my merely +permitting his approach, and not rather at my allowing him to draw back? +If a man have cleansed himself in order to come and see me, I receive +him as such; but I do not undertake for what he will do when he goes +away." + +"Is the philanthropic spirit far to seek, indeed?" the Master exclaimed; +"I wish for it, and it is with me!" + +The Minister of Crime in the State of Ch'in asked Confucius whether Duke +Ch'an, of Lu was acquainted with the Proprieties; and he answered, "Yes, +he knows them." + +When Confucius had withdrawn, the minister bowed to Wu-ma K'i, a +disciple, and motioned to him to come forward. He said, "I have heard +that superior men show no partiality; are they, too, then, partial? That +prince took for his wife a lady of the Wu family, having the same +surname as himself, and had her named 'Lady Tsz of Wu, the elder,' If he +knows the Proprieties, then who does not?" + +The disciple reported this to the Master, who thereupon remarked, "Well +for me! If I err in any way, others are sure to know of it." + +When the Master was in company with any one who sang, and who sang well, +he must needs have the song over again, and after that would join in it. + +"Although in letters," he said, "I may have none to compare with me, yet +in my personification of the 'superior man' I have not as yet been +successful." + +"'A Sage and a Philanthropist?' How should I have the ambition?" said +he. "All that I can well be called is this--An insatiable student, an +unwearied teacher;--this, and no more."--"Exactly what we, your +disciples, cannot by any learning manage to be," said Kung-si Hwa. + +Once when the Master was seriously ill, Tsz-lu requested to be allowed +to say prayers for him. "Are such available?" asked the Master. "Yes," +said he; "and the Manual of Prayers says, 'Pray to the spirits above and +to those here below,'" + +"My praying has been going on a long while," said the Master. + +"Lavish living," he said, "renders men disorderly; miserliness makes +them hard. Better, however, the hard than the disorderly." + +Again, "The man of superior mind is placidly composed; the small-minded +man is in a constant state of perturbation." + +The Master was gentle, yet could be severe; had an over-awing presence, +yet was not violent; was deferential, yet easy. + + +[Footnote 16: In reference to his editing the six Classics of his time.] + +[Footnote 17: This was one of his "beloved ancients," famous for what he +did in helping to found the dynasty of Chow, a man of great political +wisdom, a scholar also, and poet. It was the "dream" of Confucius's life +to restore the country to the condition in which the Duke of Chow left +it.] + +[Footnote 18: These were six in number, viz.: Ceremonial, Music, +Archery, Horsemanship, Language, and Calculation.] + +[Footnote 19: Lit., three forces. Each force consisted of 12,500 men, +and three of such forces were the equipment of a greater State.] + + + +BOOK VIII + +Sayings of Tsang--Sentences of the Master + + +Speaking of T'ai-pih the Master said that he might be pronounced a man +of the highest moral excellence; for he allowed the empire to pass by +him onwards to a third heir; while the people, in their ignorance of his +motives, were unable to admire him for so doing. + +"Without the Proprieties," said the Master, "we have these results: for +deferential demeanor, a worried one; for calm attentiveness, awkward +bashfulness; for manly conduct, disorderliness; for straightforwardness, +perversity. + +"When men of rank show genuine care for those nearest to them in blood, +the people rise to the duty of neighborliness and sociability. And when +old friendships among them are not allowed to fall off, there will be a +cessation of underhand practices among the people." + +The Scholar Tsang was once unwell, and calling his pupils to him he said +to them, "Disclose to view my feet and my hands. What says the Ode?-- + + 'Act as from a sense of danger, + With precaution and with care, + As a yawning gulf o'erlooking, + As on ice that scarce will bear,' + +At all times, my children, I know how to keep myself free from bodily +harm." + +Again, during an illness of his, Mang King, an official, went to ask +after him. The Scholar had some conversation with him, in the course of +which he said-- + + "'Doleful the cries of a dying bird, + Good the last words of a dying man,' + +There are three points which a man of rank in the management of his +duties should set store upon:--A lively manner and deportment, banishing +both severity and laxity; a frank and open expression of countenance, +allied closely with sincerity; and a tone in his utterances utterly free +from any approach to vulgarity and impropriety. As to matters of bowls +and dishes, leave such things to those who are charged with the care of +them." + +Another saying of the Scholar Tsang: "I once had a friend who, though he +possessed ability, would go questioning men of none, and, though +surrounded by numbers, would go with his questions to isolated +individuals; who also, whatever he might have, appeared as if he were +without it, and, with all his substantial acquirements, made as though +his mind were a mere blank; and when insulted would not retaliate;--this +was ever his way." + +Again he said: "The man that is capable of being intrusted with the +charge of a minor on the throne, and given authority over a large +territory, and who, during the important term of his superintendence +cannot be forced out of his position, is not such a 'superior man'? That +he is, indeed." + +Again:--"The learned official must not be without breadth and power of +endurance: the burden is heavy, and the way is long. + +"Suppose that he take his duty to his fellow-men as his peculiar burden, +is that not indeed a heavy one? And since only with death it is done +with, is not the way long?" + + +Sentences of the Master:-- + +"From the 'Book of Odes' we receive impulses; from the 'Book of the +Rules,' stability; from the 'Book on Music,' refinement. [20] + +"The people may be put into the way they should go, though they may not +be put into the way of understanding it. + +"The man who likes bravery, and yet groans under poverty, has mischief +in him. So, too, has the misanthrope, groaning at any severity shown +towards him. + +"Even if a person were adorned with the gifts of the Duke of Chow, yet +if he were proud and avaricious, all the rest of his qualities would not +indeed be worth looking at. + +"Not easily found is the man who, after three years' study, has failed +to come upon some fruit of his toil. + +"The really faithful lover of learning holds fast to the Good Way till +death. + +"He will not go into a State in which a downfall is imminent, nor take +up his abode in one where disorder reigns. When the empire is well +ordered he will show himself; when not, he will hide himself away. Under +a good government it will be a disgrace to him if he remain in poverty +and low estate; under a bad one, it would be equally disgraceful to him +to hold riches and honors. + +"If not occupying the office, devise not the policy. + +"When the professor Chi began his duties, how grand the finale of the +First of the Odes used to be! How it rang in one's ears! + +"I cannot understand persons who are enthusiastic and yet not +straightforward; nor those who are ignorant and yet not attentive; nor +again those folks who are simple-minded and yet untrue. + +"Learn, as if never overtaking your object, and yet as if apprehensive +of losing it. + +"How sublime was the handling of the empire by Shun and Yu!--it was as +nothing to them! + +"How great was Yau as a prince! Was he not sublime! Say that Heaven only +is great, then was Yau alone after its pattern! How profound was he! The +people could not find a name for him. How sublime in his achievements! +How brilliant in his scholarly productions!" + + +Shun had for his ministers five men, by whom he ordered the empire. + +King Wu (in his day) stated that he had ten men as assistants for the +promotion of order. + +With reference to these facts Confucius observed, "Ability is hard to +find. Is it not so indeed? During the three years' interregnum between +Yau and Shun there was more of it than in the interval before this +present dynasty appeared. There were, at this latter period, one woman, +and nine men only. + +"When two-thirds of the empire were held by King Wan, he served with +that portion the House of Yin. We speak of the virtue of the House of +Chow; we may say, indeed, that it reached the pinnacle of excellence." + +"As to Yu," added the Master, "I can find no flaw in him. Living on +meagre food and drink; yet providing to the utmost in his filial +offerings to the spirits of the dead! Dressing in coarse garments; yet +most elegant when vested in his sacrificial apron and coronet! Dwelling +in a poor palace; yet exhausting his energies over those +boundary-ditches and watercourses! I can find no flaw in Yu." + + +[Footnote 20: Comparison of three of the Classics: the "Shi-King," the +"Li Ki," and the "Yoh." The last is lost.] + + + +BOOK IX + +His Favorite Disciple's Opinion of Him + + +Topics on which the Master rarely spoke were--Advantage, and Destiny, +and Duty of man to man. + +A man of the village of Tah-hiang exclaimed of him, "A great man is +Confucius!--a man of extensive learning, and yet in nothing has he quite +made himself a name!" + +The Master heard of this, and mentioning it to his disciples he said, +"What then shall I take in hand? Shall I become a carriage driver, or an +archer? Let me be a driver!" + +"The sacrificial cap," he once said, "should, according to the Rules, be +of linen; but in these days it is of pure silk. However, as it is +economical, I do as all do. + +"The Rule says, 'Make your bow when at the lower end of the hall'; but +nowadays the bowing is done at the upper part. This is great freedom; +and I, though I go in opposition to the crowd, bow when at the lower +end." + +The Master barred four words:--he would have no "shall's," no "must's," +no "certainty's," no "I's." + +Once, in the town of K'wang fearing that his life was going to be taken, +the Master exclaimed, "King Wan is dead and gone; but is not '_wan_' +[21] with you here? If Heaven be about to allow this '_wan_' to perish, +then they who survive its decease will get no benefit from it. But so +long as Heaven does not allow it to perish, what can the men of K'wang +do to me?" + +A high State official, after questioning Tsz-kung, said, "Your Master is +a sage, then? How many and what varied abilities must be his!" + +The disciple replied, "Certainly Heaven is allowing him full +opportunities of becoming a sage, in addition to the fact that his +abilities are many and varied." + +When the Master heard of this he remarked, "Does that high official know +me? In my early years my position in life was low, and hence my ability +in many ways, though exercised in trifling matters. In the gentleman is +there indeed such variety of ability? No." + +From this, the disciple Lau used to say, "'Twas a saying of the Master: +'At a time when I was not called upon to use them, I acquired my +proficiency in the polite arts.'" + +"Am I, indeed," said the Master, "possessed of knowledge? I know +nothing. Let a vulgar fellow come to me with a question--a man with an +emptyish head--I may thrash out with him the matter from end to end, and +exhaust myself in doing it!" + +"Ah!" exclaimed he once, "the phoenix does not come! and no symbols +issue from the river! May I not as well give up?" + +Whenever the Master met with a person in mourning, or with one in +full-dress cap and kirtle, or with a blind person, although they might +be young persons, he would make a point of rising on their appearance, +or, if crossing their path, would do so with quickened step! + +Once Yen Yuen exclaimed with a sigh (with reference to the Master's +doctrines), "If I look up to them, they are ever the higher; if I try to +penetrate them, they are ever the harder; if I gaze at them as if before +my eyes, lo, they are behind me!--Gradually and gently the Master with +skill lures men on. By literary lore he gave me breadth; by the Rules of +Propriety he narrowed me down. When I desire a respite, I find it +impossible; and after I have exhausted my powers, there seems to be +something standing straight up in front of me, and though I have the +mind to make towards it I make no advance at all." + +Once when the Master was seriously ill, Tsz-lu induced the other +disciples to feign they were high officials acting in his service. +During a respite from his malady the Master exclaimed, "Ah! how long has +Tsz-lu's conduct been false? Whom should I delude, if I were to pretend +to have officials under me, having none? Should I deceive Heaven? +Besides, were I to die, I would rather die in the hands of yourselves, +my disciples, than in the hands of officials. And though I should fail +to have a grand funeral over me, I should hardly be left on my death on +the public highway, should I?" + +Tsz-kung once said to him, "Here is a fine gem. Would you guard it +carefully in a casket and store it away, or seek a good price for it and +sell it?" "Sell it, indeed," said the Master--"that would I; but I +should wait for the bidder." + +The Master protested he would "go and live among the nine wild tribes." + +"A rude life," said some one;--"how could you put up with it?" + +"What rudeness would there be," he replied, "if a 'superior man' was +living in their midst?" + +Once he remarked, "After I came back from Wei to Lu the music was put +right, and each of the Festal Odes and Hymns was given its appropriate +place and use." + +"Ah! which one of these following," he asked on one occasion, "are to be +found exemplified in me--proper service rendered to superiors when +abroad; duty to father and elder brother when at home; duty that shrinks +from no exertion when dear ones die; and keeping free from the confusing +effects of wine?" + +Standing once on the bank of a mountain stream, he said (musingly), +"Like this are those that pass away--no cessation, day or night!" + + +Other sayings:-- + +"Take an illustration from the making of a hill. A simple basketful is +wanting to complete it, and the work stops. So I stop short. + +"Take an illustration from the levelling of the ground. Suppose again +just one basketful is left, when the work has so progressed. There I +desist! + +"Ah! it was Hwúi, was it not? who, when I had given him his lesson, was +the unflagging one! + +"Alas for Hwúi! I saw him ever making progress. I never saw him stopping +short. + +"Blade, but no bloom--or else bloom, but no produce; aye, that is the +way with some! + +"Reverent regard is due to youth. How know we what difference there may +be in them in the future from what they are now? Yet when they have +reached the age of forty or fifty, and are still unknown in the world, +then indeed they are no more worthy of such regard. + +"Can any do otherwise than assent to words said to them by way of +correction? Only let them reform by such advice, and it will then be +reckoned valuable. Can any be other than pleased with words of gentle +suasion? Only let them comply with them fully, and such also will be +accounted valuable. With those who are pleased without so complying, and +those who assent but do not reform, I can do nothing at all. + +"Give prominent place to loyalty and sincerity. + +"Have no associates in study who are not advanced somewhat like +yourself. + +"When you have erred, be not afraid to correct yourself. + +"It may be possible to seize and carry off the chief commander of a +large army, but not possible so to rob one poor fellow of his will. + +"One who stands--clad in hempen robe, the worse for wear--among others +clad in furs of fox and badger, and yet unabashed--'tis Tsz-lu, that, is +it not?" + +Tsz-lu used always to be humming over the lines-- + + "From envy and enmity free, + What deed doth he other than good?" + +"How should such a rule of life," asked the Master, "be sufficient to +make any one good?" + +"When the year grows chilly, we know the pine and cypress are the last +to fade. + +"The wise escape doubt; the good-hearted, trouble; the bold, +apprehension. + +"Some may study side by side, and yet be asunder when they +come to the logic of things. Some may go on together in this +latter course, but be wide apart in the standards they reach in +it. Some, again, may together reach the same standard, and +yet be diverse in weight of character." + + "The blossom is out on the cherry tree, + With a flutter on every spray. + Dost think that my thoughts go not out to thee? + Ah, why art thou far away!" + +Commenting on these lines the Master said, "There can hardly have been +much 'thought going out,' What does distance signify?" + + +[Footnote 21: "Wan" was the honorary appellation of the great sage and +ruler, whose praise is in the "Shi-King" as one of the founders of the +Chow dynasty, and the term represented civic talent and virtues, as +distinct from Wu, the martial talent--the latter being the honorary +title of his son and successor. "Wan" also often stands for literature +and polite accomplishments. Here Confucius simply means, "If you kill +me, you kill a sage."] + + + +BOOK X + +Confucius in Private and Official Life + + +In his own village, Confucius presented a somewhat plain and simple +appearance, and looked unlike a man who possessed ability of speech. + +But in the ancestral temple, and at Court, he spoke with the fluency and +accuracy of a debater, but ever guardedly. + +At Court, conversing with the lower order of great officials, he spoke +somewhat firmly and directly; with those of the higher order his tone +was somewhat more affable. + +When the prince was present he was constrainedly reverent in his +movements, and showed a proper degree of grave dignity in demeanor. + +Whenever the prince summoned him to act as usher to the Court, his look +would change somewhat, and he would make as though he were turning round +to do obeisance. + +He would salute those among whom he took up his position, using the +right hand or the left, and holding the skirts of his robe in proper +position before and behind. He would make his approaches with quick +step, and with elbows evenly bent outwards. + +When the visitor withdrew, he would not fail to report the execution of +his commands, with the words, "The visitor no longer looks back." + +When he entered the palace gate, it was with the body somewhat bent +forward, almost as though he could not be admitted. When he stood still, +this would never happen in the middle of the gateway; nor when moving +about would he ever tread on the threshold. When passing the throne, his +look would change somewhat, he would turn aside and make a sort of +obeisance, and the words he spoke seemed as though he were deficient in +utterance. + +On going up the steps to the audience chamber, he would gather up with +both hands the ends of his robe, and walk with his body bent somewhat +forward, holding back his breath like one in whom respiration has +ceased. On coming out, after descending one step his countenance would +relax and assume an appearance of satisfaction. Arrived at the bottom, +he would go forward with quick step, his elbows evenly bent outwards, +back to his position, constrainedly reverent in every movement. + +When holding the sceptre in his hand, his body would be somewhat bent +forward, as if he were not equal to carrying it; wielding it now higher, +as in a salutation, now lower, as in the presentation of a gift; his +look would also be changed and appear awestruck; and his gait would seem +retarded, as if he were obeying some restraining hand behind. + +When he presented the gifts of ceremony, he would assume a placid +expression of countenance. At the private interview he would be cordial +and affable. + +The good man would use no purple or violet colors for the facings of his +dress. [22] Nor would he have red or orange color for his undress. [23] +For the hot season he wore a singlet, of either coarse or fine texture, +but would also feel bound to have an outer garment covering it. For his +black robe he had lamb's wool; for his white one, fawn's fur; and for +his yellow one, fox fur. His furred undress robe was longer, but the +right sleeve was shortened. He would needs have his sleeping-dress one +and a half times his own length. For ordinary home wear he used thick +substantial fox or badger furs. When he left off mourning, he would wear +all his girdle trinkets. His kirtle in front, when it was not needed for +full cover, he must needs have cut down. He would never wear his (black) +lamb's-wool, or a dark-colored cap, when he went on visits of condolence +to mourners. [24] On the first day of the new moon, he must have on his +Court dress and to Court. When observing his fasts, he made a point of +having bright, shiny garments, made of linen. He must also at such times +vary his food, and move his seat to another part of his dwelling-room. + +As to his food, he never tired of rice so long as it was clean and pure, +nor of hashed meats when finely minced. Rice spoiled by damp, and sour, +he would not touch, nor tainted fish, nor bad meat, nor aught of a bad +color or smell, nor aught overdone in cooking, nor aught out of season. +Neither would he eat anything that was not properly cut, or that lacked +its proper seasonings. Although there might be an abundance of meat +before him, he would not allow a preponderance of it to rob the rice of +its beneficial effect in nutrition. Only in the matter of wine did he +set himself no limit, yet he never drank so much as to confuse himself. +Tradesmen's wines, and dried meats from the market, he would not touch. +Ginger he would never have removed from the table during a meal. He was +not a great eater. Meat from the sacrifices at the prince's temple he +would never put aside till the following day. The meat of his own +offerings he would never give out after three days' keeping, for after +that time none were to eat it. + +At his meals he would not enter into discussions; and when reposing +(afterwards) he would not utter a word. + +Even should his meal consist only of coarse rice and vegetable broth or +melons, he would make an offering, and never fail to do so religiously. + +He would never sit on a mat that was not straight. + +After a feast among his villagers, he would wait before going away until +the old men had left. + +When the village people were exorcising the pests, he would put on his +Court robes and stand on the steps of his hall to receive them. + +When he was sending a message of inquiry to a person in another State, +he would bow twice on seeing the messenger off. + +Ki K'ang once sent him a present of some medicine. He bowed, and +received it; but remarked, "Until I am quite sure of its properties I +must not venture to taste it." + +Once when the stabling was destroyed by fire, he withdrew from the +Court, and asked, "Is any person injured? "--without inquiring as to the +horses. + +Whenever the prince sent him a present of food, he was particular to set +his mat in proper order, and would be the first one to taste it. If the +prince's present was one of raw meat, he must needs have it cooked, and +make an oblation of it. If the gift were a live animal, he would be sure +to keep it and care for it. + +When he was in waiting, and at a meal with the prince, the prince would +make the offering,[25] and he (the Master) was the pregustator. + +When unwell, and the prince came to see him, he would arrange his +position so that his head inclined towards the east, would put over him +his Court robes, and draw his girdle across them. + +When summoned by order of the prince, he would start off without waiting +for his horses to be put to. + +On his entry into the Grand Temple, he inquired about everything +connected with its usages. + +If a friend died, and there were no near relatives to take him to, he +would say, "Let him be buried from my house." + +For a friend's gift--unless it consisted of meat that had been offered +in sacrifice--he would not bow, even if it were a carriage and horses. + +In repose he did not lie like one dead. In his home life he was not +formal in his manner. + +Whenever he met with a person in mourning, even though it were a +familiar acquaintance, he would be certain to change his manner; and +when he met with any one in full-dress cap, or with any blind person, he +would also unfailingly put on a different look, even though he were +himself in undress at the time. + +In saluting any person wearing mourning he would bow forwards towards +the front bar of his carriage; in the same manner he would also salute +the bearer of a census-register. + +When a sumptuous banquet was spread before him, a different expression +would be sure to appear in his features, and he would rise up from his +seat. + +At a sudden thunder-clap, or when the wind grew furious, his look would +also invariably be changed. + +On getting into his car, he would never fail (first) to stand up erect, +holding on by the strap. When in the car, he would never look about, nor +speak hastily, nor bring one hand to the other. + + "Let one but make a movement in his face, + And the bird will rise and seek some safer place." + +Apropos of this, he said, "Here is a hen-pheasant from Shan Liang--and +in season! and in season!" After Tsz-lu had got it prepared, he smelt it +thrice, and then rose up from his seat. + + +[Footnote 22: Because, it is said, such colors were adopted in fasting +and mourning.] + +[Footnote 23: Because they did not belong to the five correct colors +(viz. green, yellow, carnation, white, and black), and were affected +more by females.] + +[Footnote 24: Since white was, as it is still, the mourning color.] + +[Footnote 25: The act of "grace," before eating.] + + + +BOOK XI + +Comparative Worth of His Disciples + + +"The first to make progress in the Proprieties and in Music," said the +Master, "are plain countrymen; after them, the men of higher standing. +If I had to employ any of them, I should stand by the former." + +"Of those," said he, "who were about me when I was in the Ch'in and +Ts'ai States, not one now is left to approach my door." + +"As for Hwui," [26] said the Master, "he is not one to help me on: there +is nothing I say but he is not well satisfied with." + +"What a dutiful son was Min Tsz-k'ien!" he exclaimed. "No one finds +occasion to differ from what his parents and brothers have said of him." + +Nan Yung used to repeat three times over the lines in the Odes about the +white sceptre. Confucius caused his own elder brother's daughter to be +given in marriage to him. + +When Ki K'ang inquired which of the disciples were fond of learning, +Confucius answered him, "There was one Yen Hwúi who was fond of it; but +unfortunately his allotted time was short, and he died; and now his like +is not to be found." + +When Yen Yuen died, his father, Yen Lu, begged for the Master's carriage +in order to get a shell for his coffin. "Ability or no ability," said +the Master, "every father still speaks of 'my son.' When my own son Li +died, and the coffin for him had no shell to it, I know I did not go on +foot to get him one; but that was because I was, though retired, in the +wake of the ministers, and could not therefore well do so." + +On the death of Yen Yuen the Master exclaimed, "Ah me! Heaven is ruining +me, Heaven is ruining me!" + +On the same occasion, his wailing for that disciple becoming excessive, +those who were about him said, "Sir, this is too much!"--"Too much?" +said he; "if I am not to do so for him, then--for whom else?" + +The disciples then wished for the deceased a grand funeral. The Master +could not on his part consent to this. They nevertheless gave him one. +Upon this he remarked, "He used to look upon me as if I were his father. +I could never, however, look on him as a son. Twas not my mistake, but +yours, my children." + +Tsz-lu propounded a question about ministering to the spirits of the +departed. The Master replied, "Where there is scarcely the ability to +minister to living men, how shall there be ability to minister to the +spirits?" On his venturing to put a question concerning death, he +answered, "Where there is scarcely any knowledge about life, how shall +there be any about death?" + +The disciple Min was by his side, looking affable and bland; Tsz-lu +also, looking careless and intrepid; and Yen Yu and Tsz-kung, firm and +precise. The Master was cheery. "One like Tsz-lu there," said he, "does +not come to a natural end." + +Some persons in Lu were taking measures in regard to the Long Treasury +House. Min Tsz-k'ien observed, "How if it were repaired on the old +lines?" The Master upon this remarked, "This fellow is not a talker, but +when he does speak he is bound to hit the mark!" + +"There is Yu's harpsichord," exclaimed the Master--"what is it doing at +my door?" On seeing, however, some disrespect shown to him by the other +disciples, he added, "Yu has got as far as the top of the hall; only he +has not yet entered the house." + +Tsz-kung asked which was the worthier of the two--Tsz-chang or Tsz-hiá. +"The former," answered the Master, "goes beyond the mark; the latter +falls short of it." + +"So then Tsz-chang is the better of the two, is he?" said he. + +"To go too far," he replied, "is about the same as to fall short." + +The Chief of the Ki family was a wealthier man than the Duke of Chow had +been, and yet Yen Yu gathered and hoarded for him, increasing his wealth +more and more. + +"He is no follower of mine," said the Master. "It would serve him right, +my children, to sound the drum, and set upon him." + +Characteristics of four disciples:--Tsz-káu was simple-minded; Tsang Si, +a dullard; Tsz-chang, full of airs; Tsz-lu, rough. + +"As to Hwúi," said the Master, "he comes near to perfection, while +frequently in great want. Tsz-kung does not submit to the appointments +of Heaven; and yet his goods are increased;--he is often successful in +his calculations." + +Tsz-chang wanted to know some marks of the naturally Good Man. + +"He does not walk in others' footprints," said the Master; "yet he does +not get beyond the hall into the house." + +Once the Master said, "Because we allow that a man's words have +something genuine in them, are they necessarily those of a superior man? +or words carrying only an outward semblance and show of gravity?" + +Tsz-lu put a question about the practice of precepts one has heard. The +Master's reply was, "In a case where there is a father or elder brother +still left with you, how should you practise all you hear?" + +When, however, the same question was put to him by Yen Yu, his reply +was, "Yes; do so." + +Kung-si Hwa animadverted upon this to the Master. "Tsz-lu asked you, +sir," said he, "about the practice of what one has learnt, and you said, +'There may be a father or elder brother still alive'; but when Yen Yu +asked the same question, you answered, 'Yes, do so.' I am at a loss to +understand you, and venture to ask what you meant." + +The Master replied, "Yen Yu backs out of his duties; therefore I push +him on. Tsz-lu has forwardness enough for them both; therefore I hold +him back." + +On the occasion of that time of fear in K'wang, Yen Yuen having fallen +behind, the Master said to him (afterwards), "I took it for granted you +were a dead man." "How should I dare to die," said he, "while you, sir, +still lived?" + +On Ki Tsz-jen putting to him a question anent Tsz-lu and Yen Yu, as to +whether they might be called "great ministers," the Master answered, "I +had expected your question, sir, to be about something extraordinary, +and lo! it is only about these two. Those whom we call 'great ministers' +are such as serve their prince conscientiously, and who, when they +cannot do so, retire. At present, as regards the two you ask about, they +may be called 'qualified ministers.'" + +"Well, are they then," he asked, "such as will follow their leader?" + +"They would not follow him who should slay his father and his prince!" +was the reply. + +Through the intervention of Tsz-lu, Tsz-kau was being appointed governor +of Pi. + +"You are spoiling a good man's son," said the Master. + +Tsz-lu rejoined, "But he will have the people and their superiors to +gain experience from, and there will be the altars; what need to read +books? He can become a student afterwards." + +"Here is the reason for my hatred of glib-tongued people," said the +Master. + +On one occasion Tsz-lu, Tsang Sin, Yen Yu, and Kung-si Hwa were sitting +near him. He said to them, "Though I may be a day older than you, do not +(for the moment) regard me as such. While you are living this unoccupied +life you are saying, 'We do not become known.' Now suppose some one got +to know you, what then?" + +Tsz-lu--first to speak--at once answered, "Give me a State of large size +and armament, hemmed in and hampered by other larger States, the +population augmented by armies and regiments, causing a dearth in it of +food of all kinds; give me charge of that State, and in three years' +time I should make a brave country of it, and let it know its place." + +The Master smiled at him. "Yen," said he, "how would it be with you?" + +"Give me," said Yen, "a territory of sixty or seventy li square, or of +fifty or sixty square; put me in charge of that, and in three years I +should make the people sufficiently prosperous. As regards their +knowledge of ceremonial or music, I should wait for superior men to +teach them that." + +"And with you, Kung-si, how would it be?" + +This disciple's reply was, "I have nothing to say about my capabilities +for such matters; my wish is to learn. I should like to be a junior +assistant, in dark robe and cap, at the services of the ancestral +temple, and at the Grand Receptions of the Princes by the Sovereign." + +"And with you, Tsang Sin?" + +This disciple was strumming on his harpsichord, but now the twanging +ceased, he turned from the instrument, rose to his feet, and answered +thus: "Something different from the choice of these three." "What harm?" +said the Master; "I want each one of you to tell me what his heart is +set upon." "Well, then," said he, "give me--in the latter part of +spring--dressed in full spring-tide attire--in company with five or six +young fellows of twenty, [27] or six or seven lads under that age, to do +the ablutions in the I stream, enjoy a breeze in the rain-dance, [28] +and finish up with songs on the road home." + +The Master drew in his breath, sighed, and exclaimed, "Ah, I take with +you!" + +The three other disciples having gone out, leaving Tsang Sin behind, the +latter said, "What think you of the answers of those three?"--"Well, +each told me what was uppermost in his mind," said the Master;--"simply +that." + +"Why did you smile at Tsz-lu, sir?" + +"I smiled at him because to have the charge of a State requires due +regard to the Rules of Propriety, and his words betrayed a lack of +modesty." + +"But Yen, then--he had a State in view, had he not?" + +"I should like to be shown a territory such as he described which does +not amount to a State." + +"But had not Kung-si also a State in view?" + +"What are ancestral temples and Grand Receptions, but for the feudal +lords to take part in? If Kung-si were to become an unimportant +assistant at these functions, who could become an important one?" + + +[Footnote 26: The men of virtuous life were Yen Yuen (Hwúi), Min +Tsz-k'ien, Yen Pihniu, and Chung-kung (Yen Yung); the speakers and +debaters were Tsai Wo and Tsz-kung; the (capable) government servants +were Yen Yu and Tsz-lu; the literary students, Tsz-yu and Tsz-hiá.] + +[Footnote 27: Lit., capped ones. At twenty they underwent the ceremony +of capping, and were considered men.] + +[Footnote 28: I.e., before the altars, where offerings were placed with +prayer for rain. A religious dance.] + + + +BOOK XII + +The Master's Answers--Philanthropy--Friendships + + +Yen Yuen was asking about man's proper regard for his fellow-man. The +Master said to him, "Self-control, and a habit of falling back upon +propriety, virtually effect it. Let these conditions be fulfilled for +one day, and every one round will betake himself to the duty. Is it to +begin in one's self, or think you, indeed! it is to begin in others?" + +"I wanted you to be good enough," said Yen Yuen, "to give me a brief +synopsis of it." + +Then said the Master, "Without Propriety use not your eyes; without it +use not your ears, nor your tongue, nor a limb of your body." + +"I may be lacking in diligence," said Yen Yuen, "but with your favor I +will endeavor to carry out this advice." + +Chung-kung asked about man's proper regard for his fellows. + +To him the Master replied thus: "When you go forth from your door, be as +if you were meeting some guest of importance. When you are making use of +the common people (for State purposes), be as if you were taking part in +a great religious function. Do not set before others what you do not +desire yourself. Let there be no resentful feelings against you when you +are away in the country, and none when at home." + +"I may lack diligence," said Chung-kung, "but with your favor I will +endeavor to carry out this advice." + +Sz-ma Niu asked the like question. The answer he received was this: "The +words of the man who has a proper regard for his fellows are uttered +with difficulty." + +"'His words--uttered with difficulty?'" he echoed, in surprise. "Is that +what is meant by proper regard for one's fellow-creatures?" + +"Where there is difficulty in doing," the Master replied, "will there +not be some difficulty in utterance?" + +The same disciple put a question about the "superior man." "Superior +men," he replied, "are free from trouble and apprehension." + +"'Free from trouble and apprehension!'" said he. "Does that make them +'superior men'?" + +The Master added, "Where there is found, upon introspection, to be no +chronic disease, how shall there be any trouble? how shall there be any +apprehension?" + +The same disciple, being in trouble, remarked, "I am alone in having no +brother, while all else have theirs--younger or elder." + +Tsz-hiá said to him, "I have heard this: 'Death and life have destined +times; wealth and honors rest with Heaven. Let the superior man keep +watch over himself without ceasing, showing deference to others, with +propriety of manners--and all within the four seas will be his brethren. +How should he be distressed for lack of brothers!'" [29] + +Tsz-chang asked what sort of man might be termed "enlightened." + +The Master replied, "That man with whom drenching slander and cutting +calumny gain no currency may well be called enlightened. Ay, he with +whom such things make no way may well be called enlightened in the +extreme." + +Tsz-kung put a question relative to government. In reply the Master +mentioned three essentials:--sufficient food, sufficient armament, and +the people's confidence. + +"But," said the disciple, "if you cannot really have all three, and one +has to be given up, which would you give up first?" + +"The armament," he replied. + +"And if you are obliged to give up one of the remaining two, which would +it be?" + +"The food," said he. "Death has been the portion of all men from of old. +Without the people's trust nothing can stand." + +Kih Tsz-shing once said, "Give me the inborn qualities of a gentleman, +and I want no more. How are such to come from book-learning?" + +Tsz-kung exclaimed, "Ah! sir, I regret to hear such words from you. A +gentleman!--But 'a team of four can ne'er o'er-take the tongue!' +Literary accomplishments are much the same as inborn qualities, and +inborn qualities as literary accomplishments. A tiger's or leopard's +skin without the hair might be a dog's or sheep's when so made bare." + +Duke Ngai was consulting Yu Joh. Said he, "It is a year of dearth, and +there is an insufficiency for Ways and Means--what am I to do?" + +"Why not apply the Tithing Statute?" said the minister. + +"But two tithings would not be enough for my purposes," said the duke; +"what would be the good of applying the Statute?" + +The minister replied, "So long as the people have enough left for +themselves, who of them will allow their prince to be without enough? +But--when the people have not enough, who will allow their prince all +that he wants?" + +Tsz-chang was asking how the standard of virtue was to be raised, and +how to discern what was illusory or misleading. The Master's answer was, +"Give a foremost place to honesty and faithfulness, and tread the path +of righteousness, and you will raise the standard of virtue. As to +discerning what is illusory, here is an example of an illusion:--Whom +you love you wish to live; whom you hate you wish to die. To have wished +the same person to live and also to be dead--there is an illusion for +you." + +Duke King of Ts'i consulted Confucius about government. His answer was, +"Let a prince be a prince, and ministers be ministers; let fathers be +fathers, and sons be sons." + +"Good!" exclaimed the duke; "truly if a prince fail to be a prince, and +ministers to be ministers, and if fathers be not fathers, and sons not +sons, then, even though I may have my allowance of grain, should I ever +be able to relish it?" + +"The man to decide a cause with half a word," exclaimed the Master, "is +Tsz-lu!" + +Tsz-lu never let a night pass between promise and performance. + +"In hearing causes, I am like other men," said the Master. "The great +point is--to prevent litigation." + +Tsz-chang having raised some question about government, the Master said +to him, "In the settlement of its principles be unwearied; in its +administration--see to that loyally." + +"The man of wide research," said he, "who also restrains himself by the +Rules of Propriety, is not likely to transgress." + +Again, "The noble-minded man makes the most of others' good qualities, +not the worst of their bad ones. Men of small mind do the reverse of +this." + +Ki K'ang was consulting him about the direction of public affairs. +Confucius answered him, "A director should be himself correct. If you, +sir, as a leader show correctness, who will dare not to be correct?" + +Ki K'ang, being much troubled on account of robbers abroad, consulted +Confucius on the matter. He received this reply: "If you, sir, were not +covetous, neither would they steal, even were you to bribe them to do +so." + +Ki K'ang, when consulting Confucius about the government, said, "Suppose +I were to put to death the disorderly for the better encouragement of +the orderly--what say you to that?" + +"Sir," replied Confucius, "in the administration of government why +resort to capital punishment? Covet what is good, and the people will be +good. The virtue of the noble-minded man is as the wind, and that of +inferior men as grass; the grass must bend, when the wind blows upon +it." + +Tsz-chang asked how otherwise he would describe the learned official who +might be termed influential. + +"What, I wonder, do you mean by one who is influential?" said the +Master. + +"I mean," replied the disciple, "one who is sure to have a reputation +throughout the country, as well as at home." + +"That," said the Master, "is reputation, not influence. The influential +man, then, if he be one who is genuinely straightforward and loves what +is just and right, a discriminator of men's words, and an observer of +their looks, and in honor careful to prefer others to himself--will +certainly have influence, both throughout the country and at home. The +man of mere reputation, on the other hand, who speciously affects +philanthropy, though in his way of procedure he acts contrary to it, +while yet quite evidently engrossed with that virtue--will certainly +have reputation, both in the country and at home." + +Fan Ch'i, strolling with him over the ground below the place of the +rain-dance, said to him, "I venture to ask how to raise the standard of +virtue, how to reform dissolute habits, and how to discern what is +illusory?" + +"Ah! a good question indeed!" he exclaimed. "Well, is not putting duty +first, and success second, a way of raising the standard of virtue? And +is not attacking the evil in one's self, and not the evil which is in +others, a way of reforming dissolute habits? And as to illusions, is not +one morning's fit of anger, causing a man to forget himself, and even +involving in the consequences those who are near and dear to him--is not +that an illusion?" + +The same disciple asked him what was meant by "a right regard for one's +fellow-creatures." He replied, "It is love to man." + +Asked by him again what was meant by wisdom, he replied, "It is +knowledge of man." + +Fan Ch'i did not quite grasp his meaning. + +The Master went on to say, "Lift up the straight, set aside the crooked, +so can you make the crooked straight." + +Fan Ch'i left him, and meeting with Tsz-hiá he said, "I had an interview +just now with the Master, and I asked him what wisdom was. In his answer +he said, 'Lift up the straight, set aside the crooked, and so can you +make the crooked straight.' What was his meaning?" + +"Ah! words rich in meaning, those," said the other. "When Shun was +emperor, and was selecting his men from among the multitude, he 'lifted +up' Káu-yáu; and men devoid of right feelings towards their kind went +far away. And when T'ang was emperor, and chose out his men from the +crowd, he 'lifted up' I-yin--with the same result." + +Tsz-kung was consulting him about a friend. "Speak to him frankly, and +respectfully," said the Master, "and gently lead him on. If you do not +succeed, then stop; do not submit yourself to indignity." + +The learned Tsang observed, "In the society of books the 'superior man' +collects his friends; in the society of his friends he is furthering +good-will among men." + + +[Footnote 29: From Confucius, it is generally thought.] + + + +BOOK XIII + +Answers on the Art of Governing--Consistency + + +Tsz-lu was asking about government. "Lead the way in it," said the +Master, "and work hard at it." + +Requested to say more, he added, "And do not tire of it." + +Chung-kung, on being made first minister to the Chief of the Ki family, +consulted the Master about government, and to him he said, "Let the +heads of offices be heads. Excuse small faults. Promote men of sagacity +and talent." + +"But," he asked, "how am I to know the sagacious and talented, before +promoting them?" + +"Promote those whom you do know," said the Master. + +"As to those of whom you are uncertain, will others omit to notice +them?" + +Tsz-lu said to the Master, "As the prince of Wei, sir, has been waiting +for you to act for him in his government, what is it your intention to +take in hand first?" + +"One thing of necessity," he answered--"the rectification of terms." + +"That!" exclaimed Tsz-lu. "How far away you are, sir! Why such +rectification?" + +"What a rustic you are, Tsz-lu!" rejoined the Master. "A gentleman would +be a little reserved and reticent in matters which he does not +understand. If terms be incorrect, language will be incongruous; and if +language be incongruous, deeds will be imperfect. So, again, when deeds +are imperfect, propriety and harmony cannot prevail, and when this is +the case laws relating to crime will fail in their aim; and if these +last so fail, the people will not know where to set hand or foot. Hence, +a man of superior mind, certain first of his terms, is fitted to speak; +and being certain of what he says can proceed upon it. In the language +of such a person there is nothing heedlessly irregular--and that is the +sum of the matter." + +Fan Ch'i requested that he might learn something of husbandry. "For +that." said the Master, "I am not equal to an old husbandman." Might he +then learn something of gardening? he asked. "I am not equal to an old +gardener." was the reply. + +"A man of little mind, that!" said the Master, when Fan Ch'i had gone +out. "Let a man who is set over the people love propriety, and they will +not presume to be disrespectful. Let him be a lover of righteousness, +and they will not presume to be aught but submissive. Let him love +faithfulness and truth, and they will not presume not to lend him their +hearty assistance. Ah, if all this only were so, the people from all +sides would come to such a one, carrying their children on their backs. +What need to turn his hand to husbandry? + +"Though a man," said he, "could hum through the Odes--the three +hundred--yet should show himself unskilled when given some +administrative work to do for his country; though he might know much of +that other lore, yet if, when sent on a mission to any quarter, he could +answer no question personally and unaided, what after all is he good +for? + +"Let a leader," said he, "show rectitude in his own personal character, +and even without directions from him things will go well. If he be not +personally upright, his directions will not be complied with." + +Once he made the remark, "The governments of Lu and of Wei are in +brotherhood." + +Of King, a son of the Duke of Wei, he observed that "he managed his +household matters well. On his coming into possession, he thought, 'What +a strange conglomeration!'--Coming to possess a little more, it was, +'Strange, such a result!' And when he became wealthy, 'Strange, such +elegance!'" + +The Master was on a journey to Wei, and Yen Yu was driving him. "What +multitudes of people!" he exclaimed. Yen Yu asked him, "Seeing they are +so numerous, what more would you do for them?" + +"Enrich them," replied the Master. + +"And after enriching them, what more would you do for them?" + +"Instruct them." + +"Were any one of our princes to employ me," he said, "after a +twelvemonth I might have made some tolerable progress;" + +Again, "How true is that saying, 'Let good men have the management of a +country for a century, and they would be adequate to cope with +evil-doers, and thus do away with capital punishments,'" + +Again, "Suppose the ruler to possess true kingly qualities, then surely +after one generation there would be good-will among men." + +Again, "Let a ruler but see to his own rectitude, and what trouble will +he then have in the work before him? If he be unable to rectify himself, +how is he to rectify others?" + +Once when Yen Yu was leaving the Court, the Master accosted him. "Why so +late?" he asked. "Busy with legislation," Yen replied. "The details of +it," suggested the Master; "had it been legislation, I should have been +there to hear it, even though I am not in office." + +Duke Ting asked if there were one sentence which, if acted upon, might +have the effect of making a country prosperous. + +Confucius answered, "A sentence could hardly be supposed to do so much +as that. But there is a proverb people use which says, 'To play the +prince is hard, to play the minister not easy.' Assuming that it is +understood that 'to play the prince is hard,' would it not be probable +that with that one sentence the country should be made to prosper?" + +"Is there, then," he asked, "one sentence which, if acted upon, would +have the effect of ruining a country?" + +Confucius again replied, "A sentence could hardly be supposed to do so +much as that. But there is a proverb men have which says, 'Not gladly +would I play the prince, unless my words were ne'er withstood.' Assuming +that the words were good, and that none withstood them, would not that +also be good? But assuming that they were not good, and yet none +withstood them, would it not be probable that with that one saying he +would work his country's ruin?" + +When the Duke of Sheh consulted him about government, he replied, "Where +the near are gratified, the far will follow." + +When Tsz-hiá became governor of Kü-fu, and consulted him about +government, he answered, "Do not wish for speedy results. Do not look at +trivial advantages. If you wish for speedy results, they will not be +far-reaching; and if you regard trivial advantages you will not +successfully deal with important affairs." + +The Duke of Sheh in a conversation with Confucius said, "There are +some straightforward persons in my neighborhood. If a father has stolen +a sheep, the son will give evidence against him." + +"Straightforward people in my neighborhood are different from those," +said Confucius. "The father will hold a thing secret on his son's +behalf, and the son does the same for his father. They are on their way +to becoming straightforward." + +Fan Ch'i was asking him about duty to one's fellow-men. "Be courteous," +he replied, "in your private sphere; be serious in any duty you take in +hand to do; be leal-hearted in your intercourse with others. Even though +you were to go amongst the wild tribes, it would not be right for you to +neglect these duties." + +In answer to Tsz-kung, who asked, "how he would characterize one who +could fitly be called 'learned official,'" the Master said, "He may be +so-called who in his private life is affected with a sense of his own +unworthiness, and who, when sent on a mission to any quarter of the +empire, would not disgrace his prince's commands." + +"May I presume," said his questioner, "to ask what sort you would put +next to such?" + +"Him who is spoken of by his kinsmen as a dutiful son, and whom the +folks of his neighborhood call' good brother.'" + +"May I still venture to ask whom you would place next in order?" + +"Such as are sure to be true to their word, and effective in their +work--who are given to hammering, as it were, upon one note--of inferior +calibre indeed, but fit enough, I think, to be ranked next." + +"How would you describe those who are at present in the government +service?" + +"Ugh! mere peck and panier men!--not worth taking into the reckoning." + +Once he remarked, "If I cannot get _via media_ men to impart instruction +to, then I must of course take the impetuous and undisciplined! The +impetuous ones will at least go forward and lay hold on things; and the +undisciplined have at least something in them which needs to be brought +out." + +"The Southerners," said he, "have the proverb, 'The man who sticks not +to rule will never make a charm-worker or a medical man,' +Good!--'Whoever is intermittent in his practise of virtue will live to +be ashamed of it.' Without prognostication," he added, "that will indeed +be so." + +"The nobler-minded man," he remarked, "will be agreeable even when he +disagrees; the small-minded man will agree and be disagreeable." + +Tsz-kung was consulting him, and asked, "What say you of a person who +was liked by all in his village?" + +"That will scarcely do," he answered. + +"What, then, if they all disliked him?" + +"That, too," said he, "is scarcely enough. Better if he were liked by +the good folk in the village, and disliked by the bad." + +"The superior man," he once observed, "is easy to serve, but difficult +to please. Try to please him by the adoption of wrong principles, and +you will fail. Also, when such a one employs others, he uses them +according to their capacity. The inferior man is, on the other hand, +difficult to serve, but easy to please. Try to please him by the +adoption of wrong principles, and you will succeed. And when he employs +others he requires them to be fully prepared for everything." + +Again, "The superior man can be high without being haughty. The inferior +man can be haughty if not high." + +"The firm, the unflinching, the plain and simple, the slow to speak," +said he once, "are approximating towards their duty to their +fellow-men." + +Tsz-lu asked how he would characterize one who might fitly be called an +educated gentleman. The master replied, "He who can properly be +so-called will have in him a seriousness of purpose, a habit of +controlling himself, and an agreeableness of manner: among his friends +and associates the seriousness and the self-control, and among his +brethren the agreeableness of manner." + +"Let good and able men discipline the people for seven years," said the +Master, "and after that they may do to go to war." + +But, said he, "To lead an undisciplined people to war--that I call +throwing them away." + + + +BOOK XIV + +Good and Bad Government--Miscellaneous Sayings + + +Yuen Sz asked what might be considered to bring shame on one. + +"Pay," said the Master; "pay--ever looking to that, whether the country +be well or badly governed." + +"When imperiousness, boastfulness, resentments, and covetousness cease +to prevail among the people, may it be considered that mutual good-will +has been effected?" To this question the Master replied, "A hard thing +overcome, it may be considered. But as to the mutual good-will--I cannot +tell." + +"Learned officials," said he, "who hanker after a home life, are not +worthy of being esteemed as such." + +Again, "In a country under good government, speak boldly, act boldly. +When the land is ill-governed, though you act boldly, let your words be +moderate." + +Again, "Men of virtue will needs be men of words--will speak out--but +men of words are not necessarily men of virtue. They who care for their +fellow-men will needs be bold, but the bold may not necessarily be such +as care for their fellow-men." + +Nan-kung Kwoh, who was consulting Confucius, observed respecting I, the +skilful archer, and Ngau, who could propel a boat on dry land, that +neither of them died a natural death; while Yu and Tsih, who with their +own hands had labored at husbandry, came to wield imperial sway. + +The Master gave him no reply. But when the speaker had gone out he +exclaimed, "A superior man, that! A man who values virtue, that!" + +"There have been noble-minded men," said he, "who yet were wanting in +philanthropy; but never has there been a small-minded man who had +philanthropy in him." + +He asked, "Can any one refuse to toil for those he loves? Can any one +refuse to exhort, who is true-hearted?" + +Speaking of the preparation of Government Notifications in his day he +said, "P'i would draw up a rough sketch of what was to be said; the +Shishuh then looked it carefully through and put it into proper shape; +Tsz-yu next, who was master of the ceremonial of State intercourse, +improved and adorned its phrases; and Tsz-ch'an of Tung-li added his +scholarly embellishments thereto." + +To some one who asked his opinion of the last-named, he said, "He was a +kind-hearted man." Asked what he thought of Tsz-si, he exclaimed, "Alas +for him! alas for him!"--Asked again about Kwan Chung, his answer was, +"As to him, he once seized the town of P'in with its three hundred +families from the Chief of the Pih clan, who, afterwards reduced to +living upon coarse rice, with all his teeth gone, never uttered a word +of complaint." + +"It is no light thing," said he, "to endure poverty uncomplainingly; and +a difficult thing to bear wealth without becoming arrogant." + +Respecting Mang Kung-ch'oh, he said that, while he was fitted for +something better than the post of chief officer in the Cháu or Wei +families, he was not competent to act as minister in small States like +those of T'ang or Sieh. + +Tsz-lu asked how he would describe a perfect man. He replied, "Let a man +have the sagacity of Tsang Wu-chung, the freedom from covetousness of +Kung-ch'oh, the boldness of Chwang of P'in, and the attainments in +polite arts of Yen Yu; and gift him further with the graces taught by +the 'Books of Rites' and 'Music'--then he may be considered a perfect +man. But," said he, "what need of such in these days? The man that may +be regarded as perfect now is the one who, seeing some advantage to +himself, is mindful of righteousness; who, seeing danger, risks his +life; and who, if bound by some covenant of long standing, never forgets +its conditions as life goes on." + +Respecting Kung-shuh Wan, the Master inquired of Kung-ming Kiá, saying, +"Is it true that your master never speaks, never laughs, never takes +aught from others?" + +"Those who told you that of him," said he, "have gone too far. My master +speaks when there is occasion to do so, and men are not surfeited with +his speaking. When there is occasion to be merry too, he will laugh, but +men have never overmuch of his laughing. And whenever it is just and +right to take things from others, he will take them, but never so as to +allow men to think him burdensome." "Is that the case with him?" said +the Master. "Can it be so?" + +Respecting Tsang Wu-chung the Master said, "When he sought from Lu the +appointment of a successor to him, and for this object held on to his +possession of the fortified city of Fang--if you say he was not then +using constraint towards his prince, I must refuse to believe it." + +Duke Wan of Tsin he characterized as "artful but not upright"; and Duke +Hwan of Ts'i as "upright but not artful." + +Tsz-lu remarked, "When Duke Hwan caused his brother Kiu to be put to +death, Shau Hwuh committed suicide, but Kwan Chung did not. I should say +he was not a man who had much good-will in him--eh?" + +The Master replied, "When Duke Hwan held a great gathering of the feudal +lords, dispensing with military equipage, it was owing to Kwan Chung's +energy that such an event was brought about. Match such good-will as +that--match it if you can." + +Tsz-kung then spoke up. "But was not Kwan Chung wanting in good-will? He +could not give up his life when Duke Hwan caused his brother to be put +to death. Besides, he became the duke's counsellor." + +"And in acting as his counsellor put him at the head of all the feudal +lords," said the Master, "and unified and reformed the whole empire; and +the people, even to this day, reap benefit from what he did. Had it not +been for him we should have been going about with locks unkempt and +buttoning our jackets (like barbarians) on the left. Would you suppose +that he should show the same sort of attachment as exists between a poor +yokel and his one wife--that he would asphyxiate himself in some sewer, +leaving no one the wiser?" + +Kung-shuh Wan's steward, who became the high officer Sien, went up +accompanied by Wan to the prince's hall of audience. + +When Confucius heard of this he remarked, "He may well be esteemed a +'Wan,'" + +The Master having made some reference to the lawless ways of Duke Ling +of Wei, Ki K'ang said to him, "If he be like that, how is it he does not +ruin his position?" + +Confucius answered, "The Chung-shuh, Yu, is charged with the +entertainment of visitors and strangers; the priest T'o has charge of +the ancestral temple; and Wang-sun Kiá has the control of the army and +its divisions:--with men such as those, how should he come to ruin?" + +He once remarked, "He who is unblushing in his words will with +difficulty substantiate them." + +Ch'in Shing had slain Duke Kien. Hearing of this, Confucius, after +performing his ablutions, went to Court and announced the news to Duke +Ngai, saying, "Ch'in Hang has slain his prince. May I request that you +proceed against him?" + +"Inform the Chiefs of the Three Families," said the duke. + +Soliloquizing upon this, Confucius said, "Since he uses me to back his +ministers, [30] I did not dare not to announce the matter to him; and +now he says, 'Inform the Three Chiefs.'" + +He went to the Three Chiefs and informed them, but nothing could be +done. Whereupon again he said, "Since he uses me to back his ministers, +I did not dare not to announce the matter." + +Tsz-lu was questioning him as to how he should serve his prince. +"Deceive him not, but reprove him," he answered. + +"The minds of superior men," he observed, "trend upwards; those of +inferior men trend downwards." + +Again, "Students of old fixed their eyes upon themselves: now they learn +with their eyes upon others." + +Kü Pih-yuh despatched a man with a message to Confucius. Confucius gave +him a seat, and among other inquiries he asked, "How is your master +managing?" "My master," he replied, "has a great wish to be seldom at +fault, and as yet he cannot manage it." + +"What a messenger!" exclaimed he admiringly, when the man went out. +"What a messenger!" + +"When not occupying the office," was a remark of his, "devise not the +policy." + +The Learned Tsang used to say, "The thoughts of the 'superior man' do +not wander from his own office." + +"Superior men," said the Master, "are modest in their words, profuse in +their deeds." + +Again, "There are three attainments of the superior man which are beyond +me--the being sympathetic without anxiety, wise without scepticism, +brave without fear." + +"Sir," said Tsz-kung, "that is what you say of yourself." + +Whenever Tsz-kung drew comparisons from others, the Master would say, +"Ah, how wise and great you must have become! Now I have no time to do +that." + +Again, "My great concern is, not that men do not know me, but that they +cannot." + +Again, "If a man refrain from making preparations against his being +imposed upon, and from counting upon others' want of good faith towards +him, while he is foremost to perceive what is passing--surely that is a +wise and good man." + +Wi-shang Mau accosted Confucius, saying, "Kiu, how comes it that you +manage to go perching and roosting in this way? Is it not because you +show yourself so smart a speaker, now?" + +"I should not dare do that," said Confucius. "Tis that I am sick of +men's immovableness and deafness to reason." + +"In a well-bred horse," said he, "what one admires is not its speed, but +its good points." + +Some one asked, "What say you of the remark, 'Requite enmity with +kindness'?" + +"How then," he answered, "would you requite kindness? Requite enmity +with straightforwardness, and kindness with kindness." + +"Ah! no one knows me!" he once exclaimed. + +"Sir," said Tsz-kung, "how comes it to pass that no one knows you?" + +"While I murmur not against Heaven," continued the Master, "nor cavil at +men; while I stoop to learn and aspire to penetrate into things that are +high; yet 'tis Heaven alone knows what I am." + +Liáu, a kinsman of the duke, having laid a complaint against Tsz-lu +before Ki K'ang, an officer came to Confucius to inform him of the fact, +and he added, "My lord is certainly having his mind poisoned by his +kinsman Liáu, but through my influence perhaps we may yet manage to see +him exposed in the marketplace or the Court." + +"If right principles are to have their course, it is so destined," said +the Master; "if they are not to have their course, it is so destined. +What can Liáu do against Destiny?" + +"There are worthy men," said the Master, "fleeing from the world; some +from their district; some from the sight of men's looks; some from the +language they hear." + +"The men who have risen from their posts and withdrawn in this manner +are seven in number." + +Tsz-lu, having lodged overnight in Shih-mun, was accosted by the +gate-keeper in the morning. "Where from?" he asked. "From Confucius," +Tsz-lu responded. "That is the man," said he, "who knows things are not +up to the mark, and is making some ado about them, is it not?" + +When the Master was in Wei, he was once pounding on the musical stone, +when a man with a basket of straw crossed his threshold, and exclaimed, +"Ah, there is a heart that feels! Aye, drub the stone!" After which he +added, "How vulgar! how he hammers away on one note!--and no one knows +him, and he gives up, and all is over! + + Be it deep, our skirts we'll raise to the waist, + --Or shallow, then up to the knee,'" + +"What determination!" said the Master. "Yet it was not +hard to do." + +Tsz-chang once said to him, "In the 'Book of the Annals' +it is stated that while Káu-tsung was in the Mourning Shed he +spent the three years without speaking. What is meant by +that?" + +"Why must you name Káu-tsung?" said the Master. "It +was so with all other ancient sovereigns: when one of them +died, the heads of every department agreed between themselves +that they should give ear for three years to the Prime Minister." + +"When their betters love the Rules, then the folk are easy +tools," was a saying of the Master. + +Tsz-lu having asked what made a "superior man," he answered, +"Self-culture, with a view to becoming seriously-minded." + +"Nothing more than that?" said he. + +"Self-culture with a view to the greater satisfaction of +others," added the Master. + +"That, and yet no more?" + +"Self-culture with a view to the greater satisfaction of all the +clans and classes," he again added. "Self-culture for the sake +of all--a result that, that would almost put Yau and Shun into +the shade!" + +To Yuen Jang, [31] who was sitting waiting for him in a squatting +(disrespectful) posture, the Master delivered himself as follows: +"The man who in his youth could show no humility or subordination, +who in his prime misses his opportunity, and who when old age +comes upon him will not die--that man is a miscreant." And he +tapped him on the shin with his staff. + +Some one asked about his attendant--a youth from the village +of Kiueh--whether he was one who improved. He replied, "I note +that he seats himself in the places reserved for his betters, +and that when he is walking he keeps abreast with his seniors. +He is not one of those who care for improvement: he wants to +be a man all at once." + + +[Footnote 30: Confucius had now retired from office, and this incident +occurred only two years before his death.] + +[Footnote 31: It is a habit with the Chinese, when a number are out +walking together, for the eldest to go first, the others pairing off +according to their age. It is a custom much older than the time of +Confucius.] + + + +BOOK XV + +Practical Wisdom--Reciprocity the Rule of Life + + +Duke Ling of Wei was consulting Confucius about army arrangements. His +answer was, "Had you asked me about such things as temple requisites, I +have learnt that business, but I have not yet studied military matters." +And he followed up this reply by leaving on the following day. + +After this, during his residence in the State of Ch'in, his followers, +owing to a stoppage of food supply, became so weak and ill that not one +of them could stand. Tsz-lu, with indignation pictured on his +countenance, exclaimed, "And is a gentleman to suffer starvation?" + +"A gentleman," replied the Master, "will endure it unmoved, but a common +person breaks out into excesses under it." + +Addressing Tsz-kung, the Master said, "You regard me as one who studies +and stores up in his mind a multiplicity of things--do you not?"--"I +do," he replied; "is it not so?"--"Not at all. I have one idea--one cord +on which to string all." + +To Tsz-lu he remarked, "They who know Virtue are rare." + +"If you would know one who without effort ruled well, was not Shun such +a one? What did he indeed do? He bore himself with reverent dignity and +undeviatingly 'faced the south,' and that was all." + +Tsz-chang was consulting him about making way in life. He answered, "Be +true and honest in all you say, and seriously earnest in all you do, and +then, even if your country be one inhabited by barbarians, South or +North, you will make your way. If you do not show yourself thus in word +and deed how should you succeed, even in your own district or +neighborhood?--When you are afoot, let these two counsels be two +companions preceding you, yourself viewing them from behind; when you +drive, have them in view as on the yoke of your carriage. Then may you +make your way." + +Tsz-chang wrote them on the two ends of his cincture. + +"Straight was the course of the Annalist Yu," said the Master--"aye, +straight as an arrow flies; were the country well governed or ill +governed, his was an arrow-like course. + +"A man of masterly mind, too, is Kü Pih-yuh! When the land is being +rightly governed he will serve; when it is under bad government he is +apt to recoil, and brood." + +"Not to speak to a man." said he, "to whom you ought to speak, is to +lose your man; to speak to one to whom you ought not to speak is to lose +your words. Those who are wise will not lose their man nor yet their +words." + +Again, "The scholar whose heart is in his work, and who is +philanthropic, seeks not to gain a livelihood by any means that will do +harm to his philanthropy. There have been men who have destroyed their +own lives in the endeavor to bring that virtue in them to perfection." + +Tsz-kung asked how to become philanthropic. The Master answered him +thus: "A workman who wants to do his work well must first sharpen his +tools. In whatever land you live, serve under some wise and good man +among those in high office, and make friends with the more humane of its +men of education." + +Yen Yuen consulted him on the management of a country. He answered:-- + +"Go by the Hiá Calendar. Have the State carriages like those of the Yin +princes. Wear the Chow cap. For your music let that of Shun be used for +the posturers. Put away the songs of Ch'ing, and remove far from you men +of artful speech: the Ch'ing songs are immodest, and artful talkers are +dangerous." + +Other sayings of the Master:-- + +"They who care not for the morrow will the sooner have their sorrow. + +"Ah, 'tis hopeless! I have not yet met with the man who loves Virtue as +he loves Beauty. + +"Was not Tsang Wan like one who surreptitiously came by the post he +held? He knew the worth of Hwúi of Liu-hiá, and could not stand in his +presence. + +"Be generous yourself, and exact little from others; then you banish +complaints. + +"With one who does not come to me inquiring 'What of this?' and 'What of +that?' I never can ask 'What of this?' and give him up. + +"If a number of students are all day together, and in their conversation +never approach the subject of righteousness, but are fond merely of +giving currency to smart little sayings, they are difficult indeed to +manage. + +"When the 'superior man' regards righteousness as the thing material, +gives operation to it according to the Rules of Propriety, lets it issue +in humility, and become complete in sincerity--there indeed is your +superior man! + +"The trouble of the superior man will be his own want of ability: it +will be no trouble to him that others do not know him. + +"Such a man thinks it hard to end his days and leave a name to be no +longer named. + +"The superior man is exacting of himself; the common man is exacting of +others. + +"A superior man has self-respect, and does not strive; is sociable, yet +no party man. + +"He does not promote a man because of his words, or pass over the words +because of the man." + +Tsz-kung put to him the question, "Is there one word upon which the +whole life may proceed?" + +The Master replied, "Is not Reciprocity such a word?--what you do not +yourself desire, do not put before others." + +"So far as I have to do with others, whom do I over-censure? whom do I +over-praise? If there be something in them that looks very praiseworthy, +that something I put to the test. I would have the men of the present +day to walk in the straight path whereby those of the Three Dynasties +have walked. + +"I have arrived as it were at the annalist's blank page.--Once he who +had a horse would lend it to another to mount; now, alas! it is not so. + +"Artful speech is the confusion of Virtue. Impatience over little things +introduces confusion into great schemes. + +"What is disliked by the masses needs inquiring into; so also does that +which they have a preference for. + +"A man may give breadth to his principles: it is not principles (in +themselves) that give breadth to the man. + +"Not to retract after committing an error may itself be called error. + +"If I have passed the whole day without food and the whole night without +sleep, occupied with my thoughts, it profits me nothing: I were better +engaged in learning. + +"The superior man deliberates upon how he may walk in truth, not upon +what he may eat. The farmer may plough, and be on the way to want: the +student learns, and is on his way to emolument. To live a right life is +the concern of men of nobler minds: poverty gives them none. + +"Whatsoever the intellect may attain to, unless the humanity within is +powerful enough to keep guard over it, is assuredly lost, even though it +be gained. + +"If there be intellectual attainments, and the humanity within is +powerful enough to keep guard over them, yet, unless (in a ruler) there +be dignity in his rule, the people will fail to show him respect. + +"Again, given the intellectual attainments, and humanity sufficient to +keep watch over them, and also dignity in ruling, yet if his movements +be not in accordance with the Rules of Propriety, he is not yet fully +qualified. + +"The superior man may not be conversant with petty details, and yet may +have important matters put into his hands. The inferior man may not be +charged with important matters, yet may be conversant with the petty +details. + +"Good-fellowship is more to men than fire and water. I have seen men +stepping into fire and into water, and meeting with death thereby; I +have not yet seen a man die from planting his steps in the path of +good-fellowship. + +"Rely upon good nature. 'Twill not allow precedence even to a teacher. + +"The superior man is inflexibly upright, and takes not things upon +trust. + +"In serving your prince, make your service the serious concern, and let +salary be a secondary matter. + +"Where instruction is to be given, there must be no distinction of +persons. + +"Where men's methods are not identical, there can be no planning by one +on behalf of another. + +"In speaking, perspicuity is all that is needed." + +When the blind music-master Mien paid him a visit, on his approaching +the steps the Master called out "Steps," and on his coming to the mat, +said "Mat." When all in the room were seated, the Master told him +"So-and-so is here, so-and-so is here." + +When the music-master had left, Tsz-chang said to him, "Is that the way +to speak to the music-master?" "Well," he replied, "it is certainly the +way to assist him." + + + +BOOK XVI + +Against Intestine Strife--Good and Bad Friendships + + +The Chief of the Ki family was about to make an onslaught upon the +Chuen-yu domain. + +Yen Yu and Tsz-lu in an interview with Confucius told him, "The Ki is +about to have an affair with Chuen-yu." + +"Yen," said Confucius, "does not the fault lie with you? The Chief of +Chuen-yu in times past was appointed lord of the East Mung (mountain); +besides, he dwells within the confines of your own State, and is an +official of the State-worship; how can you think of making an onslaught +upon him?" + +"It is the wish of our Chief," said Yen Yu, "not the wish of either of +us ministers." + +Confucius said, "Yen, there is a sentence of Cháu Jin which runs thus: +'Having made manifest their powers and taken their place in the official +list, when they find themselves incompetent they resign; if they cannot +be firm when danger threatens the government, nor lend support when it +is reeling, of what use then shall they be as Assistants?'--Besides, you +are wrong in what you said. When a rhinoceros or tiger breaks out of its +cage--when a jewel or tortoise-shell ornament is damaged in its +casket--whose fault is it?" + +"But," said Yen Yu, "so far as Chuen-yu is concerned, it is now +fortified, and it is close to Pi; and if he does not now take it, in +another generation it will certainly be a trouble to his descendants." + +"Yen!" exclaimed Confucius, "it is a painful thing to a superior man to +have to desist from saying, 'My wish is so-and-so,' and to be obliged to +make apologies. For my part, I have learnt this--that rulers of States +and heads of Houses are not greatly concerned about their small +following, but about the want of equilibrium in it--that they do not +concern themselves about their becoming poor, but about the best means +of living quietly and contentedly; for where equilibrium is preserved +there will be no poverty, where there is harmony their following will +not be small, and where there is quiet contentment there will be no +decline nor fall. Now if that be the case, it follows that if men in +outlying districts are not submissive, then a reform in education and +morals will bring them to; and when they have been so won, then will you +render them quiet and contented. At the present time you two are +Assistants of your Chief; the people in the outlying districts are not +submissive, and cannot be brought round. Your dominion is divided, +prostrate, dispersed, cleft in pieces, and you as its guardians are +powerless. And plans are being made for taking up arms against those who +dwell within your own State. I am apprehensive that the sorrow of the Ki +family is not to lie in Chuen-yu, but in those within their own screen." + +"When the empire is well-ordered," said Confucius, "it is from the +emperor that edicts regarding ceremonial, music, and expeditions to +quell rebellion go forth. When it is being ill governed, such edicts +emanate from the feudal lords; and when the latter is the case, it will +be strange if in ten generations there is not a collapse. If they +emanate merely from the high officials, it will be strange if the +collapse do not come in five generations. When the State-edicts are in +the hands of the subsidiary ministers, it will be strange if in three +generations there is no collapse. + +"When the empire is well-ordered, government is not left in the hands of +high officials. + +"When the empire is well-ordered, the common people will cease to +discuss public matters." + +"For five generations," he said, "the revenue has departed from the +ducal household. Four generations ago the government fell into the hands +of the high officials. Hence, alas! the straitened means of the +descendants of the three Hwan families." + +"There are," said he, "three kinds of friendships which are profitable, +and three which are detrimental. To make friends with the upright, with +the trustworthy, with the experienced, is to gain benefit; to make +friends with the subtly perverse, with the artfully pliant, with the +subtle in speech, is detrimental." + +Again, "There are three kinds of pleasure which are profitable, and +three which are detrimental. To take pleasure in going regularly through +the various branches of Ceremonial and Music, in speaking of others' +goodness, in having many worthy wise friends, is profitable. To take +pleasure in wild bold pleasures, in idling carelessly about, in the too +jovial accompaniments of feasting, is detrimental." + +Again, "Three errors there be, into which they who wait upon their +superior may fall:--(1) to speak before the opportunity comes to them to +speak, which I call heedless haste; (2) refraining from speaking when +the opportunity has come, which I call concealment; and (3) speaking, +regardless of the mood he is in, which I call blindness." + +Again, "Three things a superior should guard against:--(1) against the +lusts of the flesh in his earlier years while the vital powers are not +fully developed and fixed; (2) against the spirit of combativeness when +he has come to the age of robust manhood and when the vital powers are +matured and strong, and (3) against ambitiousness when old age has come +on and the vital powers have become weak and decayed." + +"Three things also such a man greatly reveres:--(1) the ordinances of +Heaven, (2) great men, (3) words of sages. The inferior man knows not +the ordinances of Heaven and therefore reveres them not, is unduly +familiar in the presence of great men, and scoffs at the words of +sages." + +"They whose knowledge comes by birth are of all men the first in +understanding; they to whom it comes by study are next; men of poor +intellectual capacity, who yet study, may be added as a yet inferior +class; and lowest of all are they who are poor in intellect and never +learn." + +"Nine things there are of which the superior man should be mindful:--to +be clear in vision, quick in hearing, genial in expression, respectful +in demeanor, true in word, serious in duty, inquiring in doubt, firmly +self-controlled in anger, just and fair when the way to success opens +out before him." + +"Some have spoken of 'looking upon goodness as upon something beyond +their reach,' and of 'looking upon evil as like plunging one's hands +into scalding liquid';--I have seen the men, I have heard the sayings. + +"Some, again, have talked of 'living in seclusion to work out their +designs,' and of 'exercising themselves in righteous living in order to +render their principles the more effective';--I have heard the sayings, +I have not seen the men." + +"Duke King of Ts'i had his thousand teams of four, yet on the day of his +death the people had nothing to say of his goodness. Peh-I and Shuh-Ts'i +starved at the foot of Shau-yang, and the people make mention of them to +this day. + + 'E'en if not wealth thine object be, + 'Tis all the same, thou'rt changed to me.' + +"Is not this apropos in such cases?" + +Tsz-k'in asked of Pih-yu, "Have you heard anything else peculiar from +your father?" + +"Not yet," said he. "Once, though, he was standing alone when I was +hurrying past him over the vestibule, and he said, 'Are you studying the +Odes?' 'Not yet,' I replied. 'If you do not learn the Odes,' said he, +'you will not have the wherewithal for conversing,' I turned away and +studied the Odes. Another day, when he was again standing alone and I +was hurrying past across the vestibule, he said to me, 'Are you learning +the Rules of Propriety?' 'Not yet,' I replied. 'If you have not studied +the Rules, you have nothing to stand upon,' said he. I turned away and +studied the Rules.--These two things I have heard from him." + +Tsz-k'in turned away, and in great glee exclaimed, "I asked one thing, +and have got three. I have learnt something about the Odes, and about +the Rules, and moreover I have learnt how the superior man will turn +away his own son." + +The wife of the ruler of a State is called by her husband "My helpmeet." +She speaks of herself as "Your little handmaiden." The people of that +State call her "The prince's helpmeet," but addressing persons of +another State they speak of her as "Our little princess." When persons +of another State name her they say also "Your prince's helpmeet." + + + +BOOK XVII + +The Master Induced to Take Office--Nature and Habit + + +Yang Ho was desirous of having an interview with Confucius, but on the +latter's failing to go and see him, he sent a present of a pig to his +house. Confucius went to return his acknowledgments for it at a time +when he was not at home. They met, however, on the way. + +He said to Confucius, "Come, I want a word with you. Can that man be +said to have good-will towards his fellow-men who hugs and hides his own +precious gifts and allows his country to go on in blind error?" + +"He cannot," was the reply. + +"And can he be said to be wise who, with a liking for taking part in the +public service, is constantly letting slip his opportunities?" + +"He cannot," was the reply again. + +"And the days and months are passing; and the years do not wait for us." + +"True," said Confucius; "I will take office." + +It was a remark of the Master that while "by nature we approximate +towards each other, by experience we go far asunder." + +Again, "Only the supremely wise and the most deeply ignorant do not +alter." + +The Master once, on his arrival at Wu-shing, heard the sound of stringed +instruments and singing. His face beamed with pleasure, and he said +laughingly, "To kill a cock--why use an ox-knife?" + +Tsz-yu, the governor, replied, "In former days, sir, I heard you say, +'Let the superior man learn right principles, and he will be loving to +other men; let the ordinary person learn right principles, and he will +be easily managed.'" + +The Master (turning to his disciples) said, "Sirs, what he says is +right: what I said just now was only in play." + +Having received an invitation from Kung-shan Fuh-jau, who was in revolt +against the government and was holding to his district of Pi, the Master +showed an inclination to go. + +Tsz-lu was averse to this, and said, "You can never go, that is certain; +how should you feel you must go to that person?" + +"Well," said the Master, "he who has invited me must surely not have +done so without a sufficient reason! And if it should happen that my +services were enlisted, I might create for him another East Chow--don't +you think so?" + +Tsz-chang asked Confucius about the virtue of philanthropy. His answer +was, "It is the being able to put in practice five qualities, in any +place under the sun." + +"May I ask, please, what these are?" said the disciple. + +"They are," he said, "dignity, indulgence, faithfulness, earnestness, +kindness. If you show dignity you will not be mocked; if you are +indulgent you will win the multitude; if faithful, men will place their +trust in you; if earnest, you will do something meritorious; and if +kind, you will be enabled to avail yourself amply of men's services." + +Pih Hih sent the Master an invitation, and he showed an inclination to +go. + +Tsz-lu (seeing this) said to him, "In former days, sir, I have heard you +say, 'A superior man will not enter the society of one who does not that +which is good in matters concerning himself'; and this man is in revolt, +with Chung-man in his possession; if you go to him, how will the case +stand?" + +"Yes," said the Master, "those are indeed my words; but is it not said, +'What is hard may be rubbed without being made thin,' and 'White may be +stained without being made black'?--I am surely not a gourd! How am I to +be strung up like that kind of thing--and live without means?" + +"Tsz-lu," said the Master, "you have heard of the six words with their +six obfuscations?" + +"No," said he, "not so far." + +"Sit down, and I will tell you them. They are these six virtues, cared +for without care for any study about them:--philanthropy, wisdom, +faithfulness, straightforwardness, courage, firmness. And the six +obfuscations resulting from not liking to learn about them are, +respectively, these:--fatuity, mental dissipation, mischievousness, +perversity, insubordination, impetuosity." + +"My children," said he once, "why does no one of you study the +Odes?--They are adapted to rouse the mind, to assist observation, to +make people sociable, to arouse virtuous indignation. They speak of +duties near and far--the duty of ministering to a parent, the duty of +serving one's prince; and it is from them that one becomes conversant +with the names of many birds, and beasts, and plants, and trees." + +To his son Pih-yu he said, "Study you the Odes of Chow and the South, +and those of Shau and the South. The man who studies not these is, I +should say, somewhat in the position of one who stands facing a wall!" + +"'Etiquette demands it.' 'Etiquette demands it,' so people plead," said +he; "but do not these hankerings after jewels and silks indeed demand +it? Or it is, 'The study of Music requires it'--'Music requires it'; but +do not these predilections for bells and drums require it?" + +Again, "They who assume an outward appearance of severity, being +inwardly weak, may be likened to low common men; nay, are they not +somewhat like thieves that break through walls and steal?" + +Again, "The plebeian kind of respect for piety is the very pest of +virtue." + +Again, "Listening on the road, and repeating in the lane--this is +abandonment of virtue." + +"Ah, the low-minded creatures!" he exclaimed. "How is it possible indeed +to serve one's prince in their company? Before they have got what they +wanted they are all anxiety to get it, and after they have got it they +are all anxiety lest they should lose it; and while they are thus full +of concern lest they should lose it, there is no length to which they +will not go." + +Again, "In olden times people had three moral infirmities; which, it may +be, are now unknown. Ambitiousness in those olden days showed itself in +momentary outburst; the ambitiousness of to-day runs riot. Austerity in +those days had its sharp angles; in these it is irritable and perverse. +Feebleness of intellect then was at least straightforward; in our day it +is never aught but deceitful." + +Again, "Rarely do we find mutual good feeling where there is fine speech +and studied mien." + +Again, "To me it is abhorrent that purple color should be made to +detract from that of vermilion. Also that the Odes of Ch'ing should be +allowed to introduce discord in connection with the music of the Festal +Songs and Hymns. Also that sharp-whetted tongues should be permitted to +subvert governments." + +Once said he, "Would that I could dispense with speech!" + +"Sir," said Tsz-kung, "if you were never to speak, what should your +pupils have to hand down from you?" + +"Does Heaven ever speak?" said the Master. "The four seasons come and +go, and all creatures live and grow. Does Heaven indeed speak?" + +Once Ju Pi desired an interview with Confucius, from which the latter +excused himself on the score of ill-health; but while the attendant was +passing out through the doorway with the message he took his lute and +sang, in such a way as to let him hear him. + +Tsai Wo questioned him respecting the three years' mourning, saying that +one full twelve-month was a long time--that, if gentlemen were for three +years to cease from observing rules of propriety, propriety must +certainly suffer, and that if for three years they neglected music, +music must certainly die out--and that seeing nature has taught us that +when the old year's grain is finished the new has sprung up for +us--seeing also that all the changes[32] in procuring fire by friction +have been gone through in the four seasons--surely a twelve-month might +suffice. + +The Master asked him, "Would it be a satisfaction to you--that returning +to better food, that putting on of fine clothes?" + +"It would," said he. + +"Then if you can be satisfied in so doing, do so. But to a gentleman, +who is in mourning for a parent, the choicest food will not be +palatable, nor will the listening to music be pleasant, nor will +comforts of home make him happy in mind. Hence he does not do as you +suggest. But if you are now happy in your mind, then do so." + +Tsai Wo went out. And the Master went on to say, "It is want of human +feeling in this man. After a child has lived three years it then breaks +away from the tender nursing of its parents. And this three years' +mourning is the customary mourning prevalent all over the empire. Can +this man have enjoyed the three years of loving care from his parents?" + +"Ah, it is difficult," said he, "to know what to make of those who are +all day long cramming themselves with food and are without anything to +apply their minds to! Are there no dice and chess players? Better, +perhaps, join in that pursuit than do nothing at all!" + +"Does a gentleman," asked Tsz-lu, "make much account of bravery?" + +"Righteousness he counts higher," said the Master. "A gentleman who is +brave without being just may become turbulent; while a common person who +is brave and not just may end in becoming a highwayman." + +Tsz-kung asked, "I suppose a gentleman will have his aversions as well +as his likings?" + +"Yes," replied the Master, "he will dislike those who talk much about +other people's ill-deeds. He will dislike those who, when occupying +inferior places, utter defamatory words against their superiors. He will +dislike those who, though they may be brave, have no regard for +propriety. And he will dislike those hastily decisive and venturesome +spirits who are nevertheless so hampered by limited intellect." + +"And you, too, Tsz-kung," he continued, "have your aversions, have you +not?" + +"I dislike," said he, "those plagiarists who wish to pass for wise +persons. I dislike those people who wish their lack of humility to be +taken for bravery. I dislike also those divulgers of secrets who think +to be accounted straightforward." + +"Of all others," said the Master, "women-servants and men-servants are +the most difficult people to have the care of. Approach them in a +familiar manner, and they take liberties; keep them at a distance, and +they grumble." + +Again, "When a man meets with odium at forty, he will do so to the end." + + +[Footnote 32: Different woods were adopted for this purpose at the +various seasons.] + + + +BOOK XVIII + +Good Men in Seclusion--Duke of Chow to His Son + + +"In the reign of the last king of the Yin dynasty," Confucius I said, +"there were three men of philanthropic spirit:--the viscount of Wei, who +withdrew from him; the viscount of Ki, who became his bondsman; and +Pi-kan, who reproved him and suffered death." + +Hwúi of Liu-hiá, who filled the office of Chief Criminal Judge, was +thrice dismissed. A person remarked to him, "Can you not yet bear to +withdraw?" He replied, "If I act in a straightforward way in serving +men, whither in these days should I go, where I should not be thrice +dismissed? Were I to adopt crooked ways in their service, why need I +leave the land where my parents dwell?" + +Duke King of Ts'i remarked respecting his attitude towards Confucius, +"If he is to be treated like the Chief of the Ki family, I cannot do it. +I should treat him as somewhere between the Ki and Mang Chiefs.--I am +old," he added, "and not competent to avail myself of him." + +Confucius, hearing of this, went away. + +The Ts'i officials presented to the Court of Lu a number of female +musicians. Ki Hwan accepted them, and for three days no Court was held. + +Confucius went away. + +Tsieh-yu, the madman [33] of Ts'u, was once passing Confucius, singing +as he went along. He sang-- + + "Ha, the phoenix! Ha, the phoenix! + How is Virtue lying prone! + Vain to chide for what is o'er, + Plan to meet what's yet in store. + Let alone! Let alone! + Risky now to serve a throne." + +Confucius alighted, wishing to enter into conversation with him; but the +man hurried along and left him, and he was therefore unable to get a +word with him. + +Ch'ang-tsü and Kieh-nih [34] were working together on some ploughed +land. Confucius was passing by them, and sent Tsz-lu to ask where the +ford was. + +Ch'ang-tsü said, "Who is the person driving the carriage?" + +"Confucius," answered Tsz-lu. + +"He of Lu?" he asked. + +"The same," said Tsz-lu. + +"He knows then where the ford is," said he. + +Tsz-lu then put his question to Kieh-nih; and the latter asked, "Who are +you?" + +Tsz-lu gave his name. + +"You are a follower of Confucius of Lu, are you not?" + +"You are right," he answered. + +"Ah, as these waters rise and overflow their bounds," said he, "'tis so +with all throughout the empire; and who is he that can alter the state +of things? And you are a follower of a learned man who withdraws from +his chief; had you not better be a follower of such as have forsaken the +world?" And he went on with his harrowing, without stopping. + +Tsz-lu went and informed his Master of all this. He was deeply touched, +and said, "One cannot herd on equal terms with beasts and birds: if I am +not to live among these human folk, then with whom else should I live? +Only when the empire is well ordered shall I cease to take part in the +work of reformation." + +Tsz-lu was following the Master, but had dropped behind on the way, when +he encountered an old man with a weed-basket slung on a staff over his +shoulder. Tsz-lu inquired of him, "Have you seen my Master, sir?" Said +the old man, "Who is your master?--you who never employ your four limbs +in laborious work; you who do not know one from another of the five +sorts of grain!" And he stuck his staff in the ground, and began his +weeding. + +Tsz-lu brought his hands together on his breast and stood still. + +The old man kept Tsz-lu and lodged him for the night, killed a fowl and +prepared some millet, entertained him, and brought his two sons out to +see him. + +On the morrow Tsz-lu went on his way, and told all this to the Master, +who said, "He is a recluse," and sent Tsz-lu back to see him again. But +by the time he got there he was gone. + +Tsz-lu remarked upon this, "It is not right he should evade official +duties. If he cannot allow any neglect of the terms on which elders and +juniors should live together, how is it that he neglects to conform to +what is proper as between prince and public servant? He wishes for +himself personally a pure life, yet creates disorder in that more +important relationship. When a gentleman undertakes public work, he will +carry out the duties proper to it; and he knows beforehand that right +principles may not win their way." + +Among those who have retired from public life have been Peh-I and +Shuh-Ts'i, Yu-chung, I-yih, Chu-chang, Hwúi of Liuhia, and Sháu-lien. + +"Of these," said the Master, "Peh-I and Shuh-Ts'i may be characterized, +I should say, as men who never declined from their high resolve nor +soiled themselves by aught of disgrace. + +"Of Hwúi of Liu-hiá and Sháu-lien, if one may say that they did decline +from high resolve, and that they did bring disgrace upon themselves, yet +their words were consonant with established principles, and their action +consonant with men's thoughts and wishes; and this is all that may be +said of them. + +"Of Yu-chung and I-yih, if it be said that when they retired into +privacy they let loose their tongues, yet in their aim at personal +purity of life they succeeded, and their defection was also successful +in its influence. + +"My own rule is different from any adopted by these: I will take no +liberties, I will have no curtailing of my liberty." + +The chief music-master went off to Ts'i. Kan, the conductor of the music +at the second repast, went over to Ts'u. Liáu, conductor at the third +repast, went over to Ts'ai. And Kiueh, who conducted at the fourth, went +to Ts'in. + +Fang-shuh, the drummer, withdrew into the neighborhood of the Ho. Wu the +tambourer went to the Han. And Yang the junior music-master, and Siang +who played on the musical stone, went to the sea-coast. + +Anciently the Duke of Chow, addressing his son the Duke of Lu, said, "A +good man in high place is not indifferent about the members of his own +family, and does not give occasion to the chief ministers to complain +that they are not employed; nor without great cause will he set aside +old friendships; nor does he seek for full equipment for every kind of +service in any single man." + +There were once eight officials during this Chow dynasty, who were four +pairs of twins, all brothers--the eldest pair Tab and Kwoh, the next Tub +and Hwuh, the third Yé and Hiá, the youngest Sui and Kwa. + + +[Footnote 33: He only pretended to be mad, in order to escape being +employed in the public service.] + +[Footnote 34: Two worthies who had abandoned public life, owing to the +state of the times.] + + + +BOOK XIX + +Teachings of Various Chief Disciples + + +"The learned official," said Tsz-chang, "who when he sees danger ahead +will risk his very life, who when he sees a chance of success is mindful +of what is just and proper, who in his religious acts is mindful of the +duty of reverence, and when in mourning thinks of his loss, is indeed a +fit and proper person for his place." + +Again he said, "If a person hold to virtue but never advance in it, and +if he have faith in right principles and do not build himself up in +them, how can he be regarded either as having such, or as being without +them?" + +Tsz-hiá's disciples asked Tsz-chang his views about intercourse with +others. "What says your Master?" he rejoined. "He says," they replied, +"'Associate with those who are qualified, and repel from you such as are +not,'" Tsz-chang then said, "That is different from what I have learnt. +A superior man esteems the worthy and wise, and bears with all. He makes +much of the good and capable, and pities the incapable. Am I eminently +worthy and wise?--who is there then among men whom I will not bear with? +Am I not worthy and wise?--others will be minded to repel me: I have +nothing to do with repelling them." + +Sayings of Tsz-hiá:-- + +"Even in inferior pursuits there must be something worthy of +contemplation, but if carried to an extreme there is danger of +fanaticism; hence the superior man does not engage in them. + +"The student who daily recognizes how much he yet lacks, and as the +months pass forgets not what he has succeeded in learning, may +undoubtedly be called a lover of learning. + +"Wide research and steadfast purpose, eager questioning and close +reflection--all this tends to humanize a man. + +"As workmen spend their time in their workshops for the perfecting of +their work, so superior men apply their minds to study in order to make +themselves thoroughly conversant with their subjects. + +"When an inferior man does a wrong thing, he is sure to gloss it over. + +"The superior man is seen in three different aspects:--look at him from +a distance, he is imposing in appearance; approach him, he is gentle and +warm-hearted; hear him speak, he is acute and strict. + +"Let such a man have the people's confidence, and he will get much work +out of them; so long, however, as he does not possess their confidence +they will regard him as grinding them down. + +"When confidence is reposed in him, he may then with impunity administer +reproof; so long as it is not, he will be regarded as a detractor. + +"Where there is no over-stepping of barriers in the practice of the +higher virtues, there may be freedom to pass in and out in the practice +of the lower ones." + +Tsz-yu had said, "The pupils in the school of Tsz-hiá are good enough at +such things as sprinkling and scrubbing floors, answering calls and +replying to questions from superiors, and advancing and retiring to and +from such; but these things are only offshoots--as to the root of things +they are nowhere. What is the use of all that?" + +When this came to the ears of Tsz-hiá, he said, "Ah! there he is +mistaken. What does a master, in his methods of teaching, consider first +in his precepts? And what does he account next, as that about which he +may be indifferent? It is like as in the study of plants--classification +by _differentiae_. How may a master play fast and loose in his methods +of instruction? Would they not indeed be sages, who could take in at +once the first principles and the final developments of things?" + + +Further observations of Tsz-hiá:-- + +"In the public service devote what energy and time remain to study. +After study devote what energy and time remain to the public service. + +"As to the duties of mourning, let them cease when the grief is past. + +"My friend Tsz-chang, although he has the ability to tackle hard things, +has not yet the virtue of philanthropy." + +The learned Tsang observed, "How loftily Tsz-chang bears himself! +Difficult indeed along with him to practise philanthropy!" + +Again he said, "I have heard this said by the Master, that 'though men +may not exert themselves to the utmost in other duties, yet surely in +the duty of mourning for their parents they will do so!'" + +Again, "This also I have heard said by the Master: 'The filial piety of +Mang Chwang in other respects might be equalled, but as manifested in +his making no changes among his father's ministers, nor in his father's +mode of government--that aspect of it could not easily be equalled.'" + +Yang Fu, having been made senior Criminal Judge by the Chief of the Mang +clan, consulted with the learned Tsang. The latter advised him as +follows: "For a long time the Chiefs have failed in their government, +and the people have become unsettled. When you arrive at the facts of +their cases, do not rejoice at your success in that, but rather be sorry +for them, and have pity upon them." + +Tsz-kung once observed, "We speak of 'the iniquity of Cháu'--but 'twas +not so great as this. And so it is that the superior man is averse from +settling in this sink, into which everything runs that is foul in the +empire." + +Again he said, "Faults in a superior man are like eclipses of the sun or +moon: when he is guilty of a trespass men all see it; and when he is +himself again, all look up to him." + +Kung-sun Ch'an of Wei inquired of Tsz-kung how Confucius acquired his +learning. + +Tsz-kung replied, "The teachings of Wan and Wu have not yet fallen to +the ground. They exist in men. Worthy and wise men have the more +important of these stored up in their minds; and others, who are not +such, store up the less important of them; and as no one is thus without +the teachings of Wan and Wu, how should our Master not have learned? And +moreover what permanent preceptor could he have?" + +Shuh-sun Wu-shuh, addressing the high officials at the Court, remarked +that Tsz-kung was a greater worthy than Confucius. + +Tsz-fuh King-pih went and informed Tsz-kung of this remark. + +Tsz-kung said, "Take by way of comparison the walls outside our houses. +My wall is shoulder-high, and you may look over it and see what the +house and its contents are worth. My Master's wall is tens of feet high, +and unless you should effect an entrance by the door, you would fail to +behold the beauty of the ancestral hall and the rich array of all its +officers. And they who effect an entrance by the door, methinks, are +few! Was it not, however, just like him--that remark of the Chief?" + +Shuh-sun Wu-shuh had been casting a slur on the character of Confucius. + +"No use doing that," said Tsz-kung; "he is irreproachable. The wisdom +and worth of other men are little hills and mounds of earth: +traversible. He is the sun, or the moon, impossible to reach and pass. +And what harm, I ask, can a man do to the sun or the moon, by wishing to +intercept himself from either? It all shows that he knows not how to +gauge capacity." + +Tsz-k'in, addressing Tsz-kung, said, "You depreciate yourself. Confucius +is surely not a greater worthy than yourself." + +Tsz-kung replied, "In the use of words one ought never to be +incautious; because a gentleman for one single utterance of his is apt +to be considered a wise man, and for a single utterance may be accounted +unwise. No more might one think of attaining to the Master's perfections +than think of going upstairs to Heaven! Were it ever his fortune to be +at the head of the government of a country, then that which is spoken of +as 'establishing the country' would be establishment indeed; he would be +its guide and it would follow him, he would tranquillize it and it would +render its willing homage: he would give forward impulses to it to which +it would harmoniously respond. In his life he would be its glory, at his +death there would be great lamentation. How indeed could such as he be +equalled?" + + + +BOOK XX + +Extracts from the Book of History + + +The Emperor Yau said to Shun, "Ah, upon you, upon your person, lies the +Heaven-appointed order of succession! Faithfully hold to it, without any +deflection; for if within the four seas necessity and want befall the +people, your own revenue will forever come to an end." + +Shun also used the same language in handing down the appointment to Yu. + +The Emperor T'ang in his prayer, said, "I, the child Li, presume to +avail me of an ox of dusky hue, and presume to manifestly announce to +Thee, O God, the most high and Sovereign Potentate, that to the +transgressor I dare not grant forgiveness, nor yet keep in abeyance Thy +ministers. Judgment rests in Thine heart, O God. Should we ourself +transgress, may the guilt not be visited everywhere upon all. Should the +people all transgress, be the guilt upon ourself!" + +Chow possessed great gifts, by which the able and good were richly +endowed. + +"Although," said King Wu, "he is surrounded by his near relatives, they +are not to be compared with men of humane spirit. The people are +suffering wrongs, and the remedy rests with me--the one man." + +After Wu had given diligent attention to the various weights and +measures, examined the laws and regulations, and restored the degraded +officials, good government everywhere ensued. + +He caused ruined States to flourish again, reinstated intercepted heirs, +and promoted to office men who had gone into retirement; and the hearts +of the people throughout the empire drew towards him. + +Among matters of prime consideration with him were these--food for the +people, the duty of mourning, and sacrificial offerings to the departed. + +He was liberal and large-hearted, and so won all hearts; true, and so +was trusted by the people; energetic, and thus became a man of great +achievements; just in his rule, and all were well content. + +Tsz-chang in a conversation with Confucius asked, "What say you is +essential for the proper conduct of government?" + +The Master replied, "Let the ruler hold in high estimation the five +excellences, and eschew the four evils; then may he conduct his +government properly." + +"And what call you the five excellences?" he was asked. + +"They are," he said, "Bounty without extravagance; burdening without +exciting discontent; desire without covetousness; dignity without +haughtiness; show of majesty without fierceness." + +"What mean you," asked Tsz-chang, "by bounty without extravagance?" + +"Is it not this," he replied--"to make that which is of benefit to the +people still more beneficial? When he selects for them such labors as it +is possible for them to do, and exacts them, who will then complain? So +when his desire is the virtue of humaneness, and he attains it, how +shall he then be covetous? And if--whether he have to do with few or +with many, with small or with great--he do not venture ever to be +careless, is not this also to have dignity without haughtiness? And +if--when properly vested in robe and cap, and showing dignity in his +every look--his appearance be so imposing that the people look up to and +stand in awe of him, is not this moreover to show majesty without +fierceness?" + +"What, then, do you call the four evils?" said Tsz-chang. + +The answer here was, "Omitting to instruct the people and then +inflicting capital punishment on them--which means cruel tyranny. +Omitting to give them warning and yet looking for perfection in +them--which means oppression. Being slow and late in issuing +requisitions, and exacting strict punctuality in the returns--which +means robbery. And likewise, in intercourse with men, to expend and to +receive in a stingy manner--which is to act the part of a mere +commissioner." + +"None can be a superior man," said the Master, "who does not recognize +the decrees of Heaven. + +"None can have stability in him without a knowledge of the proprieties. + +"None can know a man without knowing his utterances." + + + + + +THE SAYINGS OF MENICUS + +[Translated into English by James Legge_] + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +A hundred years after the time of Confucius the Chinese nation seemed to +have fallen back into their original condition of lawlessness and +oppression. The King's power and authority was laughed to scorn, the +people were pillaged by the feudal nobility, and famine reigned in many +districts. The foundations of truth and social order seemed to be +overthrown. There were teachers of immorality abroad, who published the +old Epicurean doctrine, "Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die." +This teaching was accompanied by a spirit of cold-blooded egotism which +extinguished every spark of Confucian altruism. Even the pretended +disciples of Confucius confused the precepts of the Master, and by +stripping them of their narrow significance rendered them nugatory. It +was at this point that Mang-tsze, "Mang the philosopher," arose. He was +sturdy in bodily frame, vigorous in mind, profound in political sagacity +and utterly fearless in denouncing the errors of his countrymen. He had +been brought up among the disciples of Confucius, in whose province he +was born B.C. 372, but he was much more active and aggressive, less a +Mystic than a fanatic, in comparison! with his Master. He resolved on +active measures in stemming the tendency of his day. He did indeed +surround himself with a school of disciples, but instead of making a +series of desultory travels, teaching in remote places and along the +high-road, he went to the heart of the evil. He presented himself like a +second John the Baptist at the courts of kings and princes, and there +boldly denounced vice and misrule. It was not difficult for a Chinese +scholar and teacher to find access to the highest of the land. The +Chinese believed in the divine right of learning, just as they believed +in the divine right of kings. Mang employed every weapon of persuasion +in trying to combat heresy and oppression; alternately ridiculing and +reproving: now appealing in a burst of moral enthusiasm, and now +denouncing in terms of cutting sarcasm the abuses which after all he +failed to check. The last prince whom he successfully confronted was the +Marquis of Lu, who turned him carelessly away. He accepted this as the +Divine sentence of his failure, "That I have not found in this marquis, +a ruler who would hearken to me is an intimation of heaven." Henceforth +he lived in retirement until his ninety-seventh year; but from his +apparent failure sprang a practical success. His written teachings are +amongst the most lively and epigrammatic works of Chinese literature, +have done much to keep alive amongst his countrymen the spirit of +Confucianism, and even Western readers may drink wisdom from this spring +of Oriental lore. The following selections from his sayings well exhibit +the spirit of his system of philosophy and morality. + + E.W. + + + + +THE SAYINGS OF MENCIUS + + + +BOOK I + +KING HWUY OF LËANG + + +Part I + +Mencius went to see King Hwuy of Lëang. [1] The king said, "Venerable +Sir, since you have not counted it far to come here a distance of a +thousand li, may I presume that you are likewise provided with counsels +to profit my kingdom?" Mencius replied, "Why must your Majesty used that +word 'profit'? What I am likewise provided with are counsels to +benevolence and righteousness; and these are my only topics. + +"If your Majesty say, 'What is to be done to profit my kingdom?' the +great officers will say, 'What is to be done to profit our families?' +and the inferior officers and the common people will say, 'What is to be +done to profit our persons?' Superiors and inferiors will try to take +the profit the one from the other, and the kingdom will be endangered. +In the kingdom of ten thousand chariots, the murderer of his ruler will +be the chief of a family of a thousand chariots. In the State of a +thousand chariots, the murderer of his ruler will be the chief of a +family of a hundred chariots. To have a thousand in ten thousand, and a +hundred in a thousand, cannot be regarded as not a large allowance; but +if righteousness be put last and profit first, they will not be +satisfied without snatching all. + +"There never was a man trained to benevolence who neglected his parents. +There never was a man trained to righteousness who made his ruler an +after consideration. Let your Majesty likewise make benevolence and +righteousness your only themes--Why must you speak of profit?" + +When Mencius, another day, was seeing King Hwuy of Lëang, the King went +and stood with him by a pond, and, looking round on the wild geese and +deer, large and small, said, "Do wise and good princes also take +pleasure in these things?" Mencius replied, "Being wise and good, they +then have pleasure in these things. If they are not wise and good, +though they have these things, they do not find pleasure." It is said in +the 'Book of Poetry':-- + + 'When he planned the commencement of the Marvellous tower, + He planned it, and defined it, + And the people in crowds undertook the work, + And in no time completed it. + When he planned the commencement, he said, "Be not in a hurry." + But the people came as if they were his children. + The king was in the Marvellous park, + Where the does were lying down-- + The does so sleek and fat; + With the white birds glistening. + The king was by the Marvellous pond;-- + How full was it of fishes leaping about!' + +King Wan used the strength of the people to make his tower and pond, and +the people rejoiced to do the work, calling the tower 'the Marvellous +Tower,' and the pond 'the Marvellous Pond,' and being glad that he had +his deer, his fishes and turtles. The ancients caused their people to +have pleasure as well as themselves, and therefore they could enjoy it. + +"In the Declaration of T'ang it is said, 'O Sun, when wilt thou expire? +We will die together with thee.' The people wished for Këeh's death, +though they should die with him. Although he had his tower, his pond, +birds and animals, how could he have pleasure alone?" + +King Hwuy of Lëang said, "Small as my virtue is, in the government of my +kingdom, I do indeed exert my mind to the utmost. If the year be bad +inside the Ho, I remove as many of the people as I can to the east of +it, and convey grain to the country inside. If the year be bad on the +east of the river, I act on the same plan. On examining the governmental +methods of the neighboring kingdoms, I do not find there is any ruler +who exerts his mind as I do. And yet the people of the neighboring kings +do not decrease, nor do my people increase--how is this?" + +Mencius replied, "Your Majesty loves war; allow me to take an +illustration from war. The soldiers move forward at the sound of the +drum; and when the edges of their weapons have been crossed, on one +side, they throw away their buff coats, trail their weapons behind them, +and run. Some run a hundred paces and then stop; some run fifty paces +and stop. What would you think if these, because they had run but fifty +paces, should laugh at those who ran a hundred paces?" The king said, +"They cannot do so. They only did not run a hundred paces; but they also +ran." Mencius said, "Since your Majesty knows this you have no ground to +expect that your people will become more numerous than those of the +neighboring kingdoms. + +"If the seasons of husbandry be not interfered with, the grain will be +more than can be eaten. If close nets are not allowed to enter the pools +and ponds, the fish and turtles will be more than can be consumed. If +the axes and bills enter the hill-forests only at the proper times, the +wood will be more than can be used. When the grain and fish and turtles +are more than can be eaten, and there is more wood than can be used, +this enables the people to nourish their living and do all offices for +their dead, without any feeling against any. But this condition, in +which the people nourish their living, and do all offices to their dead +without having any feeling against any, is the first step in the Royal +way. + +"Let mulberry trees be planted about the homesteads with their five +acres, and persons of fifty years will be able to wear silk. In keeping +fowls, pigs, dogs, and swine, let not their time of breeding be +neglected, and persons of seventy years will be able to eat flesh. Let +there not be taken away the time that is proper for the cultivation of +the field allotment of a hundred acres, and the family of several mouths +will not suffer from hunger. Let careful attention be paid to the +teaching in the various schools, with repeated inculcation of the filial +and fraternal duties, and gray-haired men will not be seen upon the +roads, carrying burdens on their backs or on their heads. It has never +been that the ruler of a State where these results were seen, persons of +seventy wearing silk and eating flesh, and the black-haired people +suffering neither from hunger nor cold, did not attain to the Royal +dignity. + +"Your dogs and swine eat the food of men, and you do not know to store +up of the abundance. There are people dying from famine on the roads, +and you do not know to issue your stores for their relief. When men die, +you say, 'It is not owing to me; it is owing to the year,' In what does +this differ from stabbing a man and killing him, and then saying, 'It +was not I; it was the weapon'? Let your Majesty cease to lay the blame +on the year and instantly the people, all under the sky, will come to +you." + +King Hwuy of Lëang said, "I wish quietly to receive your instructions." +Mencius replied, "Is there any difference between killing a man with a +stick and with a sword?" "There is no difference," was the answer. + +Mencius continued, "Is there any difference between doing it with a +sword and with governmental measures?" "There is not," was the answer +again. + +Mencius then said, "In your stalls there are fat beasts; in your stables +there are fat horses. But your people have the look of hunger, and in +the fields there are those who have died of famine. This is leading on +beasts to devour men. Beasts devour one another, and men hate them for +doing so. When he who is called the parent of the people conducts his +government so as to be chargeable with leading on beasts to devour men, +where is that parental relation to the people? Chung-ne said, 'Was he +not without posterity who first made wooden images to bury with the +dead?' So he said, because that man made the semblances of men and used +them for that purpose; what shall be thought of him who causes his +people to die of hunger?" + +King Hwuy of Lëang said, "There was not in the kingdom a stronger State +than Ts'in, as you, venerable Sir, know. But since it descended to me, +on the east we were defeated by Ts'e, and then my eldest son perished; +on the west we lost seven hundred li of territory to Ts'in; and on the +south we have sustained disgrace at the hands of Ts'oo. I have brought +shame on my departed predecessors, and wish on their account to wipe it +away once for all. What course is to be pursued to accomplish this?" + +Mencius replied, "With a territory only a hundred li square it has been +possible to obtain the Royal dignity. If your Majesty will indeed +dispense a benevolent government to the people, being sparing in the use +of punishments and fines, and making the taxes and levies of produce +light, so causing that the fields shall be ploughed deep, and the +weeding well attended to, and that the able-bodied, during their days of +leisure, shall cultivate their filial piety, fraternal duty, +faithfulness, and truth, serving thereby, at home, their fathers and +elder brothers, and, abroad, their elders and superiors, you will then +have a people who can be employed with sticks which they have prepared +to oppose the strong buff-coats and sharp weapons of the troops of Ts'in +and Ts'oo. + +"The rulers of those States rob their people of their time, so that they +cannot plough and weed their fields in order to support their parents. +Parents suffer from cold and hunger; elder and younger brothers, wives +and children, are separated and scattered abroad. Those rulers drive +their people into pitfalls or into the water; and your Majesty will go +to punish them. In such a case, who will oppose your Majesty? In +accordance with this is the saying, 'The benevolent has no enemy!' I beg +your Majesty not to doubt what I said." + +Mencius had an interview with King Sëang[2] of Lëang. When he came out +he said to some persons, "When I looked at him from a distance, he did +not appear like a ruler; when I drew near to him, I saw nothing +venerable about him. Abruptly he asked me, 'How can the kingdom, all +under the sky, be settled?' I replied, 'It will be settled by being +united under one sway,' + +"'Who can so unite it?' he asked. + +"I replied, 'He who has no pleasure in killing men can so unite it.' + +"'Who can give it to him?' he asked. + +"I replied, 'All under heaven will give it to him. Does your Majesty +know the way of the growing grain? During the seventh and eighth months, +when drought prevails, the plants become dry. Then the clouds collect +densely in the heavens, and send down torrents of rain, so that the grain +erects itself as if by a shoot. When it does so, who can keep it back? +Now among those who are shepherds of men throughout the kingdom, there +is not one who does not find pleasure in killing men. If there were one +who did not find pleasure in killing men, all the people under the sky +would be looking towards him with outstretched necks. Such being indeed +the case, the people would go to him as water flows downwards with a +rush, which no one can repress." + +King Seuen of Ts'e asked, saying, "May I be informed by you of the +transactions of Hwan of Ts'e and Wan of Ts'in?" + +Mencius replied, "There were none of the disciples of Chung-ne who spoke +about the affairs of Hwan and Wan, and therefore they have not been +transmitted to these after-ages; your servant has not heard of them. If +you will have me speak, let it be about the principles of attaining to +the Royal sway." + +The king said, "Of what kind must his virtue be who can attain to the +Royal sway?" Mencius said, "If he loves and protects the people, it is +impossible to prevent him from attaining it." + +The king said, "Is such an one as poor I competent to love and protect +the people?" "Yes," was the reply. "From what do you know that I am +competent to that?" "I have heard," said Mencius, "from Hoo Heih the +following incident:--'The king,' said he, 'was sitting aloft in the +hall, when some people appeared leading a bull past below it. The king +saw it, and asked where the bull was going, and being answered that they +were going to consecrate a bell with its blood, he said, "Let it go, I +cannot bear its frightened appearance--as if it were an innocent person +going to the place of death." They asked in reply whether, if they did +so, they should omit the consecration of the bell, but the king said, +"How can that be omitted? Change it for a sheep."' I do not know whether +this incident occurred." + +"It did," said the king, and Mencius replied, "The heart seen in this is +sufficient to carry you to the Royal sway. The people all supposed that +your Majesty grudged the animal, but your servant knows surely that it +was your Majesty's not being able to bear the sight of the creature's +distress which made you do as you did." + +The king said, "You are right; and yet there really was an appearance of +what the people imagined. But though Ts'e be narrow and small, how +should I grudge a bull? Indeed it was because I could not bear its +frightened appearance, as if it were an innocent person going to the +place of death, that therefore I changed it for a sheep." + +Mencius said, "Let not your Majesty deem it strange that the people +should think you grudged the animal. When you changed a large one for a +small, how should they know the true reason? If you felt pained by its +being led without any guilt to the place of death, what was there to +choose between a bull and a sheep?" The king laughed and said, "What +really was my mind in the matter? I did not grudge the value of the +bull, and yet I changed it for a sheep! There was reason in the people's +saying that I grudged the creature." + +Mencius said, "There is no harm in their saying so. It was an artifice +of benevolence. You saw the bull, and had not seen the sheep. So is the +superior man affected towards animals, that, having seen them alive, he +cannot bear to see them die, and, having heard their dying cries, he +cannot bear to eat their flesh. On this account he keeps away from his +stalls and kitchen." + +The king was pleased and said, "The Ode says, + + 'What other men have in their minds, + I can measure by reflection,' + +This might be spoken of you, my Master. I indeed did the thing, but when +I turned my thoughts inward and sought for it, I could not discover my +own mind. When you, Master, spoke those words, the movements of +compassion began to work in my mind. But how is it that this heart has +in it what is equal to the attainment of the Royal sway?" + +Mencius said, "Suppose a man were to make this statement to your +Majesty, 'My strength is sufficient to lift three thousand catties, but +is not sufficient to lift one feather; my eyesight is sharp enough to +examine the point of an autumn hair, but I do not see a wagon-load of +fagots,' would your Majesty allow what he said?" "No," was the king's +remark, and Mencius proceeded, "Now here is kindness sufficient to reach +to animals, and yet no benefits are extended from it to the people--how +is this? is an exception to be made here? The truth is, the feather's +not being lifted is because the strength was not used; the wagon-load of +firewood's not being seen is because the eyesight was not used; and the +people's not being loved and protected is because the kindness is not +used. Therefore your Majesty's not attaining to the Royal sway is +because you do not do it, and not because you are not able to do it." + +The king asked, "How may the difference between him who does not do a +thing and him who is not able to do it be graphically set forth?" +Mencius replied, "In such a thing as taking the T'ae mountain under your +arm, and leaping with it over the North Sea, if you say to people, 'I am +not able to do it,' that is a real case of not being able. In such a +matter as breaking off a branch from a tree at the order of a superior, +if you say to people, 'I am not able to do it,' it is not a case of not +being able to do it. And so your Majesty's not attaining to the Royal +sway is not such a case as that of taking the T'ae mountain under your +arm and leaping over the North Sea with it; but it is a case like that +of breaking off a branch from a tree. + +"Treat with reverence due to age the elders in your own family, so that +those in the families of others shall be similarly treated; treat with +the kindness due to youth the young in your own family, so that those in +the families of others shall be similarly treated--do this and the +kingdom may be made to go round in your palm. It is said in the 'Book of +Poetry,' + + 'His example acted on his wife, + Extended to his brethren, + And was felt by all the clans and States;' + +Telling us how King Wan simply took this kindly heart, and exercised it +towards those parties. Therefore the carrying out of the feeling of +kindness by a ruler will suffice for the love and protection of all +within the four seas; and if he do not carry it out, he will not be able +to protect his wife and children. The way in which the ancients came +greatly to surpass other men was no other than this, that they carried +out well what they did, so as to affect others. Now your kindness is +sufficient to reach to animals, and yet no benefits are extended from it +to the people. How is this? Is an exception to be made here? + +"By weighing we know what things are light, and what heavy. By measuring +we know what things are long, and what short. All things are so dealt +with, and the mind requires specially to be so. I beg your Majesty to +measure it.--Your Majesty collects your equipments of war, endangers +your soldiers and officers and excites the resentment of the various +princes--do these things cause you pleasure in your mind?" + +The king said, "No. How should I derive pleasure from these things? My +object in them is to seek for what I greatly desire." + +Mencius said, "May I hear from you what it is that your Majesty greatly +desires?" The king laughed, and did not speak. Mencius resumed, "Are you +led to desire it because you have not enough of rich and sweet food for +your mouth? or because you have not enough of light and warm clothing +for your body? or because you have not enough of beautifully colored +objects to satisfy your eyes? or because there are not voices and sounds +enough to fill your ears? or because you have not enough of attendants +and favorites to stand before you and receive your orders? Your +Majesty's various officers are sufficient to supply you with all these +things. How can your Majesty have such a desire on account of them?" +"No," said the king, "my desire is not on account of them." Mencius +observed, "Then what your Majesty greatly desires can be known. You +desire to enlarge your territories, to have Ts'in and Ts'oo coming to +your court, to rule the Middle States, and to attract to you the +barbarous tribes that surround them. But to do what you do in order to +seek for what you desire is like climbing a tree to seek for fish." + +"Is it so bad as that?" said the king. "I apprehend it is worse," was +the reply. "If you climb a tree to seek for fish, although you do not +get the fish, you have no subsequent calamity. But if you do what you do +in order to seek for what you desire, doing it even with all your heart, +you will assuredly afterwards meet with calamities." The king said, "May +I hear what they will be?" Mencius replied, "If the people of Tsow were +fighting with the people of Ts'oo, which of them does your Majesty think +would conquer?" "The people of Ts'oo would conquer," was the answer, and +Mencius pursued, "So then, a small State cannot contend with a great, +few cannot contend with many, nor can the weak contend with the strong. +The territory within the seas would embrace nine divisions, each of a +thousand li square. All Ts'e together is one of them. If with one part +you try to subdue the other eight, what is the difference between that +and Tsow's contending with Ts'oo? With the desire which you have, you +must turn back to the proper course for its attainment. + +"Now, if your Majesty will institute a government whose action shall all +be benevolent, this will cause all the officers in the kingdom to wish +to stand in your Majesty's court, the farmers all to wish to plough in +your Majesty's fields, the merchants, both travelling and stationary, +all to wish to store their goods in your Majesty's market-places, +travellers and visitors all to wish to travel on your Majesty's roads, +and all under heaven who feel aggrieved by their rulers to wish to come +and complain to your Majesty. When they are so bent, who will be able to +keep them back?" + +The king said, "I am stupid and cannot advance to this. But I wish you, +my Master, to assist my intentions. Teach me clearly, and although I am +deficient in intelligence and vigor, I should like to try at least to +institute such a government." + +Mencius replied, "They are only men of education, who, without a certain +livelihood, are able to maintain a fixed heart. As to the people, if +they have not a certain livelihood, they will be found not to have a +fixed heart. And if they have not a fixed heart, there is nothing which +they will not do in the way of self-abandonment, of moral deflection, of +depravity, and of wild license. When they have thus been involved in +crime, to follow them up and punish them, is to entrap the people. How +can such a thing as entrapping the people be done under the rule of a +benevolent man?" + +"Therefore, an intelligent ruler will regulate the livelihood of the +people, so as to make sure that, above, they shall have sufficient +wherewith to serve their parents, and below, sufficient wherewith to +support their wives and children; that in good years they shall always +be abundantly satisfied, and that in bad years they shall not be in +danger of perishing. After this he may urge them, and they will proceed +to what is good, for in this case the people will follow after that with +readiness. + +"But now the livelihood of the people is so regulated, that, above, they +have not sufficient wherewith to serve their parents, and, below, they +have not sufficient wherewith to support their wives and children; even +in good years their lives are always embittered, and in bad years they +are in danger of perishing. In such circumstances their only object is +to escape from death, and they are afraid they will not succeed in doing +so--what leisure have they to cultivate propriety and righteousness? + +"If your Majesty wishes to carry out a benevolent government, why not +turn back to what is the essential step to its attainment? + +"Let mulberry trees be planted about the homesteads with their five +acres, and persons of fifty years will be able to wear silk. In keeping +fowls, pigs, dogs, and swine, let not their times of breeding be +neglected, and persons of seventy years will be able to eat flesh. Let +there not be taken away the time that is proper for the cultivation of +the field-allotment of a hundred acres, and the family of eight mouths +will not suffer from hunger. Let careful attention be paid to the +teaching in the various schools, with repeated inculcation of the filial +and fraternal duties, and gray-haired men will not be seen upon the +roads, carrying burdens on their backs or on their heads. It has never +been that the ruler of a State, where these results were seen, the old +wearing silk and eating flesh, and the black-haired people suffering +neither from hunger nor cold, did not attain to the Royal dignity." + +[NOTE: _Books II, III, and IV are omitted_] + + +[Footnote 1: The title of this book in Chinese is--"King Hwuy of Lëang; +in chapters and sentences." Like the Books of the Confucian Analects, +those of this work are headed by two or three words at or near the +commencement of them. Each Book is divided into two parts. This +arrangement was made by Chaou K'e, and to him are due also the divisions +into chapters, and sentences, or paragraphs, containing, it may be, many +sentences.] + +[Footnote 2: Sëang was the son of King Hwuy. The first year of his reign +is supposed to be B.C. 317. Sëang's name was Hih. As a posthumous +epithet, Sëang has various meanings: "Land-enlarger and Virtuous"; +"Successful in Arms." The interview here recorded seems to have taken +place immediately after Hih's accession, and Mencius, it is said, was so +disappointed by it that he soon after left the country.] + + + + +THE SHI-KING + + +[_Metrical translation by James Legge_] + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +The wisdom of Confucius as a social reformer, as a teacher and guide of +the Chinese people, is shown in many ways. He not only gave them a code +of personal deportment, providing them with rules for the etiquette and +ceremony of life, but he instilled into them that profound spirit of +domestic piety which is one of the strongest features in the Chinese +character. He took measures to secure also the intellectual cultivation +of his followers, and his Five Canons contain all the most ancient works +of Chinese literature, in the departments of poetry, history, +philosophy, and legislation. The Shi-King is a collection of Chinese +poetry made by Confucius himself. This great anthology consists of more +than three hundred pieces, covering the whole range of Chinese lyric +poetry, the oldest of which dates some eighteen centuries before Christ, +while the latest of the selections must have been written at the +beginning of the sixth century before Christ. These poems are of the +highest interest, and even nowadays may be read with delight by +Europeans. The ballad and the hymn are among the earliest forms of +national poetry, and the contents of the Shi-King naturally show +specimens of lyric poetry of this sort. We find there not only hymns, +but also ballads of a really fine and spirited character. Sometimes the +poems celebrate the common pursuits, occupations, and incidents of life. +They rise to the exaltation of the epithalamium, or of the vintage song; +at other times they deal with sentiment and human conduct, being in the +highest degree sententious and epigrammatic. We must give the credit to +Confucius of having saved for us the literature of China, and of having +set his people an example in preserving the monuments of a remote +antiquity. While the literatures of ancient Greece and Rome have largely +perished in the convulsions that followed the breaking up of the Roman +empire in Europe, when the kingdom of China fell into disorder and +decrepitude this one great teacher stepped forward to save the precious +record of historic fact, philosophical thought, and of legislation as +well as poetry, from being swept away by the deluge of revolution. +Confucius showed his wisdom by the high value he set upon the poetry of +his native land, and his name must be set side by side with that of the +astute tyrant of Athens who collected the poems of Homer and preserved +them as a precious heritage to the Greek world. Confucius has given us +his opinion with regard to the poems of the Shi-King. No man, he says, +is worth speaking to who has not mastered the poems of an anthology, the +perusal of which elevates the mind and purifies it from all corrupt +thoughts. Thanks to the work of modern scholarship, English readers can +now verify this dictum for themselves. + +E. W. + + + + +THE SHI-KING + + + +_PART I--LESSONS FROM THE STATES_ + + +BOOK I + +THE ODES OF CHOW AND THE SOUTH + + +~Celebrating the Virtue of King Wan's Bride~ + + + Hark! from the islet in the stream the voice + Of the fish-hawks that o'er their nests rejoice! + From them our thoughts to that young lady go, + Modest and virtuous, loth herself to show. + Where could be found to share our prince's state, + So fair, so virtuous, and so fit a mate? + + See how the duckweed's stalks, or short or long, + Sway left and right, as moves the current strong! + So hard it was for him the maid to find! + By day, by night, our prince with constant mind + Sought for her long, but all his search was vain. + Awake, asleep, he ever felt the pain + Of longing thought, as when on restless bed, + Tossing about, one turns his fevered head. + + Here long, there short, afloat the duckweed lies; + But caught at last, we seize the longed-for prize. + The maiden modest, virtuous, coy, is found; + Strike every lute, and joyous welcome sound. + Ours now, the duckweed from the stream we bear, + And cook to use with other viands rare. + He has the maiden, modest, virtuous, bright; + Let bells and drums proclaim our great delight + + + +~Celebrating the Industry of King Wan's Queen~ + + Sweet was the scene. The spreading dolichos + Extended far, down to the valley's depths, + With leaves luxuriant. The orioles + Fluttered around, and on the bushy trees + In throngs collected--whence their pleasant notes + Resounded far in richest melody. + + The spreading dolichos extended far, + Covering the valley's sides, down to its depths, + With leaves luxuriant and dense. I cut + It down, then boiled, and from the fibres spun + Of cloth, both fine and coarse, large store, + To wear, unwearied of such simple dress. + + Now back to my old home, my parents dear + To see, I go. The matron I have told, + Who will announcement make. Meanwhile my clothes, + My private clothes I wash, and rinse my robes. + Which of them need be rinsed? and which need not? + My parents dear to visit, back I go. + + + +~In Praise of a Bride~ + + Graceful and young the peach-tree stands; + How rich its flowers, all gleaming bright! + This bride to her new home repairs; + Chamber and house she'll order right. + + Graceful and young the peach-tree stands; + Large crops of fruit it soon will show. + This bride to her new home repairs; + Chamber and house her sway shall know. + + Graceful and young the peach-tree stands, + Its foliage clustering green and full. + This bride to her new home repairs; + Her household will attest her rule. + + + +~Celebrating T'ae-Sze's Freedom from Jealousy~ + + In the South are the trees whose branches are bent, + And droop in such fashion that o'er their extent + All the dolichos' creepers fast cling. + See our princely lady, from whom we have got + Rejoicing that's endless! May her happy lot + And her honors repose ever bring! + + In the South are the trees whose branches are bent, + And droop in such fashion that o'er their extent + All the dolichos' creepers are spread. + See our princely lady, from whom we have got + Rejoicing that's endless! Of her happy lot + And her honors the greatness ne'er fade! + + In the South are the trees whose branches are bent, + And droop in such fashion that o'er their extent + All the dolichos' creepers entwine. + See our princely lady, from whom we have got + Rejoicing that's endless! May her happy lot + And her honors complete ever shine! + + + +~The Fruitfulness of the Locust~ + + Ye locusts, wingèd tribes, + Gather in concord fine; + Well your descendants may + In numerous bright hosts shine! + + Ye locusts, wingèd tribes, + Your wings in flight resound; + Well your descendants may + In endless lines be found! + + Ye locusts, wingèd tribes, + Together cluster strong; + Well your descendants may + In swarms forever throng! + + + +~Lamenting the Absence of a Cherished Friend~ + + Though small my basket, all my toil + Filled it with mouse-ears but in part. + I set it on the path, and sighed + For the dear master of my heart. + + My steeds, o'er-tasked, their progress stayed, + When midway up that rocky height. + Give me a cup from that gilt vase-- + When shall this longing end in sight? + + To mount that lofty ridge I drove, + Until my steeds all changed their hue. + A cup from that rhinoceros's horn + May help my longing to subdue. + + Striving to reach that flat-topped hill, + My steeds, worn out, relaxed their strain; + My driver also sank oppressed:-- + I'll never see my lord again! + + + +~Celebrating the Goodness of the Descendants of King Wan~ + + As the feet of the _lin_, which avoid each living thing, + So our prince's noble sons no harm to men will bring. + They are the _lin!_ + + As the front of the _lin_, never forward thrust in wrath, + So our prince's noble grandsons of love tread the path. + They are the _lin!_ + + As the horn of the _lin_, flesh-tipped, no wound to give, + So our prince's noble kindred kindly with all live. + They are the _lin!_ + +[NOTE.--The "lin" is the female of "K'e"--a fabulous animal--the +symbol of all goodness and benevolence; having the body of a +deer, the tail of an ox, the hoofs of a horse, one horn, the scales of a +fish, etc. Its feet do not tread on any living thing--not even on live +grass; it does not butt with its forehead; and the end of its horn is +covered with flesh--to show that, while able for war, it wills to have +peace. The "lin" was supposed to appear inaugurating a golden age, +but the poet finds a better auspice of that in the character of Wan's +family and kindred.] + + + +~The Virtuous Manners of the Young Women~ + + High and compressed, the Southern trees + No shelter from the sun afford. + The girls free ramble by the Han, + But will not hear enticing word. + Like the broad Han are they, + Through which one cannot dive; + And like the Keang's long stream, + Wherewith no raft can strive. + + Many the fagots bound and piled; + The thorns I'd hew still more to make. + As brides, those girls their new homes seek; + Their colts to feed I'd undertake. + Like the broad Han are they, + Through which one cannot dive; + And like the Keang's long stream, + Wherewith no raft can strive. + + Many the fagots bound and piled; + The Southern-wood I'd cut for more. + As brides, those girls their new homes seek; + Food for their colts I'd bring large store. + Like the broad Han are they, + Through which one cannot dive; + And like the Keang's long stream, + Wherewith no raft can strive. + + + +~Praise of a Rabbit-Catcher~ + + Careful he sets his rabbit-nets all round; + _Chang-chang_ his blows upon the pegs resound. + Stalwart the man and bold! his bearing all + Shows he might be his prince's shield and wall. + + Careful he is his rabbit-nets to place + Where many paths of rabbits' feet bear trace. + Stalwart the man and bold! 'tis plain to see + He to his prince companion good would be. + + Careful he is his rabbit-nets to spread, + Where in the forest's depth the trees give shade. + Stalwart the man and bold! fit his the part + Guide to his prince to be, and faithful heart. + + + +~The Song of the Plantain-Gatherers~ + + We gather and gather the plantains; + Come gather them anyhow. + Yes, gather and gather the plantains, + And here we have got them now. + + We gather and gather the plantains; + Now off the ears we must tear. + Yes, gather and gather the plantains, + And now the seeds are laid bare. + + We gather and gather the plantains, + The seeds in our skirts are placed. + Yes, gather and gather the plantains. + Ho! safe in the girdled waist! + + + +~The Affection of the Wives on the Joo~ + + Along the raised banks of the Joo, + To hew slim stem and branch I wrought, + My lord away, my husband true, + Like hunger-pang my troubled thought! + + Along the raised banks of the Joo, + Branch and fresh shoot confessed my art. + I've seen my lord, my husband true, + And still he folds me in his heart. + + As the toiled bream makes red its tail, + Toil you, Sir, for the Royal House; + Amidst its blazing fires, nor quail:-- + Your parents see you pay your vows. + + + + +BOOK II + + + +THE ODES OF SHAOU AND THE SOUTH + + + +~The Marriage of a Princess~ + + In the magpie's nest + Dwells the dove at rest. + This young bride goes to her future home; + To meet her a hundred chariots come. + + Of the magpie's nest + Is the dove possessed. + This bride goes to her new home to live; + And escort a hundred chariots give. + + The nest magpie wove + Now filled by the dove. + This bride now takes to her home her way; + And these numerous cars her state display. + + + +~The Industry and Reverence of a Prince's Wife~ + + Around the pools, the islets o'er, + Fast she plucks white Southern-wood, + To help the sacrificial store; + And for our prince does service good. + + Where streams among the valleys shine, + Of Southern-woods she plucks the white; + And brings it to the sacred shrine, + To aid our prince in solemn rite. + + In head-dress high, most reverent, she + The temple seeks at early dawn. + The service o'er, the head-dress see + To her own chamber slow withdrawn. + + + +~The Wife of Some Great Officer Bewails His Absence~ + + Shrill chirp the insects in the grass; + All about the hoppers spring. + While I my husband do not see, + Sorrow must my bosom wring. + O to meet him! + O to greet him! + Then my heart would rest and sing. + + Ascending high that Southern hill, + Turtle ferns I strove to get. + While I my husband do not see, + Sorrow must my heart beset. + O to meet him! + O to greet him! + Then my heart would cease to fret. + + Ascending high that Southern hill, + Spinous ferns I sought to find. + While I my husband do not see, + Rankles sorrow in my mind. + O to meet him! + O to greet him! + In my heart would peace be shrined. + + + +~The Diligence of the Young Wife of an Officer~ + + She gathers fast the large duckweed, + From valley stream that southward flows; + And for the pondweed to the pools + Left on the plains by floods she goes. + + The plants, when closed her toil, she puts + In baskets round and baskets square. + Then home she hies to cook her spoil, + In pans and tripods ready there. + + In sacred chamber this she sets, + Where the light falls down through the wall. + 'Tis she, our lord's young reverent wife, + Who manages this service all. + + + +~The Love of the People for the Duke of Shaou~ + + O fell not that sweet pear-tree! + See how its branches spread. + Spoil not its shade, + For Shaou's chief laid + Beneath it his weary head. + + O clip not that sweet pear-tree! + Each twig and leaflet spare. + 'Tis sacred now, + Since the lord of Shaou, + When weary, rested him there. + + O touch not that sweet pear-tree! + Bend not a twig of it now. + There long ago, + As the stories show, + Oft halted the chief of Shaou. + + + +~The Easy Dignity of the Officers at Some Court~ + + Arrayed in skins of lamb or sheep, + With five silk braidings all of white, + From court they go, to take their meal, + All self-possessed, with spirits light. + + How on their skins of lamb or sheep + The five seams wrought with white silk show! + With easy steps, and self-possessed, + From court to take their meal, they go. + + Upon their skins of lamb or sheep + Shines the white silk the seams to link. + With easy steps and self-possessed, + They go from court to eat and drink. + + + +~Anxiety of a Young Lady to Get Married~ + + Ripe, the plums fall from the bough; + Only seven-tenths left there now! + Ye whose hearts on me are set, + Now the time is fortunate! + + Ripe, the plums fall from the bough; + Only three-tenths left there now! + Ye who wish my love to gain, + Will not now apply in vain! + + No more plums upon the bough! + All are in my basket now! + Ye who me with ardor seek, + Need the word but freely speak! + + + +BOOK III + + + +THE ODES OF P'EI + + +~An Officer Bewails the Neglect with which He is Treated~ + + It floats about, that boat of cypress wood, + Now here, now there, as by the current borne. + Nor rest nor sleep comes in my troubled mood; + I suffer as when painful wound has torn + The shrinking body. Thus I dwell forlorn, + And aimless muse, my thoughts of sorrow full. + I might with wine refresh my spirit worn; + I might go forth, and, sauntering try to cool + The fever of my heart; but grief holds sullen rule. + + My mind resembles not a mirror plate, + Reflecting all the impressions it receives. + The good I love, the bad regard with hate; + I only cherish whom my heart believes. + Colleagues I have, but yet my spirit grieves, + That on their honor I cannot depend. + I speak, but my complaint no influence leaves + Upon their hearts; with mine no feelings blend; + With me in anger they, and fierce disdain contend. + + My mind is fixed, and cannot, like a stone, + Be turned at will indifferently about; + And what I think, to that, and that alone, + I utterance give, alike within, without; + Nor can like mat be rolled and carried out. + With dignity in presence of them all, + My conduct marked, my goodness who shall scout? + My foes I boldly challenge, great and small, + If there be aught in me they can in question call. + + How full of trouble is my anxious heart! + With hate the blatant herd of creatures mean + Ceaseless pursue. Of their attacks the smart + Keeps my mind in distress. Their venomed spleen + Aye vents itself; and with insulting mien + They vex my soul; and no one on my side + A word will speak. Silent, alone, unseen, + I think of my sad case; then opening wide + My eyes, as if from sleep, I beat my breast, sore-tried. + + Thy disc, O sun, should ever be complete, + While thine, O changing moon, doth wax and wane. + But now our sun hath waned, weak and effete, + And moons are ever full. My heart with pain + Is firmly bound, and held in sorrow's chain, + As to the body cleaves an unwashed dress. + Silent I think of my sad case; in vain + I try to find relief from my distress. + Would I had wings to fly where ills no longer press! + + + +~A Wife Deplores the Absence of Her Husband~ + + + Away the startled pheasant flies, + With lazy movement of his wings. + Borne was my heart's lord from my eyes;-- + What pain the separation brings! + + The pheasant, though no more in view, + His cry, below, above, forth sends. + Alas! my princely lord, 'tis you-- + Your absence, that my bosom rends. + + At sun and moon I sit and gaze, + In converse with my troubled heart. + Far, far from me my husband stays! + When will he come to heal its smart? + + Ye princely men who with him mate, + Say, mark ye not his virtuous way. + His rule is--covet nought, none hate;-- + How can his steps from goodness stray? + + + +~The Plaint of a Rejected Wife~ + + The east wind gently blows, + With cloudy skies and rain. + 'Twixt man and wife should ne'er be strife, + But harmony obtain. + Radish and mustard plants + Are used, though some be poor; + While my good name is free from blame, + Don't thrust me from your door. + + I go along the road, + Slow, with reluctant heart. + Your escort lame to door but came, + There glad from me to part. + Sow-thistle, bitter called, + As shepherd's purse is sweet; + With your new mate you feast elate, + As joyous brothers meet. + + Part clear, the stream of King + Is foul beside the Wei. + You feast elate with your new mate, + And take no heed of me. + Loose mate, avoid my dam, + Nor dare my basket move! + Person slighted, life all blighted, + What can the future prove? + + The water deep, in boat, + Or raft-sustained, I'd go; + And where the stream did narrow seem, + I dived or breasted through. + I labored to increase + Our means, or great or small; + When 'mong friends near death did appear, + On knees to help I'd crawl. + + No cherishing you give, + I'm hostile in your eyes. + As pedler's wares for which none cares, + My virtues you despise. + + When poverty was nigh, + I strove our means to spare; + You, now rich grown, me scorn to own; + To poison me compare. + + The stores for winter piled + Are all unprized in spring. + So now, elate with your new mate, + Myself away you fling. + Your cool disdain for me + A bitter anguish hath. + The early time, our love's sweet prime, + In you wakes only wrath. + + + +~Soldiers of Wei Bewail Separation from Their Families~ + + List to the thunder and roll of the drum! + See how we spring and brandish the dart! + Some raise Ts'aou's walls; some do field work at home; + But we to the southward lonely depart. + + Our chief, Sun Tsze-chung, agreement has made, + Our forces to join with Ch'in and with Sung. + When shall we back from this service be led? + Our hearts are all sad, our courage unstrung. + + Here we are halting, and there we delay; + Anon we soon lose our high-mettled steeds. + The forest's gloom makes our steps go astray; + Each thicket of trees our searching misleads. + + For death as for life, at home or abroad, + We pledged to our wives our faithfulest word. + Their hands clasped in ours, together we vowed, + We'd live to old age in sweetest accord. + + This march to the South can end but in ill; + Oh! never shall we our wives again meet. + The word that we pledged we cannot fulfil; + Us home returning they never will greet. + + + +~An Officer Tells of His Mean Employment~ + + With mind indifferent, things I easy take; + In every dance I prompt appearance make:-- + Then, when the sun is at his topmost height, + There, in the place that courts the public sight. + + With figure large I in the courtyard dance, + And the duke smiles, when he beholds me prance. + A tiger's strength I have; the steeds swift bound; + The reins as ribbons in my hands are found. + + See how I hold the flute in my left hand; + In right the pheasant's plume, waved like a wand; + With visage red, where rouge you think to trace, + While the duke pleased, sends down the cup of grace! + + Hazel on hills; the _ling_ in meadow damp;-- + Each has its place, while I'm a slighted scamp. + My thoughts go back to th' early days of Chow, + And muse upon its chiefs, not equalled now. + O noble chiefs, who then the West adorned, + Would ye have thus neglected me and scorned? + + + +~An Officer Sets Forth His Hard Lot~ + + My way leads forth by the gate on the north; + My heart is full of woe. + I hav'n't a cent, begged, stolen, or lent, + And friends forget me so. + So let it be! 'tis Heaven's decree. + What can I say--a poor fellow like me? + + The King has his throne, sans sorrow or moan; + On me fall all his cares, + And when I come home, resolved not to roam, + Each one indignant stares. + So let it be! 'tis Heaven's decree. + What can I say--a poor fellow like me? + + Each thing of the King, and the fate of the State, + On me come more and more. + And when, sad and worn, I come back forlorn, + They thrust me from the door. + So let it be! 'tis Heaven's decree. + What can I say--a poor fellow like me? + + + +~The Complaint of a Neglected Wife~ + + When the upper robe is green, + With a yellow lining seen, + There we have a certain token, + Right is wronged and order broken. + How can sorrow from my heart + In a case like this depart? + + Color green the robe displays; + Lower garment yellow's blaze. + Thus it is that favorite mean + In the place of wife is seen. + Vain the conflict with my grief; + Memory denies relief. + + Yes, 'twas you the green who dyed, + You who fed the favorite's pride. + Anger rises in my heart, + Pierces it as with a dart. + But on ancient rules lean I, + Lest to wrong my thoughts should fly. + + Fine or coarse, if thin the dress, + Cold winds always cause distress. + Hard my lot, my sorrow deep, + But my thoughts in check I keep. + Ancient story brings to mind + Sufferers who were resigned. + + +[NOTE.--Yellow is one of the five "correct" colors of the Chinese, while +green is one of the "intermediate" colors that are less esteemed. Here +we have the yellow used merely as a lining to the green, or employed in +the lower, or less honorable, part of the dress;--an inversion of +propriety, and intimating how a favorite had usurped the place of the +rightful wife and thrust her down.] + + + +~In Praise of a Maiden~ + + + O sweet maiden, so fair and retiring, + At the corner I'm waiting for you; + And I'm scratching my head, and inquiring + What on earth it were best I should do. + + Oh! the maiden, so handsome and coy, + For a pledge gave a slim rosy reed. + Than the reed is she brighter, my joy; + On her loveliness how my thoughts feed! + + In the pastures a _t'e_ blade she sought, + And she gave it, so elegant, rare. + Oh! the grass does not dwell in my thought, + But the donor, more elegant, fair. + + + +~Discontent~ + + As when the north winds keenly blow, + And all around fast falls the snow, + The source of pain and suffering great, + So now it is in Wei's poor state. + Let us join hands and haste away, + My friends and lovers all. + 'Tis not a time will brook delay; + Things for prompt action call. + + As when the north winds whistle shrill, + And drifting snows each hollow fill, + The source of pain and suffering great, + So now it is in Wei's poor state, + Let us join hands, and leave for aye, + My friends and lovers all, + 'Tis not a time will brook delay; + Things for prompt action call. + + We look for red, and foxes meet; + For black, and crows our vision greet. + The creatures, both of omen bad, + Well suit the state of Wei so sad. + + Let us join hands and mount our cars, + My friends and lovers all. + No time remains for wordy jars; + Things for prompt action call. + + + +~Chwang Keang Bemoans Her Husband's Cruelty~ + + Fierce is the wind and cold; + And such is he. + Smiling he looks, and bold + Speaks mockingly. + Scornful and lewd his words, + Haughty his smile. + Bound is my heart with cords + In sorrow's coil. + + As cloud of dust wind-blown, + Just such is he. + Ready he seems to own, + And come to me. + But he comes not nor goes, + Stands in his pride. + Long, long, with painful throes, + Grieved I abide. + + Strong blew the wind; the cloud + Hastened away. + Soon dark again, the shroud + Covers the day. + I wake, and sleep no more + Visits my eyes. + His course I sad deplore, + With heavy sighs. + + Cloudy the sky, and dark; + The thunders roll. + Such outward signs well mark + My troubled soul. + I wake, and sleep no more + Comes to give rest. + His course I sad deplore, + In anguished breast. + + + +[NOTE: Selections from Books IV., V., and VI., +have been omitted.--EDITOR.] + + + +BOOK VII + + + +THE ODES OF CH'ING + + + +~The People's Admiration for Duke Woo~ + + The black robes well your form befit; + When they are worn we'll make you new. + Now for your court! oh! there we'll sit, + And watch how you your duties do. + And when we to our homes repair, + We'll send to you our richest fare, + Such is the love to you we bear! + + Those robes well with your virtue match; + When they are worn we'll make you new. + Now for your court! There will we watch, + Well pleased, how you your duties do. + And when we to our homes repair, + We'll send to you our richest fare, + Such is the love to you we bear! + + Those robes your character beseem; + When they are worn we'll make you new. + Now for your court! oh! there we deem + It pleasure great your form to view. + And when we to our homes repair, + We'll send to you our richest fare, + Such is the love to you we bear! + + + +~A Wife Consoled by Her Husband's Arrival~ + + Cold is the wind, fast falls the rain, + The cock aye shrilly crows. + But I have seen my lord again;-- + Now must my heart repose. + + Whistles the wind, patters the rain, + The cock's crow far resounds. + But I have seen my lord again, + And healed are my heart's wounds. + + All's dark amid the wind and rain, + Ceaseless the cock's clear voice! + But I have seen my lord again;-- + Should not my heart rejoice? + + +~In Praise of Some Lady~ + + There by his side in chariot rideth she, + As lovely flower of the hibiscus tree, + So fair her face; and when about they wheel, + Her girdle gems of _Ken_ themselves reveal. + For beauty all the House of Këang have fame; + Its eldest daughter--she beseems her name. + + There on the path, close by him, walketh she, + Bright as the blossom of hibiscus tree, + And fair her face; and when around they flit, + Her girdle gems a tinkling sound emit. + Among the Keang she has distinguished place, + For virtuous fame renowned, and peerless grace. + + + +~A Man's Praise of His Wife~ + + My path forth from the east gate lay, + Where cloud-like moved the girls at play. + Numerous are they, as clouds so bright, + But not on them my heart's thoughts light. + Dressed in a thin white silk, with coiffure gray + Is she, my wife, my joy in life's low way. + + Forth by the covering wall's high tower, + I went, and saw, like rush in flower, + Each flaunting girl. Brilliant are they, + But not with them my heart's thoughts stay. + In thin white silk, with head-dress madder-dyed, + Is she, my sole delight, 'foretime my bride. + + + +~An Entreaty~ + + Along the great highway, + I hold you by the cuff. + O spurn me not, I pray, + Nor break old friendship off. + + Along the highway worn, + I hold your hand in mine. + Do not as vile me scorn; + Your love I can't resign. + + + + ~A Woman Scorning Her Lover~ + + O dear! that artful boy + Refuses me a word! + But, Sir, I shall enjoy + My food, though you're absurd! + + O dear! that artful boy + My table will not share! + But, Sir, I shall enjoy + My rest, though you're not there! + + + +~A Lady Mourns the Absence of Her Student Lover~ + + You student, with the collar blue, + Long pines my heart with anxious pain. + Although I do not go to you, + Why from all word do you refrain? + + O you, with girdle strings of blue, + My thoughts to you forever roam! + Although I do not go to you, + Yet why to me should you not come? + + How reckless you, how light and wild, + There by the tower upon the wall! + One day, from sight of you exiled, + As long as three long months I call. + + +[NOTE: Selections from Books IV., V., and VI., have been +omitted.--EDITOR.] + + + +BOOK VIII + + + +THE ODES OF TS'E + + + +~A Wife Urging Her Husband to Action~ + + His lady to the marquis says, + "The cock has crowed; 'tis late. + Get up, my lord, and haste to court. + 'Tis full; for you they wait." + She did not hear the cock's shrill sound, + Only the blueflies buzzing round. + + Again she wakes him with the words, + "The east, my lord, is bright. + A crowded court your presence seeks; + Get up and hail the light." + 'Twas not the dawning light which shone, + But that which by the moon was thrown. + + He sleeping still, once more she says, + "The flies are buzzing loud. + To lie and dream here by your side + Were pleasant, but the crowd + Of officers will soon retire; + Draw not on you and me their ire!" + + + +~The Folly of Useless Effort~ + + The weeds will but the ranker grow, + If fields too large you seek to till. + To try to gain men far away + With grief your toiling heart will fill, + + If fields too large you seek to till, + The weeds will only rise more strong. + To try to gain men far away + Will but your heart's distress prolong. + + Things grow the best when to themselves + Left, and to nature's vigor rare. + How young and tender is the child, + With his twin tufts of falling hair! + But when you him ere long behold, + That child shall cap of manhood wear! + + + +~The Prince of Loo~ + + A grand man is the prince of Loo, + With person large and high. + Lofty his front and suited to + The fine glance of his eye! + Swift are his feet. In archery + What man with him can vie? + With all these goodly qualities, + We see him and we sigh! + + Renowned through all the land is he, + The nephew of our lord. + With clear and lovely eyes, his grace + May not be told by word. + All day at target practice, + He'll never miss the bird. + Such is the prince of Loo, and yet + With grief for him we're stirred! + + All grace and beauty he displays, + High forehead and eyes bright. + And dancing choice! His arrows all + The target hit aright. + Straight through they go, and every one + Lights on the self-same spot. + Rebellion he could well withstand, + And yet we mourn his lot! + + + +BOOK IX + + + +THE ODES OF WEI + + + +~On the Misgovernment of the State~ + + A fruit, small as the garden peach, + May still be used for food. + A State, though poor as ours, might thrive, + If but its rule were good. + Our rule is bad, our State is sad, + With mournful heart I grieve. + All can from instrument and voice + My mood of mind perceive. + Who know me not, with scornful thought, + Deem me a scholar proud. + "Those men are right," they fiercely say, + "What mean your words so loud?" + Deep in my heart my sorrows lie, + And none the cause may know. + How should they know who never try + To learn whence comes our woe? + + The garden jujube, although small, + May still be used for food. + A State, though poor as ours, might thrive, + If but its rule were good. + Our rule is bad, our State is sad, + With mournful heart I grieve. + Methinks I'll wander through the land, + My misery to relieve. + Who know me not, with scornful thought, + Deem that wild views I hold. + "Those men are right," they fiercely say, + "What mean your words so bold?" + + Deep in my heart my sorrows lie, + And none the cause may know. + How can they know, who never try + To learn whence comes our woe? + + + +~The Mean Husband~ + + Thin cloth of dolichos supplies the shoes, + In which some have to brave the frost and cold. + A bride, when poor, her tender hands must use, + Her dress to make, and the sharp needle hold. + This man is wealthy, yet he makes his bride + Collars and waistbands for his robes provide. + + Conscious of wealth, he moves with easy mien; + Politely on the left he takes his place; + The ivory pin is at his girdle seen:-- + His dress and gait show gentlemanly grace. + Why do we brand him in our satire here? + 'Tis this---his niggard soul provokes the sneer. + + + +~A Young Soldier on Service~ + + To the top of that tree-clad hill I go, + And towards my father I gaze, + Till with my mind's eye his form I espy, + And my mind's ear hears how he says:-- + "Alas for my son on service abroad! + He rests not from morning till eve. + May he careful be and come back to me! + While he is away, how I grieve!" + + To the top of that barren hill I climb, + And towards my mother I gaze, + Till with my mind's eye her form I espy, + And my mind's ear hears how she says:-- + "Alas for my child on service abroad! + He never in sleep shuts an eye. + May he careful be, and come back to me! + In the wild may his body not lie!" + + Up the lofty ridge I, toiling, ascend, + And towards my brother I gaze, + Till with my mind's eye his form I espy, + And my mind's ear hears how he says:-- + "Alas! my young brother, serving abroad, + All day with his comrades must roam. + May he careful be, and come back to me, + And die not away from his home." + + + +BOOK X + + + +THE ODES OF TANG + + + +~The King Goes to War~ + + The wild geese fly the bushy oaks around, + With clamor loud. _Suh-suh_ their wings resound, + As for their feet poor resting-place is found. + The King's affairs admit of no delay. + Our millet still unsown, we haste away. + No food is left our parents to supply; + When we are gone, on whom can they rely? + O azure Heaven, that shinest there afar, + When shall our homes receive us from the war? + + The wild geese on the bushy jujube-trees + Attempt to settle and are ill at ease;-- + _Suh-suh_ their wings go flapping in the breeze. + The King's affairs admit of no delay; + Our millet still unsown, we haste away. + How shall our parents their requirements get? + How in our absence shall their wants be met? + O azure Heaven, that shinest there afar, + When shall our homes receive us from the war? + + The bushy mulberry-trees the geese in rows + Seek eager and to rest around them close-- + With rustling loud, as disappointment grows. + The King's affairs admit of no delay; + To plant our rice and maize we cannot stay. + How shall our parents find their wonted food? + When we are gone, who will to them be good? + O azure Heaven, that shinest there afar, + When shall our homes receive us from the war? + + + +~Lament of a Bereaved Person~ + + + A russet pear-tree rises all alone, + But rich the growth of leaves upon it shown! + I walk alone, without one brother left, + And thus of natural aid am I bereft. + Plenty of people there are all around, + But none like my own father's sons are found. + Ye travellers, who forever hurry by, + Why on me turn the unsympathizing eye? + No brother lives with whom my cause to plead;-- + Why not perform for me the helping deed? + + A russet pear-tree rises all alone, + But rich with verdant foliage o'ergrown. + I walk alone, without one brother's care, + To whom I might, amid my straits repair. + Plenty of people there are all around, + But none like those of my own name are found. + Ye travellers, who forever hurry by, + Why on me turn the unsympathizing eye? + No brother lives with whom my cause to plead;-- + Why not perform for me the helping deed? + + + +~The Drawbacks of Poverty~ + + On the left of the way, a russet pear-tree + Stands there all alone--a fit image of me. + There is that princely man! O that he would come, + And in my poor dwelling with me be at home! + In the core of my heart do I love him, but say, + Whence shall I procure him the wants of the day? + + At the bend in the way a russet pear-tree + Stands there all alone--a fit image of me. + There is that princely man! O that he would come, + And rambling with me be himself here at home! + In the core of my heart I love him, but say, + Whence shall I procure him the wants of the day? + + + +~A Wife Mourns for Her Husband~ + + The dolichos grows and covers the thorn, + O'er the waste is the dragon-plant creeping. + The man of my heart is away and I mourn-- + What home have I, lonely and weeping? + + Covering the jujubes the dolichos grows, + The graves many dragon-plants cover; + But where is the man on whose breast I'd repose? + No home have I, having no lover! + + Fair to see was the pillow of horn, + And fair the bed-chamber's adorning; + But the man of my heart is not here, and I mourn + All alone, and wait for the morning. + + While the long days of summer pass over my head, + And long winter nights leave their traces, + I'm alone! Till a hundred of years shall have fled, + And then I shall meet his embraces. + + Through the long winter nights I am burdened with fears, + Through the long summer days I am lonely; + But when time shall have counted its hundreds of years + I then shall be his--and his only! + + + +BOOK XI + + + +THE ODES OF TS'IN + + + +~Celebrating the Opulence of the Lords of Ts'in~ + + Our ruler to the hunt proceeds; + And black as iron are his steeds + That heed the charioteer's command, + Who holds the six reins in his hand. + His favorites follow to the chase, + Rejoicing in his special grace. + + The season's males, alarmed, arise-- + The season's males, of wondrous size. + Driven by the beaters, forth they spring, + Soon caught within the hunters' ring. + "Drive on their left," the ruler cries; + And to its mark his arrow flies. + + The hunting done, northward he goes; + And in the park the driver shows + The horses' points, and his own skill + That rules and guides them at his will. + Light cars whose teams small bells display, + The long-and short-mouthed dogs convey. + + +~A Complaint~ + + He lodged us in a spacious house, + And plenteous was our fare. + But now at every frugal meal + There's not a scrap to spare. + Alas! alas that this good man + Could not go on as he began! + + + ~A Wife's Grief Because of Her Husband's Absence~ + + The falcon swiftly seeks the north, + And forest gloom that sent it forth. + Since I no more my husband see, + My heart from grief is never free. + O how is it, I long to know, + That he, my lord, forgets me so? + + Bushy oaks on the mountain grow, + And six elms where the ground is low. + But I, my husband seen no more, + My sad and joyless fate deplore. + O how is it, I long to know, + That he, my lord, forgets me so? + + The hills the bushy wild plums show, + And pear-trees grace the ground below. + But, with my husband from me gone, + As drunk with grief, I dwell alone. + O how is it, I long to know, + That he, my lord, forgets me so? + + +~Lament for Three Brothers~ + + + They flit about, the yellow birds, + And rest upon the jujubes find. + Who buried were in duke Muh's grave, + Alive to awful death consigned? + + 'Mong brothers three, who met that fate, + 'Twas sad the first, Yen-seih to see. + He stood alone; a hundred men + Could show no other such as he. + When to the yawning grave he came, + Terror unnerved and shook his frame. + + Why thus destroy our noblest men, + To thee we cry, O azure Heaven! + To save Yen-seih from death, we would + A hundred lives have freely given. + + They flit about, the yellow birds, + And on the mulberry-trees rest find. + Who buried were in duke Muh's grave, + Alive to awful death consigned? + + 'Mong brothers three, who met that fate, + 'Twas sad the next, Chung-hang to see. + When on him pressed a hundred men, + A match for all of them was he. + When to the yawning grave he came, + Terror unnerved and shook his frame. + + Why thus destroy our noblest men, + To thee we cry, O azure Heaven! + To save Chung-hang from death, we would + A hundred lives have freely given. + + They flit about, the yellow birds, + And rest upon the thorn-trees find. + Who buried were in duke Muh's grave, + Alive to awful death consigned? + + 'Mong brothers three, who met that fate, + 'Twas sad the third, K'ëen-foo, to see. + A hundred men in desperate fight + Successfully withstand could he. + When to the yawning grave he came, + Terror unnerved and shook his frame. + + Why thus destroy our noblest men, + To thee we cry, O azure Heaven! + To save K'ëen-foo from death, we would + A hundred lives have freely given. + + +[NOTE.--The incident related in this poem occurred in the year B.C. 620, +when the duke of Muh died after playing an important part in the affairs +of Northwest China. Muh required the three officers here celebrated, to +be buried with him, and according to the "Historical Records" this +barbarous practice began with duke Ching, Muh's predecessor. In all, 170 +individuals were buried with Muh. The death of the last distinguished +man of the Ts'in dynasty, the Emperor I, was subsequently celebrated by +the entombment with him of all the inmates of his harem.] + + + +~In Praise of a Ruler of Ts'in~ + + What trees grow on the Chung-nan hill? + The white fir and the plum. + In fur of fox, 'neath 'broidered robe, + Thither our prince is come. + His face glows with vermilion hue. + O may he prove a ruler true! + + What find we on the Chung-nan hill? + Deep nook and open glade. + Our prince shows there the double _Ke_ + On lower robe displayed. + His pendant holds each tinkling gem, + Long life be his, and deathless fame! + + + +~The Generous Nephew~ + + I escorted my uncle to Tsin, + Till the Wei we crossed on the way. + Then I gave as I left + For his carriage a gift + Four steeds, and each steed was a bay. + + I escorted my uncle to Tsin, + And I thought of him much in my heart. + Pendent stones, and with them + Of fine jasper a gem, + I gave, and then saw him depart. + + + +BOOK XII + + + +THE ODES OF CH'IN + + + +~The Contentment of a Poor Recluse~ + +My only door some pieces of crossed wood, + Within it I can rest enjoy. +I drink the water wimpling from the spring; + Nor hunger can my peace destroy. + +Purged from ambition's aims I say, "For fish. + We need not bream caught in the Ho; +Nor, to possess the sweets of love, require + To Ts'e, to find a Keang, to go. + +"The man contented with his lot, a meal + Of fish without Ho carp can make; +Nor needs, to rest in his domestic joy, + A Tsze of Sung as wife to take." + + + +~The Disappointed Lover~ + +Where grow the willows near the eastern gate, + And 'neath their leafy shade we could recline, +She said at evening she would me await, + And brightly now I see the day-star shine! + +Here where the willows near the eastern gate + Grow, and their dense leaves make a shady gloom, +She said at evening she would me await. + See now the morning star the sky illume! + + + +~A Love-Song~ + +The moon comes forth, bright in the sky; +A lovelier sight to draw my eye + Is she, that lady fair. +She round my heart has fixed love's chain, +But all my longings are in vain. + 'Tis hard the grief to bear. + +The moon comes forth, a splendid sight; +More winning far that lady bright, + Object of my desire! +Deep-seated is my anxious grief; +In vain I seek to find relief; + While glows the secret fire. + +The rising moon shines mild and fair; +More bright is she, whose beauty rare + My heart with longing fills. +With eager wish I pine in vain; +O for relief from constant pain, + Which through my bosom thrills! + + + +~The Lament of a Lover~ + +There where its shores the marsh surround, +Rushes and lotus plants abound. +Their loveliness brings to my mind +The lovelier one that I would find. +In vain I try to ease the smart +Of wounded love that wrings my heart. +In waking thought and nightly dreams, +From every pore the water streams. + +All round the marsh's shores are seen +Valerian flowers and rushes green. +But lovelier is that Beauty rare, +Handsome and large, and tall and fair, +I wish and long to call her mine, +Doomed with the longing still to pine. +Nor day nor night e'er brings relief; +My inmost heart is full of grief. + +Around the marsh, in rich display, +Grow rush and lotus flowers, all gay. +But not with her do they compare, +So tall and large, majestic, fair. +Both day and night, I nothing speed; +Still clings to me the aching need. +On side, on back, on face, I lie, +But vain each change of posture. + + +THE ODES OF KWEI + + +~The Wish of an Unhappy Man~ + + Where the grounds are wet and low, + There the trees of goat-peach grow, + With their branches small and smooth, + Glossy in their tender youth. + Joy it were to me, O tree, + Consciousness to want like thee. + + Where the grounds are wet and low, + There the trees of goat-peach grow. + Soft and fragrant are their flowers, + Glossy from the vernal showers. + Joy it were to me, O tree, + Ties of home to want like thee. + + Where the grounds are wet and low, + There the trees of goat-peach grow, + What delicious fruits they bear, + Glossy, soft, of beauty rare! + Joy it were to me, O tree, + Household cares to want like thee. + + + +BOOK XIV + + + +THE ODES OF TS'AOU + +~Against Frivolous Pursuits~ + + Like splendid robes appear the wings + Of the ephemeral fly; + And such the pomp of those great men, + Which soon in death shall lie! + I grieve! Would they but come to me! + To teach them I should try. + + The wings of the ephemeral fly + Are robes of colors gay; + And such the glory of those men, + Soon crumbling to decay! + I grieve! Would they but rest with me, + They'd learn a better way! + + The ephemeral fly bursts from its hole, + With gauzy wings like snow; + So quick the rise, so quick the fall, + Of those great men we know! + I grieve! Would they but lodge with me, + Forth they would wiser go. + + +BOOK XV + + + +THE ODES OF PIN + + +~The Duke of Chow Tells of His Soldiers~ + + To the hills of the east we went, + And long had we there to remain. + When the word of recall was sent, + Thick and fast came the drizzling rain. + When told our return we should take, + Our hearts in the West were and sore; + But there did they clothes for us make:-- + They knew our hard service was o'er. + On the mulberry grounds in our sight + The large caterpillars were creeping; + Lonely and still we passed the night, + All under our carriages sleeping. + + To the hills of the East we went, + And long had we there to remain. + When the word of recall was sent, + Thick and fast came the drizzling rain. + The heavenly gourds rise to the eye, + With their fruit hanging under the eave. + In our chambers the sow-bug we spy; + Their webs on our doors spiders weave. + Our paddocks seem crowded with deer, + With the glow-worm's light all about. + Such thoughts, while they filled us with fear, + We tried, but in vain, to keep out. + + To the hills of the East we went, + And long had we there to remain. + When the word of recall was sent, + Thick and fast came the drizzling rain. + + On ant-hills screamed cranes with delight; + In their rooms were our wives sighing sore. + Our homes they had swept and made tight:-- + All at once we arrived at the door. + The bitter gourds hanging are seen, + From branches of chestnut-trees high. + Three years of toil away we had been, + Since such a sight greeted the eye. + + To the hills of the East we went, + And long had we there to remain. + When the word of recall was sent, + Thick and fast came the drizzling rain. + With its wings now here, and now there, + Is the oriole sporting in flight. + Those brides to their husbands repair, + Their steeds red and bay, flecked with white. + Each mother has fitted each sash; + Their equipments are full and complete; + But fresh unions, whatever their dash, + Can ne'er with reunions compete. + + + +~There is a Proper Way for Doing Everything~ + + In hewing an axe-shaft, how must you act? + Another axe take, or you'll never succeed. + In taking a wife, be sure 'tis a fact, + That with no go-between you never can speed. + + In hewing an axe-shaft, hewing a shaft, + For a copy you have the axe in your hand. + + In choosing a wife, you follow the craft, + And forthwith on the mats the feast-vessels stand. + + + +PART II.--MINOR ODES TO THE KINGDOM + + +BOOK I + + + +DECADE OF LUH MING + + +~A Festal Ode~ + + With sounds of happiness the deer + Browse on the celery of the meads. + A nobler feast is furnished here, + With guests renowned for noble deeds. + The lutes are struck; the organ blows, + Till all its tongues in movement heave. + Each basket loaded stands, and shows + The precious gifts the guests receive. + They love me and my mind will teach, + How duty's highest aim to reach. + + With sounds of happiness the deer + The southern-wood crop in the meads, + What noble guests surround me here, + Distinguished for their worthy deeds! + From them my people learn to fly + Whate'er is mean; to chiefs they give + A model and a pattern high;-- + They show the life they ought to live. + Then fill their cups with spirits rare, + Till each the banquet's joy shall share. + + With sounds of happiness the deer + The salsola crop in the fields. + What noble guests surround me here! + Each lute for them its music yields. + Sound, sound the lutes, or great or small. + The joy harmonious to prolong;-- + + And with my spirits rich crown all + The cups to cheer the festive throng. + Let each retire with gladdened heart, + In his own sphere to play his part. + + + +~A Festal Ode Complimenting an Officer~ + + On dashed my four steeds, without halt, without stay, + Though toilsome and winding from Chow was the way. + I wished to return--but the monarch's command + Forbade that his business be done with slack hand; + And my heart was with sadness oppressed. + + On dashed my four steeds; I ne'er slackened the reins. + They snorted and panted--all white, with black manes. + I wished to return, but our sovereign's command + Forbade that his business be done with slack hand;-- + And I dared not to pause or to rest. + + Unresting the Filial doves speed in their flight, + Ascending, then sweeping swift down from the height, + Now grouped on the oaks. The king's high command + Forbade that his business be done with slack hand;-- + And my father I left, sore distressed. + + Unresting the Filial doves speed in their flight, + Now fanning the air and anon they alight + On the medlars thick grouped. But our monarch's command + Forbade that his business be done with slack hand;-- + Of my mother I thought with sad breast. + + My four steeds I harnessed, all white and black-maned, + Which straight on their way, fleet and emulous strained. + I wished to return; and now venture in song + The wish to express, and announce how I long + For my mother my care to attest. + + +[NOTE.--Both Maou and Choo agree that this ode was composed in +honor of the officer who narrates the story in it, although they say it +was not written by the officer himself, but was put into his mouth, as +it were, to express the sympathy of his entertainer with him, and the +appreciation of his devotion to duty.] + + + +~The Value of Friendship~ + + The woodmen's blows responsive ring, + As on the trees they fall; + And when the birds their sweet notes sing, + They to each other call. + From the dark valley comes a bird, + And seeks the lofty tree. + _Ying_ goes its voice, and thus it cries, + "Companion, come to me." + The bird, although a creature small, + Upon its mate depends; + And shall we men, who rank o'er all, + Not seek to have our friends? + All spirits love the friendly man, + And hearken to his prayer. + What harmony and peace they can + Bestow, his lot shall share. + + _Hoo-hoo_ the woodmen all unite + To shout, as trees they fell. + They do their work with all their might;-- + What I have done I'll tell. + I've strained and made my spirits clear, + The fatted lambs I've killed. + With friends who my own surname bear, + My hall I've largely filled. + Some may be absent, casually, + And leave a broken line; + But better this than absence by + An oversight of mine. + My court I've sprinkled and swept clean, + Viands in order set. + Eight dishes loaded stand with grain; + There's store of fatted meat. + My mother's kith and kin I'm sure + I've widely called by name. + That some be hindered better is + Than ~I~ give cause for blame. + + On the hill-side the trees they fell, + All working with good-will + I labor too, with equal zeal. + And the host's part fulfil. + Spirits I've set in order meet, + The dishes stand in rows. + The guests are here; no vacant seat + A brother absent shows. + The loss of kindly feeling oft + From slightest things shall grow, + Where all the fare is dry and spare, + Resentments fierce may glow. + My store of spirits is well strained, + If short prove the supply, + My messengers I straightway send, + And what is needed buy. + I beat the drums, and in the dance + Lead joyously the train. + Oh! good it is, when falls the chance + The sparkling cup to drain. + + + +~The Response to a Festal Ode~ + + Heaven shields and sets thee fast. + It round thee fair has cast + Thy virtue pure. + Thus richest joy is thine;-- + Increase of corn and wine, + And every gift divine, + Abundant, sure. + + Heaven shields and sets thee fast. + From it thou goodness hast; + Right are thy ways. + Its choicest gifts 'twill pour, + That last for evermore, + Nor time exhaust the store + Through endless days. + + Heaven shields and sets thee fast, + Makes thine endeavor last + And prosper well. + Like hills and mountains high, + Whose masses touch the sky; + Like streams aye surging by; + Thine increase swell! + + With rite and auspice fair, + Thine offerings thou dost bear, + And son-like give, + The season's round from spring, + To olden duke and king, + Whose words to thee we bring:-- + "Forever live," + + The spirits of thy dead + Pour blessings on thy head, + Unnumbered sweet. + Thy subjects, simple, good, + Enjoy their drink and food. + Our tribes of every blood + Follow thy feet. + + Like moons that wax in light; + Or suns that scale the height; + Or ageless hill; + Nor change, nor autumn know; + As pine and cypress grow; + The sons that from thee flow + Be lasting still! + + + +~An Ode of Congratulation~ + + The russet pear-tree stands there all alone; + How bright the growth of fruit upon it shown! + The King's affairs no stinting hands require, + And days prolonged still mock our fond desire. + But time has brought the tenth month of the year; + My woman's heart is torn with wound severe. + Surely my warrior lord might now appear! + + The russet pear-tree stands there all alone; + How dense the leafy shade all o'er it thrown! + The King's affairs require no slackening hand, + And our sad hearts their feelings can't command. + The plants and trees in beauty shine; 'tis spring. + From off my heart its gloom I fain would fling. + This season well my warrior home may bring! + + I climbed that northern hill, and medlars sought; + The spring nigh o'er, to ripeness they were brought. + "The King's affairs cannot be slackly done";-- + 'Tis thus our parents mourn their absent son. + But now his sandal car must broken be; + I seem his powerful steeds worn out to see. + Relief has gone! He can't be far from me! + + Alas! they can't have marched; they don't arrive! + More hard it grows with my distress to strive. + The time is passed, and still he is not here! + My sorrows multiply; great is my fear. + But lo! by reeds and shell I have divined, + That he is near, they both assure my mind;-- + Soon at my side my warrior I shall find! + + + +~An Ode on the Return of the Troops~ + + Forth from the city in our cars we drove, + Until we halted at the pasture ground. + The general came, and there with ardor strove + A note of zeal throughout the host to sound. + "Direct from court I come, by orders bound + The march to hasten";--it was thus he spake. + Then with the carriage-officers around, + He strictly charged them quick despatch to make:-- + "Urgent the King's affairs, forthwith the field we take." + + While there we stopped, the second corps appeared, + And 'twixt Us and the city took its place. + The guiding standard was on high upreared, + Where twining snakes the tortoises embrace, + While oxtails, crest-like, did the staff's top grace. + We watched the sheet unfolding grandly wave; + Each flag around showed falcons on its face. + + With anxious care looked on our leader brave; + Watchful the carriage-officers appeared and grave. + + Nan Chung, our chief, had heard the royal call + To go where inroad by Heen-yuns was made, + And 'cross the frontier build a barrier wall. + Numerous his chariots, splendidly arrayed! + The standards--this where dragons were displayed, + And that where snakes round tortoises were coiled-- + Terrific flew. "Northward our host," he said, + "Heaven's son sends forth to tame the Heen-yun wild." + Soon by this awful chief would all their tribes be foiled. + + When first we took the field, and northward went, + The millet was in flower;--a prospect sweet. + Now when our weary steps are homeward bent, + The snow falls fast, the mire impedes our feet. + Many the hardships we were called to meet, + Ere the King's orders we had all fulfilled. + No rest we had; often our friends to greet + The longing came; but vain regrets we stilled; + By tablets stern our hearts with fresh resolve were thrilled. + + "Incessant chirp the insects in the grass; + All round about the nimble hoppers spring. + From them our thoughts quick to our husbands pass? + Although those thoughts our hearts with anguish wring. + Oh! could we see them, what relief 'twould bring! + Our hearts, rejoiced, at once would feel at rest." + Thus did our wives, their case deploring, sing; + The while our leader farther on had pressed, + And smitten with his power the wild Jung of the west. + + The spring days now are lengthening out their light; + The plants and trees are dressed in living green; + The orioles resting sing, or wing their flight; + Our wives amid the southern-wood are seen, + Which white they bring, to feed their silkworms keen. + Our host, returned, sweeps onwards to the hall, + Where chiefs are questioned, shown the captives mean + Nan Chung, majestic, draws the gaze of all, + Proud o'er the barbarous foe his victories to recall. + + + +BOOK II + + + +THE DECADE OF PIH H'WA + + + +~An Ode Appropriate to a Festivity~ + + The dew lies heavy all around, + Nor, till the sun shines, leaves the ground. + Far into night we feasting sit; + We drink, and none his place may quit. + + The dew lies heavy, and its gems + Stud the luxuriant, grassy stems. + The happy night with wassail rings; + So feasted here the former kings. + + The jujube and the willow-tree + All fretted with the dew we see. + Each guest's a prince of noble line, + In whom the virtues all combine. + + The _t'ung_ and _e_ their fruits display, + Pendant from every graceful spray. + My guests are joyous and serene, + No haggard eye, no ruffled mien. + + + +BOOK III + + + +THE DECADE OF TUNG RUNG + + + +~Celebrating a Hunting Expedition~ + + Our chariots were well-built and firm, + Well-matched our steeds, and fleet and strong. + Four, sleek and large, each chariot drew, + And eastward thus we drove along. + + Our hunting cars were light and good, + Each with its team of noble steeds. + Still further east we took the way + To Foo-mere's grassy plains that leads. + + Loud-voiced, the masters of the chase + Arranged the huntsmen, high and low. + While banners streamed, and ox-tails flew, + We sought the prey on distant Gaou. + + Each with full team, the princes came, + A lengthened train in bright array. + In gold-wrought slippers, knee-caps red, + They looked as on an audience day. + + Each right thumb wore the metal guard; + On the left arm its shield was bound. + In unison the arrows flew; + The game lay piled upon the ground. + + The leaders of the tawny teams + Sped on their course, direct and true. + The drivers perfect skill displayed; + Like blow well aimed each arrow flew. + + Neighing and pleased, the steeds returned; + The bannered lines back slowly came. + No jostling rude disgraced the crowd; + The king declined large share of game. + + So did this famous hunt proceed! + So free it was from clamorous sound! + Well does our King become his place, +And high the deeds his reign have crowned! + + + +~The King's Anxiety for His Morning Levée~ + + How goes the night? For heavy morning sleep + Ill suits the king who men would loyal keep. + The courtyard, ruddy with the torch's light, + Proclaims unspent the deepest hour of night. + Already near the gate my lords appear; + Their tinkling bells salute my wakeful ear. + + How goes the night? I may not slumber on. + Although not yet the night is wholly gone, + The paling torch-light in the court below + Gives token that the hours swift-footed go. + Already at the gate my lords appear; + Their tinkling bells with measured sound draw near. + + How goes the night? I may not slumber now. + The darkness smiles with morning on its brow. + The courtyard torch no more gives forth its ray, + But heralds with its smoke the coming day. + My princes pass the gate, and gather there; + I see their banners floating in the air. + + + +~Moral Lessons from Natural Facts~ + + All true words fly, as from yon reedy marsh + The crane rings o'er the wild its screaming harsh. + Vainly you try reason in chains to keep;-- + Freely it moves as fish sweeps through the deep. + + Hate follows love, as 'neath those sandal-trees + The withered leaves the eager searcher sees. + The hurtful ne'er without some good was born;-- + The stones that mar the hill will grind the corn. + + All true words spread, as from the marsh's eye + The crane's sonorous note ascends the sky. + Goodness throughout the widest sphere abides, + As fish round isle and through the ocean glides. + And lesser good near greater you shall see, + As grows the paper shrub 'neath sandal-tree. + And good emerges from what man condemns;-- + Those stones that mar the hill will polish gems. + + + +BOOK IV + + + +THE DECADE OF K'E-FOO + + + +~On the Completion of a Royal Palace~ + + On yonder banks a palace, lo! upshoots, + The tender blue of southern hill behind; + Firm-founded, like the bamboo's clamping roots; + Its roof made pine-like, to a point defined. + Fraternal love here bears its precious fruits, + And unfraternal schemes be ne'er designed! + + Ancestral sway is his. The walls they rear, + Five thousand cubits long; and south and west + The doors are placed. Here will the king appear, + Here laugh, here talk, here sit him down and rest. + + To mould the walls, the frames they firmly tie; + The toiling builders beat the earth and lime. + The walls shall vermin, storm, and bird defy;-- + Fit dwelling is it for his lordly prime. + + Grand is the hall the noble lord ascends;-- + In height, like human form most reverent, grand; + And straight, as flies the shaft when bow unbends; + Its tints, like hues when pheasant's wings expand. + + High pillars rise the level court around; + The pleasant light the open chamber steeps; + And deep recesses, wide alcoves, are found, + Where our good king in perfect quiet sleeps. + + Laid is the bamboo mat on rush mat square;-- + Here shall he sleep, and, waking, say, "Divine + What dreams are good? For bear and grizzly bear, + And snakes and cobras, haunt this couch of mine." + + Then shall the chief diviner glad reply, + "The bears foreshow that Heaven will send you sons. + The snakes and cobras daughters prophesy. + These auguries are all auspicious ones. + + "Sons shall be his--on couches lulled to rest. + The little ones, enrobed, with sceptres play; + Their infant cries are loud as stern behest; + Their knees the vermeil covers shall display. + As king hereafter one shall be addressed; + The rest, our princes, all the States shall sway. + + "And daughters also to him shall be born. + They shall be placed upon the ground to sleep; + Their playthings tiles, their dress the simplest worn; + Their part alike from good and ill to keep, + And ne'er their parents' hearts to cause to mourn; + To cook the food, and spirit-malt to steep." + + + +~The Condition of King Seuen's Flocks~ + + Who dares to say your sheep are few? + The flocks are all three hundred strong. + Who dares despise your cattle too? + There ninety, black-lipped, press along. + Though horned the sheep, yet peaceful each appears; + The cattle come with moist and flapping ears. + + These climb the heights, those drink the pool; + Some lie at rest, while others roam. + With rain-coats, and thin splint hats cool, + And bearing food, your herdsmen come. + In thirties, ranged by hues, the creatures stand; + Fit victims they will yield at your command. + + Your herdsmen twigs and fagots bring, + With prey of birds and beasts for food. + Your sheep, untouched by evil thing, + Approach, their health and vigor good. + The herdsman's waving hand they all behold, + And docile come, and pass into the fold. + + Your herdsmen dream;--fish take the place + Of men; on banners falcons fly, + Displacing snakes and tortoises. + The augur tells his prophecy:-- + "The first betoken plenteous years; the change + Of banners shows of homes a widening range." + + +BOOK V + + + +THE DECADE OF SEAOU MIN + + + +~A Eunuch Complains of His Fate~ + + + A few fine lines, at random drawn, + Like the shell-pattern wrought in lawn + To hasty glance will seem. + My trivial faults base slander's slime + Distorted into foulest crime, + And men me worthless deem. + + A few small points, pricked down on wood, + May be made out a picture good + Of the bright Southern Sieve. + Who planned, and helped those slanderers vile, + My name with base lies to defile? + Unpitied, here I grieve. + + With babbling tongues you go about, + And only scheme how to make out + The lies you scatter round. + Hear me--Be careful what you say; + People ere long your words will weigh, + And liars you'll be found. + + Clever you are with changeful schemes! + How else could all your evil dreams + And slanders work their way? + Men now believe you; by and by, + The truth found out, each vicious lie + Will ill for ill repay. + + The proud rejoice; the sufferer weeps. + O azure Heaven, from out thy deeps + Why look in silence down? + Behold those proud men and rebuke; + With pity on the sufferers look, + And on the evil frown. + + Those slanderers I would gladly take, + With all who help their schemes to make, + And to the tigers throw. + If wolves and tigers such should spare, + Td hurl them 'midst the freezing air, + Where the keen north winds blow. + And should the North compassion feel + I'd fling them to great Heaven, to deal + On them its direst woe. + + As on the sacred heights you dwell, + My place is in the willow dell, + One is the other near. + Before you, officers, I spread + These lines by me, poor eunuch, made. + Think not Mang-tsze severe. + + + +~An Officer Deplores the Misery of the Time~ + + In the fourth month summer shines; + In the sixth the heat declines. + Nature thus grants men relief; + Tyranny gives only grief. + Were not my forefathers men? + Can my suffering 'scape their ken? + + In the cold of autumn days + Each plant shrivels and decays. + Nature then is hard and stern; + Living things sad lessons learn. + Friends dispersed, all order gone, + Place of refuge have I none. + + Winter days are wild and fierce; + Rapid gusts each crevice pierce. + Such is my unhappy lot, + Unbefriended and forgot! + Others all can happy be; + I from misery ne'er am free. + + On the mountains are fine trees; + Chestnuts, plum-trees, there one sees. + All the year their forms they show; + Stately more and more they grow. + Noble turned to ravening thief! + What the cause? This stirs my grief. + + Waters from that spring appear + Sometimes foul, and sometimes clear, + Changing oft as falls the rain, + Or the sky grows bright again. + New misfortunes every day + Still befall me, misery's prey. + + Aid from mighty streams obtained, + Southern States are shaped and drained. + Thus the Keang and Han are thanked, + And as benefactors ranked. + Weary toil my vigor drains; + All unnoticed it remains! + + Hawks and eagles mount the sky; + Sturgeons in deep waters lie. + Out of reach, they safely get, + Arrow fear not, nor the net. + Hiding-place for me there's none; + Here I stay, and make my moan. + + Ferns upon the hills abound; + _Ke_ and _e_ in marshy ground. + Each can boast its proper place, + Where it grows for use or grace. + I can only sing the woe, + Which, ill-starred, I undergo. + + + +~On the Alienation of a Friend~ + + + Gently and soft the east wind blows, + And then there falls the pelting rain. + When anxious fears pressed round you close, + Then linked together were we twain. + Now happy, and your mind at rest, + You turn and cast me from your breast. + + Gently and soft the east wind blows, + And then there comes the whirlwind wild. + When anxious fears pressed round you close, + Your bosom held me as a child. + Now happy, and in peaceful state, + You throw me off and quite forget. + + Gently and soft the east wind blows, + Then round the rocky height it storms. + Each plant its leaves all dying shows; + The trees display their withered forms. + My virtues great forgotten all, + You keep in mind my faults, though small. + + +BOOK VI + + +THE DECADE OF PIH SHAN + + + +~A Picture of Husbandry~ + + Various the toils which fields so large demand! + We choose the seed; we take our tools in hand. + In winter for our work we thus prepare; + Then in the spring, bearing the sharpened 'share, + We to the acres go that south incline, + And to the earth the different seeds consign. + Soon, straight and large, upward each plant aspires;-- + All happens as our noble lord desires. + + The plants will ear; within their sheath confined, + The grains will harden, and be good in kind. + Nor darnel these, nor wolf's-tail grass infests; + From core and leaf we pick the insect pests, + And pick we those that eat the joints and roots:-- + So do we guard from harm the growing fruits. + May the great Spirit, whom each farmer names, + Those insects take, and cast them to the flames! + + The clouds o'erspread the sky in masses dense, + And gentle rain down to the earth dispense. + First may the public fields the blessing get, + And then with it our private fields we wet! + Patches of unripe grain the reaper leaves; + And here and there ungathered are the sheaves. + Handfuls besides we drop upon the ground, + And ears untouched in numbers lie around;-- + + These by the poor and widows shall be found. + When wives and children to the toilers come, + Bringing provisions from each separate home, + Our lord of long descent shall oft appear; + The Inspector also, glad the men to cheer. + They too shall thank the Spirits of the air, + With sacrifices pure for all their care; + Now red, now black, the victims that they slay, + As North or South the sacrifice they pay; + While millet bright the altars always show;-- + And we shall thus still greater blessings know. + + + +~The Complaint of an Officer~ + + O Heaven above, before whose light + Revealed is every deed and thought, + To thee I cry. + Hither on toilsome service brought, + In this wild K'ew I watch time's flight, + And sadly sigh. + The second month had just begun, + When from the east we took our way. + Through summer hot + We passed, and many a wintry day. + Summer again its course has run. + O bitter lot! + There are my compeers, gay at court, + While here the tears my face begrime. + I'd fain return-- + But there is that dread net for crime! + The fear of it the wish cuts short. + In vain I burn! + + Ere we the royal city left, + The sun and moon renewed the year. + We marched in hope. + Now to its close this year is near. + Return deferred, of hope bereft, + All mourn and mope. + My lonesome state haunts aye my breast, + While duties grow, and cares increase, + Too hard to bear. + + Toils that oppress me never cease; + Not for a moment dare I rest, + Nigh to despair. + I think with fond regard of those, + Who in their posts at court remain, + My friends of old. + Fain would I be with them again, + But fierce reproof return would cause. + This post I hold. + + When for the West I left my home, + The sun and moon both mildly shone, + Our hearts to cheer. + We'd soon be back, our service done! + Alas! affairs more urgent come, + And fix us here. + The year is hastening to expire. + We gather now the southern-wood, + The beans we reap;-- + That for its fragrance, these for food. + Such things that constant care require + Me anxious keep. + Thinking of friends still at their posts, + I rise and pass the night outside, + So vexed my mind. + But soon what changes may betide? + I here will stay, whate'er it costs, + And be resigned. + + My honored friends, O do not deem + Your rest which seems secure from ill + Will ever last! + Your duties quietly fulfil, + And hold the upright in esteem, + With friendship fast. + So shall the Spirits hear your cry, + You virtuous make, and good supply, + In measure vast. + + My honored friends, O do not deem + Repose that seems secure from ill + Will lasting prove. + Your duties quietly fulfil, + And hold the upright in esteem, + With earnest love. + So shall the Spirits hear your prayer, + And on you happiness confer, + Your hopes above. + + +BOOK VII + + + +DECADE OF SANG HOO + + + +~The Rejoicings of a Bridegroom~ + + With axle creaking, all on fire I went, + To fetch my young and lovely bride. + No thirst or hunger pangs my bosom rent-- + I only longed to have her by my side. + I feast with her, whose virtue fame had told, + Nor need we friends our rapture to behold. + + The long-tailed pheasants surest covert find, + Amid the forest on the plain. + Here from my virtuous bride, of noble mind, + And person tall, I wisdom gain. + I praise her while we feast, and to her say, + "The love I bear you ne'er will know decay. + + "Poor we may be; spirits and viands fine + My humble means will not afford. + But what we have, we'll taste and not repine; + From us will come no grumbling word. + And though to you no virtue I can add, + Yet we will sing and dance, in spirit glad. + + "I oft ascend that lofty ridge with toil, + And hew large branches from the oaks; + Then of their leafy glory them I spoil, + And fagots form with vigorous strokes. + Returning tired, your matchless grace I see, + And my whole soul dissolves in ecstasy. + + "To the high hills I looked, and urged each steed; + The great road next was smooth and plain. + + Up hill, o'er dale, I never slackened speed; + Like lute-string sounded every rein. + I knew, my journey ended, I should come + To you, sweet bride, the comfort of my home." + + + +~Against Listening to Slanderers~ + + Like the blueflies buzzing round, + And on the fences lighting, + Are the sons of slander found, + Who never cease their biting. + O thou happy, courteous king, + To the winds their slanders fling. + + Buzzing round the blueflies hear, + About the jujubes flocking! + So the slanderers appear, + Whose calumnies are shocking. + By no law or order bound, + All the kingdom they confound. + + How they buzz, those odious flies, + Upon the hazels clust'ring! + And as odious are the lies + Of those slanderers blust'ring. + Hatred stirred between us two + Shows the evil they can do. + + + +BOOK VIII + + + +THE DECADE OF TOO JIN SZE + + + +~In Praise of By-gone Simplicity~ + + + In the old capital they stood, + With yellow fox-furs plain, + Their manners all correct and good, + Speech free from vulgar stain. + Could we go back to Chow's old days, + All would look up to them with praise. + + In the old capital they wore + _T'ae_ hats and black caps small; + And ladies, who famed surnames bore, + Their own thick hair let fall. + Such simple ways are seen no more, + And the changed manners I deplore. + + Ear-rings, made of plainest gold, + In the old days were worn. + Each lady of a noble line + A Yin or Keih seemed born. + Such officers and ladies now + I see not and my sorrows grow. + + With graceful sweep their girdles fell, + Then in the days of old. + The ladies' side-hair, with a swell, + Like scorpion's tail, rose bold. + Such, if I saw them in these days, + I'd follow with admiring gaze. + + So hung their girdles, not for show;-- + To their own length 'twas due. + 'Twas not by art their hair curled so;-- + By nature so it grew. + I seek such manners now in vain, + And pine for them with longing pain. + +[NOTE.--Yin and Keih were clan names of great families, the ladies +of which would be leaders of fashion in the capital.] + + + +~A Wife Bemoans Her Husband's Absence~ + + So full am I of anxious thought, + Though all the morn king-grass I've sought, + To fill my arms I fail. + Like wisp all-tangled is my hair! + To wash it let me home repair. + My lord soon may I hail! + + Though 'mong the indigo I've wrought + The morning long; through anxious thought + My skirt's filled but in part. + Within five days he was to appear; + The sixth has come and he's not here. + Oh! how this racks my heart! + + When here we dwelt in union sweet, + If the hunt called his eager feet, + His bow I cased for him. + Or if to fish he went away, + And would be absent all the day, + His line I put in trim. + + What in his angling did he catch? + Well worth the time it was to watch + How bream and tench he took. + Men thronged upon the banks and gazed; + At bream and tench they looked amazed, + The triumphs of his hook. + + + +~The Earl of Shaou's Work~ + + As the young millet, by the genial rain + Enriched, shoots up luxuriant and tall, + So, when we southward marched with toil and pain, + The Earl of Shaou cheered and inspired us all. + + We pushed our barrows, and our burdens bore; + We drove our wagons, and our oxen led. + "The work once done, our labor there is o'er, + And home we travel," to ourselves we said. + + Close kept our footmen round the chariot track; + Our eager host in close battalions sped. + "When once our work is done, then we go back, + Our labor over," to themselves they said. + + Hard was the work we had at Seay to do, + But Shaou's great earl the city soon upreared. + The host its service gave with ardor true;-- + Such power in all the earl's commands appeared! + + We did on plains and low lands what was meet; + We cleared the springs and streams, the land to drain. + The Earl of Shaou announced his work complete, + And the King's heart reposed, at rest again. + + + +~The Plaint of King Yew's Forsaken Wife~ + + The fibres of the white-flowered rush + Are with the white grass bound. + So do the two together go, + In closest union found. + And thus should man and wife abide, + The twain combined in one; + But this bad man sends me away, + And bids me dwell alone. + + Both rush and grass from the bright clouds + The genial dew partake. + + Kind and impartial, nature's laws + No odious difference make. + But providence appears unkind; + Events are often hard. + This man, to principle untrue, + Denies me his regard. + + Northward the pools their waters send, + To flood each paddy field; + So get the fields the sap they need, + Their store of rice to yield. + But that great man no deed of grace + Deigns to bestow on me. + My songs are sighs. At thought of him + My heart aches wearily. + + The mulberry branches they collect, + And use their food to cook; + But I must use a furnace small, + That pot nor pan will brook. + So me that great man badly treats, + Nor uses as his wife, + Degrades me from my proper place, + And fills with grief my life. + + The bells and drums inside the court + Men stand without and hear; + So should the feelings in my breast, + To him distinct appear. + All-sorrowful, I think of him, + Longing to move his love; + But he vouchsafes no kind response; + His thoughts far from me rove. + + The marabow stands on the dam, + And to repletion feeds; + The crane deep in the forest cries, + Nor finds the food it needs. + So in my room the concubine + By the great man is placed; + While I with cruel banishment + Am cast out and disgraced. + + The yellow ducks sit on the dam, + With left wing gathered low; + So on each other do they lean, + And their attachment show. + And love should thus the man and wife + In closest concord bind; + But that man turns away from me, + And shows a fickle mind. + + When one stands on a slab of stone, + No higher than the ground, + Nothing is added to his height;-- + Low with the stone he's found. + So does the favorite's mean estate + Render that great man mean, + While I by him, to distance sent, + Am pierced with sorrow keen. + + + +~Hospitality~ + + A few gourd leaves that waved about + Cut down and boiled;--the feast how spare! + But the good host his spirits takes, + Pours out a cup, and proves them rare. + + A single rabbit on the mat, + Or baked, or roast:--how small the feast! + But the good host his spirits takes, + And fills the cup of every guest. + + A single rabbit on the mat, + Roasted or broiled:--how poor the meal! + But the guests from the spirit vase + Fill their host's cup, and drink his weal. + + A single rabbit on the mat, + Roasted or baked:--no feast we think! + But from the spirit vase they take, + Both host and guests, and joyous drink. + + + +~On the Misery of Soldiers~ + + Yellow now is all the grass; + All the days in marching pass. + On the move is every man; + Hard work, far and near, they plan. + + Black is every plant become; + Every man is torn from home. + Kept on foot, our state is sad;-- + As if we no feelings had! + + Not rhinoceroses we! + Tigers do we care to be? + Fields like these so desolate + Are to us a hateful fate. + + Long-tailed foxes pleased may hide + 'Mong the grass, where they abide. + We, in box carts slowly borne, + On the great roads plod and mourn. + + + +PART III.--GREATER ODES OF THE KINGDOM + + + +BOOK I + + + +DECADE OF KING WAN + + +~Celebrating King Wan~ + + The royal Wan now rests on high, + Enshrined in brightness of the sky. + Chow as a state had long been known, + And Heaven's decree at last was shown. + Its lords had borne a glorious name; + God kinged them when the season came. + King Wan ruled well when earth he trod; + Now moves his spirit near to God. + + A strong-willed, earnest king was Wan, + And still his fame rolls widening on. + The gifts that God bestowed on Chow + Belong to Wan's descendants now. + Heaven blesses still with gifts divine + The hundred scions of his line; + And all the officers of Chow + From age to age more lustrous grow. + + More lustrous still from age to age, + All reverent plans their zeal engage; + And brilliant statesmen owe their birth + To this much-favored spot of earth. + They spring like products of the land-- + The men by whom the realm doth stand. + Such aid their numerous bands supply, + That Wan rests tranquilly on high. + + Deep were Wan's thoughts, sustained his ways; + His reverence lit its trembling rays. + Resistless came great Heaven's decree; + The sons of Shang must bend the knee;-- + The sons of Shang, each one a king, + In numbers beyond numbering. + Yet as God spoke, so must it be:-- + The sons of Shang all bent the knee. + + Now each to Chow his homage pays-- + So dark and changing are Heaven's ways. + When we pour our libations here, + The officers of Shang appear, + Quick and alert to give their aid:-- + Such is the service by them paid, + While still they do not cast aside + The cap and broidered axe--their pride. + Ye servants of our line of kings, + Remember him from whom it springs. + + Remember him from whom it springs;-- + Let this give to your virtue wings. + Seek harmony with Heaven's great mind;-- + So shall you surest blessing find. + Ere Shang had lost the nation's heart, + Its monarchs all with God had part + In sacrifice. From them you see + 'Tis hard to keep high Heaven's decree. + + 'Tis hard to keep high Heaven's decree! + O sin not, or you cease to be. + To add true lustre to your name, + See Shang expire in Heaven's dread flame. + For Heaven's high dealings are profound, + And far transcend all sense and sound. + From Wan your pattern you must draw, + And all the States will own your law. + + +[Book II. is omitted] + + +BOOK III [*] + + + +DECADE OF TANG + + + +~King Seuen on the Occasion of a Great Drought~ + + Grand shone the Milky Way on high, + With brilliant span athwart the sky, + Nor promise gave of rain. + King Seuen long gazed; then from him broke, + In anguished tones the words he spoke. + Well might he thus complain! + "O Heaven, what crimes have we to own, + That death and ruin still come down? + Relentless famine fills our graves. + Pity the king who humbly craves! + Our miseries never cease. + To every Spirit I have vowed; + The choicest victim's blood has flowed. + As offerings I have freely paid + My store of gems and purest jade. + Hear me, and give release! + + "The drought consumes us. As on wing + Its fervors fly, and torment bring. + With purest mind and ceaseless care + My sacrifices I prepare. + At thine own border altars, Heaven, + And in my father's fane, I've given + What might relief have found. + What Powers above, below, have sway, + To all my precious gifts I pay, + Then bury in the ground. + Yes, every Spirit has received + Due honor, and, still unrelieved, + Our sufferings greater grow. + How-tseih can't give the needed aid, + And help from God is still delayed! + The country lies a ruined waste. + O would that I alone might taste + This bitter cup of woe! + + "The drought consumes us. Nor do I + To fix the blame on others try. + I quake with dread; the risk I feel, + As when I hear the thunders peal, + Or fear its sudden crash. + Our black-haired race, a remnant now, + Will every one be swept from Chow, + As by the lightning's flash. + Nor I myself will live alone. + God from his great and heavenly throne + Will not spare even me. + O friends and officers, come, blend + Your prayers with mine; come, lowly bend. + Chow's dynasty will pass away; + Its altars at no distant day + In ruins all shall be! + + "The drought consumes us. It keeps on + Its fatal course. All hope is gone. + The air more fierce and fiery glows. + Where can I fly? Where seek repose? + Death marks me for its prey. + Above, no saving hand! Around, + No hope, no comfort, can be found. + The dukes and ministers of old + Give us no help. Can ye withhold + Your sympathy, who lately reigned? + And parents, how are you restrained, + In this so dreadful day? + + "The drought consumes us. There on high + The hills are parched. The streams are dry. + Drought's demon stalks abroad in ire, + And scatters wide his flames and fire. + Alas, my woful heart! + The fires within its strength consume; + The heat without creates a gloom + That from it will not part. + The dukes and ministers by-gone + Respond not to my prayer and moan. + God in great Heaven, permission give + That I may in retirement live, + And try to heal my smart! + + "The drought consumes us. Still I strive, + And will not leave while I survive. + Duty to shun I fear. + Why upon me has come this drought? + Vainly I try to search it out, + Vainly, with quest severe. + For a good harvest soon I prayed, + Nor late the rites I duly paid, + To Spirits of the air and land. + There wanted nought they could demand, + Their favor to secure. + God in great heaven, be just, be kind! + Thou dost not bear me in Thy mind. + My cry, ye wisest Spirits, hear! + Ye whom I constantly revere, + Why do I this endure? + + "The drought consumes us. People fly, + And leave their homes. Each social tie + And bond of rule is snapt. + The Heads of Boards are all perplexed; + My premier's mind is sorely vexed; + In trouble all are wrapt. + The Masters of my Horse and Guards; + My cook, and men of different wards:-- + Not one has from the struggle shrunk. + Though feeling weak, they have not sunk, + But done their best to aid. + To the great sky I look with pain;-- + Why do these grievous sorrows rain + On my devoted head? + + "Yes, at the mighty sky I gaze, + And lo! the stars pursue their maze, + And sparkle clear and bright. + Ah! Heaven nor helps, nor seems to ken. + Great officers and noble men, + With all your powers ye well have striven, + And reverently have sought from Heaven + Its aid in our great fight. + My death is near; but oh! keep on, + And do as thus far you have done. + Regard you only me? + No, for yourselves and all your friends, + On whom for rule the land depends, + You seek security. + I turn my gaze to the great sky;-- + When shall this drought be done, and I + Quiet and restful be?" + + +[NOTE *: Selections from Book II. are omitted.--EDITOR.] + + + +PART IV.--ODES OF THE TEMPLE AND ALTAR + + + +BOOK I + + + +SACRIFICIAL ODES OF CHOW + + + +~Appropriate to a Sacrifice to King Wan~ + + My offerings here are given, + A ram, a bull. + Accept them, mighty Heaven, + All-bountiful. + + Thy statutes, O great king, + I keep, I love; + So on the realm to bring + Peace from above. + + From Wan comes blessing rich; + Now on the right + He owns those gifts to which + Him I invite. + + Do I not night and day, + Revere great Heaven, + That thus its favor may + To Chow be given? + + + +~On Sacrificing to the Kings Woo, Ching, and K'ang~ + + The arm of Woo was full of might; + None could his fire withstand; + And Ching and K'ang stood forth to sight, + As kinged by God's own hand. + + We err not when we call them sage. + How grandly they maintained + Their hold of all the heritage + That Wan and Woo had gained! + + As here we worship, they descend, + While bells and drums resound, + And stones and lutes their music blend. + With blessings we are crowned. + + The rites correctly we discharge; + The feast we freely share. + Those Sires Chow's glory will enlarge, + And ever for it care. + + + +THE TRAVELS OF FÂ-HIEN + + + +[Translation by James Legge] + + +TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTION + + +Nothing of great importance is known about Fâ-hien in addition to what +may be gathered from his own record of his travels. I have read the +accounts of him in the "Memoirs of Eminent Monks," compiled in A.D. 519, +and a later work, the "Memoirs of Marvellous Monks," by the third +emperor of the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1403-1424), which, however, is nearly +all borrowed from the other; and all in them that has an appearance of +verisimilitude can be brought within brief compass. + +His surname, they tell us, was Kung, and he was a native of Wu-yang in +P'ing-yang, which is still the name of a large department in Shan-hsî. +He had three brothers older than himself; but when they all died before +shedding their first teeth, his father devoted him to the service of the +Buddhist society, and had him entered as a Srâmanera, still keeping him +at home in the family. The little fellow fell dangerously ill, and the +father sent him to the monastery, where he soon got well and refused to +return to his parents. + +When he was ten years old, his father died; and an uncle, considering +the widowed solitariness and helplessness of the mother, urged him to +renounce the monastic life, and return to her, but the boy replied, "I +did not quit the family in compliance with my father's wishes, but +because I wished to be far from the dust and vulgar ways of life. This +is why I choose monkhood." The uncle approved of his words and gave over +urging him. When his mother also died, it appeared how great had been +the affection for her of his fine nature; but after her burial he +returned to the monastery. + +On one occasion he was cutting rice with a score or two of his +fellow-disciples, when some hungry thieves came upon them to take away +their grain by force. The other Srâmaneras all fled, but our young hero +stood his ground, and said to the thieves, "If you must have the grain, +take what you please. But, sirs, it was your former neglect of charity +which brought you to your present state of destitution; and now, again, +you wish to rob others. I am afraid that in the coming ages you will +have still greater poverty and distress; I am sorry for you beforehand." +With these words he followed his companions to the monastery, while the +thieves left the grain and went away, all the monks, of whom there were +several hundred, doing homage to his conduct and courage. + +When he had finished his novitiate and taken on him the obligations of +the full Buddhist orders, his earnest courage, clear intelligence, and +strict regulation of his demeanor, were conspicuous; and soon after, he +undertook his journey to India in search of complete copies of the +Vinaya-pitaka. What follows this is merely an account of his travels in +India and return to China by sea, condensed from his own narrative, with +the addition of some marvellous incidents that happened to him, on his +visit to the Vulture Peak near Râjagriha. + +It is said in the end that after his return to China, he went to the +capital (evidently Nanking), and there, along with the Indian Sramana +Buddha-bhadra, executed translations of some of the works which he had +obtained in India; and that before he had done all that he wished to do +in this way, he removed to King-chow (in the present Hoo-pih), and died +in the monastery of Sin, at the age of eighty-eight, to the great sorrow +of all who knew him. It is added that there is another larger work +giving an account of his travels in various countries. + +Such is all the information given about our author, beyond what he has +himself told us. Fâ-hien was his clerical name, and means "Illustrious +in the Law," or "Illustrious master of the Law." The Shih which often +precedes it is an abbreviation of the name of Buddha as Sâkyamuni, "the +Sâkya, mighty in Love, dwelling in Seclusion and Silence," and may be +taken as equivalent to Buddhist. He is sometimes said to have belonged +to "the eastern Tsin dynasty" (A.D. 317-419), and sometimes to "the +Sung," that is, the Sung dynasty of the House of Liû (A.D. 420-478). If +he became a full monk at the age of twenty, and went to India when he +was twenty-five, his long life may have been divided pretty equally +between the two dynasties. + +If there were ever another and larger account of Fâ-hien's travels than +the narrative of which a translation is now given, it has long ceased to +be in existence. + +In the catalogue of the imperial library of the Suy dynasty (A.D. +589-618), the name Fâ-hien occurs four times. Towards the end of the +last section of it, after a reference to his travels, his labors in +translation at Kin-ling (another name for Nanking), in conjunction with +Buddha-bhadra, are described. In the second section we find "A Record of +Buddhistic Kingdoms"--with a note, saying that it was the work of "the +Sramana, Fâ-hien"; and again, we have "Narrative of Fâ-hien in two +Books," and "Narrative of Fâ-hien's Travels in one Book." But all these +three entries may possibly belong to different copies of the same work, +the first and the other two being in separate subdivisions of the +catalogue. + +In the two Chinese copies of the narrative in my possession the title is +"Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms." In the Japanese or Corean recension the +title is twofold; first, "Narrative of the Distinguished Monk, Fâ-hien"; +and then, more at large, "Incidents of Travels in India, by the Sramana +of the Eastern Tsîn, Fâ-hien, recorded by himself." + +There is still earlier attestation of the existence of our little work +than the Suy catalogue. The "Catalogue Raisonné" of the imperial library +of the present dynasty mentions two quotations from it by Le Tâo-yüen, a +geographical writer of the dynasty of the Northern Wei (A.D. 386-584), +one of them containing eighty-nine characters, and the other two hundred +and seventy-six; both of them given as from the "Narrative of Fâ-hien." + +In all catalogues subsequent to that of Suy our work appears. The +evidence for its authenticity and genuineness is all that could be +required. It is clear to myself that the "Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms" +and the "Narrative of his Travels by Fâ-hien" were designations of one +and the same work, and that it is doubtful whether any larger work on +the same subject was ever current. With regard to the text subjoined to +my translation, it was published in Japan in 1779. The editor had before +him four recensions of the narrative; those of the Sung and Ming +dynasties, with appendices on the names of certain characters in them; +that of Japan; and that of Corea. He wisely adopted the Corean text, +published in accordance with a royal rescript in 1726, so far as I can +make out; but the different readings of the other texts are all given in +top-notes, instead of foot-notes as with us, this being one of the +points in which customs in the East and West go by contraries. Very +occasionally, the editor indicates by a single character, equivalent to +"right" or "wrong," which reading in his opinion is to be preferred. + +The editors of the "Catalogue Raisonné" intimate their doubts of the +good taste and reliability of all Fâ-hien's statements. It offends them +that he should call central India the "Middle Kingdom," and China, which +to them was the true and only Middle Kingdom, but "a Border-land"--it +offends them as the vaunting language of a Buddhist writer, whereas the +reader will see in the expressions only an instance of what Fâ-hien +calls his "simple straightforwardness." + +As an instance of his unreliability they refer to his account of the +Buddhism of Khoten, whereas it is well-known, they say, that the +Khoteners from ancient times till now have been Mohammedans;--as if they +could have been so one hundred and seventy years before Mohammed was +born, and two hundred twenty-two years before the year of the Hegira! +And this is criticism in China. The catalogue was ordered by the +K'ien-lung emperor in 1722. Between three and four hundred of the "Great +Scholars" of the empire were engaged on it in various departments, and +thus egregiously ignorant did they show themselves of all beyond the +limits of their own country, and even of the literature of that country +itself. + +Much of what Fâ-hien tells his readers of Buddhist miracles and legends +is indeed unreliable and grotesque; but we have from him the truth as to +what he saw and heard. + +In concluding this introduction I wish to call attention to some +estimates of the number of Buddhists in the world which have become +current, believing, as I do, that the smallest of them is much above +what is correct. + +In a note on the first page of his work on the Bhilsa Topes (1854), +General Cunningham says: "The Christians number about two hundred and +seventy millions; the Buddhists about two hundred and twenty-two +millions, who are distributed as follows: China one hundred and seventy +millions, Japan twenty-five millions, Anam fourteen millions, Siam three +millions, Ava eight millions, Nepál one million, and Ceylon one +million." In his article on M.J. Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire's "Le Bouddha +et sa Religion," republished in his "Chips from a German workshop," vol. +i. (1868), Professor Max Müller says, "The young prince became the +founder of a religion which, after more than two thousand years, is +still professed by four hundred and fifty-five millions of human +beings," and he appends the following note: "Though truth is not settled +by majorities, it would be interesting to know which religion counts at +the present moment the largest numbers of believers. Berghaus, in his +'Physical Atlas,' gives the following division of the human race +according to religion: 'Buddhists 31.2 per cent., Christians 30.7, +Mohammedans 15.7, Brahmanists 13.4, Heathens 8.7, and Jews O.3.' As +Berghaus does not distinguish the Buddhists in China from the followers +of Confucius and Laotse, the first place on the scale belongs really to +Christianity. It is difficult in China to say to what religion a man +belongs, as the same person may profess two or three. The emperor +himself, after sacrificing according to the ritual of Confucius, visits +a Tao-tsé temple, and afterwards bows before an image of Fo in a +Buddhist chapel." ("Mélanges Asiatiques de St. Pétersbourg," vol. ii. p. +374.) + +Both these estimates are exceeded by Dr. T.W. Rhys Davids (intimating +also the uncertainty of the statements, and that numbers are no evidence +of truth) in the introduction to his "Manual of Buddhism." The Buddhists +there appear as amounting in all to five hundred millions:--thirty +millions of Southern Buddhists, in Ceylon, Burma, Siam, Anam, and India +(Jains); and four hundred and seventy millions of Northern Buddhists, of +whom nearly thirty-three millions are assigned to Japan, and 414,686,974 +to the eighteen provinces of China proper. According to him, Christians +amount to about 26 per cent, of mankind, Hindus to about 13, Mohammedans +to about 12-1/2, Buddhists to about 40, and Jews to about one-half of +one per cent. + +In regard to all these estimates, it will be observed that the immense +numbers assigned to Buddhism are made out by the multitude of Chinese +with which it is credited. Subtract Cunningham's one hundred and seventy +millions of Chinese from his total of two hundred and twenty-two +millions, and there remain only fifty-two millions of Buddhists. +Subtract Davids's four hundred fourteen and one-half millions of Chinese +from his total of five hundred millions, and there remain only +eighty-five and one-half millions for Buddhism. Of the numbers assigned +to other countries, as well as of their whole populations, I am in +considerable doubt, excepting in the cases of Ceylon and India; but the +greatness of the estimates turns upon the immense multitudes said to be +in China. I do not know what total population Cunningham allowed for +that country, nor on what principle he allotted one hundred and seventy +millions of it to Buddhism; perhaps he halved his estimate of the whole, +whereas Berghaus and Davids allotted to it the highest estimates that +have been given of the people. + +But we have no certain information of the population of China. At an +interview with the former Chinese ambassador, Kwo Sung-tâo, in Paris, in +1878, I begged him to write out for me the amount, with the authority +for it, and he assured me that it could not be done. I have read +probably almost everything that has been published on the subject, and +endeavored by methods of my own to arrive at a satisfactory +conclusion;--without reaching a result which I can venture to lay before +the public. My impression has been that four hundred millions is hardly +an exaggeration. + +But supposing that we had reliable returns of the whole population, how +shall we proceed to apportion that among Confucianists, Tâoists, and +Buddhists? Confucianism is the orthodoxy of China. The common name for +it is Jû Chiâo, "the Doctrines held by the Learned Class," entrance into +the circle of which is, with a few insignificant exceptions, open to all +the people. The mass of them and the masses under their influence are +preponderatingly Confucian; and in the observance of ancestral worship, +the most remarkable feature of the religion proper of China from the +earliest times, of which Confucius was not the author but the prophet, +an overwhelming majority are regular and assiduous. + +Among "the strange principles" which the emperor of the K'ang-hsî +period, in one of his famous Sixteen Precepts, exhorted his people to +"discountenance and put away, in order to exalt the correct doctrine," +Buddhism and Tâoism were both included. If, as stated in the note quoted +from Professor Müller, the emperor countenances both the Tâoist worship +and the Buddhist, he does so for reasons of state; to please especially +his Buddhistic subjects in Thibet and Mongolia, and not to offend the +many whose superstitious fancies incline to Tâoism. + +When I went out and in as a missionary among the Chinese people for +about thirty years, it sometimes occurred to me that only the inmates of +their monasteries and the recluses of both systems should be enumerated +as Buddhists and Taoists; but I was in the end constrained to widen that +judgment, and to admit a considerable following of both among the +people, who have neither received the tonsure nor assumed the yellow +top. Dr. Eitel, in concluding his discussion of this point in his +"Lecture on Buddhism, an Event in History," says: "It is not too much to +say that most Chinese are theoretically Confucianists, but emotionally +Buddhists or Taoists. But fairness requires us to add that, though the +mass of the people are more or less influenced by Buddhist doctrines, +yet the people, as a whole, have no respect for the Buddhist church, and +habitually sneer at Buddhist priests." For the "most" in the former of +these two sentences I would substitute "nearly all;" and between my +friend's "but" and "emotionally" I would introduce "many are," and would +not care to contest his conclusion further. It does seem to me +preposterous to credit Buddhism with the whole of the vast population of +China, the great majority of whom are Confucianists. My own opinion is +that its adherents are not so many as those even of Mohammedanism, and +that instead of being the most numerous of the religions (so-called) of +the world, it is only entitled to occupy the fifth place, ranking below +Christianity, Confucianism, Brahmanism, and Mohammedanism, and followed, +some distance off, by Tâoism. To make a table of percentages of mankind, +and to assign to each system its proportion, are to seem to be wise +where we are deplorably ignorant; and, moreover, if our means of +information were much better than they are, our figures would merely +show the outward adherence. A fractional percentage might tell more for +one system than a very large integral one for another. + +JAMES LEGGE. + + + +THE TRAVELS OF FÂ-HIEN + + + +CHAPTER I + +~From Ch'ang-gan to the Sandy Desert~ + + +Fâ-Hien had been living in Ch'ang-gan. [1] Deploring the mutilated and +imperfect state of the collection of the Books of Discipline, in the +second year of the period Hwang-che, being the Ke-hâe year of the cycle, +[2] he entered into an engagement with Hwuy-king, Tâo-ching, Hwuy-ying, +and Hwuy-wei, that they should go to India and seek for the Disciplinary +Rules. + +After starting from Ch'ang-gan, they passed through Lung, [3] and came +to the kingdom of K'een-kwei,[4] where they stopped for the summer +retreat. When that was over, they went forward to the kingdom of +Now-t'an, crossed the mountain of Yang-low, and reached the emporium of +Chang-yih.[5] There they found the country so much disturbed that +travelling on the roads was impossible for them. Its king, however, was +very attentive to them, kept them in his capital, and acted the part of +their dânapati.[6] + +Here they met with Che-yen, Hwuy-keen, Sang-shâo, Pâo-yun, and +Sang-king; and in pleasant association with them, as bound on the same +journey with themselves, they passed the summer retreat of that year [7] +together, resuming after it their travelling, and going on to +T'un-hwang, [8] the chief town in the frontier territory of defence +extending for about eighty li from east to west, and about forty from +north to south. Their company, increased as it had been, halted there +for some days more than a month, after which Fâ-hien and his four +friends started first in the suite of an envoy, having separated for a +time from Pâo-yun and his associates. + +Le Hâo, the prefect of Tun-hwang, had supplied them with the means of +crossing the desert before them, in which there are many evil demons and +hot winds. Travellers who encounter them perish all to a man. There is +not a bird to be seen in the air above, nor an animal on the ground +below. Though you look all round most earnestly to find where you can +cross, you know not where to make your choice, the only mark and +indication being the dry bones of the dead left upon the sand. + + +[Footnote 1: Ch'ang-gan is still the name of the principal district (and +its city) in the department of Se-gan, Shen-se. It had been the capital +of the first empire of Han (B.C. 202 A.D. 24), as it subsequently was +that of Suy (A.D. 589-618).] + +[Footnote 2: The period Hwang-che embraced from A.D. 399 to 414, being +the greater portion of the reign of Yâo Hing of the After Ts'in, a +powerful prince. He adopted Hwang-che for the style of his reign in 399, +and the cyclical name of that year was Kang-tsze. It is not possible at +this distance of time to explain, if it could be explained, how Fâ-hien +came to say that Ke-hâe was the second year of the period. It seems most +reasonable to suppose that he set out on his pilgrimage in A.D. 399, the +cycle name of which was Ke-hâe. In the "Memoirs of Eminent Monks" it is +said that our author started in the third year of the period Lung-gan of +the Eastern Ts'in, which was A.D. 399.] + +[Footnote 3: Lung embraced the western part of Shen-se and the eastern +part of Kan-suh. The name remains in Lung Chow, in the extreme west of +Shen-se.] + +[Footnote 4: K'een-kwei was the second king of "the Western Ts'in." +Fâ-hien would find him at his capital, somewhere in the present +department of Lan-chow, Kan-suh.] + +[Footnote 5: Chang-yih is still the name of a district in Kan-chow +department, Kan-suh. It is a long way north and west from Lan-chow, and +not far from the Great Wall. Its king at this time was, probably, +Twan-yeh of "the northern Lëang."] + +[Footnote 6: Dâna is the name for religious charity, the first of the +six pâramitâs, or means of attaining to nirvâna; and a dânapati is "one +who practises dâna and thereby crosses the sea of misery."] + +[Footnote 7: This was the second summer since the pilgrims left +Ch'ang-gan. We are now, therefore, probably, in A.D. 400.] + +[Footnote 8: T'un-hwang is still the name of one of the two districts +constituting the department of Gan-se, the most western of the +prefectures of Kan-suh; beyond the termination of the Great Wall.] + + + +CHAPTER II + +~On to Shen-shen and thence to Khoten~ + + +After travelling for seventeen days, a distance we may calculate of +about 1500 li, the pilgrims reached the kingdom of Shen-shen, a country +rugged and hilly, with a thin and barren soil. The clothes of the common +people are coarse, and like those worn in our land of Han, [1] some +wearing felt and others coarse serge or cloth of hair; this was the only +difference seen among them. The king professed our Law, and there might +be in the country more than four thousand monks, who were all students +of the hînayâna. [2] The common people of this and other kingdoms in +that region, as well as the Sramans, [3] all practise the rules of +India, only that the latter do so more exactly, and the former more +loosely. So the travellers found it in all the kingdoms through which +they went on their way from this to the west, only that each had its own +peculiar barbarous speech. The monks, however, who had given up the +worldly life and quitted their families, were all students of Indian +books and the Indian language. Here they stayed for about a month, and +then proceeded on their journey, fifteen days' walking to the northwest +bringing them to the country of Woo-e. In this also there were more than +four thousand monks, all students of the hînayâna. They were very strict +in their rules, so that Sramans from the territory of Ts'in were all +unprepared for their regulations. Fâ-hien, through the management of Foo +Kung-sun, _maître d'hotellerie_, was able to remain with his company in +the monastery where they were received for more than two months, and +here they were rejoined by Pâo-yun and his friends. At the end of that +time the people of Woo-e neglected the duties of propriety and +righteousness, and treated the strangers in so niggardly a manner that +Che-yen, Hwuy-keen, and Hwuy-wei went back towards Kâo-ch'ang, hoping to +obtain there the means of continuing their journey. Fâ-hien and the +rest, however, through the liberality of Foo Kung-sun, managed to go +straight forward in a southwest direction. They found the country +uninhabited as they went along. The difficulties which they encountered +in crossing the streams and on their route, and the sufferings which +they endured, were unparalleled in human experience, but in the course +of a month and five days they succeeded in reaching Yu-teen. + + +[Footnote 1: This is the name which Fâ-hien always uses when he would +speak of China, his native country, as a whole, calling it from the +great dynasty which had ruled it, first and last, for between four and +five centuries. Occasionally, as we shall immediately see, he speaks of +"the territory of Ts'in or Ch'in," but intending thereby only the +kingdom of Ts'in, having its capital in Ch'ang-gan.] + +[Footnote 2: Meaning the "small vehicle, or conveyance." There are in +Buddhism the triyâna, or "three different means of salvation, i.e. of +conveyance across the samsâra, or sea of transmigration, to the shores +of nirvâna. Afterwards the term was used to designate the different +phases of development through which the Buddhist dogma passed, known as +the mahâyâna, hînayâna, and madhyamayâna." "The hînayâna is the simplest +vehicle of salvation, corresponding to the first of the three degrees of +saintship." E.H., pp. 151-2, 45, and 117.] + +[Footnote 3: "Sraman" may in English take the place of Sramana, the name +for Buddhist monks, as those who have separated themselves from (left) +their families, and quieted their hearts from all intrusion of desire +and lust.] + + + +CHAPTER III + +~Khoten--Processions of Images~ + + +Yu-Teen is a pleasant and prosperous kingdom, with a numerous and +flourishing population. The inhabitants all profess our Law, and join +together in its religious music for their enjoyment. The monks amount to +several myriads, most of whom are students of the mahâyâna. [1] They all +receive their food from the common store. Throughout the country the +houses of the people stand apart like separate stars, and each family +has a small tope [2] reared in front of its door. The smallest of these +may be twenty cubits high, or rather more. They make in the monasteries +rooms for monks from all quarters, the use of which is given to +travelling monks who may arrive, and who are provided with whatever else +they require. + +The lord of the country lodged Fâ-hien and the others comfortably, and +supplied their wants, in a monastery called Gomati, of the mahâyâna +school. Attached to it there are three thousand monks, who are called to +their meals by the sound of a bell. When they enter the refectory, their +demeanor is marked by a reverent gravity, and they take their seats in +regular order, all maintaining a perfect silence. No sound is heard from +their alms-bowls and other utensils. When any of these pure men require +food, they are not allowed to call out to the attendants for it, but +only make signs with their hands. + +Hwuy-king, Tâo-ching, and Hwuy-tah set out in advance towards the +country of K'eeh-ch'â; but Fâ-hien and the others, wishing to see the +procession of images, remained behind for three months. There are in +this country four great monasteries, not counting the smaller ones. +Beginning on the first day of the fourth month, they sweep and water the +streets inside the city, making a grand display in the lanes and byways. +Over the city gate they pitch a large tent, grandly adorned in all +possible ways, in which the king and queen, with their ladies +brilliantly arrayed, take up their residence for the time. + +The monks of the Gomati monastery, being mahâyâna students, and held in +greatest reverence by the king, took precedence of all the others in the +procession. At a distance of three or four li from the city, they made a +four-wheeled image car, more than thirty cubits high, which looked like +the great hall of a monastery moving along. The seven precious +substances [3] were grandly displayed about it, with silken streamers +and canopies hanging all around. The chief image stood in the middle of +the car, with two Bodhisattvas [4] in attendance on it, while devas were +made to follow in waiting, all brilliantly carved in gold and silver, +and hanging in the air. When the car was a hundred paces from the gate, +the king put off his crown of state, changed his dress for a fresh suit, +and with bare feet, carrying in his hands flowers and incense, and with +two rows of attending followers, went out at the gate to meet the image; +and, with his head and face bowed to the ground, he did homage at its +feet, and then scattered the flowers and burnt the incense. When the +image was entering the gate, the queen and the brilliant ladies with her +in the gallery above scattered far and wide all kinds of flowers, which +floated about and fell promiscuously to the ground. In this way +everything was done to promote the dignity of the occasion. The +carriages of the monasteries were all different, and each one had its +own day for the procession. The ceremony began on the first day of the +fourth month, and ended on the fourteenth, after which the king and +queen returned to the palace. + +Seven or eight li to the west of the city there is what is called the +King's new monastery, the building of which took eighty years, and +extended over three reigns. It may be two hundred and fifty cubits in +height, rich in elegant carving and inlaid work, covered above with gold +and silver, and finished throughout with a combination of all the +precious substances. Behind the tope there has been built a Hall of +Buddha, of the utmost magnificence and beauty, the beams, pillars, +venetianed doors and windows, being all overlaid with gold-leaf. Besides +this, the apartments for the monks are imposingly and elegantly +decorated, beyond the power of words to express. Of whatever things of +highest value and preciousness the kings in the six countries on the +east of the Ts'ung range of mountains are possessed, they contribute the +greater portion to this monastery, using but a small portion of them +themselves. + + +[Footnote 1: Mahâyâna is a later form of the Buddhist doctrine, the +second phase of its development corresponding to the state of a +Bodhisattva, who, being able to transport himself and all mankind to +nirvâna, may be compared to a huge vehicle.] + +[Footnote 2: A worshipping place, an altar, or temple.] + +[Footnote 3: The Sapta-ratna, gold, silver, lapis lazuli, rock crystal, +rubies, diamonds or emeralds, and agate.] + +[Footnote 4: A Bodhisattva is one whose essence has become intelligence; +a Being who will in some future birth as a man (not necessarily or +usually the next) attain to Buddhahood. The name does not include those +Buddhas who have not yet attained to parinirvâna. The symbol of the +state is an elephant fording a river.] + + + +CHAPTER IV + +~Through the Ts'ung Mountains to K'eech-ch'a~ + + +When the processions of images in the fourth month were over, Sang-shâo, +by himself alone, followed a Tartar who was an earnest follower of the +Law, and proceeded towards Ko-phene. Fâ-hien and the others went forward +to the kingdom of Tsze-hoh, which it took them twenty-five days to +reach. Its king was a strenuous follower of our Law, and had around him +more than a thousand monks, mostly students of the mahâyâna. Here the +travellers abode fifteen days, and then went south for four days, when +they found themselves among the Ts'ung-ling mountains, and reached the +country of Yu-hwuy, where they halted and kept their retreat. [1] When +this was over, they went on among the hills for twenty-five days, and +got to K'eeh-ch'a, there rejoining Hwuy-king and his two companions. + + +[Footnote 1: This was the retreat already twice mentioned as kept by the +pilgrims in the summer, the different phraseology, "quiet rest," without +any mention of the season, indicating their approach to India. Two, if +not three, years had elapsed since they left Ch'ang-gan. Are we now with +them in 402?] + + + +CHAPTER V + +~Great Quinquennial Assembly of Monks~ + + +It happened that the king of the country was then holding the pañcha +parishad; that is, in Chinese, the great quinquennial assembly. When +this is to be held, the king requests the presence of the Sramans from +all quarters of his kingdom. They come as if in clouds; and when they +are all assembled, their place of session is grandly decorated. Silken +streamers and canopies are hung out in it, and water-lilies in gold and +silver are made and fixed up behind the places where the chief of them +are to sit. When clean mats have been spread, and they are all seated, +the king and his ministers present their offerings according to rule and +law. The assembly takes place in the first, second, or third month, for +the most part in the spring. + +After the king has held the assembly, he further exhorts the ministers +to make other and special offerings. The doing of this extends over one, +two, three, five, or even seven days; and when all is finished, he takes +his own riding-horse, saddles, bridles, and waits on him himself, while +he makes the noblest and most important minister of the kingdom mount +him. Then, taking fine white woollen cloth, all sorts of precious +things, and articles which the Sramans require, he distributes them +among them, uttering vows at the same time along with all his ministers; +and when this distribution has taken place, he again redeems whatever he +wishes from the monks. + +The country, being among the hills and cold, does not produce the other +cereals, and only the wheat gets ripe. After the monks have received +their annual portion of this, the mornings suddenly show the hoar-frost, +and on this account the king always begs the monks to make the wheat +ripen [1] before they receive their portion. There is in the country a +spittoon which belonged to Buddha, made of stone, and in color like his +alms-bowl. There is also a tooth of Buddha, for which the people have +reared a tope, connected with which there are more than a thousand monks +and their disciples, all students of the hînayâna. To the east of these +hills the dress of the common people is of coarse materials, as in our +country of Ts'in, but here also there were among them the differences of +fine woollen cloth and of serge or haircloth. The rules observed by the +Sramans are remarkable, and too numerous to be mentioned in detail. The +country is in the midst of the Onion range. As you go forward from these +mountains, the plants, trees, and fruits are all different from those of +the land of Han, excepting only the bamboo, pomegranate, and sugarcane. + + +[Footnote 1: Watters calls attention to this as showing that the monks +of K'eeh-ch'â had the credit of possessing weather-controlling powers.] + + + +CHAPTER VI + +~North India--Image of Maitreya Bodhisattva~ + + +From this the travellers went westward towards North India, and after +being on the way for a month, they succeeded in getting across and +through the range of the Onion mountains. The snow rests on them both +winter and summer. There are also among them venomous dragons, which, +when provoked, spit forth poisonous winds, and cause showers of snow and +storms of sand and gravel. Not one in ten thousand of those who +encounter these dangers escapes with his life. The people of the country +call the range by the name of "The Snow mountains." When the travellers +had got through them, they were in North India, and immediately on +entering its borders, found themselves in a small kingdom called +T'oleih, where also there were many monks, all students of the hînayâna. + +In this kingdom there was formerly an Arhan, [1] who by his supernatural +power took a clever artificer up to the Tushita [2] heaven, to see the +height, complexion, and appearance of Maitreya Bodhisattva, [3] and then +return and make an image of him in wood. First and last, this was done +three times, and then the image was completed, eighty cubits in height, +and eight cubits at the base from knee to knee of the crossed legs. On +fast-days it emits an effulgent light. The kings of the surrounding +countries vie with one another in presenting offerings to it. Here it +is--to be seen now as of old. + +[Footnote 1: Lo-han, Arhat, Arahat are all designations of the perfected +Ârya, the disciple who has passed the different stages of the Noble +Path, or eightfold excellent way, who has conquered all passions, and is +not to be reborn again. Arhatship implies possession of certain +supernatural powers, and is not to be succeeded by Buddhaship, but +implies the fact of the saint having already attained Nirvâna.] + +[Footnote 2: Tushita is the fourth Devaloka, where all Bodhisattvas are +reborn before finally appearing on earth as Buddha. Life lasts in +Tushita four thousand years, but twenty-four hours there are equal to +four hundred years on earth.] + +[Footnote 3: Maitreya was a Bodhisattva, the principal one, indeed, of +Sâkyamuni's retinue, but is not counted among the ordinary disciples, +nor is anything told of his antecedents. It was in the Tushita heaven +that Sâkyamuni met him and appointed him as his successor, to appear as +Buddha after the lapse of five thousand years. Maitreya is therefore the +expected Messiah of the Buddhists, residing at present in Tushita.] + + + +CHAPTER VII + +~The Perilous Crossing of the Indus~ + + +The travellers went on to the southwest for fifteen days at the foot of +the mountains, and following the course of their range. The way was +difficult and rugged, running along a bank exceedingly precipitous, +which rose up there, a hill-like wall of rock, ten thousand cubits from +the base. When one approached the edge of it, his eyes became unsteady; +and if he wished to go forward in the same direction, there was no place +on which he could place his foot; and beneath were the waters of the +river called the Indus. In former times men had chiselled paths along +the rocks, and distributed ladders on the face of them, to the number +altogether of seven hundred, at the bottom of which there was a +suspension bridge of ropes, by which the river was crossed, its banks +being there eighty paces apart. The place and arrangements are to be +found in the Records of the Nine Interpreters, but neither Chang K'een +[1] nor Kan Ying [2] had reached the spot. + +The monks asked Fâ-hien if it could be known when the Law of Buddha +first went to the east. He replied, "When I asked the people of those +countries about it, they all said that it had been handed down by their +fathers from of old that, after the setting up of the image of Maitreya +Bodhisattva, there were Sramans of India who crossed this river, +carrying with them Sútras and Books of Discipline. Now the image was set +up rather more than three hundred years after the Nirvâna of Buddha, +which may be referred to the reign of king P'ing of the Chow dynasty. +According to this account we may say that the diffusion of our great +doctrines in the East began from the setting up of this image. If it had +not been through that Maitreya, the great spiritual master who is to be +the successor of the Sâkya, who could have caused the 'Three Precious +Ones,' [3] to be proclaimed so far, and the people of those border lands +to know our Law? We know of a truth that the opening of the way for such +a mysterious propagation is not the work of man; and so the dream of the +emperor Ming of Han had its proper cause." + + +[Footnote 1: Chang K'een, a minister of the emperor Woo of Han (B.C. +140-87), is celebrated as the first Chinese who "pierced the void," and +penetrated to "the regions of the west," corresponding very much to the +present Turkestan. Through him, by B.C. 115, a regular intercourse was +established between China and the thirty-six kingdoms or states of that +quarter.] + +[Footnote 2: Less is known of Kan Ying than of Chang K'een. Being sent +in A.D. 88 by his patron Pan Châo on an embassy to the Roman empire, he +only got as far as the Caspian sea, and returned to China. He extended, +however, the knowledge of his countrymen with regard to the western +regions.] + +[Footnote 3: "The precious Buddha," "the precious Law," and "the +precious Monkhood"; Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; the whole being +equivalent to Buddhism.] + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +~Woo-chang, or Udyâna--Traces of Buddha~ + + +After crossing the river, the travellers immediately came to the kingdom +of Woo-chang, which is indeed a part of North India. The people all use +the language of Central India, "Central India" being what we should call +the "Middle Kingdom." The food and clothes of the common people are the +same as in that Central Kingdom. The Law of Buddha is very flourishing +in Woo-chang. They call the places where the monks stay for a time or +reside permanently Sanghârâmas; and of these there are in all five +hundred, the monks being all students of the hînayâna. When stranger +bhikshus [1] arrive at one of them, their wants are supplied for three +days, after which they are told to find a resting-place for themselves. + +There is a tradition that when Buddha came to North India, he came at +once to this country, and that here he left a print of his foot, which +is long or short according to the ideas of the beholder on the subject. +It exists, and the same thing is true about it, at the present day. Here +also are still to be seen the rock on which he dried his clothes, and +the place where he converted the wicked dragon. The rock is fourteen +cubits high, and more than twenty broad, with one side of it smooth. + +Hwuy-king, Hwuy-tah, and Tâo-ching went on ahead towards the place of +Buddha's shadow in the country of Nâgara; but Fâ-hien and the others +remained in Woo-chang, and kept the summer retreat. That over, they +descended south, and arrived in the country of Soo-ho-to. + + +[Footnote 1: Bhikshu is the name for a monk as "living by alms," a +mendicant. All bhikshus call themselves Sramans. Sometimes the two names +are used together by our author.] + + + +CHAPTER IX + +~Soo-ho-to--Legends of Buddha~ + + +In that country also Buddhism is flourishing. There is in it the place +where Sakra, [1] Ruler of Devas, in a former age, tried the Bodhisattva, +by producing a hawk in pursuit of a dove, when the Bodhisattva cut off a +piece of his own flesh, and with it ransomed the dove. After Buddha had +attained to perfect wisdom, and in travelling about with his disciples +arrived at this spot, he informed them that this was the place where he +ransomed the dove with a piece of his own flesh. In this way the people +of the country became aware of the fact, and on the spot reared a tope, +adorned with layers of gold and silver plates. + + +[Footnote 1: Sakra is a common name for the Brahmanic Indra, adopted by +Buddhism into the circle of its own great adherents;--it has been said, +"because of his popularity." He is now the representative of the secular +power, the valiant protector of the Buddhist body, but is looked upon as +inferior to Sâkyamuni, and every Buddhist saint.] + + + +CHAPTER X + +~Gandhâra--Legends of Buddha~ + + +The travellers, going downwards from this towards the east, in five days +came to the country of Gandhâra, the place where Dharma-vivardhana, the +son of Asoka, [1] ruled. When Buddha was a Bodhisattva, he gave his eyes +also for another man here; and at the spot they have also reared a large +tope, adorned with layers of gold and silver plates. The people of the +country were mostly students of the hînayâna. + + +[Footnote 1: Asoka is here mentioned for the first time--the Constantine +of the Buddhist society, and famous for the number of vihâras and topes +which he erected. He was the grandson of Chandragupta, a rude +adventurer, who at one time was a refugee in the camp of Alexander the +Great; and within about twenty years afterwards drove the Greeks out of +India, having defeated Seleucus, the Greek ruler of the Indus provinces. +His grandson was converted to Buddhism by the bold and patient demeanor +of an Arhat whom he had ordered to be buried alive, and became a most +zealous supporter of the new faith.] + + + +CHAPTER XI + +~Takshasilâ--Legends--The Four Great Topes~ + + +Seven days' journey from this to the east brought the travellers to the +kingdom of Takshasilâ, which means "the severed head" in the language of +China. Here, when Buddha was a Bodhisattva, he gave away his head to a +man; and from this circumstance the kingdom got its name. + +Going on further for two days to the east, they came to the place where +the Bodhisattva threw down his body to feed a starving tigress. In these +two places also large topes have been built, both adorned with layers of +all the precious substances. The kings, ministers, and peoples of the +kingdoms around vie with one another in making offerings at them. The +trains of those who come to scatter flowers and light lamps at them +never cease. The nations of those quarters call those and the other two +mentioned before "the four great topes." + + + +CHAPTER XII + +~Buddha's Alms-bowl--Death of Hwuy-king~ + + +Going southwards from Gândhâra, the travellers in four days arrived at +the kingdom of Purushapura. [1] Formerly, when Buddha was travelling in +this country with his disciples, he said to Ânanda, [2] "After my +pari-nirvâna, [3] there will be a king named Kanishka, who shall on this +spot build a tope." + +This Kanishka was afterwards born into the world; and once, when he had +gone forth to look about him, Sakra, Ruler of Devas, wishing to excite +the idea in his mind, assumed the appearance of a little herd-boy, and +was making a tope right in the way of the king, who asked what sort of a +thing he was making. The boy said, "I am making a tope for Buddha." The +king said, "Very good;" and immediately, right over the boy's tope, he +proceeded to rear another, which was more than four hundred cubits high, +and adorned with layers of all the precious substances. Of all the topes +and temples which the travellers saw in their journeyings, there was not +one comparable to this in solemn beauty and majestic grandeur. There is +a current saying that this is the finest tope in Jambudvîpa [4]. When +the king's tope was completed, the little tope of the boy came out from +its side on the south, rather more than three cubits in height. + +Buddha's alms-bowl is in this country. Formerly, a king of Yüeh-she +raised a large force and invaded this country, wishing to carry the bowl +away. Having subdued the kingdom, as he and his captains were sincere +believers in the Law of Buddha, and wished to carry off the bowl, they +proceeded to present their offerings on a great scale. When they had +done so to the Three Precious Ones, he made a large elephant be grandly +caparisoned, and placed the bowl upon it. But the elephant knelt down on +the ground, and was unable to go forward. Again he caused a four-wheeled +wagon to be prepared in which the bowl was put to be conveyed away. +Eight elephants were then yoked to it, and dragged it with their united +strength; but neither were they able to go forward. The king knew that +the time for an association between himself and the bowl had not yet +arrived, and was sad and deeply ashamed of himself. Forthwith he built a +tope at the place and a monastery, and left a guard to watch the bowl, +making all sorts of contributions. + +There may be there more than seven hundred monks. When it is near +mid-day, they bring out the bowl, and, along with the common people, +make their various offerings to it, after which they take their mid-day +meal. In the evening, at the time of incense, they bring the bowl out +again. It may contain rather more than two pecks, and is of various +colors, black predominating, with the seams that show its fourfold +composition distinctly marked. Its thickness is about the fifth of an +inch, and it has a bright and glossy lustre. When poor people throw into +it a few flowers, it becomes immediately full, while some very rich +people, wishing to make offering of many flowers, might not stop till +they had thrown in hundreds, thousands, and myriads of bushels, and yet +would not be able to fill it.[5] + +Pâo-yun and Sang-king here merely made their offerings to the alms-bowl, +and then resolved to go back. Hwuy-king, Hwuy-tah, and Tâo-ching had +gone on before the rest to Nagâra, to make their offerings at the places +of Buddha's shadow, tooth, and the flat-bone of his skull. There +Hwuy-king fell ill, and Tâo-ching remained to look after him, while +Hwuy-tah came alone to Purushapura, and saw the others, and then he with +Pâo-yun and Sang-king took their way back to the land of Ts'in. +Hwuy-king came to his end in the monastery of Buddha's alms-bowl, and on +this Fâ-hien went forward alone towards the place of the flat-bone of +Buddha's skull.[6] + + +[Footnote 1: The modern Peshâwur.] + +[Footnote 2: A first cousin of Sâkyamuni, and born at the moment when he +attained to Buddhaship. Under Buddha's teaching, Ânanda became an Arhat, +and is famous for his strong and accurate memory; and he played an +important part at the first council for the formation of the Buddhist +canon. The friendship between Sâkyamuni and Ânanda was very close and +tender; and it is impossible to read much of what the dying Buddha said +to him and of him, as related in the Mahâpari-nirvâna Sûtra, without +being moved almost to tears. Ânanda is to reappear on earth as Buddha in +another Kalpa.] + +[Footnote 3: On his attaining to nirvâna, Sâkyamuni became the Buddha, +and had no longer to mourn his being within the circle of +transmigration, and could rejoice in an absolute freedom from passion, +and a perfect purity. Still he continued to live on for forty-five +years, till he attained to pari-nirvâna, and had done with all the life +of sense and society, and had no more exercise of thought. He died; but +whether he absolutely and entirely ceased to be, in any sense of the +word being, it would be difficult to say. Probably he himself would not +and could not have spoken definitely on the point. So far as our use of +language is concerned, apart from any assured faith in and hope of +immortality, his pari-nirvâna was his death.] + +[Footnote 4: Jambudvîpa is one of the four great continents of the +universe, representing the inhabited world as fancied by the Buddhists, +and so-called because it resembles in shape the leaves of the jambu +tree.] + +[Footnote 5: Compare the narrative in Luke's Gospel, xxi. 1-4.] + +[Footnote 6: This story of Hwuy-king's death differs from the account +given in chapter xiv.--EDITOR.] + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +~Festival of Buddha's Skull-bone~ + + +Going west for sixteen yojanas, [1] he came to the city He-lo [2] in the +borders of the country of Nagâra, where there is the flat-bone of +Buddha's skull, deposited in a vihâra [3] adorned all over with +gold-leaf and the seven sacred substances. The king of the country, +revering and honoring the bone, and anxious lest it should be stolen +away, has selected eight individuals, representing the great families in +the kingdom, and committed to each a seal, with which he should seal its +shrine and guard the relic. At early dawn these eight men come, and +after each has inspected his seal, they open the door. This done, they +wash their hands with scented water and bring out the bone, which they +place outside the vihâra, on a lofty platform, where it is supported on +a round pedestal of the seven precious substances, and covered with a +bell of lapis lazuli, both adorned with rows of pearls. Its color is of +a yellowish white, and it forms an imperfect circle twelve inches round, +curving upwards to the centre. Every day, after it has been brought +forth, the keepers of the vihâra ascend a high gallery, where they beat +great drums, blow conches, and clash their copper cymbals. When the king +hears them, he goes to the vihâra, and makes his offerings of flowers +and incense. When he has done this, he and his attendants in order, one +after another, raise the bone, place it for a moment on the top of their +heads, and then depart, going out by the door on the west as they had +entered by that on the east. The king every morning makes his offerings +and performs his worship, and afterwards gives audience on the business +of his government. The chiefs of the Vaisyas [4] also make their +offerings before they attend to their family affairs. Every day it is +so, and there is no remissness in the observance of the custom. When all +of the offerings are over, they replace the bone in the vihâra, where +there is a vimoksha tope, of the seven precious substances, and rather +more than five cubits high, sometimes open, sometimes shut, to contain +it. In front of the door of the vihâra, there are parties who every +morning sell flowers and incense, and those who wish to make offerings +buy some of all kinds. The kings of various countries are also +constantly sending messengers with offerings. The vihâra stands in a +square of thirty paces, and though heaven should shake and earth be +rent, this place would not move. + +Going on, north from this, for a yojana, Fâ-hien arrived at the capital +of Nagâra, the place where the Bodhisattva once purchased with money +five stalks of flowers, as an offering to the Dipânkara Buddha. In the +midst of the city there is also the tope of Buddha's tooth, where +offerings are made in the same way as to the flat-bone of his skull. + +A yojana to the northeast of the city brought him to the mouth of a +valley, where there is Buddha's pewter staff; and a vihâra also has been +built at which offerings are made. The staff is made of Gosirsha +Chandana, and is quite sixteen or seventeen cubits long. It is contained +in a wooden tube, and though a hundred or a thousand men were to try to +lift it, they could not move it. + +Entering the mouth of the valley, and going west, he found Buddha's +Sanghâli, [5] where also there is reared a vihâra, and offerings are +made. It is a custom of the country when there is a great drought, for +the people to collect in crowds, bring out the robe, pay worship to it, +and make offerings, on which there is immediately a great rain from the +sky. + +South of the city, half a yojana, there is a rock-cavern, in a great +hill fronting the southwest; and here it was that Buddha left his +shadow. Looking at it from a distance of more than ten paces, you seem +to see Buddha's real form, with his complexion of gold, and his +characteristic marks in their nicety, clearly and brightly displayed. +The nearer you approach, however, the fainter it becomes, as if it were +only in your fancy. When the kings from the regions all around have sent +skilful artists to take a copy, none of them have been able to do so. +Among the people of the country there is a saying current that "the +thousand Buddhas must all leave their shadows here." + +Rather more than four hundred paces west from the shadow, when Buddha +was at the spot, he shaved off his hair and clipped his nails, and +proceeded, along with his disciples, to build a tope seventy or eighty +cubits high, to be a model for all future topes; and it is still +existing. By the side of it there is a monastery, with more than seven +hundred monks in it. At this place there are as many as a thousand topes +of Arhans and Pratyeka Buddhas. + + +[Footnote 1: Now in India, Fâ-hien used the Indian measure of distance; +but it is not possible to determine exactly what its length then was. +The estimates of it are very different, and vary from four and a half or +five miles to seven, and sometimes more.] + +[Footnote 2: The present Hidda, west of Peshâwur, and five miles south +of Jellalabad.] + +[Footnote 3: "The vihara," says Hardy, "is the residence of a recluse or +priest;" and so Davids--"the clean little hut where the mendicant +lives."] + +[Footnote 4: The Vaisyas, or the bourgeois caste of Hindu society, are +described here as "resident scholars."] + +[Footnote 5: Or Sanghâti, the double or composite robe, part of a monk's +attire, reaching from the shoulders to the knees, and fastened round the +waist.] + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +~Crossing the Indus to the East~ + + +Having stayed there till the third month of winter, Fâ-hien and the two +others, proceeding southwards, crossed the Little Snowy mountains. On +them the snow lies accumulated both winter and summer. On the north side +of the mountains, in the shade, they suddenly encountered a cold wind +which made them shiver and become unable to speak. Hwuy-king could not +go any farther. A white froth came from his mouth, and he said to +Fâ-hien, "I cannot live any longer. Do you immediately go away, that we +do not all die here"; and with these words he died. Fâ-hien stroked the +corpse, and cried out piteously, "Our original plan has failed; it is +fate. What can we do?" He then again exerted himself, and they succeeded +in crossing to the south of the range, and arrived in the kingdom of +Lo-e, [1] where there were nearly three thousand monks, students of both +the mahâyâna and hînayâna. Here they stayed for the summer retreat, [2] +and when that was over, they went on to the south, and ten days' journey +brought them to the kingdom of Poh-nâ, where there are also more than +three thousand monks, all students of the hînayâna. Proceeding from this +place for three days, they again crossed the Indus, where the country on +each side was low and level. + + +[Footnote 1: Lo-e, or Rohi, or Afghanistan; only a portion of it can be +intended.] + +[Footnote 2: We are now therefore in A.D. 404.] + + + +CHAPTER XV + +~Sympathy of Monks with the Pilgrims~ + + +After they had crossed the river, there was a country named Pe-t'oo, +where Buddhism was very flourishing, and the monks studied both the +mahâyâna and hînayâna. When they saw their fellow-disciples from Ts'in +passing along, they were moved with great pity and sympathy, and +expressed themselves thus: "How is it that these men from a border-land +should have learned to become monks, and come for the sake of our +doctrines from such a distance in search of the Law of Buddha?" They +supplied them with what they needed, and treated them in accordance with +the rules of the Law. + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +~Condition and Customs of Central India~ + + +From this place they travelled southeast, passing by a succession of +very many monasteries, with a multitude of monks, who might be counted +by myriads. After passing all these places, they came to a country named +Ma-t'âou-lo. They still followed the course of the P'oo-na river, on the +banks of which, left and right, there were twenty monasteries, which +might contain three thousand monks; and here the Law of Buddha was still +more flourishing. Everywhere, from the Sandy Desert, in all the +countries of India, the kings had been firm believers in that Law. When +they make their offerings to a community of monks, they take off their +royal caps, and along with their relatives and ministers, supply them +with food with their own hands. That done, the king has a carpet spread +for himself on the ground, and sits down on it in front of the +chairman;--they dare not presume to sit on couches in front of the +community. The laws and ways, according to which the kings presented +their offerings when Buddha was in the world, have been handed down to +the present day. + +All south from this is named the Middle Kingdom. In it the cold and heat +are finely tempered, and there is neither hoarfrost nor snow. The people +are numerous and happy; they have not to register their households, or +attend to any magistrates and their rules; only those who cultivate the +royal land have to pay a portion of the gain from it. If they want to go +they go; if they want to stay on, they stay. The king governs without +decapitation or other corporal punishments. Criminals are simply fined, +lightly or heavily, according to the circumstances of each case. Even in +cases of repeated attempts at wicked rebellion, they only have their +right hands cut off. The king's body-guards and attendants all have +salaries. Throughout the whole country the people do not kill any living +creature, nor drink intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic. The +only exception is that of the Chandâlas. That is the name for those who +are held to be wicked men, and live apart from others. When they enter +the gate of a city or a market-place, they strike a piece of wood to +make themselves known, so that men know and avoid them, and do not come +into contact with them. In that country they do not keep pigs and fowls, +and do not sell live cattle; in the markets there are no butchers' shops +and no dealers in intoxicating drink. In buying and selling commodities +they use cowries. Only the Chandâlas are fishermen and hunters, and sell +flesh meat. + +After Buddha attained to pari-nirvâna the kings of the various countries +and the heads of the Vaisyas built vihâras for the priests, and endowed +them with fields, houses, gardens, and orchards, along with the resident +populations and their cattle, the grants being engraved on plates of +metal, so that afterwards they were handed down from king to king, +without any one daring to annul them, and they remain even to the +present time. + +The regular business of the monks is to perform acts of meritorious +virtue, and to recite their Sûtras and sit wrapped in meditation. When +stranger monks arrive at any monastery, the old residents meet and +receive them, carry for them their clothes and alms-bowl, give them +water to wash their feet, oil with which to anoint them, and the liquid +food permitted out of the regular hours. [1] When the stranger has +enjoyed a very brief rest, they further ask the number of years that he +has been a monk, after which he receives a sleeping apartment with its +appurtenances, according to his regular order, and everything is done +for him which the rules prescribe. + +Where a community of monks resides, they erect topes to Sâriputtra, [2] +to Mahâ-maudgalyâyana, [3] and to Ânanda, and also topes in honor of the +Abhidharma, [4] the Vinaya, [4] and the Sûtras. [4] A month after the +annual season of rest, the families which are looking out for blessing +stimulate one another to make offerings to the monks, and send round to +them the liquid food which may be taken out of the ordinary hours. All +the monks come together in a great assembly, and preach the Law; after +which offerings are presented at the tope of Sâriputtra, with all kinds +of flowers and incense. All through the night lamps are kept burning, +and skilful musicians are employed to perform. + +When Sâriputtra was a great Brahman, he went to Buddha, and begged to be +permitted to quit his family and become a monk. The great Mugalan and +the great Kas'yapa also did the same. The bhikshunis [5] for the most +part make their offerings at the tope of Ånanda, because it was he who +requested the World-honored one to allow females to quit their families +and become nuns. The Srâmaneras [6] mostly make their offerings to +Rahula. [7] The professors of the Abhidharma make their offerings to it; +those of the Vinaya to it. Every year there is one such offering, and +each class has its own day for it. Students of the mahâyâna present +offerings to the Prajña-pâramitâ, to Mañjus'ri, and to Kwan-she-yin. +When the monks have done receiving their annual tribute from the +harvests, the Heads of the Vaisyas and all the Brahmans bring clothes +and such other articles as the monks require for use, and distribute +among them. The monks, having received them, also proceed to give +portions to one another. From the nirvâna of Buddha, the forms of +ceremony, laws, and rules, practised by the sacred communities, have +been handed down from one generation to another without interruption. + +From the place where the travellers crossed the Indus to South India, +and on to the Southern Sea, a distance of forty or fifty thousand li, +all is level plain. There are no large hills with streams among them; +there are simply the waters of the rivers. + + +[Footnote 1: No monk can eat solid food except between sunrise and noon, +and total abstinence from intoxicating drinks is obligatory. Food eaten +at any other part of the day is called vikâla, and forbidden; but a +weary traveller might receive unseasonable refreshment, consisting of +honey, butter, treacle, and sesamum oil.] + +[Footnote 2: Sâriputtra was one of the principal disciples of Buddha, +and indeed the most learned and ingenious of them all.] + +[Footnote 3: Mugalan, the Singhalese name of this disciple, is more +pronounceable. He also was one of the principal disciples, called +Buddha's "left-hand attendant." He was distinguished for his power of +vision, and his magic powers.] + +[Footnote 4: The different parts of the tripitaka.] + +[Footnote 5: The bhikshunis are the female monks or nuns, subject to the +same rules as the bhikshus, and also to special ordinances of +restraint.] + +[Footnote 6: The Srâmaneras are the novices, male or female, who have +vowed to observe the Shikshâpada, or ten commandments.] + +[Footnote 7: The eldest son of Sâkyamuni by Yasodharâ. Converted to +Buddhism, he followed his father as an attendant; and after Buddha's +death became the founder of a philosophical realistic school +(vaibhâshika). He is now revered as the patron saint of all novices, and +is to be reborn as the eldest son of every future Buddha.] + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +~Legend of the Trayastrimsas Heaven~ + + +From this they proceeded southeast for eighteen yojanas, and found +themselves in a kingdom called Sankâs'ya, at the place where Buddha +came down, after ascending to the Trayastrims'as heaven [1], and there +preaching for three months his Law for the benefit of his mother [2]. +Buddha had gone up to this heaven by his supernatural power, without +letting his disciples know; but seven days before the completion of the +three months he laid aside his invisibility, and Anuruddha [3], with his +heavenly eyes, saw the World-honored one, and immediately said to the +honored one, the great Mugalan, "Do you go and salute the World-honored +one," Mugalan forthwith went, and with head and face did homage at +Buddha's feet. They then saluted and questioned each other, and when +this was over, Buddha said to Mugalan, "Seven days after this I will go +down to Jambudvîpa"; and thereupon Mugalan returned. At this time the +great kings of eight countries with their ministers and people, not +having seen Buddha for a long time, were all thirstily looking up for +him, and had collected in clouds in this kingdom to wait for the +World-honored one. + +Then the bhikshunî Utpala thought in her heart, "To-day the kings, with +their ministers and people, will all be meeting and welcoming Buddha. I +am but a woman; how shall I succeed in being the first to see him?" +Buddha immediately, by his spirit-like power, changed her into the +appearance of a holy Chakravartti king, and she was the foremost of all +in doing reverence to him. + +As Buddha descended from his position aloft in the Trayastrims'as +heaven, when he was coming down, there were made to appear three flights +of precious steps. Buddha was on the middle flight, the steps of which +were composed of the seven precious substances. The king of Brahma-loka +[4] also made a flight of silver steps appear on the right side, where +he was seen attending with a white chowry in his hand. Sakra, Ruler of +Devas, made a flight of steps of purple gold on the left side, where he +was seen attending and holding an umbrella of the seven precious +substances. An innumerable multitude of the devas followed Buddha in his +descent. When he was come down, the three flights all disappeared in the +ground, excepting seven steps, which continued to be visible. Afterwards +king As'oka, wishing to know where their ends rested, sent men to dig +and see. They went down to the yellow springs without reaching the +bottom of the steps, and from this the king received an increase to his +reverence and faith, and built a vihâra over the steps, with a standing +image, sixteen cubits in height, right over the middle flight. Behind +the vihâra he erected a stone pillar, about fifty cubits high, with a +lion on the top of it. [5] Let into the pillar, on each of its four +sides, there is an image of Buddha, inside and out shining and +transparent, and pure as it were of lapis lazuli. Some teachers of +another doctrine once disputed with the S'ramanas about the right to +this as a place of residence, and the latter were having the worst of +the argument, when they took an oath on both sides on the condition +that, if the place did indeed belong to the S'ramanas, there should be +some marvellous attestation of it. When these words had been spoken, the +lion on the top gave a great roar, thus giving the proof; on which their +opponents were frightened, bowed to the decision, and withdrew. + +Through Buddha having for three months partaken of the food of heaven, +his body emitted a heavenly fragrance, unlike that of an ordinary man. +He went immediately and bathed; and afterwards, at the spot where he did +so, a bathing-house was built, which is still existing. At the place +where the bhikshuni Utpala was the first to do reverence to Buddha, a +tope has now been built. + +At the places where Buddha, when he was in the world, cut his hair and +nails, topes are erected; and where the three Buddhas [6] that preceded +S'âkyamuni Buddha and he himself sat; where they walked, and where +images of their persons were made. At all these places topes were made, +and are still existing. At the place where S'akra, Ruler of the Devas, +and the king of the Brahma-loka followed Buddha down from the +Trayastrimsas heaven they have also raised a tope. + +At this place the monks and nuns may be a thousand, who all receive +their food from the common store, and pursue their studies, some of the +mahayana and some of the hînayâna. Where they live, there is a +white-eared dragon, which acts the part of danapati to the community of +these monks, causing abundant harvests in the country, and the enriching +rains to come in season, without the occurrence of any calamities, so +that the monks enjoy their repose and ease. In gratitude for its +kindness, they have made for it a dragon-house, with a carpet for it to +sit on, and appointed for it a diet of blessing, which they present for +its nourishment. Every day they set apart three of their number to go to +its house, and eat there. Whenever the summer retreat is ended, the +dragon straightway changes its form, and appears as a small snake, with +white spots at the side of its ears. As soon as the monks recognize it, +they fill a copper vessel with cream, into which they put the creature, +and then carry it round from the one who has the highest seat at their +tables to him who has the lowest, when it appears as if saluting them. +When it has been taken round, immediately it disappears; and every year +it thus comes forth once. The country is very productive, and the people +are prosperous, and happy beyond comparison. When people of other +countries come to it, they are exceedingly attentive to them all, and +supply them with what they need. + +Fifty yojanas northwest from the monastery there is another, called "The +Great Heap." Great Heap was the name of a wicked demon, who was +converted by Buddha, and men subsequently at this place reared a vihâra. +When it was being made over to an Arhat by pouring water on his hands, +some drops fell on the ground. They are still on the spot, and however +they may be brushed away and removed, they continue to be visible, and +cannot be made to disappear. + +At this place there is also a tope to Buddha, where a good spirit +constantly keeps all about it swept and watered, without any labor of +man being required. A king of corrupt views once said, "Since you are +able to do this, I will lead a multitude of troops and reside there till +the dirt and filth has increased and accumulated, and see whether you +can cleanse it away or not." The spirit thereupon raised a great wind, +which blew the filth away, and made the place pure. + +At this place there are many small topes, at which a man may keep +counting a whole day without being able to know their exact number. If +he be firmly bent on knowing it, he will place a man by the side of each +tope. When this is done, proceeding to count the number of the men, +whether they be many or few, he will not get to know the number. [7] + +There is a monastery, containing perhaps six hundred or seven hundred +monks, in which there is a place where a Pratyeka Buddha used to take +his food. The nirvâna ground where he was burned after death is as large +as a carriage wheel; and while grass grows all around, on this spot +there is none. The ground also where he dried his clothes produces no +grass, but the impression of them, where they lay on it, continues to +the present day. + + +[Footnote 1: The heaven of Indra or Sâkya, meaning "the heaven of +thirty-three classes," a name which has been explained both historically +and mythologically. "The description of it," says Eitel, "tallies in all +respects with the Svarga of Brahmanic mythology. It is situated between +the four peaks of the Meru, and consists of thirty-two cities of devas, +eight on each of the four corners of the mountain. Indra's capital of +Bellevue is in the centre. There he is enthroned, with a thousand heads +and a thousand eyes, and four arms grasping the vajra, with his wife and +119,000 concubines. There he receives the monthly reports of the four +Mahârâjas, concerning the progress of good and evil in the world," etc., +etc.] + +[Footnote 2: Buddha's mother, Mâyâ and Mahâ-mâyâ, died seven days after +his birth.] + +[Footnote 3: Anuruddha was a first cousin of Sâkyamuni, being the son of +his uncle Amritodana. He is often mentioned in the account we have of +Buddha's last moments. His special gift was the "heavenly eye," the +first of the six "supernatural talents," the faculty of comprehending in +one instantaneous view, or by intuition, all beings in all worlds.] + +[Footnote 4: This was Brahma, the first person of the Brahmanical +Trimurti, adopted by Buddhism, but placed in an inferior position, and +surpassed by every Buddhist saint who attains to bodhi.] + +[Footnote 5: A note of Mr. Beal says on this:--"General Cunningham, who +visited the spot (1862), found a pillar, evidently of the age of Asoka, +with a well-carved elephant on the top, which, however, was minus trunk +and tail. He supposes this to be the pillar seen by Fâ-hien, who mistook +the top of it for a lion. It is possible such a mistake may have been +made, as in the account of one of the pillars at Srâvasti, Fâ-hien says +an ox formed the capital, whilst Hsüan-chwang calls it an elephant."] + +[Footnote 6: These three predecessors of Sakya-muni were the three +Buddhas of the present or Mahâ-bhadra Kalpa, of which he was the fourth, +and Maitreya is to be the fifth and last. They were: (i) Kra-kuchanda, +"he who readily solves all doubts"; a scion of the Kasyapa family. Human +life reached in his time forty thousand years, and so many persons were +converted by him. (2) Kanakamuni, "body radiant with the color of pure +gold"; of the same family. Human life reached in his time thirty +thousand years, and so many persons were converted by him. (3) Kasyapa, +"swallower of light." Human life reached in his time twenty thousand +years, and so many persons were converted by him.] + +[Footnote 7: This would seem to be absurd; but the writer evidently +intended to convey the idea that there was something mysterious about +the number of the topes.] + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +~Buddha's Subjects of Discourse~ + + +Fâ-Hien stayed at the Dragon vihara till after the summer retreat, [1] +and then, travelling to the southeast for seven yojanas, he arrived at +the city of Kanyakubja, lying along the Ganges. There are two +monasteries in it, the inmates of which are students of the hinayâna. At +a distance from the city of six or seven li, on the west, on the +northern bank of the Ganges, is a place where Buddha preached the Law to +his disciples. It has been handed down that his subjects of discourse +were such as "The bitterness and vanity of life as impermanent and +uncertain," and that "The body is as a bubble or foam on the water." At +this spot a tope was erected, and still exists. + +Having crossed the Ganges, and gone south for three yojanas, the +travellers arrived at a village named A-le, containing places where +Buddha preached the Law, where he sat, and where he walked, at all of +which topes have been built. + + +[Footnote 1: This was, probably, in A.D. 405.] + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +~Legend of Buddha's Danta-kâshtha~ + + +Going on from this to the southeast for three yojanas, they came to the +great kingdom of Shâ-che. As you go out of the city of Shâ-che by the +southern gate, on the east of the road is the place where Buddha, after +he had chewed his willow branch, stuck it in the ground, when it +forthwith grew up seven cubits, at which height it remained, neither +increasing nor diminishing. The Brahmans, with their contrary doctrines, +became angry and jealous. Sometimes they cut the tree down, sometimes +they plucked it up, and cast it to a distance, but it grew again on the +same spot as at first. Here also is the place where the four Buddhas +walked and sat, and at which a tope was built that is still existing. + + + +CHAPTER XX + +~The Jetavana Vihâra--Legends of Buddha~ + + +Going on from this to the south, for eight yojanas, the travellers came +to the city of Sravasti in the kingdom of Kosala, in which the +inhabitants were few and far between, amounting in all only to a few +more than two hundred families; the city where king Prasenajit ruled, +and the place of the old vihâra of Maha-prajâpati; [1] of the well and +walls of the house of the Vaisya head Sudatta; [2] and where the +Angulimâlya [3] became an Arhat, and his body was afterwards burned on +his attaining to pari-nirvâna. At all these places topes were +subsequently erected, which are still existing in the city. The +Brahmans, with their contrary doctrine, became full of hatred and envy +in their hearts, and wished to destroy them, but there came from the +heavens such a storm of crashing thunder and flashing lightning that +they were not able in the end to effect their purpose. + +As you go out from the city by the south gate, and one thousand two +hundred paces from it, the Vais'ya head Sudatta built a vihâra, facing +the south; and when the door was open, on each side of it there was a +stone pillar, with the figure of a wheel on the top of that on the left, +and the figure of an ox on the top of that on the right. On the left and +right of the building the ponds of water clear and pure, the thickets of +trees always luxuriant, and the numerous flowers of various hues, +constituted a lovely scene, the whole forming what is called the +Jetavana vihâra. + +When Buddha went up to the Trayastrimsas heaven, and preached the Law +for the benefit of his mother, after he had been absent for ninety days, +Prasenajit, longing to see him, caused an image of him to be carved in +Gosirsha Chandana wood, and put in the place where he usually sat. When +Buddha, on his return entered the vihara, this image immediately left +its place, and came forth to meet him. Buddha said to it, "Return to +your seat. After I have attained to pari-nirvâna, you will serve as a +pattern to the four classes of my disciples," [4] and on this the image +returned to its seat. This was the very first of all the images of +Buddha, and that which men subsequently copied. Buddha then removed, and +dwelt in a small vihara on the south side of the other, a different +place from that containing the image, and twenty paces distant from it. + +The Jetavana vihâra was originally of seven stories. The kings and +people of the countries around vied with one another in their offerings, +hanging up about it silken streamers and canopies, scattering flowers, +burning incense, and lighting lamps, so as to make the night as bright +as the day. This they did day after day without ceasing. It happened +that a rat, carrying in its mouth the wick of a lamp, set one of the +streamers or canopies on fire, which caught the vihâra, and the seven +stories were all consumed. The kings, with their officers and people, +were all very sad and distressed, supposing that the sandalwood image +had been burned; but lo! after four or five days, when the door of a +small vihâra on the east was opened, there was immediately seen the +original image. They were all greatly rejoiced, and cooperated in +restoring the vihâra. When they had succeeded in completing two stories, +they removed the image back to its former place. + +When Fâ-hien and Tâo-ching first arrived at the Jetavana monastery, and +thought how the World-honored one had formerly resided there for +twenty-five years, painful reflections arose in their minds. Born in a +border-land, along with their like-minded friends, they had travelled +through so many kingdoms; some of those friends had returned to their +own land, and some had died, proving the impermanence and uncertainty of +life; and today they saw the place where Buddha had lived now unoccupied +by him. They were melancholy through their pain of heart, and the crowd +of monks came out, and asked them from what kingdom they were come. "We +are come," they replied, "from the land of Han." "Strange," said the +monks with a sigh, "that men of a border country should be able to come +here in search of our Law!" Then they said to one another, "During all +the time that we, preceptors and monks, have succeeded to one another, +we have never seen men of Han, followers of our system, arrive here." + +Four li to the northwest of the vihâra there is a grove called "The +Getting of Eyes." Formerly there were five hundred blind men, who lived +here in order that they might be near the vihâra. Buddha preached his +Law to them, and they all got their eyesight. Full of joy, they stuck +their staves in the earth, and with their heads and faces on the ground, +did reverence. The staves immediately began to grow, and they grew to be +great. People made much of them, and no one dared to cut them down, so +that they came to form a grove. It was in this way that it got its name, +and most of the Jetavana monks, after they had taken their mid-day meal, +went to the grove, and sat there in meditation. + +Six or seven li northeast from the Jetavana, mother Vaisakha built +another vihâra, to which she invited Buddha and his monks, and which is +still existing. + +To each of the great residences for the monks at the Jetavana vihâra +there were two gates, one facing the east and the other facing the +north. The park containing the whole was the space of ground which the +Vaisaya head, Sudatta, purchased by covering it with gold coins. The +vihâra was exactly in the centre. Here Buddha lived for a longer time +than at any other place, preaching his Law and converting men. At the +places where he walked and sat they also subsequently reared topes, each +having its particular name; and here was the place where Sundari [5] +murdered a person and then falsely charged Buddha with the crime. +Outside the east gate of the Jetavana, at a distance of seventy paces to +the north, on the west of the road, Buddha held a discussion with the +advocates of the ninety-six schemes of erroneous doctrine, when the king +and his great officers, the householders, and people were all assembled +in crowds to hear it. Then a woman belonging to one of the erroneous +systems, by name Chañchamana, prompted by the envious hatred in her +heart, and having put on extra clothes in front of her person, so as to +give her the appearance of being with child, falsely accused Buddha +before all the assembly of having acted unlawfully towards her. On this, +Sakra, Ruler of Devas, changed himself and some devas into white mice, +which bit through the strings about her waist; and when this was done, +the extra clothes which she wore dropped down on the ground. The earth +at the same time was rent, and she went down alive into hell. This also +is the place where Devadatta, trying with empoisoned claws to injure +Buddha, went down alive into hell. Men subsequently set up marks to +distinguish where both these events took place. + +Further, at the place where the discussion took place, they reared a +vihâra rather more than sixty cubits high, having in it an image of +Buddha in a sitting posture. On the east of the road there was a +devâlaya [6] of one of the contrary systems, called "The Shadow +Covered," right opposite the vihâra on the place of discussion, with +only the road between them, and also rather more than sixty cubits high. +The reason why it was called "The Shadow Covered" was this: When the sun +was in the west, the shadow of the vihâra of the World-honored one fell +on the devâlaya of a contrary system; but when the sun was in the east, +the shadow of that devâlaya was diverted to the north, and never fell on +the vihâra of Buddha. The malbelievers regularly employed men to watch +their devâlaya, to sweep and water all about it, to burn incense, light +the lamps, and present offerings; but in the morning the lamps were +found to have been suddenly removed, and in the vihâra of Buddha. The +Brahmans were indignant, and said, "Those Sramanas take our lamps and +use them for their own service of Buddha, but we will not stop our +service for you!" [7] On that night the Brahmans themselves kept watch, +when they saw the deva spirits which they served take the lamps and go +three times round the vihâra of Buddha and present offerings. After this +administration to Buddha they suddenly disappeared. The Brahmans +thereupon knowing how great was the spiritual power of Buddha, forthwith +left their families, and became monks. It has been handed down, that, +near the time when these things occurred, around the Jetavana vihâra +there were ninety-eight monasteries, in all of which there were monks +residing, excepting only in one place which was vacant. In this Middle +Kingdom there are ninety-six sorts of views, erroneous and different +from our system, all of which recognize this world and the future world +and the connection between them. Each has its multitude of followers, +and they all beg their food: only they do not carry the alms-bowl. They +also, moreover, seek to acquire the blessing of good deeds on +unfrequented ways, setting up on the roadside houses of charity, where +rooms, couches, beds, and food and drink are supplied to travellers, and +also to monks, coming and going as guests, the only difference being in +the time for which those parties remain. + +There are also companies of the followers of Devadatta still existing. +They regularly make offerings to the three previous Buddhas, but not to +Sâkyamuni Buddha. + +Four li southeast from the city of Srâvastî, a tope has been erected at +the place where the World-honored one encountered king Virûdhaha, when +he wished to attack the kingdom of Shay-e, and took his stand before him +at the side of the road. + + +[Footnote 1: Explained by "Path of Love," and "Lord of Life." Prajâpati +was aunt and nurse of Sâkyamuni, the first woman admitted to the +monkhood, and the first superior of the first Buddhistic convent. She is +yet to become a Buddha.] + +[Footnote 2: Sudatta, meaning "almsgiver," was the original name of +Anâtha-pindika, a wealthy householder, or Vaisya head, of Srâvasti, +famous for his liberality. Of his old house, only the well and walls +remained at the time of Fâ-hien's visit to Srâvasti.] + +[Footnote 3: The Angulimâlya were a sect or set of Sivaitic fanatics, +who made assassination a religious act. The one of them here mentioned +had joined them by the force of circumstances. Being converted by +Buddha, he became a monk.] + +[Footnote 4: Ârya, meaning "honorable," "venerable," is a title given +only to those who have mastered the four spiritual truths:--(i) that +"misery" is a necessary condition of all sentient existence; this is +duhka: (ii) that the "accumulation" of misery is caused by the passions; +this is samudaya: (iii) that the "extinction" of passion is possible; +this is nirodha: and (iv) that the "path" leads to the extinction of +passion; which is marga. According to their attainment of these truths, +the Aryas, or followers of Buddha, are distinguished into four +classes--Srotâpannas, Sakridâgamins, Anâgâmins, and Arhats.] + +[Footnote 5: Hsüan-chwang does not give the name of this murderer; see +in Julien's "Vie et Voyages de Hiouen-thsang "--"a heretical Brahman +killed a woman and calumniated Buddha." See also the fuller account in +Beal's "Records of Western Countries," where the murder is committed by +several Brahmacharins. In this passage Beal makes Sundari to be the name +of the murdered person. But the text cannot be so construed.] + +[Footnote 6: A devâlaya is a place in which a deva is worshipped--a +general name for all Brahmanical temples.] + +[Footnote 7: Their speech was somewhat unconnected, but natural enough +in the circumstances. Compare the whole account with the narrative in 1 +Samuel v. about the Ark and Dagon, that "twice-battered god of +Palestine."] + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +~The Three Predecessors of Sâkyamuni~ + + +Fifty li to the west of the city brings the traveller to a town +named Too-wei, the birthplace of Kâsyapa Buddha. At the +place where he and his father met, and at that where he attained +to pari-nirvâna, topes were erected. Over the entire relic +of the whole body of him, the Kâsyapa Tathâgata, a great tope +was also erected. + +Going on southeast from the city of Srâvasti for twelve yojanas, +the travellers came to a town named Na-pei-keâ, the birthplace +of Krakuchanda Buddha. At the place where he and his father met, +and at that where he attained to pari-nirvâna, topes were erected. +Going north from here less than a yojana, they came to a town +which had been the birthplace of Kanakamuni Buddha. At the place +where he and his father met, and where he attained to pari-nirvâna, +topes were erected. + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +~Legends of Buddha's Birth~ + + +Less than a yojana to the east from this brought them to the city of +Kapilavastu; but in it there was neither king nor people. All was mound +and desolation. Of inhabitants there were only some monks and a score or +two of families of the common people. At the spot where stood the old +palace of king Suddhodana there have been made images of his eldest son +and his mother; and at the places where that son appeared mounted on a +white elephant when he entered his mother's womb, and where he turned +his carriage round on seeing the sick man after he had gone out of the +city by the eastern gate, topes have been erected. The places were also +pointed out where the rishi Â-e inspected the marks of Buddhaship on the +body of the heir-apparent when an infant; where, when he was in company +with Nanda and others, on the elephant being struck down and drawn on +one side, he tossed it away; [1] where he shot an arrow to the +southeast, and it went a distance of thirty li, then entering the ground +and making a spring to come forth, which men subsequently fashioned into +a well from which travellers might drink; where, after he had attained +to Wisdom, Buddha returned and saw the king, his father; where five +hundred Sâkyas quitted their families and did reverence to Upâli [2] +while the earth shook and moved in six different ways; where Buddha +preached his Law to the devas, and the four deva kings and others kept +the four doors of the hall, so that even the king, his father, could not +enter; where Buddha sat under a nyagrodha tree, which is still standing, +with his face to the east, and his aunt Mahâ-prajâpati presented him +with a Sanghâli; and where king Vaidûrya slew the seed of Sâkya, and +they all in dying became Srotâpannas. [3] A tope was erected at this +last place, which is still existing. + +Several li northeast from the city was the king's field, where the +heir-apparent sat under a tree, and looked at the ploughers. + +Fifty li east from the city was a garden, named Lumbinî, where the queen +entered the pond and bathed. Having come forth from the pond on the +northern bank, after walking twenty paces, she lifted up her hand, laid +hold of a branch of a tree, and, with her face to the east, gave birth +to the heir-apparent. When he fell to the ground, he immediately walked +seven paces. Two dragon-kings appeared and washed his body. At the place +where they did so, there was immediately formed a well, and from it, as +well as from the above pond, where the queen bathed, the monks even now +constantly take the water, and drink it. + +There are four places of regular and fixed occurrence in the history of +all Buddhas: first, the place where they attained to perfect Wisdom and +became Buddha; second, the place where they turned the wheel of the Law; +third, the place where they preached the Law, discoursed of +righteousness, and discomfited the advocates of erroneous doctrines; and +fourth, the place where they came down, after going up to the +Trayastrimsas heaven to preach the Law for the benefit of their +mothers. Other places in connection with them became remarkable, +according to the manifestations which were made at them at particular +times. + +The country of Kapilavastu is a great scene of empty desolation. The +inhabitants are few and far between. On the roads people have to be on +their guard against white elephants [4] and lions, and should not travel +incautiously. + + +[Footnote 1: The Lichchhavis of Vaisâlî had sent to the young prince a +very fine elephant; but when it was near Kapilavastu, Deva-datta, out of +envy, killed it with a blow of his fist. Nanda (not Ânanda, but a +half-brother of Siddhartha), coming that way, saw the carcass lying on +the road, and pulled it on one side; but the Bodhisattva, seeing it +there, took it by the tail, and tossed it over seven fences and ditches, +when the force of its fall made a great ditch.] + +[Footnote 2: They did this, probably, to show their humility, for Upâli +was only a Sûdra by birth, and had been a barber; so from the first did +Buddhism assert its superiority to the conditions of rank and caste. +Upâli was distinguished by his knowledge of the rules of discipline, and +praised on that account by Buddha. He was one of the three leaders of +the first synod, and the principal compiler of the original Vinaya +books.] + +[Footnote 3: The Srotâpannas are the first class of saints, who are not +to be reborn in a lower sphere, but attain to nirvàna after having been +reborn seven times consecutively as men or devas. The Chinese editions +state there were one thousand of the Sãkya seed. The general account is +that they were five hundred, all maidens, who refused to take their +place in king Vaidurya's harem, and were in consequence taken to a pond, +and had their hands and feet cut off. There Buddha came to them, had +their wounds dressed, and preached to them the Law. They died in the +faith, and were reborn in the region of the four Great Kings. Thence +they came back and visited Buddha at Jetavana in the night, and there +they obtained the reward of Srotâpanna.] + +[Footnote 4: Fâ-hien does not say that he himself saw any of these white +elephants, nor does he speak of the lions as of any particular color. We +shall find by and by, in a note further on, that, to make them appear +more terrible, they are spoken of as "black."] + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +~Legends of Râma and its Tope~ + + +East from Buddha's birthplace, and at a distance of five yojanas, there +is a kingdom called Râma. The king of this country, having obtained one +portion of the relics of Buddha's body, returned with it and built over +it a tope, named the Râma tope. By the side of it there was a pool, and +in the pool a dragon, which constantly kept watch over the tope, and +presented offerings at it day and night. When king Asoka came forth +into the world, he wished to destroy the eight topes over the relics, +and to build instead of them eighty-four thousand topes. [1] After he +had thrown down the seven others, he wished next to destroy this tope. +But then the dragon showed itself, and took the king into its palace; +when he had seen all the things provided for offerings, it said to him, +"If you are able with your offerings to exceed these, you can destroy +the tope, and take it all away. I will not contend with you." The king, +however, knew that such appliances for offerings were not to be had +anywhere in the world, and thereupon returned without carrying out his +purpose. + +Afterwards, the ground all about became overgrown with vegetation, and +there was nobody to sprinkle and sweep about the tope; but a herd of +elephants came regularly, which brought water with their trunks to water +the ground, and various kinds of flowers and incense, which they +presented at the tope. Once there came from one of the kingdoms a +devotee to worship at the tope. When he encountered the elephants he was +greatly alarmed, and screened himself among the trees; but when he saw +them go through with the offerings in the most proper manner, the +thought filled him with great sadness--that there should be no monastery +here, the inmates of which might serve the tope, but the elephants have +to do the watering and sweeping. Forthwith he gave up the great +prohibitions by which he was bound, and resumed the status of a +Srâmanera. With his own hands he cleared away the grass and trees, put +the place in good order, and made it pure and clean. By the power of his +exhortations, he prevailed on the king of the country to form a +residence for monks; and when that was done, he became head of the +monastery. At the present day there are monks residing in it. This event +is of recent occurrence; but in all the succession from that time till +now, there has always been a Srâmanera head of the establishment. + +[Footnote 1: The bones of the human body are supposed to consist of +84,000 atoms, and hence the legend of Asoka's wish to build 84,000 +topes, one over each atom of Sakyamuni's skeleton.] + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +~Where Buddha Renounced the World~ + + +East from here four yojanas, there is the place where the heir-apparent +sent back Chandaka, with his white horse; and there also a tope was +erected. + +Four yojanas to the east from this, the travellers came to the Charcoal +tope, where there is also a monastery. + +Going on twelve yojanas, still to the east, they came to the city of +Kusanagara, on the north of which, between two trees, on the bank of the +Nairañjanâ river, is the place where the World-honored one, with his +head to the north, attained to pan-nirvâna and died. There also are the +places where Subhadra, [1] the last of his converts, attained to Wisdom +and became an Arhat; where in his coffin of gold they made offerings to +the World-honored one for seven days, where the Vajrapâni laid aside his +golden club, and where the eight kings divided the relics of the burnt +body: at all these places were built topes and monasteries, all of which +are now existing. + +In the city the inhabitants are few and far between, comprising only the +families belonging to the different societies of monks. + +Going from this to the southeast for twelve yojanas, they came to the +place where the Lichchhavis wished to follow Buddha to the place of his +pari-nirvâna, and where, when he would not listen to them and they kept +cleaving to him, unwilling to go away, he made to appear a large and +deep ditch which they could not cross over, and gave them his alms-bowl, +as a pledge of his regard, thus sending them back to their families. +There a stone pillar was erected with an account of this event engraved +upon it. + + +[Footnote 1: A Brahman of Benâres, said to have been one hundred and +twenty years old, who came to learn from Buddha the very night he died. +Ânanda would have repulsed him; but Buddha ordered him to be introduced; +and then putting aside the ingenious but unimportant question which he +propounded, preached to him the Law. The Brahman was converted and +attained at once to Arhatship.] + + + +CHAPTER XXV + +~The Kingdom of Vaisâlî~ + + +East from this city ten yojanas, the travellers came to the kingdom of +Vaisâlî. North of the city so named is a large forest, having in it the +double-galleried vihâra where Buddha dwelt, and the tope over half the +body of Ânanda. Inside the city the woman Âmbapâlî [1] built a vihâra in +honor of Buddha, which is now standing as it was at first. Three li +south of the city, on the west of the road, is the garden which the same +Âmbapâlî presented to Buddha, in which he might reside. When Buddha was +about to attain to his pari-nirvâna, as he was quitting the city by the +west gate, he turned round, and, beholding the city on his right, said +to them, "Here I have taken my last walk." Men subsequently built a tope +at this spot. + +Three li northwest of the city there is a tope called, "Bows and weapons +laid down." The reason why it got that name was this: The inferior wife +of a king, whose country lay along the river Ganges, brought forth from +her womb a ball of flesh. The superior wife, jealous of the other, said, +"You have brought forth a thing of evil omen," and immediately it was +put into a box of wood and thrown into the river. Farther down the +stream another king was walking and looking about, when he saw the +wooden box floating in the water. He had it brought to him, opened it, +and found a thousand little boys, upright and complete, and each one +different from the others. He took them and had them brought up. They +grew tall and large, and very daring and strong, crushing all opposition +in every expedition which they undertook. By and by they attacked the +kingdom of their real father, who became in consequence greatly +distressed and sad. His inferior wife asked what it was that made him +so, and he replied, "That king has a thousand sons, daring and strong +beyond compare, and he wishes with them to attack my kingdom; this is +what makes me sad." The wife said, "You need not be sad and sorrowful. +Only make a high gallery on the wall of the city on the east; and when +the thieves come, I shall be able to make them retire." The king did as +she said; and when the enemies came, she said to them from the tower, +"You are my sons; why are you acting so unnaturally and rebelliously?" +They replied, "Who are you that say you are our mother?" "If you do not +believe me," she said, "look, all of you, towards me, and open your +mouths." She then pressed her breasts with her two hands, and each sent +forth five hundred jets of milk, which fell into the mouths of the +thousand sons. The thieves thus knew that she was their mother, and laid +down their bows and weapons. The two kings, the fathers, hereupon fell +into reflection, and both got to be Pratyeka Buddhas. The tope of the +two Pratyeka Buddhas is still existing. + +In a subsequent age, when the World-honored one had attained to perfect +Wisdom and become Buddha, he said to his disciples, "This is the place +where I in a former age laid down my bow and weapons." [2] It was thus +that subsequently men got to know the fact, and raised the tope on this +spot, which in this way received its name. The thousand little boys were +the thousand Buddhas of this Bhadra-kalpa. [3] + +It was by the side of the "Weapons-laid-down" tope that Buddha, having +given up the idea of living longer, said to Ânanda, "In three months +from this I will attain to pari-nirvâna"; and king Mâra [4] had so +fascinated and stupefied Ânanda, that he was not able to ask Buddha to +remain longer in this world. + +Three or four li east from this place there is a tope commemorating the +following occurrence: A hundred years after the pari-nirvâna of Buddha, +some Bhikshus of Vaisâlî went wrong in the matter of the disciplinary +rules in ten particulars, and appealed for their justification to what +they said were the words of Buddha. Hereupon the Arhats and Bhikshus +observant of the rules, to the number in all of seven hundred monks, +examined afresh and collated the collection of disciplinary books [5]. +Subsequently men built at this place the tope in question, which is +still existing. + + +[Footnote 1: Âmbapâlî, Âmrapâlî, or Âmradarikâ, "the guardian of the +Âmra (probably the mango) tree," is famous in Buddhist annals. She was a +courtesan. She had been in many nârakas or hells, was one hundred +thousand times a female beggar, and ten thousand times a prostitute; but +maintaining perfect continence during the period of Kâsyana Buddha, +Sakyamuni's predecessor, she had been born a devî, and finally appeared +in earth under an Âmra tree in Vaisâlî. There again she fell into her +old ways, and had a son by king Bimbisâra; but she was won over by +Buddha to virtue and chastity, renounced the world, and attained to the +state of an Arhat.] + +[Footnote 2: Thus Sâkyamuni had been one of the thousand little boys who +floated in the box in the Ganges. How long back the former age was we +cannot tell. I suppose the tope of the two fathers who became Pratyeka +Buddhas had been built like the one commemorating the laying down of +weapons after Buddha had told his disciples of the strange events in the +past.] + +[Footnote 3: Bhadra-kalpa, "the Kalpa of worthies or sages." "This," +says Eitel, "is a designation for a Kalpa of stability, so-called +because one thousand Buddhas appear in the course of it. Our present +period is a Bhadra-kalpa, and four Buddhas have already appeared. It is +to last two hundred and thirty-six millions of years, but over one +hundred and fifty-one millions have already elapsed."] + +[Footnote 4: "The king of demons." The name Mara is explained by "the +murderer," "the destroyer of virtue," and similar appellations. "He is," +says Eitel, "the personification of lust, the god of love, sin, and +death, the arch-enemy of goodness, residing in the heaven Paranirmita +Vasavartin on the top of the Kamadhatu. He assumes different forms, +especially monstrous ones, to tempt or frighten the saints, or sends his +daughters, or inspires wicked men like Devadatta or the Nirgranthas to +do his work. He is often represented with 100 arms, and riding on an +elephant."] + +[Footnote 5: Or the Vinaya-pitaka. The meeting referred to was an +important one, and is generally spoken of as the second Great Council of +the Buddhist Church. The first Council was that held at Râjagriha, +shortly after Buddha's death, under the presidency of Kâsyapa--say about +B.C. 410. The second was that spoken of here--say about B.C. 300.] + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +~Remarkable Death of Ânanda~ + + +Four yojanas on from this place to the east brought the travellers to +the confluence of the five rivers. When Ânanda was going from Magadha to +Vaisâlî, wishing his pari-nirvâna to take place there, the devas +informed king Ajâtasatru [1] of it, and the king immediately pursued +him, in his own grand carriage, with a body of soldiers, and had reached +the river. On the other hand, the Lichchhavis of Vaisâlî had heard that +Ânanda was coming to their city, and they on their part came to meet +him. In this way, they all arrived together at the river, and Ânanda +considered that, if he went forward, king Ajâtasatru would be very +angry, while, if he went back, the Lichchhavis would resent his conduct. +He thereupon in the very middle of the river burnt his body in a fiery +ecstasy of Samâdhi [2], and his pari-nirvâna was attained. He divided +his body into two parts, leaving one part on each bank; so that each of +the two kings got one part as a sacred relic, and took it back to his +own capital, and there raised a tope over it. + + +[Footnote 1: He was the son of king Bimbisâra, who was one of the first +royal converts to Buddhism. Ajasat murdered his father, or at least +wrought his death; and was at first opposed to Sakyamuni, and a favorer +of Devadotta. When converted, he became famous for his liberality in +almsgiving.] + +[Footnote 2: "Samâdhi," says Eitel, "signifies the highest pitch of +abstract, ecstatic meditation; a state of absolute indifference to all +influences from within or without; a state of torpor of both the +material and spiritual forces of vitality; a sort of terrestrial +Nirvâna, consistently culminating in total destruction of life."] + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +~King Asoka's Spirit-built Palace and Halls~ + + +Having crossed the river, and descended south for a yojana, the +travellers came to the town of Pâtaliputtra [1], in the kingdom of +Magadha, the city where king Asoka ruled. The royal palace and halls +in the midst of the city, which exist now as of old, were all made by +spirits which he employed, and which piled up the stones, reared the +walls and gates, and executed the elegant carving and inlaid +sculpture-work--in a way which no human hands of this world could +accomplish. + +King Asoka had a younger brother who had attained to be an Arhat, and +resided on Gridhra-kûta hill, finding his delight in solitude and quiet. +The king, who sincerely reverenced him, wished and begged him to come +and live in his family, where he could supply all his wants. The other, +however, through his delight in the stillness of the mountain, was +unwilling to accept the invitation, on which the king said to him, "Only +accept my invitation, and I will make a hill for you inside the city." +Accordingly, he provided the materials of a feast, called to him the +spirits, and announced to them, "Tomorrow you will all receive my +invitation; but as there are no mats for you to sit on, let each one +bring his own seat." Next day the spirits came, each one bringing with +him a great rock, like a wall, four or five paces square, for a seat. +When their sitting was over, the king made them form a hill with the +large stones piled on one another, and also at the foot of the hill, +with five large square stones, to make an apartment, which might be more +than thirty cubits long, twenty cubits wide, and more than ten cubits +high. + +In this city there had resided a great Brahman, named Râdha-sâmi, a +professor of the mahâyâna, of clear discernment and much wisdom, who +understood everything, living by himself in spotless purity. The king of +the country honored and reverenced him, and served him as his teacher. +If he went to inquire for and greet him, the king did not presume to sit +down alongside of him; and if, in his love and reverence, he took hold +of his hand, as soon as he let it go, the Brahman made haste to pour +water on it and wash it. He might be more than fifty years old, and all +the kingdom looked up to him. By means of this one man, the Law of +Buddha was widely made-known, and the followers of other doctrines did +not find it in their power to persecute the body of monks in any way. + +By the side of the tope of Asoka, there has been made a mahâyâna +monastery, very grand and beautiful; there is also a hînayâna one; the +two together containing six hundred or seven hundred monks. The rules of +demeanor and the scholastic arrangements in them are worthy of +observation. + +Shamans of the highest virtue from all quarters, and students, inquirers +wishing to find out truth and the grounds of it, all resort to these +monasteries. There also resides in this monastery a Brahman teacher, +whose name also is Mañjusrî, whom the Shamans of greatest virtue in +the kingdom, and the mahâyâna Bhikshus honor and look up to. + +The cities and towns of this country are the greatest of all in the +Middle Kingdom. The inhabitants are rich and prosperous, and vie with +one another in the practice of benevolence and righteousness. Every year +on the eighth day of the second month they celebrate a procession of +images. They make a four-wheeled car, and on it erect a structure of +five stories by means of bamboos tied together. This is supported by a +king-post, with poles and lances slanting from it, and is rather more +than twenty cubits high, having the shape of a tope. White and silk-like +cloth of hair is wrapped all round it, which is then painted in various +colors. They make figures of devas, with gold, silver, and lapis lazuli +grandly blended and having silken streamers and canopies hung out over +them. On the four sides are niches, with a Buddha seated in each, and a +Bodhisattva standing in attendance on him. There may be twenty cars, all +grand and imposing, but each one different from the others. On the day +mentioned, the monks and laity within the borders all come together; +they have singers and skilful musicians: they say their devotions with +flowers and incense. The Brahmans come and invite the Buddhas to enter +the city. These do so in order, and remain two nights in it. All through +the night they keep lamps burning, have skilful music, and present +offerings. This is the practice in all the other kingdoms as well. The +Heads of the Vaisya families in them establish in the cities houses for +dispensing charity and medicines. All the poor and destitute in the +country, orphans, widowers, and childless men, maimed people and +cripples, and all who are diseased, go to those houses, and are provided +with every kind of help, and doctors examine their diseases. They get +the food and medicines which their cases require, and are made to feel +at ease; and when they are better, they go away of themselves. + +When king Asoka destroyed the seven topes, intending to make eighty-four +thousand, the first which he made was the great tope, more than three li +to the south of this city. In front of this there is a footprint of +Buddha, where a vihara has been built. The door of it faces the north, +and on the south of it there is a stone pillar, fourteen or fifteen +cubits in circumference, and more than thirty cubits high, on which +there is an inscription, saying, "Asoka gave the Jambudvipa to the +general body of all the monks, and then redeemed it from them with +money. This he did three times." North from the tope three hundred or +four hundred paces, king Asoka built the city of Ne-le. In it there is a +stone pillar, which also is more than thirty feet high, with a lion on +the top of it. On the pillar there is an inscription recording the +things which led to the building of Ne-le, with the number of the year, +the day, and the month. + + +[Footnote 1: The modern Patna. The Sanscrit name means "The city of +flowers." It is the Indian Florence.] + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +~Râjagriha, New and Old--Legends Connected with It~ + + +The travellers went on from this to the southeast for nine yojanas, and +came to a small solitary rocky hill, at the head or end of which was an +apartment of stone, facing the south--the place where Buddha sat, when +Sakra, Ruler of Devas, brought the deva-musician, Pañchasikha, to give +pleasure to him by playing on his lute. Sakra then asked Buddha about +forty-two subjects, tracing the questions out with his finger one by one +on the rock. The prints of his tracing are still there; and here also +there is a monastery. + +A yojana southwest from this place brought them to the village of Nâla, +where Sâriputtra was born, and to which also he returned, and attained +here his pari-nirvâna. Over the spot where his body was burned there was +built a tope, which is still in existence. + +Another yojana to the west brought them to New Râjagriha--the new city +which was built by king Ajâtasatru. There were two monasteries in it. +Three hundred paces outside the west gate, king Ajâtasatru, having +obtained one portion of the relics of Buddha, built over them a tope, +high, large, grand, and beautiful. Leaving the city by the south gate, +and proceeding south four li, one enters a valley, and comes to a +circular space formed by five hills, which stand all round it, and have +the appearance of the suburban wall of a city. Here was the old city of +king Bimbisâra; from east to west about five or six li, and from north +to south seven or eight. It was here that Sâriputtra and Maudgalyâyana +first saw Upasena [1]; that the Nirgrantha made a pit of fire and +poisoned the rice, and then invited Buddha to eat with him; that king +Ajâtasatru made a black elephant intoxicated with liquor, wishing him to +injure Buddha; and that at the northeast corner of the city in a large +curving space Jîvaka built a vihâra in the garden of Âmbapâlî, and +invited Buddha with his one thousand two hundred and fifty disciples to +it, that he might there make his offerings to support them. These places +are still there as of old, but inside the city all is emptiness and +desolation; no man dwells in it. + +[Footnote 1: One of the five first followers of Sakyamuni. He is also +called Asvajit; in Pali Assaji; but Asvajit seems to be a military +title, "Master or trainer of horses." The two more famous disciples met +him, not to lead him, but to be directed by him, to Buddha.] + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + +~Fâ-Hien Passes a Night on Gridhra-kûta Hill~ + + +Entering the valley, and keeping along the mountains on the southeast, +after ascending fifteen li, the travellers came to mount Gridhra-kûta. +Three li before you reach the top, there is a cavern in the rocks, +facing the south, in which Buddha sat in meditation. Thirty paces to the +northwest there is another, where Ânanda was sitting in meditation, when +the deva Mâra Pisuna, having assumed the form of a large vulture, took +his place in front of the cavern, and frightened the disciple. Then +Buddha, by his mysterious, supernatural power, made a cleft in the rock, +introduced his hand, and stroked Ânanda's shoulder, so that his fear +immediately passed away. The footprints of the bird and the cleft for +Buddha's hand are still there, and hence comes the name of "The Hill of +the Vulture Cavern." + +In front of the cavern there are the places where the four Buddhas sat. +There are caverns also of the Arhats, one where each sat and meditated, +amounting to several hundred in all. At the place where in front of his +rocky apartment Buddha was walking from east to west in meditation, and +Devadatta, from among the beetling cliffs on the north of the mountain, +threw a rock across, and hurt Buddha's toes, the rock is still there. + +The hall where Buddha preached his Law has been destroyed, and only the +foundations of the brick walls remain. On this hill the peak is +beautifully green, and rises grandly up; it is the highest of all the +five hills. In the New City Fâ-hien bought incense-sticks, flowers, oil +and lamps, and hired two bhikshus, long resident at the place, to carry +them to the peak. When he himself got to it, he made his offerings with +the flowers and incense, and lighted the lamps when the darkness began +to come on. He felt melancholy, but restrained his tears and said, "Here +Buddha delivered the Sûrângama Sûtra. I, Fâ-hien, was born when I could +not meet with Buddha; and now I only see the footprints which he has +left, and the place where he lived, and nothing more." With this, in +front of the rock cavern, he chanted the Sûrângama Sûtra, remained there +over the night, and then returned towards the New City. + + + +CHAPTER XXX + +~Srataparna Cave, or Cave of the First Council~ + + +Out from the old city, after walking over three hundred paces, on the +west of the road, the travellers found the Karanda Bamboo garden, where +the old vihâra is still in existence, with a company of monks, who keep +the ground about it swept and watered. + +North of the vihâra two or three li there was the Smasânam, which name +means in Chinese "the field of graves into which the dead are thrown." + +As they kept along the mountain on the south, and went west for three +hundred paces, they found a dwelling among the rocks, named the Pippala +cave, in which Buddha regularly sat in meditation after taking his +mid-day meal. + +Going on still to the west for five or six li, on the north of the hill, +in the shade, they found the cavern called Srataparna, [1] the place +where, after the nirvâna of Buddha, five hundred Arhats collected the +Sûtras. When they brought the Sûtras forth, three lofty seats had been +prepared and grandly ornamented. Sâriputtra occupied the one on the +left, and Maudgalyâyana that on the right. Of the number of five hundred +one was wanting. Mahâkasyapa was president on the middle seat. Ânanda +was then outside the door, and could not get in. At the place there was +subsequently raised a tope, which is still existing. + +Along the sides of the hill, there are also a very great many cells +among the rocks, where the various Arhans sat and meditated. As you +leave the old city on the north, and go down east for three li, there is +the rock dwelling of Devadatta, and at a distance of fifty paces from it +there is a large, square, black rock. Formerly there was a bhikshu, who, +as he walked backwards and forwards upon it, thought with +himself:--"This body is impermanent, a thing of bitterness and vanity, +and which cannot be looked on as pure. I am weary of this body, and +troubled by it as an evil." With this he grasped a knife, and was about +to kill himself. But he thought again:--"The World-honored one laid down +a prohibition against one's killing himself." [2] Further it occurred to +him:--"Yes, he did; but I now only wish to kill three poisonous +thieves." Immediately with the knife he cut his throat. With the first +gash into the flesh he attained the state of a Srotâpanna; when he had +gone half through, he attained to be an Anâgâmin; and when he had cut +right through, he was an Arhat, and attained to pari-nirvâna, and died. + + +[Footnote 1: A very great place in the annals of Buddhism. The Council +in the Srataparna cave did not come together fortuitously, but appears +to have been convoked by the older members to settle the rules and +doctrines of the order. The cave was prepared for the occasion by king +Ajâtasatru.] + +[Footnote 2: Buddha made a law forbidding the monks to commit suicide. +He prohibited any one from discoursing on the miseries of life in such a +manner as to cause desperation.] + + + +CHAPTER XXXI + +~Sâkyamuni's Attaining to the Buddhaship~ + + +From this place, after travelling to the west for four yojanas, the +pilgrims came to the city of Gayâ; but inside the city all was emptiness +and desolation. Going on again to the south for twenty li, they arrived +at the place where the Bodhisattva for six years practised with himself +painful austerities. All around was forest. + +Three li west from here they came to the place where, when Buddha had +gone into the water to bathe, a deva bent down the branch of a tree, by +means of which he succeeded in getting out of the pool. + +Two li north from this was the place where the Grâmika girls presented +to Buddha the rice-gruel made with milk; and two li north from this was +the place where, seated on a rock under a great tree, and facing the +east, he ate the gruel. The tree and the rock are there at the present +day. The rock may be six cubits in breadth and length, and rather more +than two cubits in height. In Central India the cold and heat are so +equally tempered that trees live for several thousand and even for ten +thousand years. + +Half a yojana from this place to the northeast there was a cavern in the +rocks, into which the Bodhisattva entered, and sat cross-legged with his +face to the west. As he did so, he said to himself, "If I am to attain +to perfect wisdom and become Buddha, let there be a supernatural +attestation of it." On the wall of the rock there appeared immediately +the shadow of a Buddha, rather more than three feet in length, which is +still bright at the present day. At this moment heaven and earth were +greatly moved, and devas in the air spoke plainly, "This is not the +place where any Buddha of the past, or he that is to come, has attained, +or will attain, to perfect Wisdom. Less than half a yojana from this to +the southwest will bring you to the patra tree, where all past Buddhas +have attained, and all to come must attain, to perfect Wisdom." When +they had spoken these words, they immediately led the way forward to the +place, singing as they did so. As they thus went away, the Bodhisattva +arose and walked after them. At a distance of thirty paces from the +tree, a deva gave him the grass of lucky omen, which he received and +went on. After he had proceeded fifteen paces, five hundred green birds +came flying towards him, went round him thrice, and disappeared. The +Bodhisattva went forward to the patra tree, placed the kusa grass at the +foot of it, and sat down with his face to the east. Then king Mâra sent +three beautiful young ladies, who came from the north, to tempt him, +while he himself came from the south to do the same. The Bodhisattva put +his toes down on the ground, and the demon soldiers retired and +dispersed, and the three young ladies were changed into old +grandmothers. + +At the place mentioned above of the six years' painful austerities, and +at all these other places, men subsequently reared topes and set up +images, which all exist at the present day. + +Where Buddha, after attaining to perfect Wisdom, for seven days +contemplated the tree, and experienced the joy of vimukti; where, under +the patra tree, he walked to and fro from west to east for seven days; +where the devas made a hall appear, composed of the seven precious +substances, and presented offerings to him for seven days; where the +blind dragon Muchilinda [1] encircled him for seven days; where he sat +under the nyagrodha tree, on a square rock, with his face to the east, +and Brahma-deva came and made his request to him; where the four deva +kings brought to him their alms-bowls; where the five hundred merchants +presented to him the roasted flour and honey; and where he converted the +brothers Kasyapa and their thousand disciples;--at all these places +topes were reared. + +At the place where Buddha attained to perfect Wisdom, there are three +monasteries, in all of which there are monks residing. The families of +their people around supply the societies of these monks with an abundant +sufficiency of what they require, so that there is no lack or stint. The +disciplinary rules are strictly observed by them. The laws regulating +their demeanor in sitting, rising, and entering when the others are +assembled, are those which have been practised by all the saints since +Buddha was in the world down to the present day. The places of the four +great topes have been fixed, and handed down without break, since Buddha +attained to nirvâna. Those four great topes are those at the places +where Buddha was born; where he attained to Wisdom; where he began to +move the wheel of his Law; and where he attained to pari-nirvâna. + + +[Footnote 1: Called also Maha, or the Great Muchilinda. Eitel says: "A +naga king, the tutelary deity of a lake near which Sakyamuni once sat +for seven days absorbed in meditation, whilst the king guarded him." The +account in "The Life of the Buddha" is:--"Buddha went to where +lived the naga king Muchilinda, and he, wishing to preserve him from the +sun and rain, wrapped his body seven times round him, and spread out his +hood over his head; and there he remained seven days in thought."] + + + +CHAPTER XXXII + +~Legend of King Asoka in a Former Birth~ + + +When king Asoka, in a former birth, was a little boy and playing on the +road, he met Kasyapa Buddha walking. The stranger begged food, and the +boy pleasantly took a handful of earth and gave it to him. The Buddha +took the earth, and returned it to the ground on which he was walking; +but because of this the boy received the recompense of becoming a king +of the iron wheel, to rule over Jambudvîpa. Once when he was making a +judicial tour of inspection through Jambudvîpa, he saw, between the iron +circuit of the two hills, a naraka for the punishment of wicked men. +Having thereupon asked his ministers what sort of a thing it was, they +replied, "It belongs to Yama, [1] king of demons, for punishing wicked +people." The king thought within himself:--"Even the king of demons is +able to make a naraka in which to deal with wicked men; why should not +I, who am the lord of men, make a naraka in which to deal with wicked +men?" He forthwith asked his ministers who could make for him a naraka +and preside over the punishment of wicked people in it. They replied +that it was only a man of extreme wickedness who could make it; and the +king thereupon sent officers to seek everywhere for such a bad man; and +they saw by the side of a pond a man tall and strong, with a black +countenance, yellow hair, and green eyes, hooking up the fish with his +feet, while he called to him birds and beasts, and, when they came, then +shot and killed them, so that not one escaped. Having got this man, they +took him to the king, who secretly charged him, "You must make a square +enclosure with high walls. Plant in it all kinds of flowers and fruits; +make good ponds in it for bathing; make it grand and imposing in every +way, so that men shall look to it with thirsting desire; make its gates +strong and sure; and when any one enters, instantly seize him and punish +him as a sinner, not allowing him to get out. Even if I should enter, +punish me as a sinner in the same way, and do not let me go. I now +appoint you master of that naraka." + +Soon after this a bhikshu, pursuing his regular course of begging his +food, entered the gate of the place. When the lictors of the naraka saw +him, they were about to subject him to their tortures; but he, +frightened, begged them to allow him a moment in which to eat his +mid-day meal. Immediately after, there came in another man, whom they +thrust into a mortar and pounded till a red froth overflowed. As the +bhikshu looked on, there came to him the thought of the impermanence, +the painful suffering and inanity of this body, and how it is but as a +bubble and as foam; and instantly he attained to Arhatship. Immediately +after, the lictors seized him, and threw him into a caldron of boiling +water. There was a look of joyful satisfaction, however, in the +bhikshu's countenance. The fire was extinguished, and the water became +cold. In the middle of the caldron there rose up a lotus flower, with +the bhikshu seated on it. The lictors at once went and reported to the +king that there was a marvellous occurrence in the naraka, and wished +him to go and see it; but the king said, "I formerly made such an +agreement that now I dare not go to the place." The lictors said, "This +is not a small matter. Your Majesty ought to go quickly. Let your former +agreement be altered." The king thereupon followed them, and entered the +naraka, when the bhikshu preached the Law to him, and he believed, and +was made free. Forthwith he demolished the naraka, and repented of all +the evil which he had formerly done. From this time he believed in and +honored the Three Precious Ones, and constantly went to a patra tree, +repenting under it, with self-reproach, of his errors, and accepting the +eight rules of abstinence. + +The queen asked where the king was constantly going to, and the +ministers replied that he was constantly to be seen under such and such +a patra tree. She watched for a time when the king was not there, and +then sent men to cut the tree down. When the king came, and saw what had +been done, he swooned away with sorrow, and fell to the ground. His +ministers sprinkled water on his face, and after a considerable time he +revived. He then built all round the stump with bricks, and poured a +hundred pitchers of cows' milk on the roots; and as he lay with his four +limbs spread out on the ground, he took this oath, "If the tree do not +live, I will never rise from this." When he had uttered this oath, the +tree immediately began to grow from the roots, and it has continued to +grow till now, when it is nearly one hundred cubits in height. + + +[Footnote 1: Yama was originally the Âryan god of the dead, living in a +heaven above the world, the regent of the south; but Brahmanism +transferred his abode to hell. Both views have been retained by +Buddhism. The Yama of the text is the "regent of the narakas, residing +south of Jambudvîpa, outside the Chakravâlas (the double circuit of +mountains above), in a palace built of brass and iron. He has a sister +who controls all the female culprits, as he exclusively deals with the +male sex. Three times, however, in every twenty-four hours, a demon +pours boiling copper into Yama's mouth, and squeezes it down his throat, +causing him unspeakable pain." Such, however, is the wonderful +"transrotation of births," that when Yama's sins have been expiated, he +is to be reborn as Buddha, under the name of "The Universal King."] + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII + +~Kasyapa Buddha's Skeleton on Mount Gurupada~ + + +The travellers, going on from this three li to the south, came to a +mountain named Gurupada, inside which Mahâkasyapa even now is. He made a +cleft, and went down into it, though the place where he entered would +not now admit a man. Having gone down very far, there was a hole on one +side, and there the complete body of Kasyapa still abides. Outside the +hole at which he entered is the earth with which he had washed his +hands. If the people living thereabouts have a sore on their heads, they +plaster on it some of the earth from this, and feel immediately easier. +On this mountain, now as of old, there are Arhats abiding. Devotees of +our Law from the various countries in that quarter go year by year to +the mountain, and present offerings to Kasyapa; and to those whose +hearts are strong in faith there come Arhats at night, and talk with +them, discussing and explaining their doubts, and disappearing suddenly +afterwards. + +On this hill hazels grow luxuriantly; and there are many lions, tigers, +and wolves, so that people should not travel incautiously. + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV + +~On the Way Returning to Patna~ + + +Fâ-Hien returned from here towards Pâtaliputtra, keeping along the +course of the Ganges and descending in the direction of the west. After +going ten yojanas he found a vihâra, named "The Wilderness"--a place +where Buddha had dwelt, and where there are monks now. + +Pursuing the same course, and going still to the west, he arrived, after +twelve yojanas, at the city of Vârânasî in the kingdom of Kâsî. Rather +more than ten li to the northeast of the city, he found the vihâra in +the park of "The rishi's Deer-wild." [1] In this park there formerly +resided a Pratyeka Buddha, with whom the deer were regularly in the +habit of stopping for the night. When the World-honored one was about to +attain to perfect Wisdom, the devas sang in the sky, "The son of king +Suddhodana, having quitted his family and studied the Path of Wisdom, +will now in seven days become Buddha." The Pratyeka Buddha heard their +words, and immediately attained to nirvâna; and hence this place was +named "The Park of the rishi's Deer-wild." After the World-honored one +had attained to perfect Wisdom, men built the vihâra in it. + +Buddha wished to convert Kaundinya and his four companions; but they, +being aware of his intention, said to one another, "This Sramana Gotama +[2] for six years continued in the practice of painful austerities, +eating daily only a single hemp-seed, and one grain of rice, without +attaining to the Path of Wisdom; how much less will he do so now that he +has entered again among men, and is giving the reins to the indulgence +of his body, his speech, and his thoughts! What has he to do with the Path +of Wisdom? To-day, when he comes to us, let us be on our guard not to +speak with him." At the places where the five men all rose up, and +respectfully saluted Buddha, when he came to them; where, sixty paces +north from this, he sat with his face to the east, and first turned the +wheel of the Law, converting Kaundinya and the four others; where, +twenty paces further to the north, he delivered his prophecy concerning +Maitreya; and where, at a distance of fifty paces to the south, the +dragon Elâpattra asked him, "When shall I get free from this nâga +body?"--at all these places topes were reared, and are still existing. +In the park there are two monasteries, in both of which there are monks +residing. + +When you go northwest from the vihâra of the Deer-wild park for thirteen +yojanas, there is a kingdom named Kausâmbi. Its vihâra is named +Ghochiravana--a place where Buddha formerly resided. Now, as of old, +there is a company of monks there, most of whom are students of the +hînayâna. + +East from this, when you have travelled eight yojanas, is the place +where Buddha converted the evil demon. There, and where he walked in +meditation and sat at the place which was his regular abode, there have +been topes erected. There is also a monastery, which may contain more +than a hundred monks. + + +[Footnote 1: "The rishi," says Eitel, "is a man whose bodily frame has +undergone a certain transformation by dint of meditation and asceticism, +so that he is, for an indefinite period, exempt from decrepitude, age, +and death. As this period is believed to extend far beyond the usual +duration of human life, such persons are called, and popularly believed +to be, immortals." Rishis are divided into various classes; and +rishi-ism is spoken of as a seventh path of transrotation, and rishis +are referred to as the seventh class of sentient beings.] + +[Footnote 2: This is the only instance in Fâ-hien's text where the +Bodhisattva or Buddha is called by the surname "Gotama." For the most +part our traveller uses Buddha as a proper name, though it properly +means "The Enlightened." He uses also the combinations "Sâkya Buddha," +which means "The Buddha of the Sâkya tribe," and "Sâkyamuni," which +means "The Sâkya sage." This last is the most common designation of the +Buddha in China. Among other Buddhistic peoples "Gotama" and "Gotama +Buddha" are the more frequent designations.] + + + +CHAPTER XXXV + +~Dakshina, and the Pigeon Monastery~ + + +South from this two hundred yojanas, there is a country named Dakshina, +where there is a monastery dedicated to the by-gone Kasyapa Buddha, and +which has been hewn out from a large hill of rock. It consists in all of +five stories;--the lowest, having the form of an elephant, with five +hundred apartments in the rock; the second, having the form of a lion, +with four hundred apartments; the third, having the form of a horse, +with three hundred apartments; the fourth, having the form of an ox, +with two hundred apartments; and the fifth, having the form of a pigeon, +with one hundred apartments. At the very top there is a spring, the +water of which, always in front of the apartments in the rock, goes +round among the rooms, now circling, now curving, till in this way it +arrives at the lowest story, having followed the shape of the structure, +and flows out there at the door. Everywhere in the apartments of the +monks, the rock has been pierced so as to form windows for the admission +of light, so that they are all bright, without any being left in +darkness. At the four corners of the tiers of apartments, the rock has +been hewn so as to form steps for ascending to the top of each. The men +of the present day, being of small size, and going up step by step, +manage to get to the top; but in a former age they did so at one step. +Because of this, the monastery is called Paravata, that being the Indian +name for a pigeon. There are always Arhats residing in it. + +The country about is a tract of uncultivated hillocks, without +inhabitants. At a very long distance from the hill there are villages, +where the people all have bad and erroneous views, and do not know the +Sramanas of the Law of Buddha, Brahmanas, or devotees of any of the +other and different schools. The people of that country are constantly +seeing men on the wing, who come and enter this monastery. On one +occasion, when devotees of various countries came to perform their +worship at it, the people of those villages said to them, "Why do you +not fly? The devotees whom we have seen hereabouts all fly"; and the +strangers answered, on the spur of the moment, "Our wings are not yet +fully formed." + +The kingdom of Dakshina is out of the way, and perilous to traverse. +There are difficulties in connection with the roads; but those who know +how to manage such difficulties and wish to proceed should bring with +them money and various articles, and give them to the king. He will then +send men to escort them. These will, at different stages, pass them over +to others, who will show them the shortest routes. Fâ-hien, however, was +after all unable to go there; but having received the above accounts +from men of the country, he has narrated them. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI + +~Fâ-Hien's Indian Studies~ + + +From Vârânasî the travellers went back east to Pâtaliputtra. Fâ-hien's +original object had been to search for copies of the Vinaya. In the +various kingdoms of North India, however, he had found one master +transmitting orally the rules to another, but no written copies which he +could transcribe. He had therefore travelled far and come on to Central +India. Here, in the mahâyâna monastery, he found a copy of the Vinaya, +containing the Mahâsânghikâ [1] rules--those which were observed in the +first Great Council, while Buddha was still in the world. The original +copy was handed down in the Jetavana vihâra. As to the other eighteen +schools, each one has the views and decisions of its own masters. Those +agree with this in the general meaning, but they have small and trivial +differences, as when one opens and another shuts. This copy of the +rules, however, is the most complete, with the fullest explanations. [2] + +He further got a transcript of the rules in six or seven thousand +gâthas, [3] being the sarvâstivâdâh [4] rules--those which are observed +by the communities of monks in the land of Ts'in; which also have all +been handed down orally from master to master without being committed to +writing. In the community here, moreover, he got the +Samyuktâbhi-dharma-hridaya-sâstra, containing about six or seven +thousand gâthas; he also got a Sûtra of two thousand five hundred +gâthas; one chapter of the Pari-nirvâna-vaipulya Sûtra, of about five +thousand gâthas; and the Mahâsânghikâ Abhidharma. + +In consequence of this success in his quest Fâ-hien stayed here for +three years, learning Sanscrit books and the Sanscrit speech, and +writing out, the Vinaya rules. When Tâo-ching arrived in the Central +Kingdom, and saw the rules observed by the Sramanas, and the dignified +demeanor in their societies which he remarked under all occurring +circumstances, he sadly called to mind in what a mutilated and imperfect +condition the rules were among the monkish communities in the land of +Ts'in, and made the following aspiration: "From this time forth till I +come to the state of Buddha, let me not be born in a frontier-land." He +remained accordingly in India, and did not return to the land of Han. +Fâ-hien, however, whose original purpose had been to secure the +introduction of the complete Vinaya rules into the land of Han, returned +there alone. + + +[Footnote 1: Mahâsânghikâ simply means "the Great Assembly," that is, of +monks.] + +[Footnote 2: It was afterwards translated by Fâ-hien into Chinese.] + +[Footnote 3: A gâtha is a stanza, generally consisting of a few, +commonly of two, lines somewhat metrically arranged.] + +[Footnote 4: "A branch," says Eitel, "of the great vaibhâshika school, +asserting the reality of all visible phenomena, and claiming the +authority of Râhula."] + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII + +~Fâ-hien's Stay in Champâ and Tâmaliptî~ + + +Following the course of the Ganges, and descending eastward for eighteen +yojanas, he found on the southern bank the great kingdom of Champâ, with +topes reared at the places where Buddha walked in meditation by his +vihâra, and where he and the three Buddhas, his predecessors, sat. There +were monks residing at them all. Continuing his journey east for nearly +fifty yojanas, he came to the country of Tâmaliptî, the capital of which +is a seaport. In the country there are twenty-two monasteries, at all of +which there are monks residing. The Law of Buddha is also flourishing in +it. Here Fâ-hien stayed two years, writing out his Sûtras, and drawing +pictures of images. + +After this he embarked in a large merchant-vessel, and went floating +over the sea to the southwest. It was the beginning of winter, and the +wind was favorable; and, after fourteen days, sailing day and night, +they came to the country of Singhala. The people said that it was +distant from Tâmaliptî about seven hundred yojanas. + +The kingdom is on a large island, extending from east to west fifty +yojanas, and from north to south thirty. Left and right from it there +are as many as one hundred small islands, distant from one another ten, +twenty, or even two hundred li; but all subject to the large island. +Most of them produce pearls and precious stones of various kinds; there +is one which produces the pure and brilliant pearl--an island which +would form a square of about ten li. The king employs men to watch and +protect it, and requires three out of every ten pearls which the +collectors find. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII + +~At Ceylon--Feats of Buddha--His Statue in Jade~ + + +The country originally had no human inhabitants, but was occupied only +by spirits and nâgas, with which merchants of various countries carried +on a trade. When the trafficking was taking place, the spirits did not +show themselves. They simply set forth their precious commodities, with +labels of the price attached to them; while the merchants made their +purchases according to the price; and took the things away. + +Through the coming and going of the merchants in this way, when they +went away, the people of their various countries heard how pleasant the +land was, and flocked to it in numbers till it became a great nation. +The climate is temperate and attractive, without any difference of +summer and winter. The vegetation is always luxuriant. Cultivation +proceeds whenever men think fit: there are no fixed seasons for it. + +When Buddha came to this country, wishing to transform the wicked nâgas +by his supernatural power, he planted one foot at the north of the royal +city, and the other on the top of a mountain, [1] the two being fifteen +yojanas apart. Over the footprint at the north of the city the king +built a large tope, four hundred cubits high, grandly adorned with gold +and silver, and finished with a combination of all the precious +substances. By the side of the tope he further built a monastery, called +the Abhayagiri, where there are now five thousand monks. There is in it +a hall of Buddha, adorned with carved and inlaid work of gold and +silver, and rich in the seven precious substances, in which there is an +image of Buddha in green jade, more than twenty cubits in height, +glittering all over with those substances, and having an appearance of +solemn dignity which words cannot express. In the palm of the right hand +there is a priceless pearl. Several years had now elapsed since Fâ-hien +left the land of Han; the men with whom he had been in intercourse had +all been of regions strange to him; his eyes had not rested on an old +and familiar hill or river, plant or tree: his fellow-travellers, +moreover, had been separated from him, some by death, and others flowing +off in different directions; no face or shadow was now with him but his +own, and a constant sadness was in his heart. Suddenly one day, when by +the side of this image of jade, he saw a merchant presenting as his +offering a fan of white silk; [2] and the tears of sorrow involuntarily +filled his eyes and fell down. + +A former king of the country had sent to Central India and got a slip of +the patra tree, which he planted by the side of the hall of Buddha, +where a tree grew up to the height of about two hundred cubits. As it +bent on one side towards the southeast, the king, fearing it would fall, +propped it with a post eight or nine spans around. The tree began to +grow at the very heart of the prop, where it met the trunk; a shoot +pierced through the post, and went down to the ground, where it entered +and formed roots, that rose to the surface and were about four spans +round. Although the post was split in the middle, the outer portions +kept hold of the shoot, and people did not remove them. Beneath the tree +there has been built a vihâra, in which there is an image of Buddha +seated, which the monks and commonalty reverence and look up to without +ever becoming wearied. In the city there has been reared also the vihâra +of Buddha's tooth, in which, as well as on the other, the seven precious +substances have been employed. + +The king practises the Brahmanical purifications, and the sincerity of +the faith and reverence of the population inside the city are also +great. Since the establishment of government in the kingdom there has +been no famine or scarcity, no revolution or disorder. In the treasuries +of the monkish communities there are many precious stones, and the +priceless manis. One of the kings once entered one of those treasuries, +and when he looked all round and saw the priceless pearls, his covetous +greed was excited, and he wished to take them to himself by force. In +three days, however, he came to himself, and immediately went and bowed +his head to the ground in the midst of the monks, to show his repentance +of the evil thought. As a sequel to this, he informed the monks of what +had been in his mind, and desired them to make a regulation that from +that day forth the king should not be allowed to enter the treasury and +see what it contained, and that no bhikshu should enter it till after he +had been in orders for a period of full forty years. + +In the city there are many Vaisya elders and Sabaean merchants, whose +houses are stately and beautiful. The lanes and passages are kept in +good order. At the heads of the four principal streets there have been +built preaching halls, where, on the eighth, fourteenth, and fifteenth +days of the month, they spread carpets, and set forth a pulpit, while +the monks and commonalty from all quarters come together to hear the +Law. The people say that in the kingdom there may be altogether sixty +thousand monks, who get their food from their common stores. The king, +besides, prepares elsewhere in the city a common supply of food for five +or six thousand more. When any want, they take their great bowls, and go +to the place of distribution, and take as much as the vessels will hold, +all returning with them full. + +The tooth of Buddha is always brought forth in the middle of the third +month. Ten days beforehand the king grandly caparisons a large elephant, +on which he mounts a man who can speak distinctly, and is dressed in +royal robes, to beat a large drum, and make the following proclamation: +"The Bodhisattva, during three Asankhyeya-kalpas, [3] manifested his +activity, and did not spare his own life. He gave up kingdom, city, +wife, and son; he plucked out his eyes and gave them to another; he cut +off a piece of his flesh to ransom the life of a dove; he cut off his +head and gave it as an alms; he gave his body to feed a starving +tigress; he grudged not his marrow and brains. In many such ways as +these did he undergo pain for the sake of all living. And so it was, +that, having become Buddha, he continued in the world for forty-five +years, preaching his Law, teaching and transforming, so that those who +had no rest found rest, and the unconverted were converted. When his +connection with the living was completed, he attained to pari-nirvana +and died. Since that event, for one thousand four hundred and +ninety-seven years, the light of the world has gone out, and all living +things have had long-continued sadness. Behold! ten days after this, +Buddha's tooth will be brought forth, and taken to the Abhayagiri +-vihâra. Let all and each, whether monks or laics, who wish to amass +merit for themselves, make the roads smooth and in good condition, +grandly adorn the lanes and by-ways, and provide abundant store of +flowers and incense to be used as offerings to it." + +When this proclamation is over, the king exhibits, so as to line both +sides of the road, the five hundred different bodily forms in which the +Bodhisattva has in the course of his history appeared:--here as Sudâna, +there as Sâma; now as the king of elephants, and then as a stag or a +horse. All these figures are brightly colored and grandly executed, +looking as if they were alive. After this the tooth of Buddha is brought +forth, and is carried along in the middle of the road. Everywhere on the +way offerings are presented to it, and thus it arrives at the hall of +Buddha in the Abhayagiri-vihâra. There monks and laics are collected in +crowds. They burn incense, light lamps, and perform all the prescribed +services, day and night without ceasing, till ninety days have been +completed, when the tooth is returned to the vihâra within the city. On +fast-days the door of that vihâra is opened, and the forms of ceremonial +reverence are observed according to the rules. + +Forty li to the east of the Abhayagiri-vihâra there is a hill, with a +vihâra on it, called the Chaitya, where there may be two thousand monks. +Among them there is a Sramana of great virtue, named Dharma-gupta, +honored and looked up to by all the kingdom. He has lived for more than +forty years in an apartment of stone, constantly showing such gentleness +of heart, that he has brought snakes and rats to stop together in the +same room, without doing one another any harm. + + +[Footnote 1: This would be what is known as "Adam's peak," having, +according to Hardy, the three names of Selesumano, Samastakûta, and +Samanila. There is an indentation on the top of it, a superficial +hollow, 5 feet 3 3/4 inches long, and 2 1/2 feet wide. The Hindus regard +it as the footprint of Siva; the Mohammedans, as that of Adam; and the +Buddhists, as in the text--as having been, made by Buddha.] + +[Footnote 2: We naturally suppose that the merchant-offerer was a +Chinese, as indeed the Chinese texts say, and the fan such as Fâ-hien +had seen and used in his native land.] + +[Footnote 3: A Kalpa, we have seen, denotes a great period of time; a +period during which a physical universe is formed and destroyed. +Asankhyeya denotes the highest sum for which a conventional term +exists--according to Chinese calculations equal to one followed by +seventeen ciphers; according to Thibetan and Singhalese, equal to one +followed by ninety-seven ciphers. Every Maha-kalpa consists of four +Asankhye-yakalpas.] + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX + +~Cremation of an Arhat--Sermon of a Devotee~ + + +South of the city seven li there is a vihâra, called the Mahâ-vihâra, +where three thousand monks reside. There had been among them a Sramana, +of such lofty virtue, and so holy and pure in his observance of the +disciplinary rules, that the people all surmised that he was an Arhat. +When he drew near his end, the king came to examine into the point; and +having assembled the monks according to rule, asked whether the bhikshu +had attained to the full degree of Wisdom. They answered in the +affirmative, saying that he was an Arhat. The king accordingly, when he +died, buried him after the fashion of an Arhat, as the regular rules +prescribed. Four or five li east from the vihâra there was reared a +great pile of firewood, which might be more than thirty cubits square, +and the same in height. Near the top were laid sandal, aloe, and other +kinds of fragrant wood. + +On the four sides of the pile they made steps by which to ascend it. +With clean white hair-cloth, almost like silk, they wrapped the body +round and round. They made a large carriage-frame, in form like our +funeral car, but without the dragons and fishes. + +At the time of the cremation, the king and the people, in multitudes +from all quarters, collected together, and presented offerings of +flowers and incense. While they were following the car to the +burial-ground, the king himself presented flowers and incense. When this +was finished, the car was lifted on the pile, all over which oil of +sweet basil was poured, and then a light was applied. While the fire was +blazing, every one, with a reverent heart, pulled off his upper garment, +and threw it, with his feather-fan and umbrella, from a distance into +the midst of the flames, to assist the burning. When the cremation was +over, they collected and preserved the bones, and proceeded to erect a +tope. Fâ-hien had not arrived in time to see the distinguished Shaman +alive, and only saw his burial. + +At that time the king, who was a sincere believer in the Law of Buddha +and wished to build a new vihâra for the monks, first convoked a great +assembly. After giving the monks a meal of rice, and presenting his +offerings on the occasion, he selected a pair of first-rate oxen, the +horns of which were grandly decorated with gold, silver, and the +precious substances. A golden plough had been provided, and the king +himself turned up a furrow on the four sides of the ground within which +the building was to be. He then endowed the community of the monks with +the population, fields, and houses, writing the grant on plates of +metal, to the effect that from that time onwards, from generation to +generation, no one should venture to annul or alter it. + +In this country Fâ-hien heard an Indian devotee, who was reciting a +Sûtra from the pulpit, say: "Buddha's alms-bowl was at first in Vaisâlî, +and now it is in Gandhâra. After so many hundred years (he gave, when +Fâ-hien heard him, the exact number of years, but he has forgotten it), +it will go to Western Tukhâra; after so many hundred years, to Khoten; +after so many hundred years, to Kharachar; after so many hundred years, +to the land of Han; after so many hundred years, it will come to +Sinhala; and after so many hundred years, it will return to Central +India. After that, it will ascend to the Tushita heaven; and when the +Bodhisattva Maitreya sees it, he will say with a sigh, 'The alms-bowl of +Sâkyamuni Buddha is come'; and with all the devas he will present to it +flowers and incense for seven days. When these have expired, it will +return to Jambudvîpa, where it will be received by the king of the sea +nâgas, and taken into his nâga palace. When Maitreya shall be about to +attain to perfect Wisdom and become Buddha, it will again separate into +four bowls, which will return to the top of mount Anna, whence they +came. After Maitreya has become Buddha, the four deva kings will again +think of the Buddha with their bowls as they did in the case of the +previous Buddha. The thousand Buddhas of this Bhadra-kalpa, indeed, will +all use the same alms-bowl; and when the bowl has disappeared, the Law +of Buddha will go on gradually to be extinguished. After that extinction +has taken place, the life of man will be shortened, till it is only a +period of five years. During this period of a five years' life, rice, +butter, and oil will all vanish away, and men will become exceedingly +wicked. The grass and trees which they lay hold of will change into +swords and clubs, with which they will hurt, cut, and kill one another. +Those among them on whom there is blessing will withdraw from society +among the hills; and when the wicked have exterminated one another, they +will again come forth, and say among themselves, 'The men of former +times enjoyed a very great longevity; but through becoming exceedingly +wicked, and doing all lawless things, the length of our life has been +shortened and reduced even to five years. Let us now unite together in +the practice of what is good, cherishing a gentle and sympathizing +heart, and carefully cultivating good faith and righteousness. When each +one in this way practises that faith and righteousness, life will go on +to double its length till it reaches eighty thousand years. When +Maitreya appears in the world, and begins to turn the wheel of this Law, +he will in the first place save those among the disciples of the Law +left by the Sâkya who have quitted their families, and those who have +accepted the three Refuges, undertaken the five Prohibitions and the +eight Abstinences, and given offerings to the Three Precious Ones; +secondly and thirdly, he will save those between whom and conversion +there is a connection transmitted from the past.'" [1] + +Such was the discourse, and Fâ-hien wished to write it down as a portion +of doctrine; but the man said, "This is taken from no Sûtra, it is only +the utterance of my own mind." + + +[Footnote 1: That is, those whose Karma in the past should be rewarded +by such conversion in the present.] + + + +CHAPTER XL + +~After Two Years Fâ-hien Takes Ship for China~ + + +Fâ-hien abode in this country two years; and, in addition to his +acquisitions in Patna, succeeded in getting a copy of the Vinaya-pitaka +of the Mahîsâsakâh school; the Dîrghâgama and Samyuktâgama Sûtras; and +also the Samyukta-sañchaya-pitaka;--all being works unknown in the land +of Han. Having obtained these Sanscrit works, he took passage in a large +merchantman, on board of which there were more than two hundred men, and +to which was attached by a rope a smaller vessel, as a provision against +damage or injury to the large one from the perils of the navigation. +With a favorable wind, they proceeded eastward for three days, and then +they encountered a great wind. The vessel sprang a leak and the water +came in. The merchants wished to go to the smaller vessel; but the men +on board it, fearing that too many would come, cut the connecting rope. +The merchants were greatly alarmed, feeling their risk of instant death. +Afraid that the vessel would fill, they took their bulky goods and threw +them into the water. Fâ-hien also took his pitcher and washing-basin, +with some other articles, and cast them into the sea; but fearing that +the merchants would cast overboard his books and images, he could only +think with all his heart of Kwan-she-yin, and commit his life to the +protection of the church of the land of Han, saying in effect, "I have +travelled far in search of our Law. Let me, by your dread and +supernatural power, return from my wanderings, and reach my +resting-place!" + +In this way the tempest continued day and night, till on the thirteenth +day the ship was carried to the side of an island, where, on the ebbing +of the tide, the place of the leak was discovered, and it was stopped, +on which the voyage was resumed. On the sea hereabouts there are many +pirates, to meet with whom is speedy death. The great ocean spreads out, +a boundless expanse. There is no knowing east or west; only by observing +the sun, moon, and stars was it possible to go forward. If the weather +were dark and rainy, the ship went as she was carried by the wind, +without any definite course. In the darkness of the night, only the +great waves were to be seen, breaking on one another, and emitting a +brightness like that of fire, with huge turtles and other monsters of +the deep all about. The merchants were full of terror, not knowing where +they were going. The sea was deep and bottomless, and there was no place +where they could drop anchor and stop. But when the sky became clear, +they could tell east and west, and the ship again went forward in the +right direction. If she had come on any hidden rock, there would have +been no way of escape. + +After proceeding in this way for rather more than ninety days, they +arrived at a country called Java-dvipa, where various forms of error and +Brahmanism are flourishing, while Buddhism in it is not worth speaking +of. After staying there for five months, Fâ-hien again embarked in +another large merchantman, which also had on board more than two hundred +men. They carried provisions for fifty days, and commenced the voyage on +the sixteenth day of the fourth month. + +Fâ-hien kept his retreat on board the ship. They took a course to the +northeast, intending to fetch Kwang-chow. After more than a month, when +the night-drum had sounded the second watch, they encountered a black +wind and tempestuous rain, which threw the merchants and passengers into +consternation. Fâ-hien again, with all his heart, directed his thoughts +to Kwan-she-yin and the monkish communities of the land of Han; and, +through their dread and mysterious protection, was preserved to +daybreak. After daybreak, the Brahmans deliberated together and said, +"It is having this Sramana on board which has occasioned our misfortune +and brought us this great and bitter suffering. Let us land the bhikshu +and place him on some island-shore. We must not for the sake of one man +allow ourselves to be exposed to such imminent peril." A patron of +Fâ-hien, however, said to them, "If you land the bhikshu, you must at +the same time land me; and if you do not, then you must kill me. If you +land this Sramana, when I get to the land of Han, I will go to the king, +and inform against you. The king also reveres and believes the Law of +Buddha, and honors the bhikshus." The merchants hereupon were perplexed, +and did not dare immediately to land Fâ-hien. + +At this time the sky continued very dark and gloomy, and the +sailing-masters looked at one another and made mistakes. More than +seventy days passed from their leaving Java, and the provisions and +water were nearly exhausted. They used the salt-water of the sea for +cooking, and carefully divided the fresh water, each man getting two +pints. Soon the whole was nearly gone, and the merchants took counsel +and said, "At the ordinary rate of sailing we ought to have reached +Kwang-chow, and now the time is passed by many days;--must we not have +held a wrong course?" Immediately they directed the ship to the +northwest, looking out for land; and after sailing day and night for +twelve days, they reached the shore on the south of mount Lao, on the +borders of the prefecture of Ch'ang-kwang, and immediately got good +water and vegetables. They had passed through many perils and hardships, +and had been in a state of anxious apprehension for many days together; +and now suddenly arriving at this shore, and seeing those well-known +vegetables, the lei and kwoh, [1] they knew indeed that it was the land +of Han. Not seeing, however, any inhabitants nor any traces of them, +they did not know whereabouts they were. Some said that they had not yet +got to Kwang-chow, and others that they had passed it. Unable to come to +a definite conclusion, some of them got into a small boat and entered a +creek, to look for someone of whom they might ask what the place was. +They found two hunters, whom they brought back with them, and then +called on Fâ-hien to act as interpreter and question them. Fâ-hien first +spoke assuringly to them, and then slowly and distinctly asked them, +"Who are you?" They replied, "We are disciples of Buddha." He then +asked, "What are you looking for among these hills?" They began to +lie,[2] and said, "To-morrow is the fifteenth day of the seventh month. +We wanted to get some peaches to present to Buddha." He asked further, +"What country is this?" They replied, "This is the border of the +prefecture of Ch'ang-kwang, a part of Ts'ing-chow under the ruling House +of Ts'in." When they heard this, the merchants were glad, immediately +asked for a portion of their money and goods, and sent men to +Ch'ang-kwang city. + +The prefect Le E was a reverent believer in the Law of Buddha. When he +heard that a Sramana had arrived in a ship across the sea, bringing with +him books and images, he immediately came to the sea-shore with an +escort to meet the traveller, and receive the books and images, and took +them back with him to the seat of his government. On this the merchants +went back in the direction of Yang-chow; but when Fâ-hien arrived at +Ts'ing-chow, the prefect there begged him to remain with him for a +winter and a summer. After the summer retreat was ended, Fâ-hien, having +been separated for a long time from his fellows, wished to hurry to +Ch'ang-gan; but as the business which he had in hand was important, he +went south to the Capital; and at an interview with the masters there +exhibited the Sûtras and the collection of the Vinaya which he had +procured. + +After Fâ-hien set out from Ch'ang-gan, it took him six years to reach +Central India; stoppages there extended over six years; and on his +return it took him three years to reach Ts'ing-chow. The countries +through which he passed were a few under thirty. From the sandy desert +westwards on to India, the beauty of the dignified demeanor of the +monkhood and of the transforming influence of the Law was beyond the +power of language fully to describe; and reflecting how our masters had +not heard any complete account of them, he therefore went on without +regarding his own poor life, or the dangers to be encountered on the sea +upon his return, thus incurring hardships and difficulties in a double +form. He was fortunate enough, through the dread power of the three +Honored Ones, to receive help and protection in his perils; and +therefore he wrote out an account of his experiences, that worthy +readers might share with him in what he had heard and said. + + +[Footnote 1: What these vegetables exactly were it is difficult to say; +and there are different readings of the characters for kwoh, brings the +two names together in a phrase, but the rendering of it is simply "a +soup of simples."] + +[Footnote 2: It is likely that these men were really hunters; and, when +brought before Fâ-hien, because he was a Sramana, they thought they +would please him by saying they were disciples of Buddha. But what had +disciples of Buddha to do with hunting and taking life? They were caught +in their own trap, and said they were looking for peaches.] + + + + + +~THE SORROWS OF HAN~ + + +[Translated into English by John Francis Davis] + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +"The Sorrows of Han" is considered by Chinese scholars to be one of the +largest tragedies in the whole range of the Chinese drama, which is very +voluminous. Although, properly speaking, there are no theatres in China, +the Chinese are passionately fond of dramatic representations. Chinese +acting is much admired and praised by travellers who are competent to +follow the dialogue. The stage is generally a temporary erection +improvised in a market-place, and the stage arrangements are of the most +primitive character; no scenery is employed, and the actors introduce +themselves in a sort of prologue, in which they state the name and +character they represent in the drama. They also indicate the place +where they are in the story, or the house which they have entered. Yet +the Chinese stage has many points in common with that of Ancient Greece. +It is supported and controlled by government, and has something of a +religious and national character, being particularly employed for +popular amusement in the celebration of religious festivals. Only two +actors are allowed to occupy the stage at the same time, and this is +another point in common with the early Greek drama. The plots or stories +of the Chinese plays are simple and effective, and Voltaire is known to +have taken the plot of a Chinese drama, as Molière took a comedy of +Plautus, and applied it in writing a drama for the modern French stage. +"The Sorrows of Han" belongs to the famous collection entitled "The +Hundred Plays of the Yuen Dynasty." It is divided into acts and is made +up of alternate prose and verse. The movement of the drama is good, and +the dénouement arranged with considerable skill. + +E.W. + + + + +TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE + + +The following drama was selected from the "Hundred Plays of Yuen," which +has already supplied to Europe two specimens of the Chinese stage--the +first, called the "Orphan of Chaou," translated by Père Premare; and the +second, entitled an "Heir in Old Age," by the author of the present +version. "The Sorrows of Han" is historical, and relates to one of the +most interesting periods of the Chinese annals, when the growing +effeminacy of the court, and consequent weakness of the government, +emboldened the Tartars in their aggressions, and first gave rise to the +temporizing and impolitic system of propitiating those barbarians by +tribute, which long after produced the downfall of the empire and the +establishment of the Mongol dominion. + +The moral of the piece is evidently to expose the evil consequences of +luxury, effeminacy, and supineness in the sovereign. + + "When love was all an easy monarch's care, + Seldom at council--never in a war." + +The hero, or rather the chief personage, of the drama, came to the +throne very near the beginning of the Christian era, about B.C. 42. The +fate of the Lady Chaoukeun is a favorite incident in history, of which +painters, poets, and romancers frequently avail themselves; her "Verdant +Lamb" is said to exist at the present day, and to remain green all the +year round, while the vegetation of the desert in which it stands is +parched by the summer sun. + +In selecting this single specimen from among so many, the translator was +influenced by the consideration of its remarkable accordance with our +own canons of criticism. The Chinese themselves make no regular +classification of comedy and tragedy; but we are quite at liberty to +give the latter title to a play which so completely answers to the +European definition. The unity of action is complete, and the unities of +time and place much less violated than they frequently are on our own +stage. The grandeur and gravity of the subject, the rank and dignity of +the personages, the tragical catastrophe, and the strict award of +poetical justice, might satisfy the most rigid admirer of Grecian rules. +The translator has thought it necessary to adhere to the original by +distinguishing the first act (or Proëm) from the four which follow it: +but the distinction is purely nominal, and the piece consists, to all +intents and purposes, of five acts. It is remarkable that this peculiar +division holds true with regard to a large number of the "Hundred Plays +of Yuen." + +The reader will doubtless be struck by the apparent shortness of the +drama which is here presented to him; but the original is eked out, in +common with all Chinese plays, by an irregular operatic species of song, +which the principal character occasionally chants forth in unison with a +louder or a softer accompaniment of music, as may best suit the +sentiment or action of the moment. Some passages have been embodied in +our version: but the translator did not give all, for the same reasons +that prompted Père Premare to give none--"they are full of allusions to +things unfamiliar to us, and figures of speech very difficult for us to +observe." They are frequently, moreover, mere repetitions or +amplifications of the prose parts; and being intended more for the ear +than the eye, are rather adapted to the stage than to the closet. + +His judgment may perhaps be swayed by partiality towards the subject of +his own labors; but the translator cannot help thinking the plot and +incidents of "The Sorrows of Han" superior to those of the "Orphan of +Chaou"--though the genius of Voltaire contrived to make the last the +ground-work of an excellent French tragedy. Far is he, however, from +entertaining the presumptuous expectation that a destiny of equal +splendor awaits the present drama; and he will be quite satisfied if the +reader has patience to read it to the end, and then pronounces it to be +a somewhat curious sample of a very foreign literature. + +JOHN FRANCIS DAVIS. + + + + +DRAMATIS PERSONAE + +YUENTE, Emperor of China of the Dynasty Han. +HANCHENYU, K'han of the Tartars. +MAOUYENSHOW, a worthless Minister of the Emperor. +SHANGSHOO (a title), President of the Imperial Council. +CHANGSHEE (a title), Officer in waiting. +FANSHE (a title), Envoy of the K'han. +CHAOUKEUN, Lady, raised to be Princess of Han. + Tartar Soldiers, Female Attendants, Eunuchs. + +The Scene is laid in the Tartar Camp on the Frontiers; and +in the Palace of Han. + + + + +~THE SORROWS OF HAN~ [1] + + + +~PROLOGUE~ + + +_Enter Hanchenyu, K'han [2] of the Tartars, reciting four verses_. + + +K'HAN. The autumnal gale blows wildly through the grass, + amidst our woolen tents. + And the moon of night, shining on the rude huts, hears the + lament of the mournful pipe: + The countless hosts, with their bended horns, obey me as + their leader. + + Our tribes are ten distinguished friends of the family of Han. I am + Hanchenyu, the old inhabitant of the sandy waste; the sole ruler of + the northern regions. The wild chase is our trade; battle and + conquest our chief occupation. The Emperor Wunwong retired before + our Eastern tribes; Weikeang trembled at us, and sued for our + friendship. The ancient title of our chiefs has in the course of + time been changed to that which I now bear. When the two races of + Tsin and Han contended in battle, and filled the empire with tumult, + our tribes were in full power: numberless was the host of armed + warriors with their bended horns. For seven days my ancestor hemmed + in with his forces the Emperor Kaoute; until, by the contrivance of + the minister, a treaty was concluded, and the Princesses of China + were yielded in marriage to our K'hans. Since the time of Hoeyte and + the Empress Leuhow, [3] each successive generation has adhered to + the established rule, and sought our alliance with its daughters. In + the reign of the late Emperor Seuente, my brothers contended with + myself for the rule of our nation, and its power was weakened until + the tribes elected me as their chief. I am a real descendant of the + empire of Han. I command a hundred thousand armed warriors. We have + moved to the South, and approached the border, claiming an alliance + with the Imperial race. Yesterday I despatched an envoy with + tributary presents to demand a princess in marriage; but know not if + the Emperor will ratify the engagement with the customary oaths. The + fineness of the season has drawn away our chiefs on a hunting + excursion amidst the sandy steppes. May they meet with success, for + we Tartars have no fields--our bows and arrows are our sole means of + subsistence. + +_Enter Minister of Han, reciting verses_. + +MINISTER. Let a man have the heart of a kite, and the talons + of an eagle. + Let him deceive his superiors, and oppress those below + him; + Let him enlist flattery, insinuation, profligacy, and avarice + on his side, + + And he will find them a lasting assistance through life. I am no + other than Maouyenshow, a minister of the sovereign of Han. By a + hundred arts of specious flattery and address I have deceived the + Emperor, until he places his whole delight in me alone. My words he + listens to; and he follows my counsel. Within the precincts of the + palace, as without them, who is there but bows before me--who is + there but trembles at my approach? But observe the chief art which I + have learned: It is this: to persuade the Emperor to keep aloof from + his wise counsellors, and seek all his pleasures amidst the women of + his palace. Thus it is that I strengthen my power and greatness. + But, in the midst of my lucubrations--Here comes the Emperor. + +_Enter Emperor Yuente, attended by Eunuchs and Women_. + +EMPEROR [_recites verses]_. During the ten generations that + have succeeded our acquisition of Empire, my race has alone + possessed the four hundred districts of the world. Long have the + frontiers been bound in tranquillity by the ties of mutual oaths. + And our pillow has been undisturbed by grief or anxiety. Behold in + us the Emperor Yuente, of the race of Han. Our ancestor Kaoute + emerged from a private station, and raised his family by + extinguishing the dynasty of Tsin, and slaughtering their race. Ten + generations have passed away since he left this inheritance to us. + The four boundaries of the empire have been tranquil; the eight + regions at rest! But not through our personal merits; we have wholly + depended on the exertions of our civil and military rulers. On the + demise of our late father, the female inmates of the palace were all + dispersed, and our harem is now solitary and untenanted; but how + shall this be endured! + +MINISTER. Consider, sir, that even the thriving husbandman + may desire to change his partner; then why not your Majesty, whose + title is the Law of Heaven, whose possessions are the whole world! + May I advise that commissioners be despatched to search throughout + the empire for all of whatever rank that is most beautiful between + the ages of fifteen and twenty, for the peopling of the inner + palace. + + EMPEROR. You say well. We appoint you at once our minister of + selection, and will invest you with a written authority. Search + diligently through our realms; and when you have selected the most + worthy, let us be provided with portraits of each, as a means of + fixing our choice. By the merits of your services, you may supply us + with an occasion of rewarding you on your return. [_Exeunt_. + + + +[Footnote 1: Han Koong Tsew, literally "Autumn in the Palace of Han"; +but in Chinese, Autumn is emblematic of Sorrow, as Spring is of Joy, and +may therefore be rendered by what it represents.] + +[Footnote 2: In Chinese, Ko-ban.] + +[Footnote 3: The mother of Hoeyte, a bold and able woman, who ruled for +her son, the second emperor of Han.] + + + +~ACT FIRST~ + + + +MINISTER [_repeats verses_]. The huge ingots of yellow gold I + appropriate to myself. + I heed not the seas of blood which flow by perverting the + laws. + + During life I am determined to have abundance of riches; what care I + for the curses of mankind after my death? Having received the + Emperor's commission to search far and wide for the most beautiful + damsels, I have fixed upon ninety and nine. Their families were glad + to invite my selection by rich gifts, and the treasure that I have + amassed is not small. On arriving yesterday at a district pertaining + to Chingtoo city, I met with a maiden, daughter of one Wongchang. + The brightness of her charms was piercing as an arrow. She was + perfectly beautiful--and doubtless unparalleled in the whole empire. + But, unfortunately, her father is a cultivator of the land, not + possessed of much wealth. When I insisted on a hundred ounces of + gold to secure her being the chief object of the imperial choice, + they first pleaded their poverty--and then, relying on her + extraordinary beauty, rejected my offers altogether. I therefore + left them. [_Considers awhile_.] But no!----I have a better plan. + [_He knits his brows and matures his scheme_.] I will disfigure her + portrait in such a manner that when it reaches the Emperor it shall + secure her being doomed to neglected seclusion. Thus I shall + contrive to make her unhappy for life--Base is the man who delights + not in revenge! [_Exit._ + + +_Night_.--_Enter the Lady Chaoukeun, with two female attendants_. + + +CHAOUKEUN [_recites verses_]. Though raised to be an inhabitant + of the imperial dwelling + I have long been here without the good fortune to see + my prince. + + This beautiful night must I pass in lonely solitude, with no + companion but my lute to solace my retirement. I am a native of + Chingtoo city; and my father's occupation is husbandry. My mother + dreamed on the day I was born that the light of the moon shone on + her bosom, but was soon cast low to the earth.[1] I was just + eighteen years of age when chosen as an inhabitant of the imperial + palace; but the minister Maouyenshow, disappointed in the treasure + which he demanded on my account, disfigured my portrait in such a + manner as to keep me out of the Emperor's presence; and now I live + in neglected solitude. While at home, I learned a little music, and + could play a few airs on the lute. Thus sorrowing in the stillness + of midnight, let me practise one of my songs to dispel my griefs. + [_Begins to play on the lute_. + +_Enter Emperor, attended by a Eunuch, carrying a light_. + +EMPEROR. Since the beauties were selected to grace our palace, + we have not yet discovered a worthy object on whom to fix our + preference. Vexed and disappointed, we pass this day of leisure + roaming in search of her who may be destined for our imperial + choice. [_Hears the lute._] Is not that some lady's lute? + +ATTENDANT. It is.--I hasten to advise her of your Majesty's + approach. + +EMPEROR. No, hold! Keeper of the yellow gate, discover to + what part of our palace that lady pertains; and bid her approach our + presence; but beware lest you alarm her. + +ATTENDANT [_approaches in the direction of the sound, and + speaks_]. What lady plays there? The Emperor comes! approach to meet + him. [_Lady advances_. + +EMPEROR. Keeper of the yellow gate, see that the light burns + brightly within your gauze [2] lamp, and hold it nearer to us. + +LADY _[approaching_]. Had your handmaid but known it was + your Majesty, she would have been less tardy; forgive, then, this + delay. + +EMPEROR. Truly this is a very perfect beauty! From what + quarter come such superior charms? + +LADY. My name is Chaoukeun: my father cultivates at Chingtoo + the fields which he has derived from his family. Born in an humble + station, I am ignorant of the manners that befit a palace. + +EMPEROR. But with such uncommon attractions, what chance + has kept you from our sight? + +LADY. When I was chosen by the minister Maouyenshow, he + demanded of my father an amount of treasure which our poverty could + not supply; he therefore disfigured my portrait, by representing a + scar under the eyes, and caused me to be consigned to seclusion and + neglect. + +EMPEROR. Keeper of the yellow gate, bring us that picture, + that we may view it. [_Sees the picture_.] Ah, how has he dimmed the + purity of the gem, bright as the waves in autumn. [_To the + attendant_] Transmit our pleasure to the officer of the guard, to + behead Maouyenshow and report to us his execution. + +LADY. My parents, sir, are subject to the tax [3] in our native + district. Let me entreat your Majesty to remit their contributions + and extend favor towards them! + +EMPEROR. That shall readily be done. Approach and hear our + imperial pleasure. We create you a Princess of our palace. + +LADY. How unworthy is your handmaid of such gracious distinction! + [_Goes through the form of returning thanks_.] Early to-morrow I + attend your Majesty's commands in this place. The Emperor is gone: + let the attendants close the doors:--I will retire to rest. _[Exit._ + + + +[Footnote 1: Boding a short but fatal distinction to her offspring.] + +[Footnote 2: Instead of glass, to defend it from the wind.] + +[Footnote 3: The principal taxes in China are the land-tax, customs, +salt monopoly, and personal service; which last is the source of much +oppression to the lowest orders, who have nothing but their labor to +contribute.] + + + +~ACT SECOND~ + + + +_Enter K'han of the Tartars, at the head of his Tribes_. + +K'HAN. I lately sent an envoy to the sovereign of Han, with + the demand of a princess in marriage; but the Emperor has returned a + refusal, under the plea that the princess is yet too young. This + answer gives me great trouble. Had he not plenty of ladies in his + palace, of whom he might have sent me one? The difference was of + little consequence. [1] Let me recall my envoy with all speed, for I + must invade the South with out forces. And yet I am unwilling to + break a truce of so many years' standing! We must see how matters + turn out, and be guided by the event. + +_Enter Minister of Han_. + +MINISTER. The severity with which I extorted money, in the + selection of beauties for the palace, led me to disfigure the + picture of Chaoukeun, and consign her to neglected seclusion. But + the Emperor fell in with her, obtained the truth, and condemned me + to lose my head. I contrived to make my escape--though I have no + home to receive me. I will take this true portrait of Chaoukeun and + show it to the Tartar K'han, persuading him to demand her from the + Emperor, who will no doubt be obliged to yield her up. A long + journey has brought me to this spot, and from the troops of men and + horses I conclude I have reached the Tartar camp. [_Addresses + himself to somebody_] Leader, inform King Hanchenyu that a great + minister of the empire of Han is come to wait on him. + +K'HAN [_on being informed_]. Command him to approach. + [_Seeing Maouyenshow_] What person are you? + +MINISTER. I am a minister of Han. In the western palace of + the Emperor is a lady, named Chaoukeun, of rare and surpassing + charms. When your envoy, great king, came to demand a princess, this + lady would have answered the summons, but the Emperor of Han could + not bring himself to part with her, and refused to yield her up. I + repeatedly renewed my bitter reproaches, and asked how he could + bear, for the sake of a woman's beauty, to implicate the welfare of + two nations. For this the Emperor would have beheaded me; and I + therefore escaped with the portrait of the lady, which I present, + great king, to yourself. Should you send away an envoy with the + picture to demand her, she must certainly be delivered up. Here is + the portrait. [_Hands it up_. + +K'HAN. Whence could so beautiful a female have appeared + in the world! If I can only obtain her, my wishes are complete. + Immediately shall an envoy be despatched, and my ministers prepare a + letter to the Emperor of Han, demanding her in marriage as the + condition of peace. Should he refuse, I will presently invade the + South: his hills and rivers shall be exposed to ravage. Our warriors + will commence by hunting, as they proceed on their way; and thus + gradually entering the frontiers, I shall be ready to act as may + best suit the occasion. [_Exit._ + +_The Palace of Han. Enter Lady, attended by females_. + +PRINCESS. A long period has elapsed since I had to thank his + Majesty for his choice. The Emperor's fondness for me is so great, + that he has still neglected to hold a court. I hear he is now gone + to the hall of audience, and will therefore ornament myself at my + toilet and be ready to wait on him at his return. [_Stands opposite + a mirror_. + +_Enter Emperor_. + +EMPEROR. Since we first met with Chaoukeun in the western + palace, we have been as it were deranged and intoxicated; a long + interval has elapsed since we held a court; and on entering the hall + of audience this day, we waited not until the assembly had + dispersed, but returned hither to obtain a sight of her. + [_Perceiving the Princess_.] Let us not alarm her, but observe in + secret what she is doing. + [_Comes close behind and looks over her._] Reflected in that round + mirror, she resembles the Lady in the Moon. [2] + +_Enter President, and an Officer in waiting_. + +PRESIDENT [_recites verses._] Ministers should devote themselves + to the regulation of the empire; They should be occupied with public + cares in the hall of government. But they do nought but attend at + the banquets in the palace. When have they employed a single day in + the service of their prince? + + This day, when the audience was concluded, an envoy arrived from the + Tartars to demand Chaoukeun in marriage, as the only condition of + peace. It is my duty to report this to his Majesty, who has retired + to his western palace. Here I must enter. [_Perceiving the + Emperor._] I report to your Majesty that Hanchenyu, the leader of + the northern foreigners, sends an envoy to declare that Maouyenshow + has presented to him the portrait of the princess, and that he + demands her in marriage as the only condition of peace. If refused, + he will invade the South with a great power, and our rivers and + hills will be exposed to rapine. + +EMPEROR. In vain do we maintain and send forth armies; vain + are the crowds of civil and military officers about our palace! + Which of them will drive back for us these foreign troops? They are + all afraid of the Tartar swords and arrows! But if they cannot exert + themselves to expel the barbarians, why call for the princess to + propitiate them? + +PRESIDENT. The foreigners say that through your Majesty's + devoted fondness for the princess, the affairs of your empire are + falling into ruin. They declare that if the government does not + yield her up, they will put their army in motion, and subdue the + country. Your servant reflects, that Chow-wong [3] who lost his + empire and life entirely through his blind devotion to Takee, is a + fit example to warn your Majesty. Our army is weak, and needs the + talents of a fit general. Should we oppose the Tartars, and be + defeated, what will remain to us? Let your Majesty give up your + fondness for the princess, to save your people. + +OFFICER. The envoy waits without for an audience. + +EMPEROR. Well; command that he approach us. + +_Enter Envoy_. + +ENVOY. Hanchenyu, K'han of the Tartars, sends me, his minister, + to state before the great Sovereign of Han, that the Northern tribes + and the Southern empire have long been bound in peace by mutual + alliances; but that envoys being twice sent to demand a princess, + his requisitions have been refused. The late minister, Maouyenshow, + took with him the portrait of a beautiful lady, and presented it to + the K'ban, who now sends me, his envoy, on purpose to demand the + Lady Chaoukeun, and no other, as the only condition of peace between + the two nations. Should your Majesty refuse, the K'han has a + countless army of brave warriors, and will forthwith invade the + South to try the chances of war. I trust your Majesty will not err + in your decision. + +EMPEROR. The envoy may retire to repose himself in his lodging. + [_Exit the Envoy_.] Let our civil and military officers consult, and + report to us the best mode of causing the foreign troops to retire, + without yielding up the princess to propitiate them. They take + advantage of the compliant softness of her temper. Were the Empress + Leuhow alive--let her utter a word--which of them would dare to be + of a different opinion? It would seem that, for the future, instead + of men for ministers, we need only have fair women to keep our + empire in peace. + +PRINCESS. In return for your Majesty's bounties, it is your + handmaid's duty to brave death to serve you. I can cheerfully enter + into this foreign alliance, for the sake of producing peace, and + shall leave behind me a name still green in history.--But my + affection for your Majesty, how am I to lay aside! + +EMPEROR. Alas, I [4] know too well that I can do no more than + yourself! + +PRESIDENT. I entreat your Majesty to sacrifice your love, and + think of the security of your Dynasty. Hasten, sir, to send the + princess on her way! + +EMPEROR. Let her this day advance a stage on her journey, + and be presented to the envoy.--To-morrow we will repair as far as + the bridge of Pahling, and give her a parting feast. + +PRESIDENT. Alas! Sir, this may not be! It will draw on us + the contempt of these barbarians. + +EMPEROR. We have complied with all our minister's propositions--shall + they not, then, accede to ours? Be it as it may, we will witness her + departure--and then return home to hate the traitor Maouyenshow! + +PRESIDENT. Unwillingly we advise that the princess be sacrificed + for the sake of peace; but the envoy is instructed to insist upon + her alone--and from ancient times, how often hath a nation suffered + for a woman's beauty! + +PRINCESS. Though I go into exile for the nation's good, yet ill + can I bear to part from your Majesty! _[Exeunt._ + + +[Footnote 1: The honor of the imperial alliance being the chief object.] + +[Footnote 2: Changngo, the goddess of the moon, gives her name to the +finely curved eyebrows of the Chinese ladies, which are compared to the +lunar crescent when only a day or two old.] + +[Footnote 3: Chow-wong was the last of the Shang dynasty, and infamous +by his debaucheries and cruelties, in concert with his empress Takee, +the Theodora of Chinese history.] + +[Footnote 4: The imperial pronoun "Tchin," _me_, is with very good taste +supplied by _I_ in these impassioned passages.] + + + +~ACT THIRD~ + + + +_Enter Envoy, escorting the Princess, with a band of music_. + +PRINCESS. Thus was I, in spite of the treachery of Maouyenshow, + who disfigured my portrait, seen and exalted by his Majesty; but the + traitor presented a truer likeness to the Tartar king, who comes at + the head of an army to demand me, with a threat of seizing the + country. There is no remedy--I must be yielded up to propitiate the + invaders! How shall I bear the rigors--the winds and frosts of that + foreign land! It has been said of old, that "surpassing beauty is + often coupled with an unhappy fate." Let me grieve, then, without + entertaining fruitless resentment at the effects of my own + attractions. + +_Enter Emperor, attended by his several officers_. + +EMPEROR. This day we take leave of the princess at Pahling + bridge! [_To his ministers_.] Can ye not devise a way to send out + these foreign troops, without yielding up the princess for the sake + of peace? [_Descends from his horse and seems to grieve with + Chaoukeun_.] Let our attendants delay awhile, till we have conferred + the parting cup. + +ENVOY. Lady, let us urge you to proceed on your way--the + sky darkens, and night is coming on. + +PRINCESS. Alas! when shall I again behold your Majesty? I + will take off my robes of distinction and leave them behind me. + To-day in the palace of Han--to-morrow I shall be espoused to a + stranger. I cease to wear these splendid vestments--they shall no + longer adorn my beauty in the eyes of men. + +ENVOY. Again let us urge you, princess, to depart; we have + delayed but too long already! + +EMPEROR. 'Tis done!--Princess, when you are gone, let your + thoughts forbear to dwell with sorrow and resentment upon us! [_They + part_.] And am I the great Monarch of the line of Han? + +PRESIDENT. Let your Majesty cease to dwell with such grief + upon this subject! + +EMPEROR. She is gone! In vain have we maintained those + armed heroes on the frontier. [1] Mention but swords and spears, and + they tremble at their hearts like a young deer. The princess has + this day performed what belonged to themselves: and yet they affect + the semblance of men! + +PRESIDENT. Your Majesty is entreated to return to the palace: + dwell not so bitterly, Sir, on her memory:--allow her to depart! + +EMPEROR. Did I not think of her, I had a heart of iron--a + heart of iron! The tears of my grief stream in thousand + channels--this evening shall her likeness be suspended in the + palace, where I will sacrifice to it--and tapers with their silver + lights shall illuminate her chamber. + +PRESIDENT. Let your Majesty return to the palace--the princess + is already far distant! [_Exeunt_. + + +_The Tartar Camp. Enter K'han at the head of his tribes, leading +in the Princess_. + + +K'HAN. The Emperor of Han having now, in observance of + old treaties, yielded up to me the Lady Chaoukeun in marriage, I + take her as my rightful queen. The two nations shall enjoy the + benefits of peace. [_To his generals_] Leaders, transmit my + commands to the army to strike our encampment, and proceed to the + north. [_They march_. + + +_The river Amoor. [2] Tartar army on its march_. + + +PRINCESS. What place is this? + +ENVOY. It is the River of the Black Dragon, the frontier of + the Tartar territories and those of China. This southern shore is + the Emperor's; on the northern side commences our Tartar dominion. + +PRINCESS [_to the K'han_]. Great King, I take a cup of wine, + and pour a libation towards the South--my last farewell to the + Emperor--[_pours the libation_] of Han, this life is finished. I + await thee in the next! + +[_Throws herself into the river. The K'han, in great consternation, +endeavors to save her, but in vain_. + +K'HAN. Alas! alas!--so determined was her purpose against + this foreign alliance--she has thrown herself into the stream, and + perished! Tis done, and remediless! Let her sepulchre be on this + river's bank, and be it called "the verdant tomb," [3] She is no + more; and vain has been our enmity with the dynasty of Han! The + traitor Maouyenshow was the author of all this misery. [_To an + officer_] Take Maouyenshow and let him be delivered over to the + Emperor for punishment. I will return to our former friendship with + the dynasty of Han. We will renew and long preserve the sentiments + of relationship. The traitor disfigured the portrait to injure + Chaoukeun--then deserted his sovereign, and stole over to me, whom + he prevailed on to demand the lady in marriage. How little did I + think that she would thus precipitate herself into the stream, and + perish!--In vain did my spirit melt at the sight of her! But if I + detained this profligate and traitorous rebel, he would certainly + prove to us a root of misfortune: it is better to deliver him for + his reward to the Emperor of Han, with whom I will renew, and long + retain, our old feelings of friendship and amity. _[Exeunt._ + + + +[Footnote 1: It may be observed that the great wall is never once +expressly mentioned through this drama. The expression used is Pëensih, +the border, or frontier. The wall had existed two hundred years at this +time, but the real frontier was beyond it.] + +[Footnote 2: Or Saghalien, which falls into the sea of Ochotsk.] + +[Footnote 3: Said to exist now and to be green all the year.] + + + +~ACT FOURTH~ + + + +_Enter Emperor, with an attendant_. + +EMPEROR. Since the princess was yielded to the Tartars, we + have not held an audience. The lonely silence of night but increases + our melancholy! We take the picture of that fair one and suspend it + here, as some small solace to our griefs, [_To the attendant_] + Keeper of the yellow gate, behold, the incense in yonder vase is + burnt out: hasten then to add some more. Though we cannot see her, + we may at least retain this shadow; and, while life remains, betoken + our regard. But oppressed and weary, we would fain take a little + repose. + +[_Lies down to sleep. The Princess appears before him in a +vision_.] [1] + +PRINCESS. Delivered over as a captive to appease the barbarians, + they would have conveyed me to their Northern country: but I took an + occasion to elude them and have escaped back. Is not this the + Emperor, my sovereign? Sir, behold me again restored. + +[_A Tartar soldier appears in the vision_.] + +SOLDIER. While I chanced to sleep, the lady, our captive, has + made her escape, and returned home. In eager pursuit of her, I have + reached the imperial palace.--Is not this she? + +[_Carries her off. The Emperor starts from his sleep_.] + +EMPEROR. We just saw the Princess returned--but alas, how + quickly has she vanished! In bright day she answered not to our + call--but when morning dawned on our troubled sleep, a vision + presented her in this spot. [_Hears the wild fowl's [2] cry_] Hark, + the passing fowl screamed twice or thrice!--Can it know there is no + one so desolate as I? [_Cries repeated_] Perhaps worn out and weak, + hungry and emaciated, they bewail at once the broad nets of the + South and the tough bows of the North. [_Cries repeated_] The + screams of those water-birds but increase our melancholy. + +ATTENDANT. Let your Majesty cease this sorrow, and have + some regard to your sacred [3] person. + +EMPEROR. My sorrows are beyond control. Cease to upbraid + this excess of feeling, since ye are all subject to the same. Yon + doleful cry is not the note of the swallow on the carved rafters, + nor the song of the variegated bird upon the blossoming tree. The + princess has abandoned her home! Know ye in what place she grieves, + listening like me to the screams of the wild bird? + +_Enter President_. + +PRESIDENT. This day after the close of the morning council, + a foreign envoy appeared, bringing with him the fettered traitor + Maouyenshow. He announces that the renegade, by deserting his + allegiance, led to the breach of truce, and occasioned all these + calamities. The princess is no more! and the K'han wishes for peace + and friendship between the two nations. The envoy attends, with + reverence, your imperial decision. + +EMPEROR. Then strike off the traitor's head, and be it presented + as an offering to the shade of the princess! Let a fit banquet be + got ready for the envoy, preparatory to his return. _[Recites these + verses_. + +At the fall of the leaf, when the wild-fowl's cry was heard + in the recesses of the palace. +Sad dreams returned to our lonely pillow; we thought of + her through the night: +Her verdant tomb remains--but where shall we seek her + self? +The perfidious painter's head shall atone for the beauty + which he wronged. + + +[Footnote 1: There is nothing in this more extravagant than the similar +vision in the tragedy of Richard III.] + +[Footnote 2: Yengo, a species of wild goose, is the emblem in China of +intersexual attachment and fidelity, being said never to pair again +after the loss of its mate. An image of it is worshipped by newly +married couples.] + +[Footnote 3: Literally, "dragon person." The emperor's throne is often +called the "dragon seat."] + + + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chinese Literature, by Anonymous + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHINESE LITERATURE *** + +***** This file should be named 10056-8.txt or 10056-8.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/0/5/10056/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tam and PG Distributed Proofreaders + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Chinese Literature + Comprising The Analects of Confucius, The Sayings of Mencius, The Shi-King, The Travels of Fa-Hien, and The Sorrows of Han + +Author: Anonymous + +Release Date: November 17, 2003 [EBook #10056] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHINESE LITERATURE *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tam and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +CHINESE LITERATURE + + + +COMPRISING + +THE ANALECTS OF CONFUCIUS, +THE SAYINGS OF MENCIUS, +THE SHI-KING, +THE TRAVELS OF FA-HIEN, AND +THE SORROWS OF HAN + + +WITH CRITICAL AND BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES BY + +EPIPHANIUS WILSON, A.M. + + +REVISED EDITION + +1900 + + + + +THE ANALECTS OF CONFUCIUS + +Introduction + +BOOK + +I. On Learning--Miscellaneous Sayings +II. Good Government--Filial Piety--The Superior Man +III. Abuse of Proprieties in Ceremonial and Music +IV. Social Virtue--Superior and Inferior Man +V. A Disciple and the Golden Rule--Miscellaneous +VI. More Characteristics--Wisdom--Philanthropy +VII. Characteristics of Confucius--An Incident +VIII. Sayings of Tsang--Sentences of the Master +IX. His Favorite Disciple's Opinion of Him +X. Confucius in Private and Official Life +XI. Comparative Worth of His Disciples +XII. The Master's Answers--Philanthropy--Friendships +XIII. Answers on the Art of Governing--Consistency +XIV. Good and Bad Government--Miscellaneous Sayings +XV. Practical Wisdom--Reciprocity the Rule of Life +XVI. Against Intestine Strife--Good and Bad Friendships +XVII. The Master Induced to Take Office--Nature and Habit +XVIII. Good Men in Seclusion--Duke of Chow to His Son +XIX. Teachings of Various Chief Disciples +XX. Extracts from the Book of History + + + +THE SAYINGS OF MENCIUS + +Introduction + +Book I. King Hwuy of Leang.-- + Part I + +[_Books II., III., and IV. are omitted_] + +Book V. Wan Chang.-- + Part I + + + +THE SHI-KING + +Introduction + +_Part I.--Lessons from the States_. + +BOOK I.--THE ODES OF CHOW AND THE SOUTH.-- + Celebrating the Virtue of King Wan's Bride + Celebrating the Industry of King Wan's Queen + In Praise of a Bride + Celebrating T'ae-Sze's Freedom from Jealousy + The Fruitfulness of the Locust + Lamenting the Absence of a Cherished Friend + Celebrating the Goodness of the Descendants of King Wan + The Virtuous Manners of the Young Women + Praise of a Rabbit-Catcher + The Song of the Plantain-Gatherers + The Affection of the Wives on the Joo + +BOOK II.--THE ODES OF SHAOU AND THE SOUTH.-- + The Marriage of a Princess + The Industry and Reverence of a Prince's Wife + The Wife of Some Great Officer Bewails his Absence + The Diligence of the Young Wife of an Officer + The Love of the People for the Duke of Shaou + The Easy Dignity of the Officers at Some Court + Anxiety of a Young Lady to Get Married + +BOOK III.--THE ODES OF P'EI.-- + An Officer Bewails the Neglect with which He is Treated + A Wife Deplores the Absence of Her Husband + The Plaint of a Rejected Wife + Soldiers of Wei Bewail Separation from their Families + An Officer Tells of His Mean Employment + An Officer Sets Forth His Hard Lot + The Complaint of a Neglected Wife + In Praise of a Maiden + Discontent + Chwang Keang Bemoans Her Husband's Cruelty + +[_Books IV., V., and VI. are omitted_] + +BOOK VII.--THE ODES OF CH'ING.--- + The People's Admiration for Duke Woo + A Wife Consoled by Her Husband's Arrival + In Praise of Some Lady + A Man's Praise of His Wife + An Entreaty + A Woman Scorning Her Lover + A Lady Mourns the Absence of Her Student Lover--- + +BOOK VIII.--THE ODES OF TS'E.-- + A Wife Urging Her Husband to Action + The Folly of Useless Effort + The Prince of Loo + +BOOK IX.--THE ODES OF WEI.-- + On the Misgovernment of the State + The Mean Husband + A Young Soldier on Service + +BOOK X.--THE ODES OF T'ANG.-- + The King Goes to War + Lament of a Bereaved Person + The Drawbacks of Poverty + A Wife Mourns for Her Husband + +BOOK XI.--THE ODES OF TS'IN.-- + Celebrating the Opulence of the Lords of Ts'in + A Complaint + A Wife's Grief Because of Her Husband's Absence + Lament for Three Brothers + In Praise of a Ruler of Ts'in + The Generous Nephew + +BOOK XII.--THE ODES OF CH'IN.-- + The Contentment of a Poor Recluse + The Disappointed Lover + A Love-Song + The Lament of a Lover + +BOOK XIII.--THE ODES OF KWEI-- + The Wish of an Unhappy Man + +BOOK XIV.--THE ODES OF TS'AOU.-- + Against Frivolous Pursuits + +BOOK XV.--THE ODES OF PIN.-- + The Duke of Chow Tells of His Soldiers + There is a Proper Way for Doing Everything + + +_Part II.--Minor Odes of the Kingdom_. + +BOOK I.--DECADE OF LUH MING.-- + A Festal Ode + A Festal Ode Complimenting an Officer + The Value of Friendship + The Response to a Festal Ode + An Ode of Congratulation + An Ode on the Return of the Troops + +BOOK II.--THE DECADE OF PIH HWA.-- + An Ode Appropriate to a Festivity + +BOOK III.--THE DECADE OF T'UNG KUNG.-- + Celebrating a Hunting Expedition + The King's Anxiety for His Morning Levee + Moral Lessons from Natural Facts + +BOOK IV.--THE DECADE OF K'E-FOO.-- + On the Completion of a Royal Palace + The Condition of King Seuen's Flocks + +BOOK V.--THE DECADE OF SEAOU MIN.-- + A Eunuch Complains of His Fate + An Officer Deplores the Misery of the Time + On the Alienation of a Friend + +BOOK VI.--THE DECADE OF PIH SHAN.-- + A Picture of Husbandry + The Complaint of an Officer + +BOOK VII.--DECADE OF SANG HOO.-- + The Rejoicings of a Bridegroom + Against Listening to Slanderers + +BOOK VIII.--THE DECADE OF TOO JIN SZE.-- + In Praise of By-gone Simplicity + A Wife Bemoans Her Husband's Absence + The Earl of Shaou's Work + The Plaint of King Yew's Forsaken Wife + Hospitality + On the Misery of Soldiers + + +_Part III.--Greater Odes of the Kingdom_. + +BOOK I.--DECADE OF KING WAN.-- + Celebrating King Wan + +[_Book II. is omitted_] + +BOOK III.--DECADE OF TANG.-- + King Seuen on the Occasion of a Great Drought + + +_Part IV.--Odes of the Temple and Altar_. + +BOOK I.--SACRIFICIAL ODES OF CHOW.-- + Appropriate to a Sacrifice to King Wan + On Sacrificing to the Kings Woo, Ching, and K'ang + +THE TRAVELS OF FA-HIEN +Translator's Introduction +CHAPTER +I. From Ch'ang-gan to the Sandy Desert +II. On to Shen-shen and thence to Khoten +III. Khoten--Processions of Images +IV. Through the Ts'ung Mountains to K'eech-ch'a +V. Great Quinquennial Assembly of Monks +VI. North India--Image of Maitreya Bodhisattva +VII. The Perilous Crossing of the Indus +VIII. Woo-chang, or Udyana--Traces of Buddha +IX. Soo ho-to--Legends of Buddha +X. Gandhara--Legends of Buddha +XI. Takshasila--Legends--The Four Great Topes +XII. Buddha's Alms-bowl--Death of Hwuy-king +XIII. Festival of Buddha's Skull-bone +XIV. Crossing the Indus to the East +XV. Sympathy of Monks with the Pilgrims +XVI. Condition and Customs of Central India +XVII. Legend of the Trayastrimsas Heaven +XVIII. Buddha's Subjects of Discourse +XIX. Legend of Buddha's Danta-kashtha +XX. The Jetavana Vihara--Legends of Buddha +XXI. The Three Predecessors of Sakyamuni +XXII. Legends of Buddha's Birth +XXIII. Legends of Rama and its Tope +XXIV. Where Buddha Renounced the World +XXV. The Kingdom of Vaisali +XXVI. Remarkable Death of Ananda +XXVII. King Asoka's Spirit-built Palace and Halls +XXVIII. Rajagriha, New and Old--Legends Connected with It +XXIX. Fa-Hien Passes a Night on Gridhra-kuta Hill +XXX. Srataparna Cave, or Cave of the First Council +XXXI. Sakyamuni's Attaining to the Buddhaship +XXXII. Legend of King Asoka in a Former Birth +XXXIII. Kasyapa Buddha's Skeleton on Mount Gurupada +XXXIV. On the Way Returning to Patna +XXXV. Dakshina, and the Pigeon Monastery +XXXVI. Fa-Hien's Indian Studies +XXXVII. Fa-Hien's Stay in Champa and Tamalipti +XXXVIII. At Ceylon--Feats of Buddha--His Statue in Jade +XXXIX. Cremation of an Arhat--Sermon of a Devotee +XL. After Two Years Fa-Hien Takes Ship for China + +Conclusion + + +THE SORROWS OF HAN + +Introduction +Translator's Preface +Dramatis Personae +Prologue +Act First +Act Second +Act Third +Act Fourth + + + + +THE ANALECTS + +OF + +CONFUCIUS + +[_Translated into English by William Jennings_] + + + +PRONUNCIATION OF PROPER NAMES + +_j_, as in French. +_ng_, commencing a word, like the same letters terminating one. +_ai_ or _ei_, as in _aisle_ or _eider_. +_au_, as in German, or like _ow_ in _cow_. +_e_, as in _fete_. +_i_ (not followed by a consonant), as _ee_ in _see_. +_u_ (followed by a consonant), as in _bull_. +_iu_, as _ew_ in _new_. +_ui_, as _ooi_ in _cooing_. +_h_ at the end of a name makes the preceding vowel short. +_i_ in the middle of a word denotes an aspirate (_h_), as _K'ung_=Khung. + + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +The strangest figure that meets us in the annals of Oriental thought is +that of Confucius. To the popular mind he is the founder of a religion, +and yet he has nothing in common with the great religious teachers of +the East. We think of Siddartha, the founder of Buddhism, as the very +impersonation of romantic asceticism, enthusiastic self-sacrifice, and +faith in the things that are invisible. Zoroaster is the friend of God, +talking face to face with the Almighty, and drinking wisdom and +knowledge from the lips of Omniscience. Mohammed is represented as +snatched up into heaven, where he receives the Divine communication +which he is bidden to propagate with fire and sword throughout the +world. These great teachers lived in an atmosphere of the supernatural. +They spoke with the authority of inspired prophets. They brought the +unseen world close to the minds of their disciples. They spoke +positively of immortality, of reward or punishment beyond the grave. The +present life they despised, the future was to them everything in its +promised satisfaction. The teachings of Confucius were of a very +different sort. Throughout his whole writings he has not even mentioned +the name of God. He declined to discuss the question of immortality. +When he was asked about spiritual beings, he remarked, "If we cannot +even know men, how can we know spirits?" + +Yet this was the man the impress of whose teaching has formed the +national character of five hundred millions of people. A temple to +Confucius stands to this day in every town and village of China. His +precepts are committed to memory by every child from the tenderest age, +and each year at the royal university at Pekin the Emperor holds a +festival in honor of the illustrious teacher. + +The influence of Confucius springs, first of all, from the narrowness +and definiteness of his doctrine. He was no transcendentalist, and never +meddled with supramundane things. His teaching was of the earth, earthy; +it dealt entirely with the common relations of life, and the Golden Rule +he must necessarily have stumbled upon, as the most obvious canon of his +system. He strikes us as being the great Stoic of the East, for he +believed that virtue was based on knowledge, knowledge of a man's own +heart, and knowledge of human-kind. There is a pathetic resemblance +between the accounts given of the death of Confucius and the death of +Zeno. Both died almost without warning in dreary hopelessness, without +the ministrations of either love or religion. This may be a mere +coincidence, but the lives and teachings of both men must have led them +to look with indifference upon such an end. For Confucius in his +teaching treated only of man's life on earth, and seems to have had no +ideas with regard to the human lot after death; if he had any ideas he +preserved an inscrutable silence about them. As a moralist he prescribed +the duties of the king and of the father, and advocated the cultivation +by the individual man of that rest or apathy of mind which resembles so +much the disposition aimed at by the Greek and Roman Stoic. Even as a +moralist, he seems to have sacrificed the ideal to the practical, and +his loose notions about marriage, his tolerance of concubinage, the +slight emphasis which he lays on the virtue of veracity--of which indeed +he does not seem himself to have been particularly studious in his +historic writings--place him low down in the rank of moralists. Yet he +taught what he felt the people could receive, and the flat mediocrity of +his character and his teachings has been stamped forever upon a people +who, while they are kindly, gentle, forbearing, and full of family +piety, are palpably lacking not only in the exaltation of Mysticism, but +in any religious feeling, generally so-called. + +The second reason that made the teaching of Confucius so influential is +based on the circumstances of the time. When this thoughtful, earnest +youth awoke to the consciousness of life about him, he saw that the +abuses under which the people groaned sprang from the feudal system, +which cut up the country into separate territories, over which the power +of the king had no control. China was in the position of France in the +years preceding Philippe-Auguste, excepting that there were no places of +sanctuary and no Truce of God. The great doctrine of Confucius was the +unlimited despotism of the Emperor, and his moral precepts were intended +to teach the Emperor how to use his power aright. But the Emperor was +only typical of all those in authority--the feudal duke, the judge on +the bench, and the father of the family. Each could discharge his duties +aright only by submitting to the moral discipline which Confucius +prescribed. A vital element in this system is its conservatism, its +adherence to the imperial idea. As James I said, "No bishop, no king," +so the imperialists of China have found in Confucianism the strongest +basis for the throne, and have supported its dissemination accordingly. + +The Analects of Confucius contain the gist of his teachings, and is +worthy of study. We find in this work most of the precepts which his +disciples have preserved and recorded. They form a code remarkable for +simplicity, even crudity, and we are compelled to admire the force of +character, the practical sagacity, the insight into the needs of the +hour, which enabled Confucius, without claiming any Divine sanction, to +impose this system upon his countrymen. + +The name Confucius is only the Latinized form of two words which mean +"Master K'ung." He was born 551 B.C., his father being governor of +Shantung. He was married at nineteen, and seems to have occupied some +minor position under the government. In his twenty-fourth year he +entered upon the three years' mourning for the death of his mother. His +seclusion gave him time for deep thought and the study of history, and +he resolved upon the regeneration of his unhappy country. By the time he +was thirty he became known as a great teacher, and disciples flocked to +him. But he was yet occupied in public duties, and rose through +successive stages to the office of Chief Judge in his own country of Lu. +His tenure of office is said to have put an end to crime, and he became +the "idol of the people" in his district. The jealousy of the feudal +lords was roused by his fame as a moral teacher and a blameless judge. +Confucius was driven from his home, and wandered about, with a few +disciples, until his sixty-ninth year, when he returned to Lu, after +accomplishing a work which has borne fruit, such as it is, to the +present day. He spent the remaining five years of his life in editing +the odes and historic monuments in which the glories of the ancient +Chinese dynasty are set forth. He died in his seventy-third year, 478 +B.C. There can be no doubt that the success of Confucius has been +singularly great, owing especially to the narrow scope of his scheme, +which has become crystallized in the habits, usages, and customs of the +people. Especially has it been instrumental in consolidating the empire, +and in strengthening the power of the monarch, who, as he every year +burns incense in the red-walled temple at Pekin, utters sincerely the +invocation: "Great art thou, O perfect Sage! Thy virtue is full, thy +doctrine complete. Among mortal men there has not been thine equal. All +kings honor thee. Thy statutes and laws have come gloriously down. Thou +art the pattern in this imperial school. Reverently have the sacrificial +vessels been set out. Full of awe, we sound our drums and bells." + +E. W. + + +THE ANALECTS + + +BOOK I + +On Learning--Miscellaneous Sayings:-- + + +"To learn," said the Master, "and then to practise opportunely what one +has learnt--does not this bring with it a sense of satisfaction? + +"To have associates in study coming to one from distant parts--does not +this also mean pleasure in store? + +"And are not those who, while not comprehending all that is said, still +remain not unpleased to hear, men of the superior order?" + + +A saying of the Scholar Yu:-- + +"It is rarely the case that those who act the part of true men in regard +to their duty to parents and elder brothers are at the same time willing +to turn currishly upon their superiors: it has never yet been the case +that such as desire not to commit that offence have been men willing to +promote anarchy or disorder. + +"Men of superior mind busy themselves first in getting at the root of +things; and when they have succeeded in this the right course is open to +them. Well, are not filial piety and friendly subordination among +brothers a root of that right feeling which is owing generally from man +to man?" + +The Master observed, "Rarely do we meet with the right feeling due from +one man to another where there is fine speech and studied mien." + +The Scholar Tsang once said of himself: "On three points I examine +myself daily, viz., whether, in looking after other people's interests, +I have not been acting whole-heartedly; whether, in my intercourse with +friends, I have not been true; and whether, after teaching, I have not +myself been practising what I have taught." + +The Master once observed that to rule well one of the larger States +meant strict attention to its affairs and conscientiousness on the part +of the ruler; careful husbanding of its resources, with at the same time +a tender care for the interests of all classes; and the employing of the +masses in the public service at suitable seasons. + +"Let young people," said he, "show filial piety at home, respectfulness +towards their elders when away from home; let them be circumspect, be +truthful; their love going out freely towards all, cultivating good-will +to men. And if, in such a walk, there be time or energy left for other +things, let them employ it in the acquisition of literary or artistic +accomplishments." + +The disciple Tsz-hia said, "The appreciation of worth in men of worth, +thus diverting the mind from lascivious desires--ministering to parents +while one is the most capable of so doing--serving one's ruler when one +is able to devote himself entirely to that object--being sincere in +one's language in intercourse with friends: this I certainly must call +evidence of learning, though others may say there has been 'no +learning.'" + + +Sayings of the Master:-- + +"If the great man be not grave, he will not be revered, neither can his +learning be solid. + +"Give prominent place to loyalty and sincerity. + +"Have no associates in study who are not advanced somewhat like +yourself. + +"When you have erred, be not afraid to correct yourself." + + +A saying of the Scholar Tsang:-- + +"The virtue of the people is renewed and enriched when attention is seen +to be paid to the departed, and the remembrance of distant ancestors +kept and cherished." + +Tsz-k'in put this query to his fellow disciple Tsz-kung: said he, "When +our Master comes to this or that State, he learns without fail how it is +being governed. Does he investigate matters? or are the facts given +him?" + +Tsz-kung answered, "Our Master is a man of pleasant manners, and of +probity, courteous, moderate, and unassuming: it is by his being such +that he arrives at the facts. Is not his way of arriving at things +different from that of others?" + + +A saying of the Master:-- + +"He who, after three years' observation of the will of his father when +alive, or of his past conduct if dead, does not deviate from that +father's ways, is entitled to be called 'a dutiful son.'" + + +Sayings of the Scholar Yu:-- + +"For the practice of the Rules of Propriety,[1] one excellent way is to +be natural. This naturalness became a great grace in the practice of +kings of former times; let everyone, small or great, follow their +example. + +"It is not, however, always practicable; and it is not so in the case of +a person who does things naturally, knowing that he should act so, and +yet who neglects to regulate his acts according to the Rules. + +"When truth and right are hand in hand, a statement will bear +repetition. When respectfulness and propriety go hand in hand, disgrace +and shame are kept afar-off. Remove all occasion for alienating those to +whom you are bound by close ties, and you have them still to resort to." + + +A saying of the Master:-- + +"The man of greater mind who, when he is eating, craves not to eat to +the full; who has a home, but craves not for comforts in it; who is +active and earnest in his work and careful in his words; who makes +towards men of high principle, and so maintains his own rectitude--that +man may be styled a devoted student." + +Tsz-kung asked, "What say you, sir, of the poor who do not cringe and +fawn; and what of the rich who are without pride and haughtiness?" "They +are passable," the Master replied; "yet they are scarcely in the same +category as the poor who are happy, and the rich who love propriety." + +"In the 'Book of the Odes,'" Tsz-kung went on to say, "we read of one + + Polished, as by the knife and file, + The graving-tool, the smoothing-stone. + +Does that coincide with your remark?" + +"Ah! such as you," replied the Master, "may well commence a discussion +on the Odes. If one tell you how a thing goes, you know what ought to +come." + +"It does not greatly concern me," said the Master, "that men do not know +me; my great concern is, my not knowing them." + + +[Footnote 1: An important part of a Chinaman's education still. The +text-book, "The Li Ki," contains rules for behavior and propriety for +the whole life, from the cradle to the grave.] + + + +BOOK II + +Good Government--Filial Piety--The Superior Man + + +Sayings of the Master:-- + +"Let a ruler base his government upon virtuous principles, and he will +be like the pole-star, which remains steadfast in its place, while all +the host of stars turn towards it. + +"The 'Book of Odes' contains three hundred pieces, but one expression in +it may be taken as covering the purport of all, viz., Unswerving +mindfulness. + +"To govern simply by statute, and to reduce all to order by means of +pains and penalties, is to render the people evasive, and devoid of any +sense of shame. + +"To govern upon principles of virtue, and to reduce them to order by the +Rules of Propriety, would not only create in them the sense of shame, +but would moreover reach them in all their errors. + +"When I attained the age of fifteen, I became bent upon study. At +thirty, I was a confirmed student. At forty, nought could move me from +my course. At fifty, I comprehended the will and decrees of Heaven. At +sixty, my ears were attuned to them. At seventy, I could follow my +heart's desires, without overstepping the lines of rectitude." + +To a question of Mang-i, as to what filial piety consisted in, the +master replied, "In not being perverse." Afterwards, when Fan Ch'i was +driving him, the Master informed him of this question and answer, and +Fan Ch'i asked, "What was your meaning?" The Master replied, "I meant +that the Rules of Propriety should always be adhered to in regard to +those who brought us into the world: in ministering to them while +living, in burying them when dead, and afterwards in the offering to +them of sacrificial gifts." + +To a query of Mang Wu respecting filial piety, the Master replied, +"Parents ought to bear but one trouble--that of their own sickness." + +To a like question put by Tsz-yu, his reply was this: "The filial piety +of the present day simply means the being able to support one's +parents--which extends even to the case of dogs and horses, all of which +may have something to give in the way of support. If there be no +reverential feeling in the matter, what is there to distinguish between +the cases?" + +To a like question of Tsz-hia, he replied: "The manner is the +difficulty. If, in the case of work to be done, the younger folks simply +take upon themselves the toil of it; or if, in the matter of meat and +drink, they simply set these before their elders--is this to be taken as +filial piety?" + +Once the Master remarked, "I have conversed with Hwui the whole day +long, and he has controverted nothing that I have said, as if he were +without wits. But when his back was turned, and I looked attentively at +his conduct apart from me, I found it satisfactory in all its issues. +No, indeed! Hwui is not without his wits." + + +Other observations of the Master:-- + +"If you observe what things people (usually) take in hand, watch their +motives, and note particularly what it is that gives them satisfaction, +shall they be able to conceal from you what they are? Conceal +themselves, indeed! + +"Be versed in ancient lore, and familiarize yourself with the modern; +then may you become teachers. + +"The great man is not a mere receptacle." + +In reply to Tsz-kung respecting the great man:-- + +"What he first says, as a result of his experience, he afterwards +follows up. + +"The great man is catholic-minded, and not one-sided. The common man is +the reverse. + +"Learning, without thought, is a snare; thought, without learning, is a +danger. + +"Where the mind is set much upon heterodox principles--there truly and +indeed is harm." + +To the disciple Tsz-lu the Master said, "Shall I give you a lesson about +knowledge? When you know a thing, maintain that you know it; and when +you do not, acknowledge your ignorance. This is characteristic of +knowledge." + +Tsz-chang was studying with an eye to official income. The Master +addressed him thus: "Of the many things you hear hold aloof from those +that are doubtful, and speak guardedly with reference to the rest; your +mistakes will then be few. Also, of the many courses you see adopted, +hold aloof from those that are risky, and carefully follow the others; +you will then seldom have occasion for regret. Thus, being seldom +mistaken in your utterances, and having few occasions for regret in the +line you take, you are on the high road to your preferment." + +To a question put to him by Duke Ngai [2] as to what should be done in +order to render the people submissive to authority, Confucius replied, +"Promote the straightforward, and reject those whose courses are +crooked, and the thing will be effected. Promote the crooked and reject +the straightforward, and the effect will be the reverse." + +When Ki K'ang [3] asked of him how the people could be induced to show +respect, loyalty, and willingness to be led, the Master answered, "Let +there be grave dignity in him who has the oversight of them, and they +will show him respect; let him be seen to be good to his own parents, +and kindly in disposition, and they will be loyal to him; let him +promote those who have ability, and see to the instruction of those who +have it not, and they will be willing to be led." + +Some one, speaking to Confucius, inquired, "Why, sir, are you not an +administrator of government?" The Master rejoined, "What says the 'Book +of the Annals,' with reference to filial duty?--'Make it a point to be +dutiful to your parents and amicable with your brethren; the same duties +extend to an administrator.' If these, then, also make an administrator, +how am I to take your words about being an administrator?" + +On one occasion the Master remarked, "I know not what men are good for, +on whose word no reliance can be placed. How should your carriages, +large or little, get along without your whipple-trees or swing-trees?" + +Tsz-chang asked if it were possible to forecast the state of the country +ten generations hence. The Master replied in this manner: "The Yin +dynasty adopted the rules and manners of the Hia line of kings, and it +is possible to tell whether it retrograded or advanced. The Chow line +has followed the Yin, adopting its ways, and whether there has been +deterioration or improvement may also be determined. Some other line may +take up in turn those of Chow; and supposing even this process to go on +for a hundred generations, the result may be known." + +Other sayings of the Master:-- + +"It is but flattery to make sacrificial offerings to departed spirits +not belonging to one's own family. + +"It is moral cowardice to leave undone what one perceives to be right to +do." + + +[Footnote 2: Of Lu (Confucius's native State).] + +[Footnote 3: Head of one of the "Three Families" of Lu.] + + + +BOOK III + +Abuse of Proprieties in Ceremonial and Music + + +Alluding to the head of the Ki family, [4] and the eight lines of +posturers [5] before their ancestral hall, Confucius remarked, "If the +Ki can allow himself to go to this extent, to what extent will he not +allow himself to go?" + +The Three Families [6] were in the habit, during the Removal of the +sacred vessels after sacrifice, of using the hymn commencing, + + "Harmoniously the Princes + Draw near with reverent tread, + Assisting in his worship + Heaven's Son, the great and dread." + +"How," exclaimed the Master, "can such words be appropriated in the +ancestral hall of the Three Families?" + +"Where a man," said he again, "has not the proper feelings due from one +man to another, how will he stand as regards the Rules of Propriety? And +in such a case, what shall we say of his sense of harmony?" + +On a question being put to him by Lin Fang, a disciple, as to what was +the radical idea upon which the Rules of Propriety were based, the +Master exclaimed, "Ah! that is a large question. As to some rules, where +there is likelihood of extravagance, they would rather demand economy; +in those which relate to mourning, and where there is likelihood of +being easily satisfied, what is wanted is real sorrow." + +Speaking of the disorder of the times he remarked that while the +barbarians on the North and East had their Chieftains, we here in this +great country had nothing to compare with them in that respect:--we had +lost these distinctions! + +Alluding to the matter of the Chief of the Ki family worshipping on +Tai-shan, [7] the Master said to Yen Yu, "Cannot you save him from this?" +He replied, "It is beyond my power." "Alas, alas!" exclaimed the Master, +"are we to say that the spirits of T'ai-shan have not as much +discernment as Lin Fang?" + +Of "the superior man," the Master observed, "In him there is no +contentiousness. Say even that he does certainly contend with others, as +in archery competitions; yet mark, in that case, how courteously he will +bow and go up for the forfeit-cup, and come down again and give it to +his competitor. In his very contest he is still the superior man." + +Tsz-hia once inquired what inference might be drawn from the lines-- + + "Dimples playing in witching smile, + Beautiful eyes, so dark, so bright! + Oh, and her face may be thought the while + Colored by art, red rose on white!" + +"Coloring," replied the Master, "requires a pure and clear background." +"Then," said the other, "rules of ceremony require to have a +background!" "Ah!" exclaimed the Master, "you are the man to catch the +drift of my thought. Such as you may well introduce a discussion on the +Odes." + +Said the Master, "As regards the ceremonial adopted and enforced by the +Hia dynasty, I am able to describe it, although their own descendants in +the State of Ki can adduce no adequate testimony in favor of its use +there. So, too, I am able to describe the ceremonial of the Yin dynasty, +although no more can the Sung people show sufficient reason for its +continuance amongst themselves. And why cannot they do so? Because they +have not documents enough, nor men learned enough. If only they had +such, I could refer them to them in support of their usages. + +"When I am present at the great quinquennial sacrifice to the _manes_ of +the royal ancestors," the Master said, "from the pouring-out of the +oblation onwards, I have no heart to look on." + +Some one asked what was the purport of this great sacrifice, and the +Master replied, "I cannot tell. The position in the empire of him who +could tell you is as evident as when you look at this"--pointing to the +palm of his hand. + +When he offered sacrifices to his ancestors, he used to act as if they +were present before him. In offering to other spirits it was the same. + +He would say, "If I do not myself take part in my offerings, it is all +the same as if I did not offer them." + +Wang-sun Kia asked him once, "What says the proverb, 'Better to court +favor in the kitchen than in the drawing-room'?" The Master replied, +"Nay, better say, He who has sinned against Heaven has none other to +whom prayer may be addressed." + +Of the Chow dynasty the Master remarked, "It looks back upon two other +dynasties; and what a rich possession it has in its records of those +times! I follow Chow!" + +On his first entry into the grand temple, he inquired about every matter +connected with its usages. Some one thereupon remarked, "Who says that +the son of the man of Tsou [8] understands about ceremonial? On entering +the grand temple he inquired about everything." This remark coming to +the Master's ears, he said, "What I did is part of the ceremonial!" + +"In archery," he said, "the great point to be observed is not simply the +perforation of the leather; for men have not all the same strength. That +was the fashion in the olden days." + +Once, seeing that his disciple Tsz-kung was desirous that the ceremonial +observance of offering a sheep at the new moon might be dispensed with, +the Master said, "Ah! you grudge the loss of the sheep; I grudge the +loss of the ceremony." + +"To serve one's ruler nowadays," he remarked, "fully complying with the +Rules of Propriety, is regarded by others as toadyism!" + +When Duke Ting questioned him as to how a prince should deal with his +ministers, and how they in turn should serve their prince, Confucius +said in reply, "In dealing with his ministers a prince should observe +the proprieties; in serving his prince a minister should observe the +duty of loyalty." + +Referring to the First of the Odes, he remarked that it was mirthful +without being lewd, and sad also without being painful. + +Duke Ngai asked the disciple Tsai Wo respecting the places for +sacrificing to the Earth. The latter replied, "The Family of the Great +Yu, of the Hia dynasty, chose a place of pine trees; the Yin founders +chose cypresses; and the Chow founders chestnut trees, solemn and +majestic, to inspire, 'tis said, the people with feelings of awe." + +The Master on hearing of this exclaimed, "Never an allusion to things +that have been enacted in the past! Never a remonstrance against what is +now going on! He has gone away without a word of censure." + +The Master once said of Kwan Chung, [9] "A small-minded man indeed!" + +"Was he miserly?" some one asked. + +"Miserly, indeed!" said he; "not that: he married three rimes, and he +was not a man who restricted his official business to too few hands--how +could he be miserly?" + +"He knew the Rules of Propriety, I suppose?" + +"Judge:--Seeing that the feudal lords planted a screen at their gates, +he too would have one at his! Seeing that when any two of the feudal +lords met in friendly conclave they had an earthenware stand on which to +place their inverted cups after drinking, he must have the same! If he +knew the Rules of Propriety, who is there that does not know them?" + +In a discourse to the Chief Preceptor of Music at the court of Lu, the +Master said, "Music is an intelligible thing. When you begin a +performance, let all the various instruments produce as it were one +sound (inharmonious); then, as you go on, bring out the harmony fully, +distinctly, and with uninterrupted flow, unto the end." + +The warden of the border-town of I requested an interview with +Confucius, and said, "When great men have come here, I have never yet +failed to obtain a sight of them." The followers introduced him; and, on +leaving, he said to them, "Sirs, why grieve at his loss of office? The +empire has for long been without good government; and Heaven is about to +use your master as its edict-announcer." + +Comparing the music of the emperor Shun with the music of King Wu, the +Master said, "That of Shun is beautiful throughout, and also good +throughout. That of Wu is all of it beautiful, but scarcely all of it +good." + +"High station," said the Master, "occupied by men who have no large and +generous heart; ceremonial performed with no reverence; duties of +mourning engaging the attention, where there is absence of sorrow;--how +should I look on, where this is the state of things?" + + +[Footnote 4: The Chief of the Ki clan was virtually the Duke of Lu, +under whom Confucius for a time held office.] + +[Footnote 5: These posturers were mutes who took part in the ritual of +the ancestral temple, waving plumes, flags, etc. Each line or rank of +these contained eight men. Only in the sovereign's household should +there have been eight lines of them; a ducal family like the Ki should +have had but six lines; a great official had four, and one of lower +grade two. These were the gradations marking the status of families, and +Confucius's sense of propriety was offended at the Ki's usurping in this +way the appearance of royalty.] + +[Footnote 6: Three great families related to each other, in whose hands +the government of the State of Lu then was, and of which the Ki was the +chief.] + +[Footnote 7: One of the five sacred mountains, worshipped upon only by +the sovereign.] + +[Footnote 8: Tsou was Confucius's birthplace; his father was governor of +the town.] + +[Footnote 9: A renowned statesman who flourished about two hundred years +before Confucius's time. A philosophical work on law and government, +said to have been written by him, is still extant. He was regarded as a +sage by the people, but he lacked, in Confucius's eyes, the one thing +needful--propriety.] + + + +BOOK IV + +Social Virtue--Superior and Inferior Man + + +Sayings of the Master:-- + +"It is social good feeling that gives charm to a neighborhood. And where +is the wisdom of those who choose an abode where it does not abide? + +"Those who are without it cannot abide long, either in straitened or in +happy circumstances. Those who possess it find contentment in it. Those +who are wise go after it as men go after gain. + +"Only they in whom it exists can have right likings and dislikings for +others. + +"Where the will is set upon it, there will be no room for malpractices. + +"Riches and honor are what men desire; but if they arrive at them by +improper ways, they should not continue to hold them. Poverty and low +estate are what men dislike; but if they arrive at such a condition by +improper ways, they should not refuse it. + +"If the 'superior man' make nought of social good feeling, how shall he +fully bear that name? + +"Not even whilst he eats his meal will the 'superior man' forget what he +owes to his fellow-men. Even in hurried leave-takings, even in moments +of frantic confusion, he keeps true to this virtue. + +"I have not yet seen a lover of philanthropy, nor a hater of +misanthropy--such, that the former did not take occasion to magnify that +virtue in himself, and that the latter, in his positive practice of +philanthropy, did not, at times, allow in his presence something +savoring of misanthropy. + +"Say you, is there any one who is able for one whole day to apply the +energy of his mind to this virtue? Well, I have not seen any one whose +energy was not equal to it. It may be there are such, but I have never +met with them. + +"The faults of individuals are peculiar to their particular class and +surroundings; and it is by observing their faults that one comes to +understand the condition of their good feelings towards their fellows. + +"One may hear the right way in the morning, and at evening die. + +"The scholar who is intent upon learning the right way, and who is yet +ashamed of poor attire and poor food, is not worthy of being discoursed +with. + +"The masterly man's attitude to the world is not exclusively this or +that: whatsoever is right, to that he will be a party. + +"The masterly man has an eye to virtue, the common man, to earthly +things; the former has an eye to penalties for error--the latter, to +favor. + +"Where there is habitual going after gain, there is much ill-will. + +"When there is ability in a ruler to govern a country by adhering to the +Rules of Propriety, and by kindly condescension, what is wanted more? +Where the ability to govern thus is wanting, what has such a ruler to do +with the Rules of Propriety? + +"One should not be greatly concerned at not being in office; but rather +about the requirements in one's self for such a standing. Neither should +one be so much concerned at being unknown; but rather with seeking to +become worthy of being known." + +Addressing his disciple Tsang Sin, the Master said, "Tsang Sin, the +principles which I inculcate have one main idea upon which they all +hang." "Aye, surely," he replied. + +When the Master was gone out the other disciples asked what was the +purport of this remark. Tsang's answer was, "The principles of our +Master's teaching are these--whole-heartedness and kindly forbearance; +these and nothing more." + + +Other observations of the Master:-- + +"Men of loftier mind manifest themselves in their equitable dealings; +small-minded men in their going after gain. + +"When you meet with men of worth, think how you may attain to their +level; when you see others of an opposite character, look within, and +examine yourself. + +"A son, in ministering to his parents, may (on occasion) offer gentle +remonstrances; when he sees that their will is not to heed such, he +should nevertheless still continue to show them reverent respect, never +obstinacy; and if he have to suffer, let him do so without murmuring. + +"Whilst the parents are still living, he should not wander far; or, if a +wanderer, he should at least have some fixed address. + +"If for three years he do not veer from the principles of his father, he +may be called a dutiful son. + +"A son should not ignore the years of his parents. On the one hand, they +may be a matter for rejoicing (that they have been so many), and on the +other, for apprehension (that so few remain). + +"People in olden times were loth to speak out, fearing the disgrace of +not being themselves as good as their words. + +"Those who keep within restraints are seldom losers. + +"To be slow to speak, but prompt to act, is the desire of the 'superior +man.' + +"Virtue dwells not alone: she must have neighbors." + + +An observation of Tsz-yu:-- +"Officiousness, in the service of princes, leads to disgrace: among +friends, to estrangement." + + + +BOOK V + +A Disciple and the Golden Rule--Miscellaneous + + +The Master pronounced Kung-ye Ch'ang, a disciple, to be a marriageable +person; for although lying bound in criminal fetters he had committed no +crime. And he gave him his own daughter to wife. + +Of Nan Yung, a disciple, he observed, that in a State where the +government was well conducted he would not be passed over in its +appointments, and in one where the government was ill conducted he would +evade punishment and disgrace. And he caused his elder brother's +daughter to be given in marriage to him. + +Of Tsz-tsien, a disciple, he remarked, "A superior man indeed is the +like of him! But had there been none of superior quality in Lu, how +should this man have attained to this excellence?" + +Tsz-kung asked, "What of me, then?" "You," replied the Master--"You are +a receptacle." "Of what sort?" said he. "One for high and sacred use," +was the answer. + +Some one having observed of Yen Yung that he was good-natured towards +others, but that he lacked the gift of ready speech, the Master said, +"What need of that gift? To stand up before men and pour forth a stream +of glib words is generally to make yourself obnoxious to them. I know +not about his good-naturedness; but at any rate what need of that gift?" + +When the Master proposed that Tsi-tiau K'ai should enter the government +service, the latter replied, "I can scarcely credit it." The Master was +gratified. + +"Good principles are making no progress," once exclaimed the Master. "If +I were to take a raft, and drift about on the sea, would Tsz-lu, I +wonder, be my follower there?" That disciple was delighted at hearing +the suggestion; whereupon the Master continued, "He surpasses me in his +love of deeds of daring. But he does not in the least grasp the pith of +my remark." + +In reply to a question put to him by Mang Wu respecting Tsz-lu--as to +whether he might be called good-natured towards others, the Master said, +"I cannot tell"; but, on the question being put again, he answered, +"Well, in an important State [10] he might be intrusted with the +management of the military levies; but I cannot answer for his good +nature." + +"What say you then of Yen Yu?" + +"As for Yen," he replied, "in a city of a thousand families, or in a +secondary fief, [11] he might be charged with the governorship; but I +cannot answer for his good-naturedness." + +"Take Tsz-hwa, then; what of him?" + +"Tsz-hwa," said he, "with a cincture girt upon him, standing as +attendant at Court, might be charged with the addressing of visitors and +guests; but as to his good-naturedness I cannot answer." + +Addressing Tsz-kung, the Master said, "Which of the two is ahead of the +other--yourself or Hwui?" "How shall I dare," he replied, "even to look +at Hwui? Only let him hear one particular, and from that he knows ten; +whereas I, if I hear one, may from it know two." + +"You are not a match for him, I grant you," said the Master. "You are +not his match." + +Tsai Yu, a disciple, used to sleep in the daytime. Said the Master, "One +may hardly carve rotten wood, or use a trowel to the wall of a +manure-yard! In his case, what is the use of reprimand? + +"My attitude towards a man in my first dealings with him," he added, +"was to listen to his professions and to trust to his conduct. My +attitude now is to listen to his professions, and to watch his conduct. +My experience with Tsai Yu has led to this change. + +"I have never seen," said the Master, "a man of inflexible firmness." +Some one thereupon mentioned Shin Ch'ang, a disciple. "Ch'ang," said he, +"is wanton; where do you get at his inflexibleness?" + +Tsz-kung made the remark: "That which I do not wish others to put upon +me, I also wish not to put upon others." "Nay," said the Master, "you +have not got so far as that." + +The same disciple once remarked, "There may be access so as to hear the +Master's literary discourses, but when he is treating of human nature +and the way of Heaven, there may not be such success." + +Tsz-lu, after once hearing him upon some subject, and feeling himself as +yet incompetent to carry into practice what he had heard, used to be +apprehensive only lest he should hear the subject revived. + +Tsz-kung asked how it was that Kung Wan had come to be so styled Wan +(the talented). The Master's answer was, "Because, though a man of an +active nature, he was yet fond of study, and he was not ashamed to stoop +to put questions to his inferiors." + +Respecting Tsz-ch'an,[12] the Master said that he had four of the +essential qualities of the 'superior man':--in his own private walk he +was humble-minded; in serving his superiors he was deferential; in his +looking after the material welfare of the people he was generously kind; +and in his exaction of public service from the latter he was just. + +Speaking of Yen Ping, he said, "He was one who was happy in his mode of +attaching men to him. However long the intercourse, he was always +deferential to them." + +Referring to Tsang Wan, he asked, "What is to be said of this man's +discernment?--this man with his tortoise-house, with the pillar-heads +and posts bedizened with scenes of hill and mere!" + +Tsz-chang put a question relative to the chief Minister of Tsu, Tsz-wan. +He said, "Three times he became chief Minister, and on none of these +occasions did he betray any sign of exultation. Three times his ministry +came to an end, and he showed no sign of chagrin. He used without fail +to inform the new Minister as to the old mode of administration. What +say you of him?" + +"That he was a loyal man," said the Master. + +"But was he a man of fellow-feeling?" said the disciple. + +"Of that I am not sure," he answered; "how am I to get at that?" + +The disciple went on to say:--"After the assassination of the prince of +Ts'i by the officer Ts'ui, the latter's fellow-official Ch'in Wan, who +had half a score teams of horses, gave up all, and turned his back upon +him. On coming to another State, he observed, 'There are here characters +somewhat like that of our minister Ts'ui,' and he turned his back upon +them. Proceeding to a certain other State, he had occasion to make the +same remark, and left. What say you of him?" + +"That he was a pure-minded man," answered the Master. + +"But was he a man of fellow-feeling?" urged the disciple. + +"Of that I am not sure," he replied; "how am I to get at that?" + +Ki Wan was one who thought three times over a thing before he acted. The +Master hearing this of him, observed, "Twice would have been enough." + +Of Ning Wu, the Master said that when matters went well in the State he +used to have his wits about him: but when they went wrong, he lost them. +His intelligence might be equalled, but not his witlessness! + +Once, when the Master lived in the State of Ch'in, he exclaimed, "Let me +get home again! Let me get home! My school-children [13] are wild and +impetuous! Though they are somewhat accomplished, and perfect in one +sense in their attainments, yet they know not how to make nice +discriminations." + +Of Peh-I and Shuh Ts'i he said, "By the fact of their not remembering +old grievances, they gradually did away with resentment." + +Of Wei-shang Kau he said, "Who calls him straightforward? A person once +begged some vinegar of him, and he begged it from a neighbor, and then +presented him with it!" + +"Fine speech," said he, "and studied mien, and superfluous show of +deference--of such things Tso-k'iu Ming was ashamed, I too am ashamed of +such things. Also of hiding resentment felt towards an opponent and +treating him as a friend--of this kind of thing he was ashamed, and so +too am I." + +Attended once by the two disciples Yen Yuen and Tsz-lu, he said, "Come +now, why not tell me, each of you, what in your hearts you are really +after?" + +"I should like," said Tsz-lu, "for myself and my friends and associates, +carriages and horses, and to be clad in light furs! nor would I mind +much if they should become the worse for wear." + +"And I should like," said Yen Yuen, "to live without boasting of my +abilities, and without display of meritorious deeds." + +Tsz-lu then said, "I should like, sir, to hear what your heart is set +upon." + +The Master replied, "It is this:--in regard to old people, to give them +quiet and comfort; in regard to friends and associates, to be faithful +to them; in regard to the young, to treat them with fostering affection +and kindness." + +On one occasion the Master exclaimed, "Ah, 'tis hopeless! I have not yet +seen the man who can see his errors, so as inwardly to accuse himself." + +"In a small cluster of houses there may well be," said he, "some whose +integrity and sincerity may compare with mine; but I yield to none in +point of love of learning." + + +[Footnote 10: Lit., a State of 1,000 war chariots.] + +[Footnote 11: Lit., a House of 100 war chariots.] + +[Footnote 12: A great statesman of Confucius's time.] + +[Footnote 13: A familiar way of speaking of his disciples in their +hearing.] + + + +BOOK VI + +More Characteristics--Wisdom--Philanthropy + + +Of Yen Yung, a disciple, the Master said, "Yung might indeed do for a +prince!" + +On being asked by this Yen Yung his opinion of a certain individual, the +Master replied, "He is passable. Impetuous, though." + +"But," argued the disciple, "if a man habituate himself to a reverent +regard for duty--even while in his way of doing things he is +impetuous--in the oversight of the people committed to his charge, is he +not passable? If, on the other hand, he habituate himself to impetuosity +of mind, and show it also in his way of doing things, is he not then +over-impetuous?" + +"You are right," said the Master. + +When the Duke Ngai inquired which of the disciples were devoted to +learning, Confucius answered him, "There was one Yen Hwui who loved +it--a man whose angry feelings towards any particular person he did not +suffer to visit upon another; a man who would never fall into the same +error twice. Unfortunately his allotted time was short, and he died, and +now his like is not to be found; I have never heard of one so devoted to +learning." + +While Tsz-hwa, a disciple, was away on a mission to Ts'i, the disciple +Yen Yu, on behalf of his mother, applied for some grain. "Give her three +pecks," said the Master. He applied for more. "Give her eight, then." +Yen gave her fifty times that amount. The Master said, "When Tsz-hwa +went on that journey to Ts'i, he had well-fed steeds yoked to his +carriage, and was arrayed in light furs. I have learnt that the +'superior man' should help those whose needs are urgent, not help the +rich to be more rich." + +When Yuen Sz became prefect under him, he gave him nine hundred measures +of grain, but the prefect declined to accept them.[14] "You must not," +said the Master. "May they not be of use to the villages and hamlets +around you?" + +Speaking of Yen Yung again, the Master said, "If the offspring of a +speckled ox be red in color, and horned, even though men may not wish to +take it for sacrifice, would the spirits of the hills and streams reject +it?" + +Adverting to Hwui again, he said, "For three months there would not be +in his breast one thought recalcitrant against his feeling of good-will +towards his fellow-men. The others may attain to this for a day or for a +month, but there they end." + +When asked by Ki K'ang whether Tsz-lu was fit to serve the government, +the Master replied, "Tsz-lu is a man of decision: what should prevent +him from serving the government?" + +Asked the same question respecting Tsz-kung and Yen Yu he answered +similarly, pronouncing Tsz-kung to be a man of perspicacity, and Yen Yu +to be one versed in the polite arts. + +When the head of the Ki family sent for Min Tsz-k'ien to make him +governor of the town of Pi, that disciple said, "Politely decline for +me. If the offer is renewed, then indeed I shall feel myself obliged to +go and live on the further bank of the Wan." + +Peh-niu had fallen ill, and the Master was inquiring after him. Taking +hold of his hand held out from the window, he said, "It is taking him +off! Alas, his appointed time has come! Such a man, and to have such an +illness!" + +Of Hwui, again: "A right worthy man indeed was he! With his simple +wooden dish of rice, and his one gourd-basin of drink, away in his poor +back lane, in a condition too grievous for others to have endured, he +never allowed his cheery spirits to droop. Aye, a right worthy soul was +he!" + +"It is not," Yen Yu once apologized, "that I do not take pleasure in +your doctrines; it is that I am not strong enough." The Master rejoined, +"It is when those who are not strong enough have made some moderate +amount of progress that they fail and give up; but you are now drawing +your own line for yourself." + +Addressing Tsz-hia, the Master said, "Let your scholarship be that of +gentlemen, and not like that of common men." + +When Tsz-yu became governor of Wu-shing, the Master said to him, "Do you +find good men about you?" The reply was, "There is Tan-t'ai Mieh-ming, +who when walking eschews by-paths, and who, unless there be some public +function, never approaches my private residence." + +"Mang Chi-fan," said the Master, "is no sounder of his own praises. +During a stampede he was in the rear, and as they were about to enter +the city gate he whipped up his horses, and said, 'Twas not my daring +made me lag behind. My horses would not go.'" + +_Obiter dicta_ of the Master:-- + +"Whoever has not the glib utterance of the priest T'o, as well as the +handsomeness of Prince Chau of Sung, will find it hard to keep out of +harm's way in the present age. + +"Who can go out but by that door? Why walks no one by these guiding +principles? + +"Where plain naturalness is more in evidence than polish, we have--the +man from the country. Where polish is more in evidence than naturalness, +we have--the town scribe. It is when naturalness and polish are equally +evident that we have the ideal man. + +"The life of a man is--his rectitude. Life without it--such may you have +the good fortune to avoid! + +"They who know it are not as those who love it, nor they who love it as +those who rejoice in it--that is, have the fruition of their love for +it. + +"To the average man, and those above the average, it is possible to +discourse on higher subjects; to those from the average downwards, it is +not possible." + +Fan Ch'i put a query about wisdom. The Master replied, "To labor for the +promoting of righteous conduct among the people of the land; to be +serious in regard to spiritual beings, and to hold aloof from +them;--this may be called wisdom." + +To a further query, about philanthropy, he replied, "Those who possess +that virtue find difficulty with it at first, success later. + +"Men of practical knowledge," he said, "find their gratification among +the rivers of the lowland, men of sympathetic social feeling find theirs +among the hills. The former are active and bustling, the latter calm and +quiet. The former take their day of pleasure, the latter look to length +of days." + +Alluding to the States of Ts'i and Lu, he observed, that Ts'i, by one +change, might attain to the condition of Lu; and that Lu, by one change, +might attain to good government. + +An exclamation of the Master (satirizing the times, when old terms +relating to government were still used while bereft of their old +meaning):--"A quart, and not a quart! _quart_, indeed! _quart_, indeed!" + +Tsai Wo, a disciple, put a query. Said he, "Suppose a philanthropic +person were told, 'There's a fellow-creature down in the well!' Would he +go down after him?" + +"Why should he really do so?" answered the Master. "The good man or, a +superior man might be induced to go, but not to go down. He may be +misled, but not befooled." + +"The superior man," said he, "with his wide study of books, and hedging +himself round by the Rules of Propriety, is not surely, after all that, +capable of overstepping his bounds." + +Once when the Master had had an interview with Nan-tsz, which had +scandalized his disciple Tsz-lu, he uttered the solemn adjuration, "If I +have done aught amiss, may Heaven reject me! may Heaven reject me!" + +"How far-reaching," said he, "is the moral excellence that flows from +the Constant Mean! [15] It has for a long time been rare among the +people." + +Tsz-kung said, "Suppose the case of one who confers benefits far and +wide upon the people, and who can, in so doing, make his bounty +universally felt--how would you speak of him? Might he be called +philanthropic?" + +The Master exclaimed, "What a work for philanthropy! He would require +indeed to be a sage! He would put into shade even Yau and Shun!--Well, a +philanthropic person, desiring for himself a firm footing, is led on to +give one to others; desiring for himself an enlightened perception of +things, he is led on to help others to be similarly enlightened. If one +could take an illustration coming closer home to us than yours, that +might be made the starting-point for speaking about philanthropy." + + +[Footnote 14: At this time Confucius was Criminal Judge in his native +State of Lu. Yuen Sz had been a disciple. The commentators add that this +was the officer's proper salary, and that he did wrong to refuse it.] + +[Footnote 15: The doctrine afterwards known by that name, and which gave +its title to a Confucian treatise.] + + + +BOOK VII + +Characteristics of Confucius--An Incident + + +Said the Master:-- + +"I, as a transmitter[16] and not an originator, and as one who believes +in and loves the ancients, venture to compare myself with our old P'ang. + +"What find you indeed in me?--a quiet brooder and memorizer; a student +never satiated with learning; an unwearied monitor of others! + +"The things which weigh heavily upon my mind are these--failure to +improve in the virtues, failure in discussion of what is learnt, +inability to walk according to knowledge received as to what is right +and just, inability also to reform what has been amiss." + +In his hours of recreation and refreshment the Master's manner was easy +and unconstrained, affable and winning. + +Once he exclaimed, "Alas! I must be getting very feeble; 'tis long since +I have had a repetition of the dreams in which I used to see the Duke of +Chow. [17] + +"Concentrate the mind," said he, "upon the Good Way. + +"Maintain firm hold upon Virtue. + +"Rely upon Philanthropy. + +"Find recreation in the Arts. [18] + +"I have never withheld instruction from any, even from those who have +come for it with the smallest offering. + +"No subject do I broach, however, to those who have no eager desire to +learn; no encouraging hint do I give to those who show no anxiety to +speak out their ideas; nor have I anything more to say to those who, +after I have made clear one corner of the subject, cannot from that give +me the other three." + +If the Master was taking a meal, and there were any in mourning beside +him, he would not eat to the full. + +On one day on which he had wept, on that day he would not sing. + +Addressing his favorite disciple, he said, "To you only and myself it +has been given to do this--to go when called to serve, and to go back +into quiet retirement when released from office." + +Tsz-lu, hearing the remark said, "But if, sir, you had the handling of +the army of one of the greater States,[19] whom would you have +associated with you in that case?" + +The Master answered:-- + + "Not the one 'who'll rouse the tiger,' + Not the one 'who'll wade the Ho;' + +not the man who can die with no regret. He must be one who should watch +over affairs with apprehensive caution, a man fond of strategy, and of +perfect skill and effectiveness in it." + +As to wealth, he remarked, "If wealth were an object that I could go in +quest of, I should do so even if I had to take a whip and do grooms' +work. But seeing that it is not, I go after those objects for which I +have a liking." + +Among matters over which he exercised great caution were times of +fasting, war, and sickness. + +When he was in the State of Ts'i, and had heard the ancient Shau music, +he lost all perception of the taste of his meat. "I had no idea," said +he, "that music could have been brought to this pitch." + +In the course of conversation Yen Yu said, "Does the Master take the +part of the Prince of Wei?" "Ah yes!" said Tsz-kung, "I will go and ask +him that." + +On going in to him, that disciple began, "What sort of men were Peh-I +and Shuh Ts'i?" "Worthies of the olden time," the Master replied. "Had +they any feelings of resentment?" was the next question. "Their aim and +object," he answered, "was that of doing the duty which every man owes +to his fellows, and they succeeded in doing it;--what room further for +feelings of resentment?" The questioner on coming out said, "The Master +does not take his part." + +"With a meal of coarse rice," said the Master, "and with water to drink, +and my bent arm for my pillow--even thus I can find happiness. Riches +and honors without righteousness are to me as fleeting clouds." + +"Give me several years more to live," said he, "and after fifty years' +study of the 'Book of Changes' I might come to be free from serious +error." + +The Master's regular subjects of discourse were the "Books of the Odes" +and "History," and the up-keeping of the Rules of Propriety. On all of +these he regularly discoursed. + +The Duke of Shih questioned Tsz-lu about Confucius, and the latter did +not answer. + +Hearing of this, the Master said, "Why did you not say, He is a man with +a mind so intent on his pursuits that he forgets his food, and finds +such pleasure in them that he forgets his troubles, and does not know +that old age is coming upon him?" + +"As I came not into life with any knowledge of it," he said, "and as my +likings are for what is old, I busy myself in seeking knowledge there." + +Strange occurrences, exploits of strength, deeds of lawlessness, +references to spiritual beings--such-like matters the Master avoided in +conversation. + +"Let there," he said, "be three men walking together: from that number I +should be sure to find my instructors; for what is good in them I should +choose out and follow, and what is not good I should modify." + +On one occasion he exclaimed, "Heaven begat Virtue in me; what can man +do unto me?" + +To his disciples he once said, "Do you look upon me, my sons, as keeping +anything secret from you? I hide nothing from you. I do nothing that is +not manifest to your eyes, my disciples. That is so with me." + +Four things there were which he kept in view in his +teaching--scholarliness, conduct of life, honesty, faithfulness. + +"It is not given to me," he said, "to meet with a sage; let me but +behold a man of superior mind, and that will suffice. Neither is it +given to me to meet with a good man; let me but see a man of constancy, +and it will suffice. It is difficult for persons to have constancy, when +they pretend to have that which they are destitute of, to be full when +they are empty, to do things on a grand scale when their means are +contracted!" + +When the Master fished with hook and line, he did not also use a net. +When out with his bow, he would never shoot at game in cover. + +"Some there may be," said he, "who do things in ignorance of what they +do. I am not of these. There is an alternative way of knowing things, +viz.--to sift out the good from the many things one hears, and follow +it; and to keep in memory the many things one sees." + +Pupils from Hu-hiang were difficult to speak with. One youth came to +interview the Master, and the disciples were in doubt whether he ought +to have been seen. "Why so much ado," said the Master, "at my merely +permitting his approach, and not rather at my allowing him to draw back? +If a man have cleansed himself in order to come and see me, I receive +him as such; but I do not undertake for what he will do when he goes +away." + +"Is the philanthropic spirit far to seek, indeed?" the Master exclaimed; +"I wish for it, and it is with me!" + +The Minister of Crime in the State of Ch'in asked Confucius whether Duke +Ch'an, of Lu was acquainted with the Proprieties; and he answered, "Yes, +he knows them." + +When Confucius had withdrawn, the minister bowed to Wu-ma K'i, a +disciple, and motioned to him to come forward. He said, "I have heard +that superior men show no partiality; are they, too, then, partial? That +prince took for his wife a lady of the Wu family, having the same +surname as himself, and had her named 'Lady Tsz of Wu, the elder,' If he +knows the Proprieties, then who does not?" + +The disciple reported this to the Master, who thereupon remarked, "Well +for me! If I err in any way, others are sure to know of it." + +When the Master was in company with any one who sang, and who sang well, +he must needs have the song over again, and after that would join in it. + +"Although in letters," he said, "I may have none to compare with me, yet +in my personification of the 'superior man' I have not as yet been +successful." + +"'A Sage and a Philanthropist?' How should I have the ambition?" said +he. "All that I can well be called is this--An insatiable student, an +unwearied teacher;--this, and no more."--"Exactly what we, your +disciples, cannot by any learning manage to be," said Kung-si Hwa. + +Once when the Master was seriously ill, Tsz-lu requested to be allowed +to say prayers for him. "Are such available?" asked the Master. "Yes," +said he; "and the Manual of Prayers says, 'Pray to the spirits above and +to those here below,'" + +"My praying has been going on a long while," said the Master. + +"Lavish living," he said, "renders men disorderly; miserliness makes +them hard. Better, however, the hard than the disorderly." + +Again, "The man of superior mind is placidly composed; the small-minded +man is in a constant state of perturbation." + +The Master was gentle, yet could be severe; had an over-awing presence, +yet was not violent; was deferential, yet easy. + + +[Footnote 16: In reference to his editing the six Classics of his time.] + +[Footnote 17: This was one of his "beloved ancients," famous for what he +did in helping to found the dynasty of Chow, a man of great political +wisdom, a scholar also, and poet. It was the "dream" of Confucius's life +to restore the country to the condition in which the Duke of Chow left +it.] + +[Footnote 18: These were six in number, viz.: Ceremonial, Music, +Archery, Horsemanship, Language, and Calculation.] + +[Footnote 19: Lit., three forces. Each force consisted of 12,500 men, +and three of such forces were the equipment of a greater State.] + + + +BOOK VIII + +Sayings of Tsang--Sentences of the Master + + +Speaking of T'ai-pih the Master said that he might be pronounced a man +of the highest moral excellence; for he allowed the empire to pass by +him onwards to a third heir; while the people, in their ignorance of his +motives, were unable to admire him for so doing. + +"Without the Proprieties," said the Master, "we have these results: for +deferential demeanor, a worried one; for calm attentiveness, awkward +bashfulness; for manly conduct, disorderliness; for straightforwardness, +perversity. + +"When men of rank show genuine care for those nearest to them in blood, +the people rise to the duty of neighborliness and sociability. And when +old friendships among them are not allowed to fall off, there will be a +cessation of underhand practices among the people." + +The Scholar Tsang was once unwell, and calling his pupils to him he said +to them, "Disclose to view my feet and my hands. What says the Ode?-- + + 'Act as from a sense of danger, + With precaution and with care, + As a yawning gulf o'erlooking, + As on ice that scarce will bear,' + +At all times, my children, I know how to keep myself free from bodily +harm." + +Again, during an illness of his, Mang King, an official, went to ask +after him. The Scholar had some conversation with him, in the course of +which he said-- + + "'Doleful the cries of a dying bird, + Good the last words of a dying man,' + +There are three points which a man of rank in the management of his +duties should set store upon:--A lively manner and deportment, banishing +both severity and laxity; a frank and open expression of countenance, +allied closely with sincerity; and a tone in his utterances utterly free +from any approach to vulgarity and impropriety. As to matters of bowls +and dishes, leave such things to those who are charged with the care of +them." + +Another saying of the Scholar Tsang: "I once had a friend who, though he +possessed ability, would go questioning men of none, and, though +surrounded by numbers, would go with his questions to isolated +individuals; who also, whatever he might have, appeared as if he were +without it, and, with all his substantial acquirements, made as though +his mind were a mere blank; and when insulted would not retaliate;--this +was ever his way." + +Again he said: "The man that is capable of being intrusted with the +charge of a minor on the throne, and given authority over a large +territory, and who, during the important term of his superintendence +cannot be forced out of his position, is not such a 'superior man'? That +he is, indeed." + +Again:--"The learned official must not be without breadth and power of +endurance: the burden is heavy, and the way is long. + +"Suppose that he take his duty to his fellow-men as his peculiar burden, +is that not indeed a heavy one? And since only with death it is done +with, is not the way long?" + + +Sentences of the Master:-- + +"From the 'Book of Odes' we receive impulses; from the 'Book of the +Rules,' stability; from the 'Book on Music,' refinement. [20] + +"The people may be put into the way they should go, though they may not +be put into the way of understanding it. + +"The man who likes bravery, and yet groans under poverty, has mischief +in him. So, too, has the misanthrope, groaning at any severity shown +towards him. + +"Even if a person were adorned with the gifts of the Duke of Chow, yet +if he were proud and avaricious, all the rest of his qualities would not +indeed be worth looking at. + +"Not easily found is the man who, after three years' study, has failed +to come upon some fruit of his toil. + +"The really faithful lover of learning holds fast to the Good Way till +death. + +"He will not go into a State in which a downfall is imminent, nor take +up his abode in one where disorder reigns. When the empire is well +ordered he will show himself; when not, he will hide himself away. Under +a good government it will be a disgrace to him if he remain in poverty +and low estate; under a bad one, it would be equally disgraceful to him +to hold riches and honors. + +"If not occupying the office, devise not the policy. + +"When the professor Chi began his duties, how grand the finale of the +First of the Odes used to be! How it rang in one's ears! + +"I cannot understand persons who are enthusiastic and yet not +straightforward; nor those who are ignorant and yet not attentive; nor +again those folks who are simple-minded and yet untrue. + +"Learn, as if never overtaking your object, and yet as if apprehensive +of losing it. + +"How sublime was the handling of the empire by Shun and Yu!--it was as +nothing to them! + +"How great was Yau as a prince! Was he not sublime! Say that Heaven only +is great, then was Yau alone after its pattern! How profound was he! The +people could not find a name for him. How sublime in his achievements! +How brilliant in his scholarly productions!" + + +Shun had for his ministers five men, by whom he ordered the empire. + +King Wu (in his day) stated that he had ten men as assistants for the +promotion of order. + +With reference to these facts Confucius observed, "Ability is hard to +find. Is it not so indeed? During the three years' interregnum between +Yau and Shun there was more of it than in the interval before this +present dynasty appeared. There were, at this latter period, one woman, +and nine men only. + +"When two-thirds of the empire were held by King Wan, he served with +that portion the House of Yin. We speak of the virtue of the House of +Chow; we may say, indeed, that it reached the pinnacle of excellence." + +"As to Yu," added the Master, "I can find no flaw in him. Living on +meagre food and drink; yet providing to the utmost in his filial +offerings to the spirits of the dead! Dressing in coarse garments; yet +most elegant when vested in his sacrificial apron and coronet! Dwelling +in a poor palace; yet exhausting his energies over those +boundary-ditches and watercourses! I can find no flaw in Yu." + + +[Footnote 20: Comparison of three of the Classics: the "Shi-King," the +"Li Ki," and the "Yoh." The last is lost.] + + + +BOOK IX + +His Favorite Disciple's Opinion of Him + + +Topics on which the Master rarely spoke were--Advantage, and Destiny, +and Duty of man to man. + +A man of the village of Tah-hiang exclaimed of him, "A great man is +Confucius!--a man of extensive learning, and yet in nothing has he quite +made himself a name!" + +The Master heard of this, and mentioning it to his disciples he said, +"What then shall I take in hand? Shall I become a carriage driver, or an +archer? Let me be a driver!" + +"The sacrificial cap," he once said, "should, according to the Rules, be +of linen; but in these days it is of pure silk. However, as it is +economical, I do as all do. + +"The Rule says, 'Make your bow when at the lower end of the hall'; but +nowadays the bowing is done at the upper part. This is great freedom; +and I, though I go in opposition to the crowd, bow when at the lower +end." + +The Master barred four words:--he would have no "shall's," no "must's," +no "certainty's," no "I's." + +Once, in the town of K'wang fearing that his life was going to be taken, +the Master exclaimed, "King Wan is dead and gone; but is not '_wan_' +[21] with you here? If Heaven be about to allow this '_wan_' to perish, +then they who survive its decease will get no benefit from it. But so +long as Heaven does not allow it to perish, what can the men of K'wang +do to me?" + +A high State official, after questioning Tsz-kung, said, "Your Master is +a sage, then? How many and what varied abilities must be his!" + +The disciple replied, "Certainly Heaven is allowing him full +opportunities of becoming a sage, in addition to the fact that his +abilities are many and varied." + +When the Master heard of this he remarked, "Does that high official know +me? In my early years my position in life was low, and hence my ability +in many ways, though exercised in trifling matters. In the gentleman is +there indeed such variety of ability? No." + +From this, the disciple Lau used to say, "'Twas a saying of the Master: +'At a time when I was not called upon to use them, I acquired my +proficiency in the polite arts.'" + +"Am I, indeed," said the Master, "possessed of knowledge? I know +nothing. Let a vulgar fellow come to me with a question--a man with an +emptyish head--I may thrash out with him the matter from end to end, and +exhaust myself in doing it!" + +"Ah!" exclaimed he once, "the phoenix does not come! and no symbols +issue from the river! May I not as well give up?" + +Whenever the Master met with a person in mourning, or with one in +full-dress cap and kirtle, or with a blind person, although they might +be young persons, he would make a point of rising on their appearance, +or, if crossing their path, would do so with quickened step! + +Once Yen Yuen exclaimed with a sigh (with reference to the Master's +doctrines), "If I look up to them, they are ever the higher; if I try to +penetrate them, they are ever the harder; if I gaze at them as if before +my eyes, lo, they are behind me!--Gradually and gently the Master with +skill lures men on. By literary lore he gave me breadth; by the Rules of +Propriety he narrowed me down. When I desire a respite, I find it +impossible; and after I have exhausted my powers, there seems to be +something standing straight up in front of me, and though I have the +mind to make towards it I make no advance at all." + +Once when the Master was seriously ill, Tsz-lu induced the other +disciples to feign they were high officials acting in his service. +During a respite from his malady the Master exclaimed, "Ah! how long has +Tsz-lu's conduct been false? Whom should I delude, if I were to pretend +to have officials under me, having none? Should I deceive Heaven? +Besides, were I to die, I would rather die in the hands of yourselves, +my disciples, than in the hands of officials. And though I should fail +to have a grand funeral over me, I should hardly be left on my death on +the public highway, should I?" + +Tsz-kung once said to him, "Here is a fine gem. Would you guard it +carefully in a casket and store it away, or seek a good price for it and +sell it?" "Sell it, indeed," said the Master--"that would I; but I +should wait for the bidder." + +The Master protested he would "go and live among the nine wild tribes." + +"A rude life," said some one;--"how could you put up with it?" + +"What rudeness would there be," he replied, "if a 'superior man' was +living in their midst?" + +Once he remarked, "After I came back from Wei to Lu the music was put +right, and each of the Festal Odes and Hymns was given its appropriate +place and use." + +"Ah! which one of these following," he asked on one occasion, "are to be +found exemplified in me--proper service rendered to superiors when +abroad; duty to father and elder brother when at home; duty that shrinks +from no exertion when dear ones die; and keeping free from the confusing +effects of wine?" + +Standing once on the bank of a mountain stream, he said (musingly), +"Like this are those that pass away--no cessation, day or night!" + + +Other sayings:-- + +"Take an illustration from the making of a hill. A simple basketful is +wanting to complete it, and the work stops. So I stop short. + +"Take an illustration from the levelling of the ground. Suppose again +just one basketful is left, when the work has so progressed. There I +desist! + +"Ah! it was Hwui, was it not? who, when I had given him his lesson, was +the unflagging one! + +"Alas for Hwui! I saw him ever making progress. I never saw him stopping +short. + +"Blade, but no bloom--or else bloom, but no produce; aye, that is the +way with some! + +"Reverent regard is due to youth. How know we what difference there may +be in them in the future from what they are now? Yet when they have +reached the age of forty or fifty, and are still unknown in the world, +then indeed they are no more worthy of such regard. + +"Can any do otherwise than assent to words said to them by way of +correction? Only let them reform by such advice, and it will then be +reckoned valuable. Can any be other than pleased with words of gentle +suasion? Only let them comply with them fully, and such also will be +accounted valuable. With those who are pleased without so complying, and +those who assent but do not reform, I can do nothing at all. + +"Give prominent place to loyalty and sincerity. + +"Have no associates in study who are not advanced somewhat like +yourself. + +"When you have erred, be not afraid to correct yourself. + +"It may be possible to seize and carry off the chief commander of a +large army, but not possible so to rob one poor fellow of his will. + +"One who stands--clad in hempen robe, the worse for wear--among others +clad in furs of fox and badger, and yet unabashed--'tis Tsz-lu, that, is +it not?" + +Tsz-lu used always to be humming over the lines-- + + "From envy and enmity free, + What deed doth he other than good?" + +"How should such a rule of life," asked the Master, "be sufficient to +make any one good?" + +"When the year grows chilly, we know the pine and cypress are the last +to fade. + +"The wise escape doubt; the good-hearted, trouble; the bold, +apprehension. + +"Some may study side by side, and yet be asunder when they +come to the logic of things. Some may go on together in this +latter course, but be wide apart in the standards they reach in +it. Some, again, may together reach the same standard, and +yet be diverse in weight of character." + + "The blossom is out on the cherry tree, + With a flutter on every spray. + Dost think that my thoughts go not out to thee? + Ah, why art thou far away!" + +Commenting on these lines the Master said, "There can hardly have been +much 'thought going out,' What does distance signify?" + + +[Footnote 21: "Wan" was the honorary appellation of the great sage and +ruler, whose praise is in the "Shi-King" as one of the founders of the +Chow dynasty, and the term represented civic talent and virtues, as +distinct from Wu, the martial talent--the latter being the honorary +title of his son and successor. "Wan" also often stands for literature +and polite accomplishments. Here Confucius simply means, "If you kill +me, you kill a sage."] + + + +BOOK X + +Confucius in Private and Official Life + + +In his own village, Confucius presented a somewhat plain and simple +appearance, and looked unlike a man who possessed ability of speech. + +But in the ancestral temple, and at Court, he spoke with the fluency and +accuracy of a debater, but ever guardedly. + +At Court, conversing with the lower order of great officials, he spoke +somewhat firmly and directly; with those of the higher order his tone +was somewhat more affable. + +When the prince was present he was constrainedly reverent in his +movements, and showed a proper degree of grave dignity in demeanor. + +Whenever the prince summoned him to act as usher to the Court, his look +would change somewhat, and he would make as though he were turning round +to do obeisance. + +He would salute those among whom he took up his position, using the +right hand or the left, and holding the skirts of his robe in proper +position before and behind. He would make his approaches with quick +step, and with elbows evenly bent outwards. + +When the visitor withdrew, he would not fail to report the execution of +his commands, with the words, "The visitor no longer looks back." + +When he entered the palace gate, it was with the body somewhat bent +forward, almost as though he could not be admitted. When he stood still, +this would never happen in the middle of the gateway; nor when moving +about would he ever tread on the threshold. When passing the throne, his +look would change somewhat, he would turn aside and make a sort of +obeisance, and the words he spoke seemed as though he were deficient in +utterance. + +On going up the steps to the audience chamber, he would gather up with +both hands the ends of his robe, and walk with his body bent somewhat +forward, holding back his breath like one in whom respiration has +ceased. On coming out, after descending one step his countenance would +relax and assume an appearance of satisfaction. Arrived at the bottom, +he would go forward with quick step, his elbows evenly bent outwards, +back to his position, constrainedly reverent in every movement. + +When holding the sceptre in his hand, his body would be somewhat bent +forward, as if he were not equal to carrying it; wielding it now higher, +as in a salutation, now lower, as in the presentation of a gift; his +look would also be changed and appear awestruck; and his gait would seem +retarded, as if he were obeying some restraining hand behind. + +When he presented the gifts of ceremony, he would assume a placid +expression of countenance. At the private interview he would be cordial +and affable. + +The good man would use no purple or violet colors for the facings of his +dress. [22] Nor would he have red or orange color for his undress. [23] +For the hot season he wore a singlet, of either coarse or fine texture, +but would also feel bound to have an outer garment covering it. For his +black robe he had lamb's wool; for his white one, fawn's fur; and for +his yellow one, fox fur. His furred undress robe was longer, but the +right sleeve was shortened. He would needs have his sleeping-dress one +and a half times his own length. For ordinary home wear he used thick +substantial fox or badger furs. When he left off mourning, he would wear +all his girdle trinkets. His kirtle in front, when it was not needed for +full cover, he must needs have cut down. He would never wear his (black) +lamb's-wool, or a dark-colored cap, when he went on visits of condolence +to mourners. [24] On the first day of the new moon, he must have on his +Court dress and to Court. When observing his fasts, he made a point of +having bright, shiny garments, made of linen. He must also at such times +vary his food, and move his seat to another part of his dwelling-room. + +As to his food, he never tired of rice so long as it was clean and pure, +nor of hashed meats when finely minced. Rice spoiled by damp, and sour, +he would not touch, nor tainted fish, nor bad meat, nor aught of a bad +color or smell, nor aught overdone in cooking, nor aught out of season. +Neither would he eat anything that was not properly cut, or that lacked +its proper seasonings. Although there might be an abundance of meat +before him, he would not allow a preponderance of it to rob the rice of +its beneficial effect in nutrition. Only in the matter of wine did he +set himself no limit, yet he never drank so much as to confuse himself. +Tradesmen's wines, and dried meats from the market, he would not touch. +Ginger he would never have removed from the table during a meal. He was +not a great eater. Meat from the sacrifices at the prince's temple he +would never put aside till the following day. The meat of his own +offerings he would never give out after three days' keeping, for after +that time none were to eat it. + +At his meals he would not enter into discussions; and when reposing +(afterwards) he would not utter a word. + +Even should his meal consist only of coarse rice and vegetable broth or +melons, he would make an offering, and never fail to do so religiously. + +He would never sit on a mat that was not straight. + +After a feast among his villagers, he would wait before going away until +the old men had left. + +When the village people were exorcising the pests, he would put on his +Court robes and stand on the steps of his hall to receive them. + +When he was sending a message of inquiry to a person in another State, +he would bow twice on seeing the messenger off. + +Ki K'ang once sent him a present of some medicine. He bowed, and +received it; but remarked, "Until I am quite sure of its properties I +must not venture to taste it." + +Once when the stabling was destroyed by fire, he withdrew from the +Court, and asked, "Is any person injured? "--without inquiring as to the +horses. + +Whenever the prince sent him a present of food, he was particular to set +his mat in proper order, and would be the first one to taste it. If the +prince's present was one of raw meat, he must needs have it cooked, and +make an oblation of it. If the gift were a live animal, he would be sure +to keep it and care for it. + +When he was in waiting, and at a meal with the prince, the prince would +make the offering,[25] and he (the Master) was the pregustator. + +When unwell, and the prince came to see him, he would arrange his +position so that his head inclined towards the east, would put over him +his Court robes, and draw his girdle across them. + +When summoned by order of the prince, he would start off without waiting +for his horses to be put to. + +On his entry into the Grand Temple, he inquired about everything +connected with its usages. + +If a friend died, and there were no near relatives to take him to, he +would say, "Let him be buried from my house." + +For a friend's gift--unless it consisted of meat that had been offered +in sacrifice--he would not bow, even if it were a carriage and horses. + +In repose he did not lie like one dead. In his home life he was not +formal in his manner. + +Whenever he met with a person in mourning, even though it were a +familiar acquaintance, he would be certain to change his manner; and +when he met with any one in full-dress cap, or with any blind person, he +would also unfailingly put on a different look, even though he were +himself in undress at the time. + +In saluting any person wearing mourning he would bow forwards towards +the front bar of his carriage; in the same manner he would also salute +the bearer of a census-register. + +When a sumptuous banquet was spread before him, a different expression +would be sure to appear in his features, and he would rise up from his +seat. + +At a sudden thunder-clap, or when the wind grew furious, his look would +also invariably be changed. + +On getting into his car, he would never fail (first) to stand up erect, +holding on by the strap. When in the car, he would never look about, nor +speak hastily, nor bring one hand to the other. + + "Let one but make a movement in his face, + And the bird will rise and seek some safer place." + +Apropos of this, he said, "Here is a hen-pheasant from Shan Liang--and +in season! and in season!" After Tsz-lu had got it prepared, he smelt it +thrice, and then rose up from his seat. + + +[Footnote 22: Because, it is said, such colors were adopted in fasting +and mourning.] + +[Footnote 23: Because they did not belong to the five correct colors +(viz. green, yellow, carnation, white, and black), and were affected +more by females.] + +[Footnote 24: Since white was, as it is still, the mourning color.] + +[Footnote 25: The act of "grace," before eating.] + + + +BOOK XI + +Comparative Worth of His Disciples + + +"The first to make progress in the Proprieties and in Music," said the +Master, "are plain countrymen; after them, the men of higher standing. +If I had to employ any of them, I should stand by the former." + +"Of those," said he, "who were about me when I was in the Ch'in and +Ts'ai States, not one now is left to approach my door." + +"As for Hwui," [26] said the Master, "he is not one to help me on: there +is nothing I say but he is not well satisfied with." + +"What a dutiful son was Min Tsz-k'ien!" he exclaimed. "No one finds +occasion to differ from what his parents and brothers have said of him." + +Nan Yung used to repeat three times over the lines in the Odes about the +white sceptre. Confucius caused his own elder brother's daughter to be +given in marriage to him. + +When Ki K'ang inquired which of the disciples were fond of learning, +Confucius answered him, "There was one Yen Hwui who was fond of it; but +unfortunately his allotted time was short, and he died; and now his like +is not to be found." + +When Yen Yuen died, his father, Yen Lu, begged for the Master's carriage +in order to get a shell for his coffin. "Ability or no ability," said +the Master, "every father still speaks of 'my son.' When my own son Li +died, and the coffin for him had no shell to it, I know I did not go on +foot to get him one; but that was because I was, though retired, in the +wake of the ministers, and could not therefore well do so." + +On the death of Yen Yuen the Master exclaimed, "Ah me! Heaven is ruining +me, Heaven is ruining me!" + +On the same occasion, his wailing for that disciple becoming excessive, +those who were about him said, "Sir, this is too much!"--"Too much?" +said he; "if I am not to do so for him, then--for whom else?" + +The disciples then wished for the deceased a grand funeral. The Master +could not on his part consent to this. They nevertheless gave him one. +Upon this he remarked, "He used to look upon me as if I were his father. +I could never, however, look on him as a son. Twas not my mistake, but +yours, my children." + +Tsz-lu propounded a question about ministering to the spirits of the +departed. The Master replied, "Where there is scarcely the ability to +minister to living men, how shall there be ability to minister to the +spirits?" On his venturing to put a question concerning death, he +answered, "Where there is scarcely any knowledge about life, how shall +there be any about death?" + +The disciple Min was by his side, looking affable and bland; Tsz-lu +also, looking careless and intrepid; and Yen Yu and Tsz-kung, firm and +precise. The Master was cheery. "One like Tsz-lu there," said he, "does +not come to a natural end." + +Some persons in Lu were taking measures in regard to the Long Treasury +House. Min Tsz-k'ien observed, "How if it were repaired on the old +lines?" The Master upon this remarked, "This fellow is not a talker, but +when he does speak he is bound to hit the mark!" + +"There is Yu's harpsichord," exclaimed the Master--"what is it doing at +my door?" On seeing, however, some disrespect shown to him by the other +disciples, he added, "Yu has got as far as the top of the hall; only he +has not yet entered the house." + +Tsz-kung asked which was the worthier of the two--Tsz-chang or Tsz-hia. +"The former," answered the Master, "goes beyond the mark; the latter +falls short of it." + +"So then Tsz-chang is the better of the two, is he?" said he. + +"To go too far," he replied, "is about the same as to fall short." + +The Chief of the Ki family was a wealthier man than the Duke of Chow had +been, and yet Yen Yu gathered and hoarded for him, increasing his wealth +more and more. + +"He is no follower of mine," said the Master. "It would serve him right, +my children, to sound the drum, and set upon him." + +Characteristics of four disciples:--Tsz-kau was simple-minded; Tsang Si, +a dullard; Tsz-chang, full of airs; Tsz-lu, rough. + +"As to Hwui," said the Master, "he comes near to perfection, while +frequently in great want. Tsz-kung does not submit to the appointments +of Heaven; and yet his goods are increased;--he is often successful in +his calculations." + +Tsz-chang wanted to know some marks of the naturally Good Man. + +"He does not walk in others' footprints," said the Master; "yet he does +not get beyond the hall into the house." + +Once the Master said, "Because we allow that a man's words have +something genuine in them, are they necessarily those of a superior man? +or words carrying only an outward semblance and show of gravity?" + +Tsz-lu put a question about the practice of precepts one has heard. The +Master's reply was, "In a case where there is a father or elder brother +still left with you, how should you practise all you hear?" + +When, however, the same question was put to him by Yen Yu, his reply +was, "Yes; do so." + +Kung-si Hwa animadverted upon this to the Master. "Tsz-lu asked you, +sir," said he, "about the practice of what one has learnt, and you said, +'There may be a father or elder brother still alive'; but when Yen Yu +asked the same question, you answered, 'Yes, do so.' I am at a loss to +understand you, and venture to ask what you meant." + +The Master replied, "Yen Yu backs out of his duties; therefore I push +him on. Tsz-lu has forwardness enough for them both; therefore I hold +him back." + +On the occasion of that time of fear in K'wang, Yen Yuen having fallen +behind, the Master said to him (afterwards), "I took it for granted you +were a dead man." "How should I dare to die," said he, "while you, sir, +still lived?" + +On Ki Tsz-jen putting to him a question anent Tsz-lu and Yen Yu, as to +whether they might be called "great ministers," the Master answered, "I +had expected your question, sir, to be about something extraordinary, +and lo! it is only about these two. Those whom we call 'great ministers' +are such as serve their prince conscientiously, and who, when they +cannot do so, retire. At present, as regards the two you ask about, they +may be called 'qualified ministers.'" + +"Well, are they then," he asked, "such as will follow their leader?" + +"They would not follow him who should slay his father and his prince!" +was the reply. + +Through the intervention of Tsz-lu, Tsz-kau was being appointed governor +of Pi. + +"You are spoiling a good man's son," said the Master. + +Tsz-lu rejoined, "But he will have the people and their superiors to +gain experience from, and there will be the altars; what need to read +books? He can become a student afterwards." + +"Here is the reason for my hatred of glib-tongued people," said the +Master. + +On one occasion Tsz-lu, Tsang Sin, Yen Yu, and Kung-si Hwa were sitting +near him. He said to them, "Though I may be a day older than you, do not +(for the moment) regard me as such. While you are living this unoccupied +life you are saying, 'We do not become known.' Now suppose some one got +to know you, what then?" + +Tsz-lu--first to speak--at once answered, "Give me a State of large size +and armament, hemmed in and hampered by other larger States, the +population augmented by armies and regiments, causing a dearth in it of +food of all kinds; give me charge of that State, and in three years' +time I should make a brave country of it, and let it know its place." + +The Master smiled at him. "Yen," said he, "how would it be with you?" + +"Give me," said Yen, "a territory of sixty or seventy li square, or of +fifty or sixty square; put me in charge of that, and in three years I +should make the people sufficiently prosperous. As regards their +knowledge of ceremonial or music, I should wait for superior men to +teach them that." + +"And with you, Kung-si, how would it be?" + +This disciple's reply was, "I have nothing to say about my capabilities +for such matters; my wish is to learn. I should like to be a junior +assistant, in dark robe and cap, at the services of the ancestral +temple, and at the Grand Receptions of the Princes by the Sovereign." + +"And with you, Tsang Sin?" + +This disciple was strumming on his harpsichord, but now the twanging +ceased, he turned from the instrument, rose to his feet, and answered +thus: "Something different from the choice of these three." "What harm?" +said the Master; "I want each one of you to tell me what his heart is +set upon." "Well, then," said he, "give me--in the latter part of +spring--dressed in full spring-tide attire--in company with five or six +young fellows of twenty, [27] or six or seven lads under that age, to do +the ablutions in the I stream, enjoy a breeze in the rain-dance, [28] +and finish up with songs on the road home." + +The Master drew in his breath, sighed, and exclaimed, "Ah, I take with +you!" + +The three other disciples having gone out, leaving Tsang Sin behind, the +latter said, "What think you of the answers of those three?"--"Well, +each told me what was uppermost in his mind," said the Master;--"simply +that." + +"Why did you smile at Tsz-lu, sir?" + +"I smiled at him because to have the charge of a State requires due +regard to the Rules of Propriety, and his words betrayed a lack of +modesty." + +"But Yen, then--he had a State in view, had he not?" + +"I should like to be shown a territory such as he described which does +not amount to a State." + +"But had not Kung-si also a State in view?" + +"What are ancestral temples and Grand Receptions, but for the feudal +lords to take part in? If Kung-si were to become an unimportant +assistant at these functions, who could become an important one?" + + +[Footnote 26: The men of virtuous life were Yen Yuen (Hwui), Min +Tsz-k'ien, Yen Pihniu, and Chung-kung (Yen Yung); the speakers and +debaters were Tsai Wo and Tsz-kung; the (capable) government servants +were Yen Yu and Tsz-lu; the literary students, Tsz-yu and Tsz-hia.] + +[Footnote 27: Lit., capped ones. At twenty they underwent the ceremony +of capping, and were considered men.] + +[Footnote 28: I.e., before the altars, where offerings were placed with +prayer for rain. A religious dance.] + + + +BOOK XII + +The Master's Answers--Philanthropy--Friendships + + +Yen Yuen was asking about man's proper regard for his fellow-man. The +Master said to him, "Self-control, and a habit of falling back upon +propriety, virtually effect it. Let these conditions be fulfilled for +one day, and every one round will betake himself to the duty. Is it to +begin in one's self, or think you, indeed! it is to begin in others?" + +"I wanted you to be good enough," said Yen Yuen, "to give me a brief +synopsis of it." + +Then said the Master, "Without Propriety use not your eyes; without it +use not your ears, nor your tongue, nor a limb of your body." + +"I may be lacking in diligence," said Yen Yuen, "but with your favor I +will endeavor to carry out this advice." + +Chung-kung asked about man's proper regard for his fellows. + +To him the Master replied thus: "When you go forth from your door, be as +if you were meeting some guest of importance. When you are making use of +the common people (for State purposes), be as if you were taking part in +a great religious function. Do not set before others what you do not +desire yourself. Let there be no resentful feelings against you when you +are away in the country, and none when at home." + +"I may lack diligence," said Chung-kung, "but with your favor I will +endeavor to carry out this advice." + +Sz-ma Niu asked the like question. The answer he received was this: "The +words of the man who has a proper regard for his fellows are uttered +with difficulty." + +"'His words--uttered with difficulty?'" he echoed, in surprise. "Is that +what is meant by proper regard for one's fellow-creatures?" + +"Where there is difficulty in doing," the Master replied, "will there +not be some difficulty in utterance?" + +The same disciple put a question about the "superior man." "Superior +men," he replied, "are free from trouble and apprehension." + +"'Free from trouble and apprehension!'" said he. "Does that make them +'superior men'?" + +The Master added, "Where there is found, upon introspection, to be no +chronic disease, how shall there be any trouble? how shall there be any +apprehension?" + +The same disciple, being in trouble, remarked, "I am alone in having no +brother, while all else have theirs--younger or elder." + +Tsz-hia said to him, "I have heard this: 'Death and life have destined +times; wealth and honors rest with Heaven. Let the superior man keep +watch over himself without ceasing, showing deference to others, with +propriety of manners--and all within the four seas will be his brethren. +How should he be distressed for lack of brothers!'" [29] + +Tsz-chang asked what sort of man might be termed "enlightened." + +The Master replied, "That man with whom drenching slander and cutting +calumny gain no currency may well be called enlightened. Ay, he with +whom such things make no way may well be called enlightened in the +extreme." + +Tsz-kung put a question relative to government. In reply the Master +mentioned three essentials:--sufficient food, sufficient armament, and +the people's confidence. + +"But," said the disciple, "if you cannot really have all three, and one +has to be given up, which would you give up first?" + +"The armament," he replied. + +"And if you are obliged to give up one of the remaining two, which would +it be?" + +"The food," said he. "Death has been the portion of all men from of old. +Without the people's trust nothing can stand." + +Kih Tsz-shing once said, "Give me the inborn qualities of a gentleman, +and I want no more. How are such to come from book-learning?" + +Tsz-kung exclaimed, "Ah! sir, I regret to hear such words from you. A +gentleman!--But 'a team of four can ne'er o'er-take the tongue!' +Literary accomplishments are much the same as inborn qualities, and +inborn qualities as literary accomplishments. A tiger's or leopard's +skin without the hair might be a dog's or sheep's when so made bare." + +Duke Ngai was consulting Yu Joh. Said he, "It is a year of dearth, and +there is an insufficiency for Ways and Means--what am I to do?" + +"Why not apply the Tithing Statute?" said the minister. + +"But two tithings would not be enough for my purposes," said the duke; +"what would be the good of applying the Statute?" + +The minister replied, "So long as the people have enough left for +themselves, who of them will allow their prince to be without enough? +But--when the people have not enough, who will allow their prince all +that he wants?" + +Tsz-chang was asking how the standard of virtue was to be raised, and +how to discern what was illusory or misleading. The Master's answer was, +"Give a foremost place to honesty and faithfulness, and tread the path +of righteousness, and you will raise the standard of virtue. As to +discerning what is illusory, here is an example of an illusion:--Whom +you love you wish to live; whom you hate you wish to die. To have wished +the same person to live and also to be dead--there is an illusion for +you." + +Duke King of Ts'i consulted Confucius about government. His answer was, +"Let a prince be a prince, and ministers be ministers; let fathers be +fathers, and sons be sons." + +"Good!" exclaimed the duke; "truly if a prince fail to be a prince, and +ministers to be ministers, and if fathers be not fathers, and sons not +sons, then, even though I may have my allowance of grain, should I ever +be able to relish it?" + +"The man to decide a cause with half a word," exclaimed the Master, "is +Tsz-lu!" + +Tsz-lu never let a night pass between promise and performance. + +"In hearing causes, I am like other men," said the Master. "The great +point is--to prevent litigation." + +Tsz-chang having raised some question about government, the Master said +to him, "In the settlement of its principles be unwearied; in its +administration--see to that loyally." + +"The man of wide research," said he, "who also restrains himself by the +Rules of Propriety, is not likely to transgress." + +Again, "The noble-minded man makes the most of others' good qualities, +not the worst of their bad ones. Men of small mind do the reverse of +this." + +Ki K'ang was consulting him about the direction of public affairs. +Confucius answered him, "A director should be himself correct. If you, +sir, as a leader show correctness, who will dare not to be correct?" + +Ki K'ang, being much troubled on account of robbers abroad, consulted +Confucius on the matter. He received this reply: "If you, sir, were not +covetous, neither would they steal, even were you to bribe them to do +so." + +Ki K'ang, when consulting Confucius about the government, said, "Suppose +I were to put to death the disorderly for the better encouragement of +the orderly--what say you to that?" + +"Sir," replied Confucius, "in the administration of government why +resort to capital punishment? Covet what is good, and the people will be +good. The virtue of the noble-minded man is as the wind, and that of +inferior men as grass; the grass must bend, when the wind blows upon +it." + +Tsz-chang asked how otherwise he would describe the learned official who +might be termed influential. + +"What, I wonder, do you mean by one who is influential?" said the +Master. + +"I mean," replied the disciple, "one who is sure to have a reputation +throughout the country, as well as at home." + +"That," said the Master, "is reputation, not influence. The influential +man, then, if he be one who is genuinely straightforward and loves what +is just and right, a discriminator of men's words, and an observer of +their looks, and in honor careful to prefer others to himself--will +certainly have influence, both throughout the country and at home. The +man of mere reputation, on the other hand, who speciously affects +philanthropy, though in his way of procedure he acts contrary to it, +while yet quite evidently engrossed with that virtue--will certainly +have reputation, both in the country and at home." + +Fan Ch'i, strolling with him over the ground below the place of the +rain-dance, said to him, "I venture to ask how to raise the standard of +virtue, how to reform dissolute habits, and how to discern what is +illusory?" + +"Ah! a good question indeed!" he exclaimed. "Well, is not putting duty +first, and success second, a way of raising the standard of virtue? And +is not attacking the evil in one's self, and not the evil which is in +others, a way of reforming dissolute habits? And as to illusions, is not +one morning's fit of anger, causing a man to forget himself, and even +involving in the consequences those who are near and dear to him--is not +that an illusion?" + +The same disciple asked him what was meant by "a right regard for one's +fellow-creatures." He replied, "It is love to man." + +Asked by him again what was meant by wisdom, he replied, "It is +knowledge of man." + +Fan Ch'i did not quite grasp his meaning. + +The Master went on to say, "Lift up the straight, set aside the crooked, +so can you make the crooked straight." + +Fan Ch'i left him, and meeting with Tsz-hia he said, "I had an interview +just now with the Master, and I asked him what wisdom was. In his answer +he said, 'Lift up the straight, set aside the crooked, and so can you +make the crooked straight.' What was his meaning?" + +"Ah! words rich in meaning, those," said the other. "When Shun was +emperor, and was selecting his men from among the multitude, he 'lifted +up' Kau-yau; and men devoid of right feelings towards their kind went +far away. And when T'ang was emperor, and chose out his men from the +crowd, he 'lifted up' I-yin--with the same result." + +Tsz-kung was consulting him about a friend. "Speak to him frankly, and +respectfully," said the Master, "and gently lead him on. If you do not +succeed, then stop; do not submit yourself to indignity." + +The learned Tsang observed, "In the society of books the 'superior man' +collects his friends; in the society of his friends he is furthering +good-will among men." + + +[Footnote 29: From Confucius, it is generally thought.] + + + +BOOK XIII + +Answers on the Art of Governing--Consistency + + +Tsz-lu was asking about government. "Lead the way in it," said the +Master, "and work hard at it." + +Requested to say more, he added, "And do not tire of it." + +Chung-kung, on being made first minister to the Chief of the Ki family, +consulted the Master about government, and to him he said, "Let the +heads of offices be heads. Excuse small faults. Promote men of sagacity +and talent." + +"But," he asked, "how am I to know the sagacious and talented, before +promoting them?" + +"Promote those whom you do know," said the Master. + +"As to those of whom you are uncertain, will others omit to notice +them?" + +Tsz-lu said to the Master, "As the prince of Wei, sir, has been waiting +for you to act for him in his government, what is it your intention to +take in hand first?" + +"One thing of necessity," he answered--"the rectification of terms." + +"That!" exclaimed Tsz-lu. "How far away you are, sir! Why such +rectification?" + +"What a rustic you are, Tsz-lu!" rejoined the Master. "A gentleman would +be a little reserved and reticent in matters which he does not +understand. If terms be incorrect, language will be incongruous; and if +language be incongruous, deeds will be imperfect. So, again, when deeds +are imperfect, propriety and harmony cannot prevail, and when this is +the case laws relating to crime will fail in their aim; and if these +last so fail, the people will not know where to set hand or foot. Hence, +a man of superior mind, certain first of his terms, is fitted to speak; +and being certain of what he says can proceed upon it. In the language +of such a person there is nothing heedlessly irregular--and that is the +sum of the matter." + +Fan Ch'i requested that he might learn something of husbandry. "For +that." said the Master, "I am not equal to an old husbandman." Might he +then learn something of gardening? he asked. "I am not equal to an old +gardener." was the reply. + +"A man of little mind, that!" said the Master, when Fan Ch'i had gone +out. "Let a man who is set over the people love propriety, and they will +not presume to be disrespectful. Let him be a lover of righteousness, +and they will not presume to be aught but submissive. Let him love +faithfulness and truth, and they will not presume not to lend him their +hearty assistance. Ah, if all this only were so, the people from all +sides would come to such a one, carrying their children on their backs. +What need to turn his hand to husbandry? + +"Though a man," said he, "could hum through the Odes--the three +hundred--yet should show himself unskilled when given some +administrative work to do for his country; though he might know much of +that other lore, yet if, when sent on a mission to any quarter, he could +answer no question personally and unaided, what after all is he good +for? + +"Let a leader," said he, "show rectitude in his own personal character, +and even without directions from him things will go well. If he be not +personally upright, his directions will not be complied with." + +Once he made the remark, "The governments of Lu and of Wei are in +brotherhood." + +Of King, a son of the Duke of Wei, he observed that "he managed his +household matters well. On his coming into possession, he thought, 'What +a strange conglomeration!'--Coming to possess a little more, it was, +'Strange, such a result!' And when he became wealthy, 'Strange, such +elegance!'" + +The Master was on a journey to Wei, and Yen Yu was driving him. "What +multitudes of people!" he exclaimed. Yen Yu asked him, "Seeing they are +so numerous, what more would you do for them?" + +"Enrich them," replied the Master. + +"And after enriching them, what more would you do for them?" + +"Instruct them." + +"Were any one of our princes to employ me," he said, "after a +twelvemonth I might have made some tolerable progress;" + +Again, "How true is that saying, 'Let good men have the management of a +country for a century, and they would be adequate to cope with +evil-doers, and thus do away with capital punishments,'" + +Again, "Suppose the ruler to possess true kingly qualities, then surely +after one generation there would be good-will among men." + +Again, "Let a ruler but see to his own rectitude, and what trouble will +he then have in the work before him? If he be unable to rectify himself, +how is he to rectify others?" + +Once when Yen Yu was leaving the Court, the Master accosted him. "Why so +late?" he asked. "Busy with legislation," Yen replied. "The details of +it," suggested the Master; "had it been legislation, I should have been +there to hear it, even though I am not in office." + +Duke Ting asked if there were one sentence which, if acted upon, might +have the effect of making a country prosperous. + +Confucius answered, "A sentence could hardly be supposed to do so much +as that. But there is a proverb people use which says, 'To play the +prince is hard, to play the minister not easy.' Assuming that it is +understood that 'to play the prince is hard,' would it not be probable +that with that one sentence the country should be made to prosper?" + +"Is there, then," he asked, "one sentence which, if acted upon, would +have the effect of ruining a country?" + +Confucius again replied, "A sentence could hardly be supposed to do so +much as that. But there is a proverb men have which says, 'Not gladly +would I play the prince, unless my words were ne'er withstood.' Assuming +that the words were good, and that none withstood them, would not that +also be good? But assuming that they were not good, and yet none +withstood them, would it not be probable that with that one saying he +would work his country's ruin?" + +When the Duke of Sheh consulted him about government, he replied, "Where +the near are gratified, the far will follow." + +When Tsz-hia became governor of Kue-fu, and consulted him about +government, he answered, "Do not wish for speedy results. Do not look at +trivial advantages. If you wish for speedy results, they will not be +far-reaching; and if you regard trivial advantages you will not +successfully deal with important affairs." + +The Duke of Sheh in a conversation with Confucius said, "There are +some straightforward persons in my neighborhood. If a father has stolen +a sheep, the son will give evidence against him." + +"Straightforward people in my neighborhood are different from those," +said Confucius. "The father will hold a thing secret on his son's +behalf, and the son does the same for his father. They are on their way +to becoming straightforward." + +Fan Ch'i was asking him about duty to one's fellow-men. "Be courteous," +he replied, "in your private sphere; be serious in any duty you take in +hand to do; be leal-hearted in your intercourse with others. Even though +you were to go amongst the wild tribes, it would not be right for you to +neglect these duties." + +In answer to Tsz-kung, who asked, "how he would characterize one who +could fitly be called 'learned official,'" the Master said, "He may be +so-called who in his private life is affected with a sense of his own +unworthiness, and who, when sent on a mission to any quarter of the +empire, would not disgrace his prince's commands." + +"May I presume," said his questioner, "to ask what sort you would put +next to such?" + +"Him who is spoken of by his kinsmen as a dutiful son, and whom the +folks of his neighborhood call' good brother.'" + +"May I still venture to ask whom you would place next in order?" + +"Such as are sure to be true to their word, and effective in their +work--who are given to hammering, as it were, upon one note--of inferior +calibre indeed, but fit enough, I think, to be ranked next." + +"How would you describe those who are at present in the government +service?" + +"Ugh! mere peck and panier men!--not worth taking into the reckoning." + +Once he remarked, "If I cannot get _via media_ men to impart instruction +to, then I must of course take the impetuous and undisciplined! The +impetuous ones will at least go forward and lay hold on things; and the +undisciplined have at least something in them which needs to be brought +out." + +"The Southerners," said he, "have the proverb, 'The man who sticks not +to rule will never make a charm-worker or a medical man,' +Good!--'Whoever is intermittent in his practise of virtue will live to +be ashamed of it.' Without prognostication," he added, "that will indeed +be so." + +"The nobler-minded man," he remarked, "will be agreeable even when he +disagrees; the small-minded man will agree and be disagreeable." + +Tsz-kung was consulting him, and asked, "What say you of a person who +was liked by all in his village?" + +"That will scarcely do," he answered. + +"What, then, if they all disliked him?" + +"That, too," said he, "is scarcely enough. Better if he were liked by +the good folk in the village, and disliked by the bad." + +"The superior man," he once observed, "is easy to serve, but difficult +to please. Try to please him by the adoption of wrong principles, and +you will fail. Also, when such a one employs others, he uses them +according to their capacity. The inferior man is, on the other hand, +difficult to serve, but easy to please. Try to please him by the +adoption of wrong principles, and you will succeed. And when he employs +others he requires them to be fully prepared for everything." + +Again, "The superior man can be high without being haughty. The inferior +man can be haughty if not high." + +"The firm, the unflinching, the plain and simple, the slow to speak," +said he once, "are approximating towards their duty to their +fellow-men." + +Tsz-lu asked how he would characterize one who might fitly be called an +educated gentleman. The master replied, "He who can properly be +so-called will have in him a seriousness of purpose, a habit of +controlling himself, and an agreeableness of manner: among his friends +and associates the seriousness and the self-control, and among his +brethren the agreeableness of manner." + +"Let good and able men discipline the people for seven years," said the +Master, "and after that they may do to go to war." + +But, said he, "To lead an undisciplined people to war--that I call +throwing them away." + + + +BOOK XIV + +Good and Bad Government--Miscellaneous Sayings + + +Yuen Sz asked what might be considered to bring shame on one. + +"Pay," said the Master; "pay--ever looking to that, whether the country +be well or badly governed." + +"When imperiousness, boastfulness, resentments, and covetousness cease +to prevail among the people, may it be considered that mutual good-will +has been effected?" To this question the Master replied, "A hard thing +overcome, it may be considered. But as to the mutual good-will--I cannot +tell." + +"Learned officials," said he, "who hanker after a home life, are not +worthy of being esteemed as such." + +Again, "In a country under good government, speak boldly, act boldly. +When the land is ill-governed, though you act boldly, let your words be +moderate." + +Again, "Men of virtue will needs be men of words--will speak out--but +men of words are not necessarily men of virtue. They who care for their +fellow-men will needs be bold, but the bold may not necessarily be such +as care for their fellow-men." + +Nan-kung Kwoh, who was consulting Confucius, observed respecting I, the +skilful archer, and Ngau, who could propel a boat on dry land, that +neither of them died a natural death; while Yu and Tsih, who with their +own hands had labored at husbandry, came to wield imperial sway. + +The Master gave him no reply. But when the speaker had gone out he +exclaimed, "A superior man, that! A man who values virtue, that!" + +"There have been noble-minded men," said he, "who yet were wanting in +philanthropy; but never has there been a small-minded man who had +philanthropy in him." + +He asked, "Can any one refuse to toil for those he loves? Can any one +refuse to exhort, who is true-hearted?" + +Speaking of the preparation of Government Notifications in his day he +said, "P'i would draw up a rough sketch of what was to be said; the +Shishuh then looked it carefully through and put it into proper shape; +Tsz-yu next, who was master of the ceremonial of State intercourse, +improved and adorned its phrases; and Tsz-ch'an of Tung-li added his +scholarly embellishments thereto." + +To some one who asked his opinion of the last-named, he said, "He was a +kind-hearted man." Asked what he thought of Tsz-si, he exclaimed, "Alas +for him! alas for him!"--Asked again about Kwan Chung, his answer was, +"As to him, he once seized the town of P'in with its three hundred +families from the Chief of the Pih clan, who, afterwards reduced to +living upon coarse rice, with all his teeth gone, never uttered a word +of complaint." + +"It is no light thing," said he, "to endure poverty uncomplainingly; and +a difficult thing to bear wealth without becoming arrogant." + +Respecting Mang Kung-ch'oh, he said that, while he was fitted for +something better than the post of chief officer in the Chau or Wei +families, he was not competent to act as minister in small States like +those of T'ang or Sieh. + +Tsz-lu asked how he would describe a perfect man. He replied, "Let a man +have the sagacity of Tsang Wu-chung, the freedom from covetousness of +Kung-ch'oh, the boldness of Chwang of P'in, and the attainments in +polite arts of Yen Yu; and gift him further with the graces taught by +the 'Books of Rites' and 'Music'--then he may be considered a perfect +man. But," said he, "what need of such in these days? The man that may +be regarded as perfect now is the one who, seeing some advantage to +himself, is mindful of righteousness; who, seeing danger, risks his +life; and who, if bound by some covenant of long standing, never forgets +its conditions as life goes on." + +Respecting Kung-shuh Wan, the Master inquired of Kung-ming Kia, saying, +"Is it true that your master never speaks, never laughs, never takes +aught from others?" + +"Those who told you that of him," said he, "have gone too far. My master +speaks when there is occasion to do so, and men are not surfeited with +his speaking. When there is occasion to be merry too, he will laugh, but +men have never overmuch of his laughing. And whenever it is just and +right to take things from others, he will take them, but never so as to +allow men to think him burdensome." "Is that the case with him?" said +the Master. "Can it be so?" + +Respecting Tsang Wu-chung the Master said, "When he sought from Lu the +appointment of a successor to him, and for this object held on to his +possession of the fortified city of Fang--if you say he was not then +using constraint towards his prince, I must refuse to believe it." + +Duke Wan of Tsin he characterized as "artful but not upright"; and Duke +Hwan of Ts'i as "upright but not artful." + +Tsz-lu remarked, "When Duke Hwan caused his brother Kiu to be put to +death, Shau Hwuh committed suicide, but Kwan Chung did not. I should say +he was not a man who had much good-will in him--eh?" + +The Master replied, "When Duke Hwan held a great gathering of the feudal +lords, dispensing with military equipage, it was owing to Kwan Chung's +energy that such an event was brought about. Match such good-will as +that--match it if you can." + +Tsz-kung then spoke up. "But was not Kwan Chung wanting in good-will? He +could not give up his life when Duke Hwan caused his brother to be put +to death. Besides, he became the duke's counsellor." + +"And in acting as his counsellor put him at the head of all the feudal +lords," said the Master, "and unified and reformed the whole empire; and +the people, even to this day, reap benefit from what he did. Had it not +been for him we should have been going about with locks unkempt and +buttoning our jackets (like barbarians) on the left. Would you suppose +that he should show the same sort of attachment as exists between a poor +yokel and his one wife--that he would asphyxiate himself in some sewer, +leaving no one the wiser?" + +Kung-shuh Wan's steward, who became the high officer Sien, went up +accompanied by Wan to the prince's hall of audience. + +When Confucius heard of this he remarked, "He may well be esteemed a +'Wan,'" + +The Master having made some reference to the lawless ways of Duke Ling +of Wei, Ki K'ang said to him, "If he be like that, how is it he does not +ruin his position?" + +Confucius answered, "The Chung-shuh, Yu, is charged with the +entertainment of visitors and strangers; the priest T'o has charge of +the ancestral temple; and Wang-sun Kia has the control of the army and +its divisions:--with men such as those, how should he come to ruin?" + +He once remarked, "He who is unblushing in his words will with +difficulty substantiate them." + +Ch'in Shing had slain Duke Kien. Hearing of this, Confucius, after +performing his ablutions, went to Court and announced the news to Duke +Ngai, saying, "Ch'in Hang has slain his prince. May I request that you +proceed against him?" + +"Inform the Chiefs of the Three Families," said the duke. + +Soliloquizing upon this, Confucius said, "Since he uses me to back his +ministers, [30] I did not dare not to announce the matter to him; and +now he says, 'Inform the Three Chiefs.'" + +He went to the Three Chiefs and informed them, but nothing could be +done. Whereupon again he said, "Since he uses me to back his ministers, +I did not dare not to announce the matter." + +Tsz-lu was questioning him as to how he should serve his prince. +"Deceive him not, but reprove him," he answered. + +"The minds of superior men," he observed, "trend upwards; those of +inferior men trend downwards." + +Again, "Students of old fixed their eyes upon themselves: now they learn +with their eyes upon others." + +Kue Pih-yuh despatched a man with a message to Confucius. Confucius gave +him a seat, and among other inquiries he asked, "How is your master +managing?" "My master," he replied, "has a great wish to be seldom at +fault, and as yet he cannot manage it." + +"What a messenger!" exclaimed he admiringly, when the man went out. +"What a messenger!" + +"When not occupying the office," was a remark of his, "devise not the +policy." + +The Learned Tsang used to say, "The thoughts of the 'superior man' do +not wander from his own office." + +"Superior men," said the Master, "are modest in their words, profuse in +their deeds." + +Again, "There are three attainments of the superior man which are beyond +me--the being sympathetic without anxiety, wise without scepticism, +brave without fear." + +"Sir," said Tsz-kung, "that is what you say of yourself." + +Whenever Tsz-kung drew comparisons from others, the Master would say, +"Ah, how wise and great you must have become! Now I have no time to do +that." + +Again, "My great concern is, not that men do not know me, but that they +cannot." + +Again, "If a man refrain from making preparations against his being +imposed upon, and from counting upon others' want of good faith towards +him, while he is foremost to perceive what is passing--surely that is a +wise and good man." + +Wi-shang Mau accosted Confucius, saying, "Kiu, how comes it that you +manage to go perching and roosting in this way? Is it not because you +show yourself so smart a speaker, now?" + +"I should not dare do that," said Confucius. "Tis that I am sick of +men's immovableness and deafness to reason." + +"In a well-bred horse," said he, "what one admires is not its speed, but +its good points." + +Some one asked, "What say you of the remark, 'Requite enmity with +kindness'?" + +"How then," he answered, "would you requite kindness? Requite enmity +with straightforwardness, and kindness with kindness." + +"Ah! no one knows me!" he once exclaimed. + +"Sir," said Tsz-kung, "how comes it to pass that no one knows you?" + +"While I murmur not against Heaven," continued the Master, "nor cavil at +men; while I stoop to learn and aspire to penetrate into things that are +high; yet 'tis Heaven alone knows what I am." + +Liau, a kinsman of the duke, having laid a complaint against Tsz-lu +before Ki K'ang, an officer came to Confucius to inform him of the fact, +and he added, "My lord is certainly having his mind poisoned by his +kinsman Liau, but through my influence perhaps we may yet manage to see +him exposed in the marketplace or the Court." + +"If right principles are to have their course, it is so destined," said +the Master; "if they are not to have their course, it is so destined. +What can Liau do against Destiny?" + +"There are worthy men," said the Master, "fleeing from the world; some +from their district; some from the sight of men's looks; some from the +language they hear." + +"The men who have risen from their posts and withdrawn in this manner +are seven in number." + +Tsz-lu, having lodged overnight in Shih-mun, was accosted by the +gate-keeper in the morning. "Where from?" he asked. "From Confucius," +Tsz-lu responded. "That is the man," said he, "who knows things are not +up to the mark, and is making some ado about them, is it not?" + +When the Master was in Wei, he was once pounding on the musical stone, +when a man with a basket of straw crossed his threshold, and exclaimed, +"Ah, there is a heart that feels! Aye, drub the stone!" After which he +added, "How vulgar! how he hammers away on one note!--and no one knows +him, and he gives up, and all is over! + + Be it deep, our skirts we'll raise to the waist, + --Or shallow, then up to the knee,'" + +"What determination!" said the Master. "Yet it was not +hard to do." + +Tsz-chang once said to him, "In the 'Book of the Annals' +it is stated that while Kau-tsung was in the Mourning Shed he +spent the three years without speaking. What is meant by +that?" + +"Why must you name Kau-tsung?" said the Master. "It +was so with all other ancient sovereigns: when one of them +died, the heads of every department agreed between themselves +that they should give ear for three years to the Prime Minister." + +"When their betters love the Rules, then the folk are easy +tools," was a saying of the Master. + +Tsz-lu having asked what made a "superior man," he answered, +"Self-culture, with a view to becoming seriously-minded." + +"Nothing more than that?" said he. + +"Self-culture with a view to the greater satisfaction of +others," added the Master. + +"That, and yet no more?" + +"Self-culture with a view to the greater satisfaction of all the +clans and classes," he again added. "Self-culture for the sake +of all--a result that, that would almost put Yau and Shun into +the shade!" + +To Yuen Jang, [31] who was sitting waiting for him in a squatting +(disrespectful) posture, the Master delivered himself as follows: +"The man who in his youth could show no humility or subordination, +who in his prime misses his opportunity, and who when old age +comes upon him will not die--that man is a miscreant." And he +tapped him on the shin with his staff. + +Some one asked about his attendant--a youth from the village +of Kiueh--whether he was one who improved. He replied, "I note +that he seats himself in the places reserved for his betters, +and that when he is walking he keeps abreast with his seniors. +He is not one of those who care for improvement: he wants to +be a man all at once." + + +[Footnote 30: Confucius had now retired from office, and this incident +occurred only two years before his death.] + +[Footnote 31: It is a habit with the Chinese, when a number are out +walking together, for the eldest to go first, the others pairing off +according to their age. It is a custom much older than the time of +Confucius.] + + + +BOOK XV + +Practical Wisdom--Reciprocity the Rule of Life + + +Duke Ling of Wei was consulting Confucius about army arrangements. His +answer was, "Had you asked me about such things as temple requisites, I +have learnt that business, but I have not yet studied military matters." +And he followed up this reply by leaving on the following day. + +After this, during his residence in the State of Ch'in, his followers, +owing to a stoppage of food supply, became so weak and ill that not one +of them could stand. Tsz-lu, with indignation pictured on his +countenance, exclaimed, "And is a gentleman to suffer starvation?" + +"A gentleman," replied the Master, "will endure it unmoved, but a common +person breaks out into excesses under it." + +Addressing Tsz-kung, the Master said, "You regard me as one who studies +and stores up in his mind a multiplicity of things--do you not?"--"I +do," he replied; "is it not so?"--"Not at all. I have one idea--one cord +on which to string all." + +To Tsz-lu he remarked, "They who know Virtue are rare." + +"If you would know one who without effort ruled well, was not Shun such +a one? What did he indeed do? He bore himself with reverent dignity and +undeviatingly 'faced the south,' and that was all." + +Tsz-chang was consulting him about making way in life. He answered, "Be +true and honest in all you say, and seriously earnest in all you do, and +then, even if your country be one inhabited by barbarians, South or +North, you will make your way. If you do not show yourself thus in word +and deed how should you succeed, even in your own district or +neighborhood?--When you are afoot, let these two counsels be two +companions preceding you, yourself viewing them from behind; when you +drive, have them in view as on the yoke of your carriage. Then may you +make your way." + +Tsz-chang wrote them on the two ends of his cincture. + +"Straight was the course of the Annalist Yu," said the Master--"aye, +straight as an arrow flies; were the country well governed or ill +governed, his was an arrow-like course. + +"A man of masterly mind, too, is Kue Pih-yuh! When the land is being +rightly governed he will serve; when it is under bad government he is +apt to recoil, and brood." + +"Not to speak to a man." said he, "to whom you ought to speak, is to +lose your man; to speak to one to whom you ought not to speak is to lose +your words. Those who are wise will not lose their man nor yet their +words." + +Again, "The scholar whose heart is in his work, and who is +philanthropic, seeks not to gain a livelihood by any means that will do +harm to his philanthropy. There have been men who have destroyed their +own lives in the endeavor to bring that virtue in them to perfection." + +Tsz-kung asked how to become philanthropic. The Master answered him +thus: "A workman who wants to do his work well must first sharpen his +tools. In whatever land you live, serve under some wise and good man +among those in high office, and make friends with the more humane of its +men of education." + +Yen Yuen consulted him on the management of a country. He answered:-- + +"Go by the Hia Calendar. Have the State carriages like those of the Yin +princes. Wear the Chow cap. For your music let that of Shun be used for +the posturers. Put away the songs of Ch'ing, and remove far from you men +of artful speech: the Ch'ing songs are immodest, and artful talkers are +dangerous." + +Other sayings of the Master:-- + +"They who care not for the morrow will the sooner have their sorrow. + +"Ah, 'tis hopeless! I have not yet met with the man who loves Virtue as +he loves Beauty. + +"Was not Tsang Wan like one who surreptitiously came by the post he +held? He knew the worth of Hwui of Liu-hia, and could not stand in his +presence. + +"Be generous yourself, and exact little from others; then you banish +complaints. + +"With one who does not come to me inquiring 'What of this?' and 'What of +that?' I never can ask 'What of this?' and give him up. + +"If a number of students are all day together, and in their conversation +never approach the subject of righteousness, but are fond merely of +giving currency to smart little sayings, they are difficult indeed to +manage. + +"When the 'superior man' regards righteousness as the thing material, +gives operation to it according to the Rules of Propriety, lets it issue +in humility, and become complete in sincerity--there indeed is your +superior man! + +"The trouble of the superior man will be his own want of ability: it +will be no trouble to him that others do not know him. + +"Such a man thinks it hard to end his days and leave a name to be no +longer named. + +"The superior man is exacting of himself; the common man is exacting of +others. + +"A superior man has self-respect, and does not strive; is sociable, yet +no party man. + +"He does not promote a man because of his words, or pass over the words +because of the man." + +Tsz-kung put to him the question, "Is there one word upon which the +whole life may proceed?" + +The Master replied, "Is not Reciprocity such a word?--what you do not +yourself desire, do not put before others." + +"So far as I have to do with others, whom do I over-censure? whom do I +over-praise? If there be something in them that looks very praiseworthy, +that something I put to the test. I would have the men of the present +day to walk in the straight path whereby those of the Three Dynasties +have walked. + +"I have arrived as it were at the annalist's blank page.--Once he who +had a horse would lend it to another to mount; now, alas! it is not so. + +"Artful speech is the confusion of Virtue. Impatience over little things +introduces confusion into great schemes. + +"What is disliked by the masses needs inquiring into; so also does that +which they have a preference for. + +"A man may give breadth to his principles: it is not principles (in +themselves) that give breadth to the man. + +"Not to retract after committing an error may itself be called error. + +"If I have passed the whole day without food and the whole night without +sleep, occupied with my thoughts, it profits me nothing: I were better +engaged in learning. + +"The superior man deliberates upon how he may walk in truth, not upon +what he may eat. The farmer may plough, and be on the way to want: the +student learns, and is on his way to emolument. To live a right life is +the concern of men of nobler minds: poverty gives them none. + +"Whatsoever the intellect may attain to, unless the humanity within is +powerful enough to keep guard over it, is assuredly lost, even though it +be gained. + +"If there be intellectual attainments, and the humanity within is +powerful enough to keep guard over them, yet, unless (in a ruler) there +be dignity in his rule, the people will fail to show him respect. + +"Again, given the intellectual attainments, and humanity sufficient to +keep watch over them, and also dignity in ruling, yet if his movements +be not in accordance with the Rules of Propriety, he is not yet fully +qualified. + +"The superior man may not be conversant with petty details, and yet may +have important matters put into his hands. The inferior man may not be +charged with important matters, yet may be conversant with the petty +details. + +"Good-fellowship is more to men than fire and water. I have seen men +stepping into fire and into water, and meeting with death thereby; I +have not yet seen a man die from planting his steps in the path of +good-fellowship. + +"Rely upon good nature. 'Twill not allow precedence even to a teacher. + +"The superior man is inflexibly upright, and takes not things upon +trust. + +"In serving your prince, make your service the serious concern, and let +salary be a secondary matter. + +"Where instruction is to be given, there must be no distinction of +persons. + +"Where men's methods are not identical, there can be no planning by one +on behalf of another. + +"In speaking, perspicuity is all that is needed." + +When the blind music-master Mien paid him a visit, on his approaching +the steps the Master called out "Steps," and on his coming to the mat, +said "Mat." When all in the room were seated, the Master told him +"So-and-so is here, so-and-so is here." + +When the music-master had left, Tsz-chang said to him, "Is that the way +to speak to the music-master?" "Well," he replied, "it is certainly the +way to assist him." + + + +BOOK XVI + +Against Intestine Strife--Good and Bad Friendships + + +The Chief of the Ki family was about to make an onslaught upon the +Chuen-yu domain. + +Yen Yu and Tsz-lu in an interview with Confucius told him, "The Ki is +about to have an affair with Chuen-yu." + +"Yen," said Confucius, "does not the fault lie with you? The Chief of +Chuen-yu in times past was appointed lord of the East Mung (mountain); +besides, he dwells within the confines of your own State, and is an +official of the State-worship; how can you think of making an onslaught +upon him?" + +"It is the wish of our Chief," said Yen Yu, "not the wish of either of +us ministers." + +Confucius said, "Yen, there is a sentence of Chau Jin which runs thus: +'Having made manifest their powers and taken their place in the official +list, when they find themselves incompetent they resign; if they cannot +be firm when danger threatens the government, nor lend support when it +is reeling, of what use then shall they be as Assistants?'--Besides, you +are wrong in what you said. When a rhinoceros or tiger breaks out of its +cage--when a jewel or tortoise-shell ornament is damaged in its +casket--whose fault is it?" + +"But," said Yen Yu, "so far as Chuen-yu is concerned, it is now +fortified, and it is close to Pi; and if he does not now take it, in +another generation it will certainly be a trouble to his descendants." + +"Yen!" exclaimed Confucius, "it is a painful thing to a superior man to +have to desist from saying, 'My wish is so-and-so,' and to be obliged to +make apologies. For my part, I have learnt this--that rulers of States +and heads of Houses are not greatly concerned about their small +following, but about the want of equilibrium in it--that they do not +concern themselves about their becoming poor, but about the best means +of living quietly and contentedly; for where equilibrium is preserved +there will be no poverty, where there is harmony their following will +not be small, and where there is quiet contentment there will be no +decline nor fall. Now if that be the case, it follows that if men in +outlying districts are not submissive, then a reform in education and +morals will bring them to; and when they have been so won, then will you +render them quiet and contented. At the present time you two are +Assistants of your Chief; the people in the outlying districts are not +submissive, and cannot be brought round. Your dominion is divided, +prostrate, dispersed, cleft in pieces, and you as its guardians are +powerless. And plans are being made for taking up arms against those who +dwell within your own State. I am apprehensive that the sorrow of the Ki +family is not to lie in Chuen-yu, but in those within their own screen." + +"When the empire is well-ordered," said Confucius, "it is from the +emperor that edicts regarding ceremonial, music, and expeditions to +quell rebellion go forth. When it is being ill governed, such edicts +emanate from the feudal lords; and when the latter is the case, it will +be strange if in ten generations there is not a collapse. If they +emanate merely from the high officials, it will be strange if the +collapse do not come in five generations. When the State-edicts are in +the hands of the subsidiary ministers, it will be strange if in three +generations there is no collapse. + +"When the empire is well-ordered, government is not left in the hands of +high officials. + +"When the empire is well-ordered, the common people will cease to +discuss public matters." + +"For five generations," he said, "the revenue has departed from the +ducal household. Four generations ago the government fell into the hands +of the high officials. Hence, alas! the straitened means of the +descendants of the three Hwan families." + +"There are," said he, "three kinds of friendships which are profitable, +and three which are detrimental. To make friends with the upright, with +the trustworthy, with the experienced, is to gain benefit; to make +friends with the subtly perverse, with the artfully pliant, with the +subtle in speech, is detrimental." + +Again, "There are three kinds of pleasure which are profitable, and +three which are detrimental. To take pleasure in going regularly through +the various branches of Ceremonial and Music, in speaking of others' +goodness, in having many worthy wise friends, is profitable. To take +pleasure in wild bold pleasures, in idling carelessly about, in the too +jovial accompaniments of feasting, is detrimental." + +Again, "Three errors there be, into which they who wait upon their +superior may fall:--(1) to speak before the opportunity comes to them to +speak, which I call heedless haste; (2) refraining from speaking when +the opportunity has come, which I call concealment; and (3) speaking, +regardless of the mood he is in, which I call blindness." + +Again, "Three things a superior should guard against:--(1) against the +lusts of the flesh in his earlier years while the vital powers are not +fully developed and fixed; (2) against the spirit of combativeness when +he has come to the age of robust manhood and when the vital powers are +matured and strong, and (3) against ambitiousness when old age has come +on and the vital powers have become weak and decayed." + +"Three things also such a man greatly reveres:--(1) the ordinances of +Heaven, (2) great men, (3) words of sages. The inferior man knows not +the ordinances of Heaven and therefore reveres them not, is unduly +familiar in the presence of great men, and scoffs at the words of +sages." + +"They whose knowledge comes by birth are of all men the first in +understanding; they to whom it comes by study are next; men of poor +intellectual capacity, who yet study, may be added as a yet inferior +class; and lowest of all are they who are poor in intellect and never +learn." + +"Nine things there are of which the superior man should be mindful:--to +be clear in vision, quick in hearing, genial in expression, respectful +in demeanor, true in word, serious in duty, inquiring in doubt, firmly +self-controlled in anger, just and fair when the way to success opens +out before him." + +"Some have spoken of 'looking upon goodness as upon something beyond +their reach,' and of 'looking upon evil as like plunging one's hands +into scalding liquid';--I have seen the men, I have heard the sayings. + +"Some, again, have talked of 'living in seclusion to work out their +designs,' and of 'exercising themselves in righteous living in order to +render their principles the more effective';--I have heard the sayings, +I have not seen the men." + +"Duke King of Ts'i had his thousand teams of four, yet on the day of his +death the people had nothing to say of his goodness. Peh-I and Shuh-Ts'i +starved at the foot of Shau-yang, and the people make mention of them to +this day. + + 'E'en if not wealth thine object be, + 'Tis all the same, thou'rt changed to me.' + +"Is not this apropos in such cases?" + +Tsz-k'in asked of Pih-yu, "Have you heard anything else peculiar from +your father?" + +"Not yet," said he. "Once, though, he was standing alone when I was +hurrying past him over the vestibule, and he said, 'Are you studying the +Odes?' 'Not yet,' I replied. 'If you do not learn the Odes,' said he, +'you will not have the wherewithal for conversing,' I turned away and +studied the Odes. Another day, when he was again standing alone and I +was hurrying past across the vestibule, he said to me, 'Are you learning +the Rules of Propriety?' 'Not yet,' I replied. 'If you have not studied +the Rules, you have nothing to stand upon,' said he. I turned away and +studied the Rules.--These two things I have heard from him." + +Tsz-k'in turned away, and in great glee exclaimed, "I asked one thing, +and have got three. I have learnt something about the Odes, and about +the Rules, and moreover I have learnt how the superior man will turn +away his own son." + +The wife of the ruler of a State is called by her husband "My helpmeet." +She speaks of herself as "Your little handmaiden." The people of that +State call her "The prince's helpmeet," but addressing persons of +another State they speak of her as "Our little princess." When persons +of another State name her they say also "Your prince's helpmeet." + + + +BOOK XVII + +The Master Induced to Take Office--Nature and Habit + + +Yang Ho was desirous of having an interview with Confucius, but on the +latter's failing to go and see him, he sent a present of a pig to his +house. Confucius went to return his acknowledgments for it at a time +when he was not at home. They met, however, on the way. + +He said to Confucius, "Come, I want a word with you. Can that man be +said to have good-will towards his fellow-men who hugs and hides his own +precious gifts and allows his country to go on in blind error?" + +"He cannot," was the reply. + +"And can he be said to be wise who, with a liking for taking part in the +public service, is constantly letting slip his opportunities?" + +"He cannot," was the reply again. + +"And the days and months are passing; and the years do not wait for us." + +"True," said Confucius; "I will take office." + +It was a remark of the Master that while "by nature we approximate +towards each other, by experience we go far asunder." + +Again, "Only the supremely wise and the most deeply ignorant do not +alter." + +The Master once, on his arrival at Wu-shing, heard the sound of stringed +instruments and singing. His face beamed with pleasure, and he said +laughingly, "To kill a cock--why use an ox-knife?" + +Tsz-yu, the governor, replied, "In former days, sir, I heard you say, +'Let the superior man learn right principles, and he will be loving to +other men; let the ordinary person learn right principles, and he will +be easily managed.'" + +The Master (turning to his disciples) said, "Sirs, what he says is +right: what I said just now was only in play." + +Having received an invitation from Kung-shan Fuh-jau, who was in revolt +against the government and was holding to his district of Pi, the Master +showed an inclination to go. + +Tsz-lu was averse to this, and said, "You can never go, that is certain; +how should you feel you must go to that person?" + +"Well," said the Master, "he who has invited me must surely not have +done so without a sufficient reason! And if it should happen that my +services were enlisted, I might create for him another East Chow--don't +you think so?" + +Tsz-chang asked Confucius about the virtue of philanthropy. His answer +was, "It is the being able to put in practice five qualities, in any +place under the sun." + +"May I ask, please, what these are?" said the disciple. + +"They are," he said, "dignity, indulgence, faithfulness, earnestness, +kindness. If you show dignity you will not be mocked; if you are +indulgent you will win the multitude; if faithful, men will place their +trust in you; if earnest, you will do something meritorious; and if +kind, you will be enabled to avail yourself amply of men's services." + +Pih Hih sent the Master an invitation, and he showed an inclination to +go. + +Tsz-lu (seeing this) said to him, "In former days, sir, I have heard you +say, 'A superior man will not enter the society of one who does not that +which is good in matters concerning himself'; and this man is in revolt, +with Chung-man in his possession; if you go to him, how will the case +stand?" + +"Yes," said the Master, "those are indeed my words; but is it not said, +'What is hard may be rubbed without being made thin,' and 'White may be +stained without being made black'?--I am surely not a gourd! How am I to +be strung up like that kind of thing--and live without means?" + +"Tsz-lu," said the Master, "you have heard of the six words with their +six obfuscations?" + +"No," said he, "not so far." + +"Sit down, and I will tell you them. They are these six virtues, cared +for without care for any study about them:--philanthropy, wisdom, +faithfulness, straightforwardness, courage, firmness. And the six +obfuscations resulting from not liking to learn about them are, +respectively, these:--fatuity, mental dissipation, mischievousness, +perversity, insubordination, impetuosity." + +"My children," said he once, "why does no one of you study the +Odes?--They are adapted to rouse the mind, to assist observation, to +make people sociable, to arouse virtuous indignation. They speak of +duties near and far--the duty of ministering to a parent, the duty of +serving one's prince; and it is from them that one becomes conversant +with the names of many birds, and beasts, and plants, and trees." + +To his son Pih-yu he said, "Study you the Odes of Chow and the South, +and those of Shau and the South. The man who studies not these is, I +should say, somewhat in the position of one who stands facing a wall!" + +"'Etiquette demands it.' 'Etiquette demands it,' so people plead," said +he; "but do not these hankerings after jewels and silks indeed demand +it? Or it is, 'The study of Music requires it'--'Music requires it'; but +do not these predilections for bells and drums require it?" + +Again, "They who assume an outward appearance of severity, being +inwardly weak, may be likened to low common men; nay, are they not +somewhat like thieves that break through walls and steal?" + +Again, "The plebeian kind of respect for piety is the very pest of +virtue." + +Again, "Listening on the road, and repeating in the lane--this is +abandonment of virtue." + +"Ah, the low-minded creatures!" he exclaimed. "How is it possible indeed +to serve one's prince in their company? Before they have got what they +wanted they are all anxiety to get it, and after they have got it they +are all anxiety lest they should lose it; and while they are thus full +of concern lest they should lose it, there is no length to which they +will not go." + +Again, "In olden times people had three moral infirmities; which, it may +be, are now unknown. Ambitiousness in those olden days showed itself in +momentary outburst; the ambitiousness of to-day runs riot. Austerity in +those days had its sharp angles; in these it is irritable and perverse. +Feebleness of intellect then was at least straightforward; in our day it +is never aught but deceitful." + +Again, "Rarely do we find mutual good feeling where there is fine speech +and studied mien." + +Again, "To me it is abhorrent that purple color should be made to +detract from that of vermilion. Also that the Odes of Ch'ing should be +allowed to introduce discord in connection with the music of the Festal +Songs and Hymns. Also that sharp-whetted tongues should be permitted to +subvert governments." + +Once said he, "Would that I could dispense with speech!" + +"Sir," said Tsz-kung, "if you were never to speak, what should your +pupils have to hand down from you?" + +"Does Heaven ever speak?" said the Master. "The four seasons come and +go, and all creatures live and grow. Does Heaven indeed speak?" + +Once Ju Pi desired an interview with Confucius, from which the latter +excused himself on the score of ill-health; but while the attendant was +passing out through the doorway with the message he took his lute and +sang, in such a way as to let him hear him. + +Tsai Wo questioned him respecting the three years' mourning, saying that +one full twelve-month was a long time--that, if gentlemen were for three +years to cease from observing rules of propriety, propriety must +certainly suffer, and that if for three years they neglected music, +music must certainly die out--and that seeing nature has taught us that +when the old year's grain is finished the new has sprung up for +us--seeing also that all the changes[32] in procuring fire by friction +have been gone through in the four seasons--surely a twelve-month might +suffice. + +The Master asked him, "Would it be a satisfaction to you--that returning +to better food, that putting on of fine clothes?" + +"It would," said he. + +"Then if you can be satisfied in so doing, do so. But to a gentleman, +who is in mourning for a parent, the choicest food will not be +palatable, nor will the listening to music be pleasant, nor will +comforts of home make him happy in mind. Hence he does not do as you +suggest. But if you are now happy in your mind, then do so." + +Tsai Wo went out. And the Master went on to say, "It is want of human +feeling in this man. After a child has lived three years it then breaks +away from the tender nursing of its parents. And this three years' +mourning is the customary mourning prevalent all over the empire. Can +this man have enjoyed the three years of loving care from his parents?" + +"Ah, it is difficult," said he, "to know what to make of those who are +all day long cramming themselves with food and are without anything to +apply their minds to! Are there no dice and chess players? Better, +perhaps, join in that pursuit than do nothing at all!" + +"Does a gentleman," asked Tsz-lu, "make much account of bravery?" + +"Righteousness he counts higher," said the Master. "A gentleman who is +brave without being just may become turbulent; while a common person who +is brave and not just may end in becoming a highwayman." + +Tsz-kung asked, "I suppose a gentleman will have his aversions as well +as his likings?" + +"Yes," replied the Master, "he will dislike those who talk much about +other people's ill-deeds. He will dislike those who, when occupying +inferior places, utter defamatory words against their superiors. He will +dislike those who, though they may be brave, have no regard for +propriety. And he will dislike those hastily decisive and venturesome +spirits who are nevertheless so hampered by limited intellect." + +"And you, too, Tsz-kung," he continued, "have your aversions, have you +not?" + +"I dislike," said he, "those plagiarists who wish to pass for wise +persons. I dislike those people who wish their lack of humility to be +taken for bravery. I dislike also those divulgers of secrets who think +to be accounted straightforward." + +"Of all others," said the Master, "women-servants and men-servants are +the most difficult people to have the care of. Approach them in a +familiar manner, and they take liberties; keep them at a distance, and +they grumble." + +Again, "When a man meets with odium at forty, he will do so to the end." + + +[Footnote 32: Different woods were adopted for this purpose at the +various seasons.] + + + +BOOK XVIII + +Good Men in Seclusion--Duke of Chow to His Son + + +"In the reign of the last king of the Yin dynasty," Confucius I said, +"there were three men of philanthropic spirit:--the viscount of Wei, who +withdrew from him; the viscount of Ki, who became his bondsman; and +Pi-kan, who reproved him and suffered death." + +Hwui of Liu-hia, who filled the office of Chief Criminal Judge, was +thrice dismissed. A person remarked to him, "Can you not yet bear to +withdraw?" He replied, "If I act in a straightforward way in serving +men, whither in these days should I go, where I should not be thrice +dismissed? Were I to adopt crooked ways in their service, why need I +leave the land where my parents dwell?" + +Duke King of Ts'i remarked respecting his attitude towards Confucius, +"If he is to be treated like the Chief of the Ki family, I cannot do it. +I should treat him as somewhere between the Ki and Mang Chiefs.--I am +old," he added, "and not competent to avail myself of him." + +Confucius, hearing of this, went away. + +The Ts'i officials presented to the Court of Lu a number of female +musicians. Ki Hwan accepted them, and for three days no Court was held. + +Confucius went away. + +Tsieh-yu, the madman [33] of Ts'u, was once passing Confucius, singing +as he went along. He sang-- + + "Ha, the phoenix! Ha, the phoenix! + How is Virtue lying prone! + Vain to chide for what is o'er, + Plan to meet what's yet in store. + Let alone! Let alone! + Risky now to serve a throne." + +Confucius alighted, wishing to enter into conversation with him; but the +man hurried along and left him, and he was therefore unable to get a +word with him. + +Ch'ang-tsue and Kieh-nih [34] were working together on some ploughed +land. Confucius was passing by them, and sent Tsz-lu to ask where the +ford was. + +Ch'ang-tsue said, "Who is the person driving the carriage?" + +"Confucius," answered Tsz-lu. + +"He of Lu?" he asked. + +"The same," said Tsz-lu. + +"He knows then where the ford is," said he. + +Tsz-lu then put his question to Kieh-nih; and the latter asked, "Who are +you?" + +Tsz-lu gave his name. + +"You are a follower of Confucius of Lu, are you not?" + +"You are right," he answered. + +"Ah, as these waters rise and overflow their bounds," said he, "'tis so +with all throughout the empire; and who is he that can alter the state +of things? And you are a follower of a learned man who withdraws from +his chief; had you not better be a follower of such as have forsaken the +world?" And he went on with his harrowing, without stopping. + +Tsz-lu went and informed his Master of all this. He was deeply touched, +and said, "One cannot herd on equal terms with beasts and birds: if I am +not to live among these human folk, then with whom else should I live? +Only when the empire is well ordered shall I cease to take part in the +work of reformation." + +Tsz-lu was following the Master, but had dropped behind on the way, when +he encountered an old man with a weed-basket slung on a staff over his +shoulder. Tsz-lu inquired of him, "Have you seen my Master, sir?" Said +the old man, "Who is your master?--you who never employ your four limbs +in laborious work; you who do not know one from another of the five +sorts of grain!" And he stuck his staff in the ground, and began his +weeding. + +Tsz-lu brought his hands together on his breast and stood still. + +The old man kept Tsz-lu and lodged him for the night, killed a fowl and +prepared some millet, entertained him, and brought his two sons out to +see him. + +On the morrow Tsz-lu went on his way, and told all this to the Master, +who said, "He is a recluse," and sent Tsz-lu back to see him again. But +by the time he got there he was gone. + +Tsz-lu remarked upon this, "It is not right he should evade official +duties. If he cannot allow any neglect of the terms on which elders and +juniors should live together, how is it that he neglects to conform to +what is proper as between prince and public servant? He wishes for +himself personally a pure life, yet creates disorder in that more +important relationship. When a gentleman undertakes public work, he will +carry out the duties proper to it; and he knows beforehand that right +principles may not win their way." + +Among those who have retired from public life have been Peh-I and +Shuh-Ts'i, Yu-chung, I-yih, Chu-chang, Hwui of Liuhia, and Shau-lien. + +"Of these," said the Master, "Peh-I and Shuh-Ts'i may be characterized, +I should say, as men who never declined from their high resolve nor +soiled themselves by aught of disgrace. + +"Of Hwui of Liu-hia and Shau-lien, if one may say that they did decline +from high resolve, and that they did bring disgrace upon themselves, yet +their words were consonant with established principles, and their action +consonant with men's thoughts and wishes; and this is all that may be +said of them. + +"Of Yu-chung and I-yih, if it be said that when they retired into +privacy they let loose their tongues, yet in their aim at personal +purity of life they succeeded, and their defection was also successful +in its influence. + +"My own rule is different from any adopted by these: I will take no +liberties, I will have no curtailing of my liberty." + +The chief music-master went off to Ts'i. Kan, the conductor of the music +at the second repast, went over to Ts'u. Liau, conductor at the third +repast, went over to Ts'ai. And Kiueh, who conducted at the fourth, went +to Ts'in. + +Fang-shuh, the drummer, withdrew into the neighborhood of the Ho. Wu the +tambourer went to the Han. And Yang the junior music-master, and Siang +who played on the musical stone, went to the sea-coast. + +Anciently the Duke of Chow, addressing his son the Duke of Lu, said, "A +good man in high place is not indifferent about the members of his own +family, and does not give occasion to the chief ministers to complain +that they are not employed; nor without great cause will he set aside +old friendships; nor does he seek for full equipment for every kind of +service in any single man." + +There were once eight officials during this Chow dynasty, who were four +pairs of twins, all brothers--the eldest pair Tab and Kwoh, the next Tub +and Hwuh, the third Ye and Hia, the youngest Sui and Kwa. + + +[Footnote 33: He only pretended to be mad, in order to escape being +employed in the public service.] + +[Footnote 34: Two worthies who had abandoned public life, owing to the +state of the times.] + + + +BOOK XIX + +Teachings of Various Chief Disciples + + +"The learned official," said Tsz-chang, "who when he sees danger ahead +will risk his very life, who when he sees a chance of success is mindful +of what is just and proper, who in his religious acts is mindful of the +duty of reverence, and when in mourning thinks of his loss, is indeed a +fit and proper person for his place." + +Again he said, "If a person hold to virtue but never advance in it, and +if he have faith in right principles and do not build himself up in +them, how can he be regarded either as having such, or as being without +them?" + +Tsz-hia's disciples asked Tsz-chang his views about intercourse with +others. "What says your Master?" he rejoined. "He says," they replied, +"'Associate with those who are qualified, and repel from you such as are +not,'" Tsz-chang then said, "That is different from what I have learnt. +A superior man esteems the worthy and wise, and bears with all. He makes +much of the good and capable, and pities the incapable. Am I eminently +worthy and wise?--who is there then among men whom I will not bear with? +Am I not worthy and wise?--others will be minded to repel me: I have +nothing to do with repelling them." + +Sayings of Tsz-hia:-- + +"Even in inferior pursuits there must be something worthy of +contemplation, but if carried to an extreme there is danger of +fanaticism; hence the superior man does not engage in them. + +"The student who daily recognizes how much he yet lacks, and as the +months pass forgets not what he has succeeded in learning, may +undoubtedly be called a lover of learning. + +"Wide research and steadfast purpose, eager questioning and close +reflection--all this tends to humanize a man. + +"As workmen spend their time in their workshops for the perfecting of +their work, so superior men apply their minds to study in order to make +themselves thoroughly conversant with their subjects. + +"When an inferior man does a wrong thing, he is sure to gloss it over. + +"The superior man is seen in three different aspects:--look at him from +a distance, he is imposing in appearance; approach him, he is gentle and +warm-hearted; hear him speak, he is acute and strict. + +"Let such a man have the people's confidence, and he will get much work +out of them; so long, however, as he does not possess their confidence +they will regard him as grinding them down. + +"When confidence is reposed in him, he may then with impunity administer +reproof; so long as it is not, he will be regarded as a detractor. + +"Where there is no over-stepping of barriers in the practice of the +higher virtues, there may be freedom to pass in and out in the practice +of the lower ones." + +Tsz-yu had said, "The pupils in the school of Tsz-hia are good enough at +such things as sprinkling and scrubbing floors, answering calls and +replying to questions from superiors, and advancing and retiring to and +from such; but these things are only offshoots--as to the root of things +they are nowhere. What is the use of all that?" + +When this came to the ears of Tsz-hia, he said, "Ah! there he is +mistaken. What does a master, in his methods of teaching, consider first +in his precepts? And what does he account next, as that about which he +may be indifferent? It is like as in the study of plants--classification +by _differentiae_. How may a master play fast and loose in his methods +of instruction? Would they not indeed be sages, who could take in at +once the first principles and the final developments of things?" + + +Further observations of Tsz-hia:-- + +"In the public service devote what energy and time remain to study. +After study devote what energy and time remain to the public service. + +"As to the duties of mourning, let them cease when the grief is past. + +"My friend Tsz-chang, although he has the ability to tackle hard things, +has not yet the virtue of philanthropy." + +The learned Tsang observed, "How loftily Tsz-chang bears himself! +Difficult indeed along with him to practise philanthropy!" + +Again he said, "I have heard this said by the Master, that 'though men +may not exert themselves to the utmost in other duties, yet surely in +the duty of mourning for their parents they will do so!'" + +Again, "This also I have heard said by the Master: 'The filial piety of +Mang Chwang in other respects might be equalled, but as manifested in +his making no changes among his father's ministers, nor in his father's +mode of government--that aspect of it could not easily be equalled.'" + +Yang Fu, having been made senior Criminal Judge by the Chief of the Mang +clan, consulted with the learned Tsang. The latter advised him as +follows: "For a long time the Chiefs have failed in their government, +and the people have become unsettled. When you arrive at the facts of +their cases, do not rejoice at your success in that, but rather be sorry +for them, and have pity upon them." + +Tsz-kung once observed, "We speak of 'the iniquity of Chau'--but 'twas +not so great as this. And so it is that the superior man is averse from +settling in this sink, into which everything runs that is foul in the +empire." + +Again he said, "Faults in a superior man are like eclipses of the sun or +moon: when he is guilty of a trespass men all see it; and when he is +himself again, all look up to him." + +Kung-sun Ch'an of Wei inquired of Tsz-kung how Confucius acquired his +learning. + +Tsz-kung replied, "The teachings of Wan and Wu have not yet fallen to +the ground. They exist in men. Worthy and wise men have the more +important of these stored up in their minds; and others, who are not +such, store up the less important of them; and as no one is thus without +the teachings of Wan and Wu, how should our Master not have learned? And +moreover what permanent preceptor could he have?" + +Shuh-sun Wu-shuh, addressing the high officials at the Court, remarked +that Tsz-kung was a greater worthy than Confucius. + +Tsz-fuh King-pih went and informed Tsz-kung of this remark. + +Tsz-kung said, "Take by way of comparison the walls outside our houses. +My wall is shoulder-high, and you may look over it and see what the +house and its contents are worth. My Master's wall is tens of feet high, +and unless you should effect an entrance by the door, you would fail to +behold the beauty of the ancestral hall and the rich array of all its +officers. And they who effect an entrance by the door, methinks, are +few! Was it not, however, just like him--that remark of the Chief?" + +Shuh-sun Wu-shuh had been casting a slur on the character of Confucius. + +"No use doing that," said Tsz-kung; "he is irreproachable. The wisdom +and worth of other men are little hills and mounds of earth: +traversible. He is the sun, or the moon, impossible to reach and pass. +And what harm, I ask, can a man do to the sun or the moon, by wishing to +intercept himself from either? It all shows that he knows not how to +gauge capacity." + +Tsz-k'in, addressing Tsz-kung, said, "You depreciate yourself. Confucius +is surely not a greater worthy than yourself." + +Tsz-kung replied, "In the use of words one ought never to be +incautious; because a gentleman for one single utterance of his is apt +to be considered a wise man, and for a single utterance may be accounted +unwise. No more might one think of attaining to the Master's perfections +than think of going upstairs to Heaven! Were it ever his fortune to be +at the head of the government of a country, then that which is spoken of +as 'establishing the country' would be establishment indeed; he would be +its guide and it would follow him, he would tranquillize it and it would +render its willing homage: he would give forward impulses to it to which +it would harmoniously respond. In his life he would be its glory, at his +death there would be great lamentation. How indeed could such as he be +equalled?" + + + +BOOK XX + +Extracts from the Book of History + + +The Emperor Yau said to Shun, "Ah, upon you, upon your person, lies the +Heaven-appointed order of succession! Faithfully hold to it, without any +deflection; for if within the four seas necessity and want befall the +people, your own revenue will forever come to an end." + +Shun also used the same language in handing down the appointment to Yu. + +The Emperor T'ang in his prayer, said, "I, the child Li, presume to +avail me of an ox of dusky hue, and presume to manifestly announce to +Thee, O God, the most high and Sovereign Potentate, that to the +transgressor I dare not grant forgiveness, nor yet keep in abeyance Thy +ministers. Judgment rests in Thine heart, O God. Should we ourself +transgress, may the guilt not be visited everywhere upon all. Should the +people all transgress, be the guilt upon ourself!" + +Chow possessed great gifts, by which the able and good were richly +endowed. + +"Although," said King Wu, "he is surrounded by his near relatives, they +are not to be compared with men of humane spirit. The people are +suffering wrongs, and the remedy rests with me--the one man." + +After Wu had given diligent attention to the various weights and +measures, examined the laws and regulations, and restored the degraded +officials, good government everywhere ensued. + +He caused ruined States to flourish again, reinstated intercepted heirs, +and promoted to office men who had gone into retirement; and the hearts +of the people throughout the empire drew towards him. + +Among matters of prime consideration with him were these--food for the +people, the duty of mourning, and sacrificial offerings to the departed. + +He was liberal and large-hearted, and so won all hearts; true, and so +was trusted by the people; energetic, and thus became a man of great +achievements; just in his rule, and all were well content. + +Tsz-chang in a conversation with Confucius asked, "What say you is +essential for the proper conduct of government?" + +The Master replied, "Let the ruler hold in high estimation the five +excellences, and eschew the four evils; then may he conduct his +government properly." + +"And what call you the five excellences?" he was asked. + +"They are," he said, "Bounty without extravagance; burdening without +exciting discontent; desire without covetousness; dignity without +haughtiness; show of majesty without fierceness." + +"What mean you," asked Tsz-chang, "by bounty without extravagance?" + +"Is it not this," he replied--"to make that which is of benefit to the +people still more beneficial? When he selects for them such labors as it +is possible for them to do, and exacts them, who will then complain? So +when his desire is the virtue of humaneness, and he attains it, how +shall he then be covetous? And if--whether he have to do with few or +with many, with small or with great--he do not venture ever to be +careless, is not this also to have dignity without haughtiness? And +if--when properly vested in robe and cap, and showing dignity in his +every look--his appearance be so imposing that the people look up to and +stand in awe of him, is not this moreover to show majesty without +fierceness?" + +"What, then, do you call the four evils?" said Tsz-chang. + +The answer here was, "Omitting to instruct the people and then +inflicting capital punishment on them--which means cruel tyranny. +Omitting to give them warning and yet looking for perfection in +them--which means oppression. Being slow and late in issuing +requisitions, and exacting strict punctuality in the returns--which +means robbery. And likewise, in intercourse with men, to expend and to +receive in a stingy manner--which is to act the part of a mere +commissioner." + +"None can be a superior man," said the Master, "who does not recognize +the decrees of Heaven. + +"None can have stability in him without a knowledge of the proprieties. + +"None can know a man without knowing his utterances." + + + + + +THE SAYINGS OF MENICUS + +[Translated into English by James Legge_] + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +A hundred years after the time of Confucius the Chinese nation seemed to +have fallen back into their original condition of lawlessness and +oppression. The King's power and authority was laughed to scorn, the +people were pillaged by the feudal nobility, and famine reigned in many +districts. The foundations of truth and social order seemed to be +overthrown. There were teachers of immorality abroad, who published the +old Epicurean doctrine, "Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we die." +This teaching was accompanied by a spirit of cold-blooded egotism which +extinguished every spark of Confucian altruism. Even the pretended +disciples of Confucius confused the precepts of the Master, and by +stripping them of their narrow significance rendered them nugatory. It +was at this point that Mang-tsze, "Mang the philosopher," arose. He was +sturdy in bodily frame, vigorous in mind, profound in political sagacity +and utterly fearless in denouncing the errors of his countrymen. He had +been brought up among the disciples of Confucius, in whose province he +was born B.C. 372, but he was much more active and aggressive, less a +Mystic than a fanatic, in comparison! with his Master. He resolved on +active measures in stemming the tendency of his day. He did indeed +surround himself with a school of disciples, but instead of making a +series of desultory travels, teaching in remote places and along the +high-road, he went to the heart of the evil. He presented himself like a +second John the Baptist at the courts of kings and princes, and there +boldly denounced vice and misrule. It was not difficult for a Chinese +scholar and teacher to find access to the highest of the land. The +Chinese believed in the divine right of learning, just as they believed +in the divine right of kings. Mang employed every weapon of persuasion +in trying to combat heresy and oppression; alternately ridiculing and +reproving: now appealing in a burst of moral enthusiasm, and now +denouncing in terms of cutting sarcasm the abuses which after all he +failed to check. The last prince whom he successfully confronted was the +Marquis of Lu, who turned him carelessly away. He accepted this as the +Divine sentence of his failure, "That I have not found in this marquis, +a ruler who would hearken to me is an intimation of heaven." Henceforth +he lived in retirement until his ninety-seventh year; but from his +apparent failure sprang a practical success. His written teachings are +amongst the most lively and epigrammatic works of Chinese literature, +have done much to keep alive amongst his countrymen the spirit of +Confucianism, and even Western readers may drink wisdom from this spring +of Oriental lore. The following selections from his sayings well exhibit +the spirit of his system of philosophy and morality. + + E.W. + + + + +THE SAYINGS OF MENCIUS + + + +BOOK I + +KING HWUY OF LEANG + + +Part I + +Mencius went to see King Hwuy of Leang. [1] The king said, "Venerable +Sir, since you have not counted it far to come here a distance of a +thousand li, may I presume that you are likewise provided with counsels +to profit my kingdom?" Mencius replied, "Why must your Majesty used that +word 'profit'? What I am likewise provided with are counsels to +benevolence and righteousness; and these are my only topics. + +"If your Majesty say, 'What is to be done to profit my kingdom?' the +great officers will say, 'What is to be done to profit our families?' +and the inferior officers and the common people will say, 'What is to be +done to profit our persons?' Superiors and inferiors will try to take +the profit the one from the other, and the kingdom will be endangered. +In the kingdom of ten thousand chariots, the murderer of his ruler will +be the chief of a family of a thousand chariots. In the State of a +thousand chariots, the murderer of his ruler will be the chief of a +family of a hundred chariots. To have a thousand in ten thousand, and a +hundred in a thousand, cannot be regarded as not a large allowance; but +if righteousness be put last and profit first, they will not be +satisfied without snatching all. + +"There never was a man trained to benevolence who neglected his parents. +There never was a man trained to righteousness who made his ruler an +after consideration. Let your Majesty likewise make benevolence and +righteousness your only themes--Why must you speak of profit?" + +When Mencius, another day, was seeing King Hwuy of Leang, the King went +and stood with him by a pond, and, looking round on the wild geese and +deer, large and small, said, "Do wise and good princes also take +pleasure in these things?" Mencius replied, "Being wise and good, they +then have pleasure in these things. If they are not wise and good, +though they have these things, they do not find pleasure." It is said in +the 'Book of Poetry':-- + + 'When he planned the commencement of the Marvellous tower, + He planned it, and defined it, + And the people in crowds undertook the work, + And in no time completed it. + When he planned the commencement, he said, "Be not in a hurry." + But the people came as if they were his children. + The king was in the Marvellous park, + Where the does were lying down-- + The does so sleek and fat; + With the white birds glistening. + The king was by the Marvellous pond;-- + How full was it of fishes leaping about!' + +King Wan used the strength of the people to make his tower and pond, and +the people rejoiced to do the work, calling the tower 'the Marvellous +Tower,' and the pond 'the Marvellous Pond,' and being glad that he had +his deer, his fishes and turtles. The ancients caused their people to +have pleasure as well as themselves, and therefore they could enjoy it. + +"In the Declaration of T'ang it is said, 'O Sun, when wilt thou expire? +We will die together with thee.' The people wished for Keeh's death, +though they should die with him. Although he had his tower, his pond, +birds and animals, how could he have pleasure alone?" + +King Hwuy of Leang said, "Small as my virtue is, in the government of my +kingdom, I do indeed exert my mind to the utmost. If the year be bad +inside the Ho, I remove as many of the people as I can to the east of +it, and convey grain to the country inside. If the year be bad on the +east of the river, I act on the same plan. On examining the governmental +methods of the neighboring kingdoms, I do not find there is any ruler +who exerts his mind as I do. And yet the people of the neighboring kings +do not decrease, nor do my people increase--how is this?" + +Mencius replied, "Your Majesty loves war; allow me to take an +illustration from war. The soldiers move forward at the sound of the +drum; and when the edges of their weapons have been crossed, on one +side, they throw away their buff coats, trail their weapons behind them, +and run. Some run a hundred paces and then stop; some run fifty paces +and stop. What would you think if these, because they had run but fifty +paces, should laugh at those who ran a hundred paces?" The king said, +"They cannot do so. They only did not run a hundred paces; but they also +ran." Mencius said, "Since your Majesty knows this you have no ground to +expect that your people will become more numerous than those of the +neighboring kingdoms. + +"If the seasons of husbandry be not interfered with, the grain will be +more than can be eaten. If close nets are not allowed to enter the pools +and ponds, the fish and turtles will be more than can be consumed. If +the axes and bills enter the hill-forests only at the proper times, the +wood will be more than can be used. When the grain and fish and turtles +are more than can be eaten, and there is more wood than can be used, +this enables the people to nourish their living and do all offices for +their dead, without any feeling against any. But this condition, in +which the people nourish their living, and do all offices to their dead +without having any feeling against any, is the first step in the Royal +way. + +"Let mulberry trees be planted about the homesteads with their five +acres, and persons of fifty years will be able to wear silk. In keeping +fowls, pigs, dogs, and swine, let not their time of breeding be +neglected, and persons of seventy years will be able to eat flesh. Let +there not be taken away the time that is proper for the cultivation of +the field allotment of a hundred acres, and the family of several mouths +will not suffer from hunger. Let careful attention be paid to the +teaching in the various schools, with repeated inculcation of the filial +and fraternal duties, and gray-haired men will not be seen upon the +roads, carrying burdens on their backs or on their heads. It has never +been that the ruler of a State where these results were seen, persons of +seventy wearing silk and eating flesh, and the black-haired people +suffering neither from hunger nor cold, did not attain to the Royal +dignity. + +"Your dogs and swine eat the food of men, and you do not know to store +up of the abundance. There are people dying from famine on the roads, +and you do not know to issue your stores for their relief. When men die, +you say, 'It is not owing to me; it is owing to the year,' In what does +this differ from stabbing a man and killing him, and then saying, 'It +was not I; it was the weapon'? Let your Majesty cease to lay the blame +on the year and instantly the people, all under the sky, will come to +you." + +King Hwuy of Leang said, "I wish quietly to receive your instructions." +Mencius replied, "Is there any difference between killing a man with a +stick and with a sword?" "There is no difference," was the answer. + +Mencius continued, "Is there any difference between doing it with a +sword and with governmental measures?" "There is not," was the answer +again. + +Mencius then said, "In your stalls there are fat beasts; in your stables +there are fat horses. But your people have the look of hunger, and in +the fields there are those who have died of famine. This is leading on +beasts to devour men. Beasts devour one another, and men hate them for +doing so. When he who is called the parent of the people conducts his +government so as to be chargeable with leading on beasts to devour men, +where is that parental relation to the people? Chung-ne said, 'Was he +not without posterity who first made wooden images to bury with the +dead?' So he said, because that man made the semblances of men and used +them for that purpose; what shall be thought of him who causes his +people to die of hunger?" + +King Hwuy of Leang said, "There was not in the kingdom a stronger State +than Ts'in, as you, venerable Sir, know. But since it descended to me, +on the east we were defeated by Ts'e, and then my eldest son perished; +on the west we lost seven hundred li of territory to Ts'in; and on the +south we have sustained disgrace at the hands of Ts'oo. I have brought +shame on my departed predecessors, and wish on their account to wipe it +away once for all. What course is to be pursued to accomplish this?" + +Mencius replied, "With a territory only a hundred li square it has been +possible to obtain the Royal dignity. If your Majesty will indeed +dispense a benevolent government to the people, being sparing in the use +of punishments and fines, and making the taxes and levies of produce +light, so causing that the fields shall be ploughed deep, and the +weeding well attended to, and that the able-bodied, during their days of +leisure, shall cultivate their filial piety, fraternal duty, +faithfulness, and truth, serving thereby, at home, their fathers and +elder brothers, and, abroad, their elders and superiors, you will then +have a people who can be employed with sticks which they have prepared +to oppose the strong buff-coats and sharp weapons of the troops of Ts'in +and Ts'oo. + +"The rulers of those States rob their people of their time, so that they +cannot plough and weed their fields in order to support their parents. +Parents suffer from cold and hunger; elder and younger brothers, wives +and children, are separated and scattered abroad. Those rulers drive +their people into pitfalls or into the water; and your Majesty will go +to punish them. In such a case, who will oppose your Majesty? In +accordance with this is the saying, 'The benevolent has no enemy!' I beg +your Majesty not to doubt what I said." + +Mencius had an interview with King Seang[2] of Leang. When he came out +he said to some persons, "When I looked at him from a distance, he did +not appear like a ruler; when I drew near to him, I saw nothing +venerable about him. Abruptly he asked me, 'How can the kingdom, all +under the sky, be settled?' I replied, 'It will be settled by being +united under one sway,' + +"'Who can so unite it?' he asked. + +"I replied, 'He who has no pleasure in killing men can so unite it.' + +"'Who can give it to him?' he asked. + +"I replied, 'All under heaven will give it to him. Does your Majesty +know the way of the growing grain? During the seventh and eighth months, +when drought prevails, the plants become dry. Then the clouds collect +densely in the heavens, and send down torrents of rain, so that the grain +erects itself as if by a shoot. When it does so, who can keep it back? +Now among those who are shepherds of men throughout the kingdom, there +is not one who does not find pleasure in killing men. If there were one +who did not find pleasure in killing men, all the people under the sky +would be looking towards him with outstretched necks. Such being indeed +the case, the people would go to him as water flows downwards with a +rush, which no one can repress." + +King Seuen of Ts'e asked, saying, "May I be informed by you of the +transactions of Hwan of Ts'e and Wan of Ts'in?" + +Mencius replied, "There were none of the disciples of Chung-ne who spoke +about the affairs of Hwan and Wan, and therefore they have not been +transmitted to these after-ages; your servant has not heard of them. If +you will have me speak, let it be about the principles of attaining to +the Royal sway." + +The king said, "Of what kind must his virtue be who can attain to the +Royal sway?" Mencius said, "If he loves and protects the people, it is +impossible to prevent him from attaining it." + +The king said, "Is such an one as poor I competent to love and protect +the people?" "Yes," was the reply. "From what do you know that I am +competent to that?" "I have heard," said Mencius, "from Hoo Heih the +following incident:--'The king,' said he, 'was sitting aloft in the +hall, when some people appeared leading a bull past below it. The king +saw it, and asked where the bull was going, and being answered that they +were going to consecrate a bell with its blood, he said, "Let it go, I +cannot bear its frightened appearance--as if it were an innocent person +going to the place of death." They asked in reply whether, if they did +so, they should omit the consecration of the bell, but the king said, +"How can that be omitted? Change it for a sheep."' I do not know whether +this incident occurred." + +"It did," said the king, and Mencius replied, "The heart seen in this is +sufficient to carry you to the Royal sway. The people all supposed that +your Majesty grudged the animal, but your servant knows surely that it +was your Majesty's not being able to bear the sight of the creature's +distress which made you do as you did." + +The king said, "You are right; and yet there really was an appearance of +what the people imagined. But though Ts'e be narrow and small, how +should I grudge a bull? Indeed it was because I could not bear its +frightened appearance, as if it were an innocent person going to the +place of death, that therefore I changed it for a sheep." + +Mencius said, "Let not your Majesty deem it strange that the people +should think you grudged the animal. When you changed a large one for a +small, how should they know the true reason? If you felt pained by its +being led without any guilt to the place of death, what was there to +choose between a bull and a sheep?" The king laughed and said, "What +really was my mind in the matter? I did not grudge the value of the +bull, and yet I changed it for a sheep! There was reason in the people's +saying that I grudged the creature." + +Mencius said, "There is no harm in their saying so. It was an artifice +of benevolence. You saw the bull, and had not seen the sheep. So is the +superior man affected towards animals, that, having seen them alive, he +cannot bear to see them die, and, having heard their dying cries, he +cannot bear to eat their flesh. On this account he keeps away from his +stalls and kitchen." + +The king was pleased and said, "The Ode says, + + 'What other men have in their minds, + I can measure by reflection,' + +This might be spoken of you, my Master. I indeed did the thing, but when +I turned my thoughts inward and sought for it, I could not discover my +own mind. When you, Master, spoke those words, the movements of +compassion began to work in my mind. But how is it that this heart has +in it what is equal to the attainment of the Royal sway?" + +Mencius said, "Suppose a man were to make this statement to your +Majesty, 'My strength is sufficient to lift three thousand catties, but +is not sufficient to lift one feather; my eyesight is sharp enough to +examine the point of an autumn hair, but I do not see a wagon-load of +fagots,' would your Majesty allow what he said?" "No," was the king's +remark, and Mencius proceeded, "Now here is kindness sufficient to reach +to animals, and yet no benefits are extended from it to the people--how +is this? is an exception to be made here? The truth is, the feather's +not being lifted is because the strength was not used; the wagon-load of +firewood's not being seen is because the eyesight was not used; and the +people's not being loved and protected is because the kindness is not +used. Therefore your Majesty's not attaining to the Royal sway is +because you do not do it, and not because you are not able to do it." + +The king asked, "How may the difference between him who does not do a +thing and him who is not able to do it be graphically set forth?" +Mencius replied, "In such a thing as taking the T'ae mountain under your +arm, and leaping with it over the North Sea, if you say to people, 'I am +not able to do it,' that is a real case of not being able. In such a +matter as breaking off a branch from a tree at the order of a superior, +if you say to people, 'I am not able to do it,' it is not a case of not +being able to do it. And so your Majesty's not attaining to the Royal +sway is not such a case as that of taking the T'ae mountain under your +arm and leaping over the North Sea with it; but it is a case like that +of breaking off a branch from a tree. + +"Treat with reverence due to age the elders in your own family, so that +those in the families of others shall be similarly treated; treat with +the kindness due to youth the young in your own family, so that those in +the families of others shall be similarly treated--do this and the +kingdom may be made to go round in your palm. It is said in the 'Book of +Poetry,' + + 'His example acted on his wife, + Extended to his brethren, + And was felt by all the clans and States;' + +Telling us how King Wan simply took this kindly heart, and exercised it +towards those parties. Therefore the carrying out of the feeling of +kindness by a ruler will suffice for the love and protection of all +within the four seas; and if he do not carry it out, he will not be able +to protect his wife and children. The way in which the ancients came +greatly to surpass other men was no other than this, that they carried +out well what they did, so as to affect others. Now your kindness is +sufficient to reach to animals, and yet no benefits are extended from it +to the people. How is this? Is an exception to be made here? + +"By weighing we know what things are light, and what heavy. By measuring +we know what things are long, and what short. All things are so dealt +with, and the mind requires specially to be so. I beg your Majesty to +measure it.--Your Majesty collects your equipments of war, endangers +your soldiers and officers and excites the resentment of the various +princes--do these things cause you pleasure in your mind?" + +The king said, "No. How should I derive pleasure from these things? My +object in them is to seek for what I greatly desire." + +Mencius said, "May I hear from you what it is that your Majesty greatly +desires?" The king laughed, and did not speak. Mencius resumed, "Are you +led to desire it because you have not enough of rich and sweet food for +your mouth? or because you have not enough of light and warm clothing +for your body? or because you have not enough of beautifully colored +objects to satisfy your eyes? or because there are not voices and sounds +enough to fill your ears? or because you have not enough of attendants +and favorites to stand before you and receive your orders? Your +Majesty's various officers are sufficient to supply you with all these +things. How can your Majesty have such a desire on account of them?" +"No," said the king, "my desire is not on account of them." Mencius +observed, "Then what your Majesty greatly desires can be known. You +desire to enlarge your territories, to have Ts'in and Ts'oo coming to +your court, to rule the Middle States, and to attract to you the +barbarous tribes that surround them. But to do what you do in order to +seek for what you desire is like climbing a tree to seek for fish." + +"Is it so bad as that?" said the king. "I apprehend it is worse," was +the reply. "If you climb a tree to seek for fish, although you do not +get the fish, you have no subsequent calamity. But if you do what you do +in order to seek for what you desire, doing it even with all your heart, +you will assuredly afterwards meet with calamities." The king said, "May +I hear what they will be?" Mencius replied, "If the people of Tsow were +fighting with the people of Ts'oo, which of them does your Majesty think +would conquer?" "The people of Ts'oo would conquer," was the answer, and +Mencius pursued, "So then, a small State cannot contend with a great, +few cannot contend with many, nor can the weak contend with the strong. +The territory within the seas would embrace nine divisions, each of a +thousand li square. All Ts'e together is one of them. If with one part +you try to subdue the other eight, what is the difference between that +and Tsow's contending with Ts'oo? With the desire which you have, you +must turn back to the proper course for its attainment. + +"Now, if your Majesty will institute a government whose action shall all +be benevolent, this will cause all the officers in the kingdom to wish +to stand in your Majesty's court, the farmers all to wish to plough in +your Majesty's fields, the merchants, both travelling and stationary, +all to wish to store their goods in your Majesty's market-places, +travellers and visitors all to wish to travel on your Majesty's roads, +and all under heaven who feel aggrieved by their rulers to wish to come +and complain to your Majesty. When they are so bent, who will be able to +keep them back?" + +The king said, "I am stupid and cannot advance to this. But I wish you, +my Master, to assist my intentions. Teach me clearly, and although I am +deficient in intelligence and vigor, I should like to try at least to +institute such a government." + +Mencius replied, "They are only men of education, who, without a certain +livelihood, are able to maintain a fixed heart. As to the people, if +they have not a certain livelihood, they will be found not to have a +fixed heart. And if they have not a fixed heart, there is nothing which +they will not do in the way of self-abandonment, of moral deflection, of +depravity, and of wild license. When they have thus been involved in +crime, to follow them up and punish them, is to entrap the people. How +can such a thing as entrapping the people be done under the rule of a +benevolent man?" + +"Therefore, an intelligent ruler will regulate the livelihood of the +people, so as to make sure that, above, they shall have sufficient +wherewith to serve their parents, and below, sufficient wherewith to +support their wives and children; that in good years they shall always +be abundantly satisfied, and that in bad years they shall not be in +danger of perishing. After this he may urge them, and they will proceed +to what is good, for in this case the people will follow after that with +readiness. + +"But now the livelihood of the people is so regulated, that, above, they +have not sufficient wherewith to serve their parents, and, below, they +have not sufficient wherewith to support their wives and children; even +in good years their lives are always embittered, and in bad years they +are in danger of perishing. In such circumstances their only object is +to escape from death, and they are afraid they will not succeed in doing +so--what leisure have they to cultivate propriety and righteousness? + +"If your Majesty wishes to carry out a benevolent government, why not +turn back to what is the essential step to its attainment? + +"Let mulberry trees be planted about the homesteads with their five +acres, and persons of fifty years will be able to wear silk. In keeping +fowls, pigs, dogs, and swine, let not their times of breeding be +neglected, and persons of seventy years will be able to eat flesh. Let +there not be taken away the time that is proper for the cultivation of +the field-allotment of a hundred acres, and the family of eight mouths +will not suffer from hunger. Let careful attention be paid to the +teaching in the various schools, with repeated inculcation of the filial +and fraternal duties, and gray-haired men will not be seen upon the +roads, carrying burdens on their backs or on their heads. It has never +been that the ruler of a State, where these results were seen, the old +wearing silk and eating flesh, and the black-haired people suffering +neither from hunger nor cold, did not attain to the Royal dignity." + +[NOTE: _Books II, III, and IV are omitted_] + + +[Footnote 1: The title of this book in Chinese is--"King Hwuy of Leang; +in chapters and sentences." Like the Books of the Confucian Analects, +those of this work are headed by two or three words at or near the +commencement of them. Each Book is divided into two parts. This +arrangement was made by Chaou K'e, and to him are due also the divisions +into chapters, and sentences, or paragraphs, containing, it may be, many +sentences.] + +[Footnote 2: Seang was the son of King Hwuy. The first year of his reign +is supposed to be B.C. 317. Seang's name was Hih. As a posthumous +epithet, Seang has various meanings: "Land-enlarger and Virtuous"; +"Successful in Arms." The interview here recorded seems to have taken +place immediately after Hih's accession, and Mencius, it is said, was so +disappointed by it that he soon after left the country.] + + + + +THE SHI-KING + + +[_Metrical translation by James Legge_] + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +The wisdom of Confucius as a social reformer, as a teacher and guide of +the Chinese people, is shown in many ways. He not only gave them a code +of personal deportment, providing them with rules for the etiquette and +ceremony of life, but he instilled into them that profound spirit of +domestic piety which is one of the strongest features in the Chinese +character. He took measures to secure also the intellectual cultivation +of his followers, and his Five Canons contain all the most ancient works +of Chinese literature, in the departments of poetry, history, +philosophy, and legislation. The Shi-King is a collection of Chinese +poetry made by Confucius himself. This great anthology consists of more +than three hundred pieces, covering the whole range of Chinese lyric +poetry, the oldest of which dates some eighteen centuries before Christ, +while the latest of the selections must have been written at the +beginning of the sixth century before Christ. These poems are of the +highest interest, and even nowadays may be read with delight by +Europeans. The ballad and the hymn are among the earliest forms of +national poetry, and the contents of the Shi-King naturally show +specimens of lyric poetry of this sort. We find there not only hymns, +but also ballads of a really fine and spirited character. Sometimes the +poems celebrate the common pursuits, occupations, and incidents of life. +They rise to the exaltation of the epithalamium, or of the vintage song; +at other times they deal with sentiment and human conduct, being in the +highest degree sententious and epigrammatic. We must give the credit to +Confucius of having saved for us the literature of China, and of having +set his people an example in preserving the monuments of a remote +antiquity. While the literatures of ancient Greece and Rome have largely +perished in the convulsions that followed the breaking up of the Roman +empire in Europe, when the kingdom of China fell into disorder and +decrepitude this one great teacher stepped forward to save the precious +record of historic fact, philosophical thought, and of legislation as +well as poetry, from being swept away by the deluge of revolution. +Confucius showed his wisdom by the high value he set upon the poetry of +his native land, and his name must be set side by side with that of the +astute tyrant of Athens who collected the poems of Homer and preserved +them as a precious heritage to the Greek world. Confucius has given us +his opinion with regard to the poems of the Shi-King. No man, he says, +is worth speaking to who has not mastered the poems of an anthology, the +perusal of which elevates the mind and purifies it from all corrupt +thoughts. Thanks to the work of modern scholarship, English readers can +now verify this dictum for themselves. + +E. W. + + + + +THE SHI-KING + + + +_PART I--LESSONS FROM THE STATES_ + + +BOOK I + +THE ODES OF CHOW AND THE SOUTH + + +~Celebrating the Virtue of King Wan's Bride~ + + + Hark! from the islet in the stream the voice + Of the fish-hawks that o'er their nests rejoice! + From them our thoughts to that young lady go, + Modest and virtuous, loth herself to show. + Where could be found to share our prince's state, + So fair, so virtuous, and so fit a mate? + + See how the duckweed's stalks, or short or long, + Sway left and right, as moves the current strong! + So hard it was for him the maid to find! + By day, by night, our prince with constant mind + Sought for her long, but all his search was vain. + Awake, asleep, he ever felt the pain + Of longing thought, as when on restless bed, + Tossing about, one turns his fevered head. + + Here long, there short, afloat the duckweed lies; + But caught at last, we seize the longed-for prize. + The maiden modest, virtuous, coy, is found; + Strike every lute, and joyous welcome sound. + Ours now, the duckweed from the stream we bear, + And cook to use with other viands rare. + He has the maiden, modest, virtuous, bright; + Let bells and drums proclaim our great delight + + + +~Celebrating the Industry of King Wan's Queen~ + + Sweet was the scene. The spreading dolichos + Extended far, down to the valley's depths, + With leaves luxuriant. The orioles + Fluttered around, and on the bushy trees + In throngs collected--whence their pleasant notes + Resounded far in richest melody. + + The spreading dolichos extended far, + Covering the valley's sides, down to its depths, + With leaves luxuriant and dense. I cut + It down, then boiled, and from the fibres spun + Of cloth, both fine and coarse, large store, + To wear, unwearied of such simple dress. + + Now back to my old home, my parents dear + To see, I go. The matron I have told, + Who will announcement make. Meanwhile my clothes, + My private clothes I wash, and rinse my robes. + Which of them need be rinsed? and which need not? + My parents dear to visit, back I go. + + + +~In Praise of a Bride~ + + Graceful and young the peach-tree stands; + How rich its flowers, all gleaming bright! + This bride to her new home repairs; + Chamber and house she'll order right. + + Graceful and young the peach-tree stands; + Large crops of fruit it soon will show. + This bride to her new home repairs; + Chamber and house her sway shall know. + + Graceful and young the peach-tree stands, + Its foliage clustering green and full. + This bride to her new home repairs; + Her household will attest her rule. + + + +~Celebrating T'ae-Sze's Freedom from Jealousy~ + + In the South are the trees whose branches are bent, + And droop in such fashion that o'er their extent + All the dolichos' creepers fast cling. + See our princely lady, from whom we have got + Rejoicing that's endless! May her happy lot + And her honors repose ever bring! + + In the South are the trees whose branches are bent, + And droop in such fashion that o'er their extent + All the dolichos' creepers are spread. + See our princely lady, from whom we have got + Rejoicing that's endless! Of her happy lot + And her honors the greatness ne'er fade! + + In the South are the trees whose branches are bent, + And droop in such fashion that o'er their extent + All the dolichos' creepers entwine. + See our princely lady, from whom we have got + Rejoicing that's endless! May her happy lot + And her honors complete ever shine! + + + +~The Fruitfulness of the Locust~ + + Ye locusts, winged tribes, + Gather in concord fine; + Well your descendants may + In numerous bright hosts shine! + + Ye locusts, winged tribes, + Your wings in flight resound; + Well your descendants may + In endless lines be found! + + Ye locusts, winged tribes, + Together cluster strong; + Well your descendants may + In swarms forever throng! + + + +~Lamenting the Absence of a Cherished Friend~ + + Though small my basket, all my toil + Filled it with mouse-ears but in part. + I set it on the path, and sighed + For the dear master of my heart. + + My steeds, o'er-tasked, their progress stayed, + When midway up that rocky height. + Give me a cup from that gilt vase-- + When shall this longing end in sight? + + To mount that lofty ridge I drove, + Until my steeds all changed their hue. + A cup from that rhinoceros's horn + May help my longing to subdue. + + Striving to reach that flat-topped hill, + My steeds, worn out, relaxed their strain; + My driver also sank oppressed:-- + I'll never see my lord again! + + + +~Celebrating the Goodness of the Descendants of King Wan~ + + As the feet of the _lin_, which avoid each living thing, + So our prince's noble sons no harm to men will bring. + They are the _lin!_ + + As the front of the _lin_, never forward thrust in wrath, + So our prince's noble grandsons of love tread the path. + They are the _lin!_ + + As the horn of the _lin_, flesh-tipped, no wound to give, + So our prince's noble kindred kindly with all live. + They are the _lin!_ + +[NOTE.--The "lin" is the female of "K'e"--a fabulous animal--the +symbol of all goodness and benevolence; having the body of a +deer, the tail of an ox, the hoofs of a horse, one horn, the scales of a +fish, etc. Its feet do not tread on any living thing--not even on live +grass; it does not butt with its forehead; and the end of its horn is +covered with flesh--to show that, while able for war, it wills to have +peace. The "lin" was supposed to appear inaugurating a golden age, +but the poet finds a better auspice of that in the character of Wan's +family and kindred.] + + + +~The Virtuous Manners of the Young Women~ + + High and compressed, the Southern trees + No shelter from the sun afford. + The girls free ramble by the Han, + But will not hear enticing word. + Like the broad Han are they, + Through which one cannot dive; + And like the Keang's long stream, + Wherewith no raft can strive. + + Many the fagots bound and piled; + The thorns I'd hew still more to make. + As brides, those girls their new homes seek; + Their colts to feed I'd undertake. + Like the broad Han are they, + Through which one cannot dive; + And like the Keang's long stream, + Wherewith no raft can strive. + + Many the fagots bound and piled; + The Southern-wood I'd cut for more. + As brides, those girls their new homes seek; + Food for their colts I'd bring large store. + Like the broad Han are they, + Through which one cannot dive; + And like the Keang's long stream, + Wherewith no raft can strive. + + + +~Praise of a Rabbit-Catcher~ + + Careful he sets his rabbit-nets all round; + _Chang-chang_ his blows upon the pegs resound. + Stalwart the man and bold! his bearing all + Shows he might be his prince's shield and wall. + + Careful he is his rabbit-nets to place + Where many paths of rabbits' feet bear trace. + Stalwart the man and bold! 'tis plain to see + He to his prince companion good would be. + + Careful he is his rabbit-nets to spread, + Where in the forest's depth the trees give shade. + Stalwart the man and bold! fit his the part + Guide to his prince to be, and faithful heart. + + + +~The Song of the Plantain-Gatherers~ + + We gather and gather the plantains; + Come gather them anyhow. + Yes, gather and gather the plantains, + And here we have got them now. + + We gather and gather the plantains; + Now off the ears we must tear. + Yes, gather and gather the plantains, + And now the seeds are laid bare. + + We gather and gather the plantains, + The seeds in our skirts are placed. + Yes, gather and gather the plantains. + Ho! safe in the girdled waist! + + + +~The Affection of the Wives on the Joo~ + + Along the raised banks of the Joo, + To hew slim stem and branch I wrought, + My lord away, my husband true, + Like hunger-pang my troubled thought! + + Along the raised banks of the Joo, + Branch and fresh shoot confessed my art. + I've seen my lord, my husband true, + And still he folds me in his heart. + + As the toiled bream makes red its tail, + Toil you, Sir, for the Royal House; + Amidst its blazing fires, nor quail:-- + Your parents see you pay your vows. + + + + +BOOK II + + + +THE ODES OF SHAOU AND THE SOUTH + + + +~The Marriage of a Princess~ + + In the magpie's nest + Dwells the dove at rest. + This young bride goes to her future home; + To meet her a hundred chariots come. + + Of the magpie's nest + Is the dove possessed. + This bride goes to her new home to live; + And escort a hundred chariots give. + + The nest magpie wove + Now filled by the dove. + This bride now takes to her home her way; + And these numerous cars her state display. + + + +~The Industry and Reverence of a Prince's Wife~ + + Around the pools, the islets o'er, + Fast she plucks white Southern-wood, + To help the sacrificial store; + And for our prince does service good. + + Where streams among the valleys shine, + Of Southern-woods she plucks the white; + And brings it to the sacred shrine, + To aid our prince in solemn rite. + + In head-dress high, most reverent, she + The temple seeks at early dawn. + The service o'er, the head-dress see + To her own chamber slow withdrawn. + + + +~The Wife of Some Great Officer Bewails His Absence~ + + Shrill chirp the insects in the grass; + All about the hoppers spring. + While I my husband do not see, + Sorrow must my bosom wring. + O to meet him! + O to greet him! + Then my heart would rest and sing. + + Ascending high that Southern hill, + Turtle ferns I strove to get. + While I my husband do not see, + Sorrow must my heart beset. + O to meet him! + O to greet him! + Then my heart would cease to fret. + + Ascending high that Southern hill, + Spinous ferns I sought to find. + While I my husband do not see, + Rankles sorrow in my mind. + O to meet him! + O to greet him! + In my heart would peace be shrined. + + + +~The Diligence of the Young Wife of an Officer~ + + She gathers fast the large duckweed, + From valley stream that southward flows; + And for the pondweed to the pools + Left on the plains by floods she goes. + + The plants, when closed her toil, she puts + In baskets round and baskets square. + Then home she hies to cook her spoil, + In pans and tripods ready there. + + In sacred chamber this she sets, + Where the light falls down through the wall. + 'Tis she, our lord's young reverent wife, + Who manages this service all. + + + +~The Love of the People for the Duke of Shaou~ + + O fell not that sweet pear-tree! + See how its branches spread. + Spoil not its shade, + For Shaou's chief laid + Beneath it his weary head. + + O clip not that sweet pear-tree! + Each twig and leaflet spare. + 'Tis sacred now, + Since the lord of Shaou, + When weary, rested him there. + + O touch not that sweet pear-tree! + Bend not a twig of it now. + There long ago, + As the stories show, + Oft halted the chief of Shaou. + + + +~The Easy Dignity of the Officers at Some Court~ + + Arrayed in skins of lamb or sheep, + With five silk braidings all of white, + From court they go, to take their meal, + All self-possessed, with spirits light. + + How on their skins of lamb or sheep + The five seams wrought with white silk show! + With easy steps, and self-possessed, + From court to take their meal, they go. + + Upon their skins of lamb or sheep + Shines the white silk the seams to link. + With easy steps and self-possessed, + They go from court to eat and drink. + + + +~Anxiety of a Young Lady to Get Married~ + + Ripe, the plums fall from the bough; + Only seven-tenths left there now! + Ye whose hearts on me are set, + Now the time is fortunate! + + Ripe, the plums fall from the bough; + Only three-tenths left there now! + Ye who wish my love to gain, + Will not now apply in vain! + + No more plums upon the bough! + All are in my basket now! + Ye who me with ardor seek, + Need the word but freely speak! + + + +BOOK III + + + +THE ODES OF P'EI + + +~An Officer Bewails the Neglect with which He is Treated~ + + It floats about, that boat of cypress wood, + Now here, now there, as by the current borne. + Nor rest nor sleep comes in my troubled mood; + I suffer as when painful wound has torn + The shrinking body. Thus I dwell forlorn, + And aimless muse, my thoughts of sorrow full. + I might with wine refresh my spirit worn; + I might go forth, and, sauntering try to cool + The fever of my heart; but grief holds sullen rule. + + My mind resembles not a mirror plate, + Reflecting all the impressions it receives. + The good I love, the bad regard with hate; + I only cherish whom my heart believes. + Colleagues I have, but yet my spirit grieves, + That on their honor I cannot depend. + I speak, but my complaint no influence leaves + Upon their hearts; with mine no feelings blend; + With me in anger they, and fierce disdain contend. + + My mind is fixed, and cannot, like a stone, + Be turned at will indifferently about; + And what I think, to that, and that alone, + I utterance give, alike within, without; + Nor can like mat be rolled and carried out. + With dignity in presence of them all, + My conduct marked, my goodness who shall scout? + My foes I boldly challenge, great and small, + If there be aught in me they can in question call. + + How full of trouble is my anxious heart! + With hate the blatant herd of creatures mean + Ceaseless pursue. Of their attacks the smart + Keeps my mind in distress. Their venomed spleen + Aye vents itself; and with insulting mien + They vex my soul; and no one on my side + A word will speak. Silent, alone, unseen, + I think of my sad case; then opening wide + My eyes, as if from sleep, I beat my breast, sore-tried. + + Thy disc, O sun, should ever be complete, + While thine, O changing moon, doth wax and wane. + But now our sun hath waned, weak and effete, + And moons are ever full. My heart with pain + Is firmly bound, and held in sorrow's chain, + As to the body cleaves an unwashed dress. + Silent I think of my sad case; in vain + I try to find relief from my distress. + Would I had wings to fly where ills no longer press! + + + +~A Wife Deplores the Absence of Her Husband~ + + + Away the startled pheasant flies, + With lazy movement of his wings. + Borne was my heart's lord from my eyes;-- + What pain the separation brings! + + The pheasant, though no more in view, + His cry, below, above, forth sends. + Alas! my princely lord, 'tis you-- + Your absence, that my bosom rends. + + At sun and moon I sit and gaze, + In converse with my troubled heart. + Far, far from me my husband stays! + When will he come to heal its smart? + + Ye princely men who with him mate, + Say, mark ye not his virtuous way. + His rule is--covet nought, none hate;-- + How can his steps from goodness stray? + + + +~The Plaint of a Rejected Wife~ + + The east wind gently blows, + With cloudy skies and rain. + 'Twixt man and wife should ne'er be strife, + But harmony obtain. + Radish and mustard plants + Are used, though some be poor; + While my good name is free from blame, + Don't thrust me from your door. + + I go along the road, + Slow, with reluctant heart. + Your escort lame to door but came, + There glad from me to part. + Sow-thistle, bitter called, + As shepherd's purse is sweet; + With your new mate you feast elate, + As joyous brothers meet. + + Part clear, the stream of King + Is foul beside the Wei. + You feast elate with your new mate, + And take no heed of me. + Loose mate, avoid my dam, + Nor dare my basket move! + Person slighted, life all blighted, + What can the future prove? + + The water deep, in boat, + Or raft-sustained, I'd go; + And where the stream did narrow seem, + I dived or breasted through. + I labored to increase + Our means, or great or small; + When 'mong friends near death did appear, + On knees to help I'd crawl. + + No cherishing you give, + I'm hostile in your eyes. + As pedler's wares for which none cares, + My virtues you despise. + + When poverty was nigh, + I strove our means to spare; + You, now rich grown, me scorn to own; + To poison me compare. + + The stores for winter piled + Are all unprized in spring. + So now, elate with your new mate, + Myself away you fling. + Your cool disdain for me + A bitter anguish hath. + The early time, our love's sweet prime, + In you wakes only wrath. + + + +~Soldiers of Wei Bewail Separation from Their Families~ + + List to the thunder and roll of the drum! + See how we spring and brandish the dart! + Some raise Ts'aou's walls; some do field work at home; + But we to the southward lonely depart. + + Our chief, Sun Tsze-chung, agreement has made, + Our forces to join with Ch'in and with Sung. + When shall we back from this service be led? + Our hearts are all sad, our courage unstrung. + + Here we are halting, and there we delay; + Anon we soon lose our high-mettled steeds. + The forest's gloom makes our steps go astray; + Each thicket of trees our searching misleads. + + For death as for life, at home or abroad, + We pledged to our wives our faithfulest word. + Their hands clasped in ours, together we vowed, + We'd live to old age in sweetest accord. + + This march to the South can end but in ill; + Oh! never shall we our wives again meet. + The word that we pledged we cannot fulfil; + Us home returning they never will greet. + + + +~An Officer Tells of His Mean Employment~ + + With mind indifferent, things I easy take; + In every dance I prompt appearance make:-- + Then, when the sun is at his topmost height, + There, in the place that courts the public sight. + + With figure large I in the courtyard dance, + And the duke smiles, when he beholds me prance. + A tiger's strength I have; the steeds swift bound; + The reins as ribbons in my hands are found. + + See how I hold the flute in my left hand; + In right the pheasant's plume, waved like a wand; + With visage red, where rouge you think to trace, + While the duke pleased, sends down the cup of grace! + + Hazel on hills; the _ling_ in meadow damp;-- + Each has its place, while I'm a slighted scamp. + My thoughts go back to th' early days of Chow, + And muse upon its chiefs, not equalled now. + O noble chiefs, who then the West adorned, + Would ye have thus neglected me and scorned? + + + +~An Officer Sets Forth His Hard Lot~ + + My way leads forth by the gate on the north; + My heart is full of woe. + I hav'n't a cent, begged, stolen, or lent, + And friends forget me so. + So let it be! 'tis Heaven's decree. + What can I say--a poor fellow like me? + + The King has his throne, sans sorrow or moan; + On me fall all his cares, + And when I come home, resolved not to roam, + Each one indignant stares. + So let it be! 'tis Heaven's decree. + What can I say--a poor fellow like me? + + Each thing of the King, and the fate of the State, + On me come more and more. + And when, sad and worn, I come back forlorn, + They thrust me from the door. + So let it be! 'tis Heaven's decree. + What can I say--a poor fellow like me? + + + +~The Complaint of a Neglected Wife~ + + When the upper robe is green, + With a yellow lining seen, + There we have a certain token, + Right is wronged and order broken. + How can sorrow from my heart + In a case like this depart? + + Color green the robe displays; + Lower garment yellow's blaze. + Thus it is that favorite mean + In the place of wife is seen. + Vain the conflict with my grief; + Memory denies relief. + + Yes, 'twas you the green who dyed, + You who fed the favorite's pride. + Anger rises in my heart, + Pierces it as with a dart. + But on ancient rules lean I, + Lest to wrong my thoughts should fly. + + Fine or coarse, if thin the dress, + Cold winds always cause distress. + Hard my lot, my sorrow deep, + But my thoughts in check I keep. + Ancient story brings to mind + Sufferers who were resigned. + + +[NOTE.--Yellow is one of the five "correct" colors of the Chinese, while +green is one of the "intermediate" colors that are less esteemed. Here +we have the yellow used merely as a lining to the green, or employed in +the lower, or less honorable, part of the dress;--an inversion of +propriety, and intimating how a favorite had usurped the place of the +rightful wife and thrust her down.] + + + +~In Praise of a Maiden~ + + + O sweet maiden, so fair and retiring, + At the corner I'm waiting for you; + And I'm scratching my head, and inquiring + What on earth it were best I should do. + + Oh! the maiden, so handsome and coy, + For a pledge gave a slim rosy reed. + Than the reed is she brighter, my joy; + On her loveliness how my thoughts feed! + + In the pastures a _t'e_ blade she sought, + And she gave it, so elegant, rare. + Oh! the grass does not dwell in my thought, + But the donor, more elegant, fair. + + + +~Discontent~ + + As when the north winds keenly blow, + And all around fast falls the snow, + The source of pain and suffering great, + So now it is in Wei's poor state. + Let us join hands and haste away, + My friends and lovers all. + 'Tis not a time will brook delay; + Things for prompt action call. + + As when the north winds whistle shrill, + And drifting snows each hollow fill, + The source of pain and suffering great, + So now it is in Wei's poor state, + Let us join hands, and leave for aye, + My friends and lovers all, + 'Tis not a time will brook delay; + Things for prompt action call. + + We look for red, and foxes meet; + For black, and crows our vision greet. + The creatures, both of omen bad, + Well suit the state of Wei so sad. + + Let us join hands and mount our cars, + My friends and lovers all. + No time remains for wordy jars; + Things for prompt action call. + + + +~Chwang Keang Bemoans Her Husband's Cruelty~ + + Fierce is the wind and cold; + And such is he. + Smiling he looks, and bold + Speaks mockingly. + Scornful and lewd his words, + Haughty his smile. + Bound is my heart with cords + In sorrow's coil. + + As cloud of dust wind-blown, + Just such is he. + Ready he seems to own, + And come to me. + But he comes not nor goes, + Stands in his pride. + Long, long, with painful throes, + Grieved I abide. + + Strong blew the wind; the cloud + Hastened away. + Soon dark again, the shroud + Covers the day. + I wake, and sleep no more + Visits my eyes. + His course I sad deplore, + With heavy sighs. + + Cloudy the sky, and dark; + The thunders roll. + Such outward signs well mark + My troubled soul. + I wake, and sleep no more + Comes to give rest. + His course I sad deplore, + In anguished breast. + + + +[NOTE: Selections from Books IV., V., and VI., +have been omitted.--EDITOR.] + + + +BOOK VII + + + +THE ODES OF CH'ING + + + +~The People's Admiration for Duke Woo~ + + The black robes well your form befit; + When they are worn we'll make you new. + Now for your court! oh! there we'll sit, + And watch how you your duties do. + And when we to our homes repair, + We'll send to you our richest fare, + Such is the love to you we bear! + + Those robes well with your virtue match; + When they are worn we'll make you new. + Now for your court! There will we watch, + Well pleased, how you your duties do. + And when we to our homes repair, + We'll send to you our richest fare, + Such is the love to you we bear! + + Those robes your character beseem; + When they are worn we'll make you new. + Now for your court! oh! there we deem + It pleasure great your form to view. + And when we to our homes repair, + We'll send to you our richest fare, + Such is the love to you we bear! + + + +~A Wife Consoled by Her Husband's Arrival~ + + Cold is the wind, fast falls the rain, + The cock aye shrilly crows. + But I have seen my lord again;-- + Now must my heart repose. + + Whistles the wind, patters the rain, + The cock's crow far resounds. + But I have seen my lord again, + And healed are my heart's wounds. + + All's dark amid the wind and rain, + Ceaseless the cock's clear voice! + But I have seen my lord again;-- + Should not my heart rejoice? + + +~In Praise of Some Lady~ + + There by his side in chariot rideth she, + As lovely flower of the hibiscus tree, + So fair her face; and when about they wheel, + Her girdle gems of _Ken_ themselves reveal. + For beauty all the House of Keang have fame; + Its eldest daughter--she beseems her name. + + There on the path, close by him, walketh she, + Bright as the blossom of hibiscus tree, + And fair her face; and when around they flit, + Her girdle gems a tinkling sound emit. + Among the Keang she has distinguished place, + For virtuous fame renowned, and peerless grace. + + + +~A Man's Praise of His Wife~ + + My path forth from the east gate lay, + Where cloud-like moved the girls at play. + Numerous are they, as clouds so bright, + But not on them my heart's thoughts light. + Dressed in a thin white silk, with coiffure gray + Is she, my wife, my joy in life's low way. + + Forth by the covering wall's high tower, + I went, and saw, like rush in flower, + Each flaunting girl. Brilliant are they, + But not with them my heart's thoughts stay. + In thin white silk, with head-dress madder-dyed, + Is she, my sole delight, 'foretime my bride. + + + +~An Entreaty~ + + Along the great highway, + I hold you by the cuff. + O spurn me not, I pray, + Nor break old friendship off. + + Along the highway worn, + I hold your hand in mine. + Do not as vile me scorn; + Your love I can't resign. + + + + ~A Woman Scorning Her Lover~ + + O dear! that artful boy + Refuses me a word! + But, Sir, I shall enjoy + My food, though you're absurd! + + O dear! that artful boy + My table will not share! + But, Sir, I shall enjoy + My rest, though you're not there! + + + +~A Lady Mourns the Absence of Her Student Lover~ + + You student, with the collar blue, + Long pines my heart with anxious pain. + Although I do not go to you, + Why from all word do you refrain? + + O you, with girdle strings of blue, + My thoughts to you forever roam! + Although I do not go to you, + Yet why to me should you not come? + + How reckless you, how light and wild, + There by the tower upon the wall! + One day, from sight of you exiled, + As long as three long months I call. + + +[NOTE: Selections from Books IV., V., and VI., have been +omitted.--EDITOR.] + + + +BOOK VIII + + + +THE ODES OF TS'E + + + +~A Wife Urging Her Husband to Action~ + + His lady to the marquis says, + "The cock has crowed; 'tis late. + Get up, my lord, and haste to court. + 'Tis full; for you they wait." + She did not hear the cock's shrill sound, + Only the blueflies buzzing round. + + Again she wakes him with the words, + "The east, my lord, is bright. + A crowded court your presence seeks; + Get up and hail the light." + 'Twas not the dawning light which shone, + But that which by the moon was thrown. + + He sleeping still, once more she says, + "The flies are buzzing loud. + To lie and dream here by your side + Were pleasant, but the crowd + Of officers will soon retire; + Draw not on you and me their ire!" + + + +~The Folly of Useless Effort~ + + The weeds will but the ranker grow, + If fields too large you seek to till. + To try to gain men far away + With grief your toiling heart will fill, + + If fields too large you seek to till, + The weeds will only rise more strong. + To try to gain men far away + Will but your heart's distress prolong. + + Things grow the best when to themselves + Left, and to nature's vigor rare. + How young and tender is the child, + With his twin tufts of falling hair! + But when you him ere long behold, + That child shall cap of manhood wear! + + + +~The Prince of Loo~ + + A grand man is the prince of Loo, + With person large and high. + Lofty his front and suited to + The fine glance of his eye! + Swift are his feet. In archery + What man with him can vie? + With all these goodly qualities, + We see him and we sigh! + + Renowned through all the land is he, + The nephew of our lord. + With clear and lovely eyes, his grace + May not be told by word. + All day at target practice, + He'll never miss the bird. + Such is the prince of Loo, and yet + With grief for him we're stirred! + + All grace and beauty he displays, + High forehead and eyes bright. + And dancing choice! His arrows all + The target hit aright. + Straight through they go, and every one + Lights on the self-same spot. + Rebellion he could well withstand, + And yet we mourn his lot! + + + +BOOK IX + + + +THE ODES OF WEI + + + +~On the Misgovernment of the State~ + + A fruit, small as the garden peach, + May still be used for food. + A State, though poor as ours, might thrive, + If but its rule were good. + Our rule is bad, our State is sad, + With mournful heart I grieve. + All can from instrument and voice + My mood of mind perceive. + Who know me not, with scornful thought, + Deem me a scholar proud. + "Those men are right," they fiercely say, + "What mean your words so loud?" + Deep in my heart my sorrows lie, + And none the cause may know. + How should they know who never try + To learn whence comes our woe? + + The garden jujube, although small, + May still be used for food. + A State, though poor as ours, might thrive, + If but its rule were good. + Our rule is bad, our State is sad, + With mournful heart I grieve. + Methinks I'll wander through the land, + My misery to relieve. + Who know me not, with scornful thought, + Deem that wild views I hold. + "Those men are right," they fiercely say, + "What mean your words so bold?" + + Deep in my heart my sorrows lie, + And none the cause may know. + How can they know, who never try + To learn whence comes our woe? + + + +~The Mean Husband~ + + Thin cloth of dolichos supplies the shoes, + In which some have to brave the frost and cold. + A bride, when poor, her tender hands must use, + Her dress to make, and the sharp needle hold. + This man is wealthy, yet he makes his bride + Collars and waistbands for his robes provide. + + Conscious of wealth, he moves with easy mien; + Politely on the left he takes his place; + The ivory pin is at his girdle seen:-- + His dress and gait show gentlemanly grace. + Why do we brand him in our satire here? + 'Tis this---his niggard soul provokes the sneer. + + + +~A Young Soldier on Service~ + + To the top of that tree-clad hill I go, + And towards my father I gaze, + Till with my mind's eye his form I espy, + And my mind's ear hears how he says:-- + "Alas for my son on service abroad! + He rests not from morning till eve. + May he careful be and come back to me! + While he is away, how I grieve!" + + To the top of that barren hill I climb, + And towards my mother I gaze, + Till with my mind's eye her form I espy, + And my mind's ear hears how she says:-- + "Alas for my child on service abroad! + He never in sleep shuts an eye. + May he careful be, and come back to me! + In the wild may his body not lie!" + + Up the lofty ridge I, toiling, ascend, + And towards my brother I gaze, + Till with my mind's eye his form I espy, + And my mind's ear hears how he says:-- + "Alas! my young brother, serving abroad, + All day with his comrades must roam. + May he careful be, and come back to me, + And die not away from his home." + + + +BOOK X + + + +THE ODES OF TANG + + + +~The King Goes to War~ + + The wild geese fly the bushy oaks around, + With clamor loud. _Suh-suh_ their wings resound, + As for their feet poor resting-place is found. + The King's affairs admit of no delay. + Our millet still unsown, we haste away. + No food is left our parents to supply; + When we are gone, on whom can they rely? + O azure Heaven, that shinest there afar, + When shall our homes receive us from the war? + + The wild geese on the bushy jujube-trees + Attempt to settle and are ill at ease;-- + _Suh-suh_ their wings go flapping in the breeze. + The King's affairs admit of no delay; + Our millet still unsown, we haste away. + How shall our parents their requirements get? + How in our absence shall their wants be met? + O azure Heaven, that shinest there afar, + When shall our homes receive us from the war? + + The bushy mulberry-trees the geese in rows + Seek eager and to rest around them close-- + With rustling loud, as disappointment grows. + The King's affairs admit of no delay; + To plant our rice and maize we cannot stay. + How shall our parents find their wonted food? + When we are gone, who will to them be good? + O azure Heaven, that shinest there afar, + When shall our homes receive us from the war? + + + +~Lament of a Bereaved Person~ + + + A russet pear-tree rises all alone, + But rich the growth of leaves upon it shown! + I walk alone, without one brother left, + And thus of natural aid am I bereft. + Plenty of people there are all around, + But none like my own father's sons are found. + Ye travellers, who forever hurry by, + Why on me turn the unsympathizing eye? + No brother lives with whom my cause to plead;-- + Why not perform for me the helping deed? + + A russet pear-tree rises all alone, + But rich with verdant foliage o'ergrown. + I walk alone, without one brother's care, + To whom I might, amid my straits repair. + Plenty of people there are all around, + But none like those of my own name are found. + Ye travellers, who forever hurry by, + Why on me turn the unsympathizing eye? + No brother lives with whom my cause to plead;-- + Why not perform for me the helping deed? + + + +~The Drawbacks of Poverty~ + + On the left of the way, a russet pear-tree + Stands there all alone--a fit image of me. + There is that princely man! O that he would come, + And in my poor dwelling with me be at home! + In the core of my heart do I love him, but say, + Whence shall I procure him the wants of the day? + + At the bend in the way a russet pear-tree + Stands there all alone--a fit image of me. + There is that princely man! O that he would come, + And rambling with me be himself here at home! + In the core of my heart I love him, but say, + Whence shall I procure him the wants of the day? + + + +~A Wife Mourns for Her Husband~ + + The dolichos grows and covers the thorn, + O'er the waste is the dragon-plant creeping. + The man of my heart is away and I mourn-- + What home have I, lonely and weeping? + + Covering the jujubes the dolichos grows, + The graves many dragon-plants cover; + But where is the man on whose breast I'd repose? + No home have I, having no lover! + + Fair to see was the pillow of horn, + And fair the bed-chamber's adorning; + But the man of my heart is not here, and I mourn + All alone, and wait for the morning. + + While the long days of summer pass over my head, + And long winter nights leave their traces, + I'm alone! Till a hundred of years shall have fled, + And then I shall meet his embraces. + + Through the long winter nights I am burdened with fears, + Through the long summer days I am lonely; + But when time shall have counted its hundreds of years + I then shall be his--and his only! + + + +BOOK XI + + + +THE ODES OF TS'IN + + + +~Celebrating the Opulence of the Lords of Ts'in~ + + Our ruler to the hunt proceeds; + And black as iron are his steeds + That heed the charioteer's command, + Who holds the six reins in his hand. + His favorites follow to the chase, + Rejoicing in his special grace. + + The season's males, alarmed, arise-- + The season's males, of wondrous size. + Driven by the beaters, forth they spring, + Soon caught within the hunters' ring. + "Drive on their left," the ruler cries; + And to its mark his arrow flies. + + The hunting done, northward he goes; + And in the park the driver shows + The horses' points, and his own skill + That rules and guides them at his will. + Light cars whose teams small bells display, + The long-and short-mouthed dogs convey. + + +~A Complaint~ + + He lodged us in a spacious house, + And plenteous was our fare. + But now at every frugal meal + There's not a scrap to spare. + Alas! alas that this good man + Could not go on as he began! + + + ~A Wife's Grief Because of Her Husband's Absence~ + + The falcon swiftly seeks the north, + And forest gloom that sent it forth. + Since I no more my husband see, + My heart from grief is never free. + O how is it, I long to know, + That he, my lord, forgets me so? + + Bushy oaks on the mountain grow, + And six elms where the ground is low. + But I, my husband seen no more, + My sad and joyless fate deplore. + O how is it, I long to know, + That he, my lord, forgets me so? + + The hills the bushy wild plums show, + And pear-trees grace the ground below. + But, with my husband from me gone, + As drunk with grief, I dwell alone. + O how is it, I long to know, + That he, my lord, forgets me so? + + +~Lament for Three Brothers~ + + + They flit about, the yellow birds, + And rest upon the jujubes find. + Who buried were in duke Muh's grave, + Alive to awful death consigned? + + 'Mong brothers three, who met that fate, + 'Twas sad the first, Yen-seih to see. + He stood alone; a hundred men + Could show no other such as he. + When to the yawning grave he came, + Terror unnerved and shook his frame. + + Why thus destroy our noblest men, + To thee we cry, O azure Heaven! + To save Yen-seih from death, we would + A hundred lives have freely given. + + They flit about, the yellow birds, + And on the mulberry-trees rest find. + Who buried were in duke Muh's grave, + Alive to awful death consigned? + + 'Mong brothers three, who met that fate, + 'Twas sad the next, Chung-hang to see. + When on him pressed a hundred men, + A match for all of them was he. + When to the yawning grave he came, + Terror unnerved and shook his frame. + + Why thus destroy our noblest men, + To thee we cry, O azure Heaven! + To save Chung-hang from death, we would + A hundred lives have freely given. + + They flit about, the yellow birds, + And rest upon the thorn-trees find. + Who buried were in duke Muh's grave, + Alive to awful death consigned? + + 'Mong brothers three, who met that fate, + 'Twas sad the third, K'een-foo, to see. + A hundred men in desperate fight + Successfully withstand could he. + When to the yawning grave he came, + Terror unnerved and shook his frame. + + Why thus destroy our noblest men, + To thee we cry, O azure Heaven! + To save K'een-foo from death, we would + A hundred lives have freely given. + + +[NOTE.--The incident related in this poem occurred in the year B.C. 620, +when the duke of Muh died after playing an important part in the affairs +of Northwest China. Muh required the three officers here celebrated, to +be buried with him, and according to the "Historical Records" this +barbarous practice began with duke Ching, Muh's predecessor. In all, 170 +individuals were buried with Muh. The death of the last distinguished +man of the Ts'in dynasty, the Emperor I, was subsequently celebrated by +the entombment with him of all the inmates of his harem.] + + + +~In Praise of a Ruler of Ts'in~ + + What trees grow on the Chung-nan hill? + The white fir and the plum. + In fur of fox, 'neath 'broidered robe, + Thither our prince is come. + His face glows with vermilion hue. + O may he prove a ruler true! + + What find we on the Chung-nan hill? + Deep nook and open glade. + Our prince shows there the double _Ke_ + On lower robe displayed. + His pendant holds each tinkling gem, + Long life be his, and deathless fame! + + + +~The Generous Nephew~ + + I escorted my uncle to Tsin, + Till the Wei we crossed on the way. + Then I gave as I left + For his carriage a gift + Four steeds, and each steed was a bay. + + I escorted my uncle to Tsin, + And I thought of him much in my heart. + Pendent stones, and with them + Of fine jasper a gem, + I gave, and then saw him depart. + + + +BOOK XII + + + +THE ODES OF CH'IN + + + +~The Contentment of a Poor Recluse~ + +My only door some pieces of crossed wood, + Within it I can rest enjoy. +I drink the water wimpling from the spring; + Nor hunger can my peace destroy. + +Purged from ambition's aims I say, "For fish. + We need not bream caught in the Ho; +Nor, to possess the sweets of love, require + To Ts'e, to find a Keang, to go. + +"The man contented with his lot, a meal + Of fish without Ho carp can make; +Nor needs, to rest in his domestic joy, + A Tsze of Sung as wife to take." + + + +~The Disappointed Lover~ + +Where grow the willows near the eastern gate, + And 'neath their leafy shade we could recline, +She said at evening she would me await, + And brightly now I see the day-star shine! + +Here where the willows near the eastern gate + Grow, and their dense leaves make a shady gloom, +She said at evening she would me await. + See now the morning star the sky illume! + + + +~A Love-Song~ + +The moon comes forth, bright in the sky; +A lovelier sight to draw my eye + Is she, that lady fair. +She round my heart has fixed love's chain, +But all my longings are in vain. + 'Tis hard the grief to bear. + +The moon comes forth, a splendid sight; +More winning far that lady bright, + Object of my desire! +Deep-seated is my anxious grief; +In vain I seek to find relief; + While glows the secret fire. + +The rising moon shines mild and fair; +More bright is she, whose beauty rare + My heart with longing fills. +With eager wish I pine in vain; +O for relief from constant pain, + Which through my bosom thrills! + + + +~The Lament of a Lover~ + +There where its shores the marsh surround, +Rushes and lotus plants abound. +Their loveliness brings to my mind +The lovelier one that I would find. +In vain I try to ease the smart +Of wounded love that wrings my heart. +In waking thought and nightly dreams, +From every pore the water streams. + +All round the marsh's shores are seen +Valerian flowers and rushes green. +But lovelier is that Beauty rare, +Handsome and large, and tall and fair, +I wish and long to call her mine, +Doomed with the longing still to pine. +Nor day nor night e'er brings relief; +My inmost heart is full of grief. + +Around the marsh, in rich display, +Grow rush and lotus flowers, all gay. +But not with her do they compare, +So tall and large, majestic, fair. +Both day and night, I nothing speed; +Still clings to me the aching need. +On side, on back, on face, I lie, +But vain each change of posture. + + +THE ODES OF KWEI + + +~The Wish of an Unhappy Man~ + + Where the grounds are wet and low, + There the trees of goat-peach grow, + With their branches small and smooth, + Glossy in their tender youth. + Joy it were to me, O tree, + Consciousness to want like thee. + + Where the grounds are wet and low, + There the trees of goat-peach grow. + Soft and fragrant are their flowers, + Glossy from the vernal showers. + Joy it were to me, O tree, + Ties of home to want like thee. + + Where the grounds are wet and low, + There the trees of goat-peach grow, + What delicious fruits they bear, + Glossy, soft, of beauty rare! + Joy it were to me, O tree, + Household cares to want like thee. + + + +BOOK XIV + + + +THE ODES OF TS'AOU + +~Against Frivolous Pursuits~ + + Like splendid robes appear the wings + Of the ephemeral fly; + And such the pomp of those great men, + Which soon in death shall lie! + I grieve! Would they but come to me! + To teach them I should try. + + The wings of the ephemeral fly + Are robes of colors gay; + And such the glory of those men, + Soon crumbling to decay! + I grieve! Would they but rest with me, + They'd learn a better way! + + The ephemeral fly bursts from its hole, + With gauzy wings like snow; + So quick the rise, so quick the fall, + Of those great men we know! + I grieve! Would they but lodge with me, + Forth they would wiser go. + + +BOOK XV + + + +THE ODES OF PIN + + +~The Duke of Chow Tells of His Soldiers~ + + To the hills of the east we went, + And long had we there to remain. + When the word of recall was sent, + Thick and fast came the drizzling rain. + When told our return we should take, + Our hearts in the West were and sore; + But there did they clothes for us make:-- + They knew our hard service was o'er. + On the mulberry grounds in our sight + The large caterpillars were creeping; + Lonely and still we passed the night, + All under our carriages sleeping. + + To the hills of the East we went, + And long had we there to remain. + When the word of recall was sent, + Thick and fast came the drizzling rain. + The heavenly gourds rise to the eye, + With their fruit hanging under the eave. + In our chambers the sow-bug we spy; + Their webs on our doors spiders weave. + Our paddocks seem crowded with deer, + With the glow-worm's light all about. + Such thoughts, while they filled us with fear, + We tried, but in vain, to keep out. + + To the hills of the East we went, + And long had we there to remain. + When the word of recall was sent, + Thick and fast came the drizzling rain. + + On ant-hills screamed cranes with delight; + In their rooms were our wives sighing sore. + Our homes they had swept and made tight:-- + All at once we arrived at the door. + The bitter gourds hanging are seen, + From branches of chestnut-trees high. + Three years of toil away we had been, + Since such a sight greeted the eye. + + To the hills of the East we went, + And long had we there to remain. + When the word of recall was sent, + Thick and fast came the drizzling rain. + With its wings now here, and now there, + Is the oriole sporting in flight. + Those brides to their husbands repair, + Their steeds red and bay, flecked with white. + Each mother has fitted each sash; + Their equipments are full and complete; + But fresh unions, whatever their dash, + Can ne'er with reunions compete. + + + +~There is a Proper Way for Doing Everything~ + + In hewing an axe-shaft, how must you act? + Another axe take, or you'll never succeed. + In taking a wife, be sure 'tis a fact, + That with no go-between you never can speed. + + In hewing an axe-shaft, hewing a shaft, + For a copy you have the axe in your hand. + + In choosing a wife, you follow the craft, + And forthwith on the mats the feast-vessels stand. + + + +PART II.--MINOR ODES TO THE KINGDOM + + +BOOK I + + + +DECADE OF LUH MING + + +~A Festal Ode~ + + With sounds of happiness the deer + Browse on the celery of the meads. + A nobler feast is furnished here, + With guests renowned for noble deeds. + The lutes are struck; the organ blows, + Till all its tongues in movement heave. + Each basket loaded stands, and shows + The precious gifts the guests receive. + They love me and my mind will teach, + How duty's highest aim to reach. + + With sounds of happiness the deer + The southern-wood crop in the meads, + What noble guests surround me here, + Distinguished for their worthy deeds! + From them my people learn to fly + Whate'er is mean; to chiefs they give + A model and a pattern high;-- + They show the life they ought to live. + Then fill their cups with spirits rare, + Till each the banquet's joy shall share. + + With sounds of happiness the deer + The salsola crop in the fields. + What noble guests surround me here! + Each lute for them its music yields. + Sound, sound the lutes, or great or small. + The joy harmonious to prolong;-- + + And with my spirits rich crown all + The cups to cheer the festive throng. + Let each retire with gladdened heart, + In his own sphere to play his part. + + + +~A Festal Ode Complimenting an Officer~ + + On dashed my four steeds, without halt, without stay, + Though toilsome and winding from Chow was the way. + I wished to return--but the monarch's command + Forbade that his business be done with slack hand; + And my heart was with sadness oppressed. + + On dashed my four steeds; I ne'er slackened the reins. + They snorted and panted--all white, with black manes. + I wished to return, but our sovereign's command + Forbade that his business be done with slack hand;-- + And I dared not to pause or to rest. + + Unresting the Filial doves speed in their flight, + Ascending, then sweeping swift down from the height, + Now grouped on the oaks. The king's high command + Forbade that his business be done with slack hand;-- + And my father I left, sore distressed. + + Unresting the Filial doves speed in their flight, + Now fanning the air and anon they alight + On the medlars thick grouped. But our monarch's command + Forbade that his business be done with slack hand;-- + Of my mother I thought with sad breast. + + My four steeds I harnessed, all white and black-maned, + Which straight on their way, fleet and emulous strained. + I wished to return; and now venture in song + The wish to express, and announce how I long + For my mother my care to attest. + + +[NOTE.--Both Maou and Choo agree that this ode was composed in +honor of the officer who narrates the story in it, although they say it +was not written by the officer himself, but was put into his mouth, as +it were, to express the sympathy of his entertainer with him, and the +appreciation of his devotion to duty.] + + + +~The Value of Friendship~ + + The woodmen's blows responsive ring, + As on the trees they fall; + And when the birds their sweet notes sing, + They to each other call. + From the dark valley comes a bird, + And seeks the lofty tree. + _Ying_ goes its voice, and thus it cries, + "Companion, come to me." + The bird, although a creature small, + Upon its mate depends; + And shall we men, who rank o'er all, + Not seek to have our friends? + All spirits love the friendly man, + And hearken to his prayer. + What harmony and peace they can + Bestow, his lot shall share. + + _Hoo-hoo_ the woodmen all unite + To shout, as trees they fell. + They do their work with all their might;-- + What I have done I'll tell. + I've strained and made my spirits clear, + The fatted lambs I've killed. + With friends who my own surname bear, + My hall I've largely filled. + Some may be absent, casually, + And leave a broken line; + But better this than absence by + An oversight of mine. + My court I've sprinkled and swept clean, + Viands in order set. + Eight dishes loaded stand with grain; + There's store of fatted meat. + My mother's kith and kin I'm sure + I've widely called by name. + That some be hindered better is + Than ~I~ give cause for blame. + + On the hill-side the trees they fell, + All working with good-will + I labor too, with equal zeal. + And the host's part fulfil. + Spirits I've set in order meet, + The dishes stand in rows. + The guests are here; no vacant seat + A brother absent shows. + The loss of kindly feeling oft + From slightest things shall grow, + Where all the fare is dry and spare, + Resentments fierce may glow. + My store of spirits is well strained, + If short prove the supply, + My messengers I straightway send, + And what is needed buy. + I beat the drums, and in the dance + Lead joyously the train. + Oh! good it is, when falls the chance + The sparkling cup to drain. + + + +~The Response to a Festal Ode~ + + Heaven shields and sets thee fast. + It round thee fair has cast + Thy virtue pure. + Thus richest joy is thine;-- + Increase of corn and wine, + And every gift divine, + Abundant, sure. + + Heaven shields and sets thee fast. + From it thou goodness hast; + Right are thy ways. + Its choicest gifts 'twill pour, + That last for evermore, + Nor time exhaust the store + Through endless days. + + Heaven shields and sets thee fast, + Makes thine endeavor last + And prosper well. + Like hills and mountains high, + Whose masses touch the sky; + Like streams aye surging by; + Thine increase swell! + + With rite and auspice fair, + Thine offerings thou dost bear, + And son-like give, + The season's round from spring, + To olden duke and king, + Whose words to thee we bring:-- + "Forever live," + + The spirits of thy dead + Pour blessings on thy head, + Unnumbered sweet. + Thy subjects, simple, good, + Enjoy their drink and food. + Our tribes of every blood + Follow thy feet. + + Like moons that wax in light; + Or suns that scale the height; + Or ageless hill; + Nor change, nor autumn know; + As pine and cypress grow; + The sons that from thee flow + Be lasting still! + + + +~An Ode of Congratulation~ + + The russet pear-tree stands there all alone; + How bright the growth of fruit upon it shown! + The King's affairs no stinting hands require, + And days prolonged still mock our fond desire. + But time has brought the tenth month of the year; + My woman's heart is torn with wound severe. + Surely my warrior lord might now appear! + + The russet pear-tree stands there all alone; + How dense the leafy shade all o'er it thrown! + The King's affairs require no slackening hand, + And our sad hearts their feelings can't command. + The plants and trees in beauty shine; 'tis spring. + From off my heart its gloom I fain would fling. + This season well my warrior home may bring! + + I climbed that northern hill, and medlars sought; + The spring nigh o'er, to ripeness they were brought. + "The King's affairs cannot be slackly done";-- + 'Tis thus our parents mourn their absent son. + But now his sandal car must broken be; + I seem his powerful steeds worn out to see. + Relief has gone! He can't be far from me! + + Alas! they can't have marched; they don't arrive! + More hard it grows with my distress to strive. + The time is passed, and still he is not here! + My sorrows multiply; great is my fear. + But lo! by reeds and shell I have divined, + That he is near, they both assure my mind;-- + Soon at my side my warrior I shall find! + + + +~An Ode on the Return of the Troops~ + + Forth from the city in our cars we drove, + Until we halted at the pasture ground. + The general came, and there with ardor strove + A note of zeal throughout the host to sound. + "Direct from court I come, by orders bound + The march to hasten";--it was thus he spake. + Then with the carriage-officers around, + He strictly charged them quick despatch to make:-- + "Urgent the King's affairs, forthwith the field we take." + + While there we stopped, the second corps appeared, + And 'twixt Us and the city took its place. + The guiding standard was on high upreared, + Where twining snakes the tortoises embrace, + While oxtails, crest-like, did the staff's top grace. + We watched the sheet unfolding grandly wave; + Each flag around showed falcons on its face. + + With anxious care looked on our leader brave; + Watchful the carriage-officers appeared and grave. + + Nan Chung, our chief, had heard the royal call + To go where inroad by Heen-yuns was made, + And 'cross the frontier build a barrier wall. + Numerous his chariots, splendidly arrayed! + The standards--this where dragons were displayed, + And that where snakes round tortoises were coiled-- + Terrific flew. "Northward our host," he said, + "Heaven's son sends forth to tame the Heen-yun wild." + Soon by this awful chief would all their tribes be foiled. + + When first we took the field, and northward went, + The millet was in flower;--a prospect sweet. + Now when our weary steps are homeward bent, + The snow falls fast, the mire impedes our feet. + Many the hardships we were called to meet, + Ere the King's orders we had all fulfilled. + No rest we had; often our friends to greet + The longing came; but vain regrets we stilled; + By tablets stern our hearts with fresh resolve were thrilled. + + "Incessant chirp the insects in the grass; + All round about the nimble hoppers spring. + From them our thoughts quick to our husbands pass? + Although those thoughts our hearts with anguish wring. + Oh! could we see them, what relief 'twould bring! + Our hearts, rejoiced, at once would feel at rest." + Thus did our wives, their case deploring, sing; + The while our leader farther on had pressed, + And smitten with his power the wild Jung of the west. + + The spring days now are lengthening out their light; + The plants and trees are dressed in living green; + The orioles resting sing, or wing their flight; + Our wives amid the southern-wood are seen, + Which white they bring, to feed their silkworms keen. + Our host, returned, sweeps onwards to the hall, + Where chiefs are questioned, shown the captives mean + Nan Chung, majestic, draws the gaze of all, + Proud o'er the barbarous foe his victories to recall. + + + +BOOK II + + + +THE DECADE OF PIH H'WA + + + +~An Ode Appropriate to a Festivity~ + + The dew lies heavy all around, + Nor, till the sun shines, leaves the ground. + Far into night we feasting sit; + We drink, and none his place may quit. + + The dew lies heavy, and its gems + Stud the luxuriant, grassy stems. + The happy night with wassail rings; + So feasted here the former kings. + + The jujube and the willow-tree + All fretted with the dew we see. + Each guest's a prince of noble line, + In whom the virtues all combine. + + The _t'ung_ and _e_ their fruits display, + Pendant from every graceful spray. + My guests are joyous and serene, + No haggard eye, no ruffled mien. + + + +BOOK III + + + +THE DECADE OF TUNG RUNG + + + +~Celebrating a Hunting Expedition~ + + Our chariots were well-built and firm, + Well-matched our steeds, and fleet and strong. + Four, sleek and large, each chariot drew, + And eastward thus we drove along. + + Our hunting cars were light and good, + Each with its team of noble steeds. + Still further east we took the way + To Foo-mere's grassy plains that leads. + + Loud-voiced, the masters of the chase + Arranged the huntsmen, high and low. + While banners streamed, and ox-tails flew, + We sought the prey on distant Gaou. + + Each with full team, the princes came, + A lengthened train in bright array. + In gold-wrought slippers, knee-caps red, + They looked as on an audience day. + + Each right thumb wore the metal guard; + On the left arm its shield was bound. + In unison the arrows flew; + The game lay piled upon the ground. + + The leaders of the tawny teams + Sped on their course, direct and true. + The drivers perfect skill displayed; + Like blow well aimed each arrow flew. + + Neighing and pleased, the steeds returned; + The bannered lines back slowly came. + No jostling rude disgraced the crowd; + The king declined large share of game. + + So did this famous hunt proceed! + So free it was from clamorous sound! + Well does our King become his place, +And high the deeds his reign have crowned! + + + +~The King's Anxiety for His Morning Levee~ + + How goes the night? For heavy morning sleep + Ill suits the king who men would loyal keep. + The courtyard, ruddy with the torch's light, + Proclaims unspent the deepest hour of night. + Already near the gate my lords appear; + Their tinkling bells salute my wakeful ear. + + How goes the night? I may not slumber on. + Although not yet the night is wholly gone, + The paling torch-light in the court below + Gives token that the hours swift-footed go. + Already at the gate my lords appear; + Their tinkling bells with measured sound draw near. + + How goes the night? I may not slumber now. + The darkness smiles with morning on its brow. + The courtyard torch no more gives forth its ray, + But heralds with its smoke the coming day. + My princes pass the gate, and gather there; + I see their banners floating in the air. + + + +~Moral Lessons from Natural Facts~ + + All true words fly, as from yon reedy marsh + The crane rings o'er the wild its screaming harsh. + Vainly you try reason in chains to keep;-- + Freely it moves as fish sweeps through the deep. + + Hate follows love, as 'neath those sandal-trees + The withered leaves the eager searcher sees. + The hurtful ne'er without some good was born;-- + The stones that mar the hill will grind the corn. + + All true words spread, as from the marsh's eye + The crane's sonorous note ascends the sky. + Goodness throughout the widest sphere abides, + As fish round isle and through the ocean glides. + And lesser good near greater you shall see, + As grows the paper shrub 'neath sandal-tree. + And good emerges from what man condemns;-- + Those stones that mar the hill will polish gems. + + + +BOOK IV + + + +THE DECADE OF K'E-FOO + + + +~On the Completion of a Royal Palace~ + + On yonder banks a palace, lo! upshoots, + The tender blue of southern hill behind; + Firm-founded, like the bamboo's clamping roots; + Its roof made pine-like, to a point defined. + Fraternal love here bears its precious fruits, + And unfraternal schemes be ne'er designed! + + Ancestral sway is his. The walls they rear, + Five thousand cubits long; and south and west + The doors are placed. Here will the king appear, + Here laugh, here talk, here sit him down and rest. + + To mould the walls, the frames they firmly tie; + The toiling builders beat the earth and lime. + The walls shall vermin, storm, and bird defy;-- + Fit dwelling is it for his lordly prime. + + Grand is the hall the noble lord ascends;-- + In height, like human form most reverent, grand; + And straight, as flies the shaft when bow unbends; + Its tints, like hues when pheasant's wings expand. + + High pillars rise the level court around; + The pleasant light the open chamber steeps; + And deep recesses, wide alcoves, are found, + Where our good king in perfect quiet sleeps. + + Laid is the bamboo mat on rush mat square;-- + Here shall he sleep, and, waking, say, "Divine + What dreams are good? For bear and grizzly bear, + And snakes and cobras, haunt this couch of mine." + + Then shall the chief diviner glad reply, + "The bears foreshow that Heaven will send you sons. + The snakes and cobras daughters prophesy. + These auguries are all auspicious ones. + + "Sons shall be his--on couches lulled to rest. + The little ones, enrobed, with sceptres play; + Their infant cries are loud as stern behest; + Their knees the vermeil covers shall display. + As king hereafter one shall be addressed; + The rest, our princes, all the States shall sway. + + "And daughters also to him shall be born. + They shall be placed upon the ground to sleep; + Their playthings tiles, their dress the simplest worn; + Their part alike from good and ill to keep, + And ne'er their parents' hearts to cause to mourn; + To cook the food, and spirit-malt to steep." + + + +~The Condition of King Seuen's Flocks~ + + Who dares to say your sheep are few? + The flocks are all three hundred strong. + Who dares despise your cattle too? + There ninety, black-lipped, press along. + Though horned the sheep, yet peaceful each appears; + The cattle come with moist and flapping ears. + + These climb the heights, those drink the pool; + Some lie at rest, while others roam. + With rain-coats, and thin splint hats cool, + And bearing food, your herdsmen come. + In thirties, ranged by hues, the creatures stand; + Fit victims they will yield at your command. + + Your herdsmen twigs and fagots bring, + With prey of birds and beasts for food. + Your sheep, untouched by evil thing, + Approach, their health and vigor good. + The herdsman's waving hand they all behold, + And docile come, and pass into the fold. + + Your herdsmen dream;--fish take the place + Of men; on banners falcons fly, + Displacing snakes and tortoises. + The augur tells his prophecy:-- + "The first betoken plenteous years; the change + Of banners shows of homes a widening range." + + +BOOK V + + + +THE DECADE OF SEAOU MIN + + + +~A Eunuch Complains of His Fate~ + + + A few fine lines, at random drawn, + Like the shell-pattern wrought in lawn + To hasty glance will seem. + My trivial faults base slander's slime + Distorted into foulest crime, + And men me worthless deem. + + A few small points, pricked down on wood, + May be made out a picture good + Of the bright Southern Sieve. + Who planned, and helped those slanderers vile, + My name with base lies to defile? + Unpitied, here I grieve. + + With babbling tongues you go about, + And only scheme how to make out + The lies you scatter round. + Hear me--Be careful what you say; + People ere long your words will weigh, + And liars you'll be found. + + Clever you are with changeful schemes! + How else could all your evil dreams + And slanders work their way? + Men now believe you; by and by, + The truth found out, each vicious lie + Will ill for ill repay. + + The proud rejoice; the sufferer weeps. + O azure Heaven, from out thy deeps + Why look in silence down? + Behold those proud men and rebuke; + With pity on the sufferers look, + And on the evil frown. + + Those slanderers I would gladly take, + With all who help their schemes to make, + And to the tigers throw. + If wolves and tigers such should spare, + Td hurl them 'midst the freezing air, + Where the keen north winds blow. + And should the North compassion feel + I'd fling them to great Heaven, to deal + On them its direst woe. + + As on the sacred heights you dwell, + My place is in the willow dell, + One is the other near. + Before you, officers, I spread + These lines by me, poor eunuch, made. + Think not Mang-tsze severe. + + + +~An Officer Deplores the Misery of the Time~ + + In the fourth month summer shines; + In the sixth the heat declines. + Nature thus grants men relief; + Tyranny gives only grief. + Were not my forefathers men? + Can my suffering 'scape their ken? + + In the cold of autumn days + Each plant shrivels and decays. + Nature then is hard and stern; + Living things sad lessons learn. + Friends dispersed, all order gone, + Place of refuge have I none. + + Winter days are wild and fierce; + Rapid gusts each crevice pierce. + Such is my unhappy lot, + Unbefriended and forgot! + Others all can happy be; + I from misery ne'er am free. + + On the mountains are fine trees; + Chestnuts, plum-trees, there one sees. + All the year their forms they show; + Stately more and more they grow. + Noble turned to ravening thief! + What the cause? This stirs my grief. + + Waters from that spring appear + Sometimes foul, and sometimes clear, + Changing oft as falls the rain, + Or the sky grows bright again. + New misfortunes every day + Still befall me, misery's prey. + + Aid from mighty streams obtained, + Southern States are shaped and drained. + Thus the Keang and Han are thanked, + And as benefactors ranked. + Weary toil my vigor drains; + All unnoticed it remains! + + Hawks and eagles mount the sky; + Sturgeons in deep waters lie. + Out of reach, they safely get, + Arrow fear not, nor the net. + Hiding-place for me there's none; + Here I stay, and make my moan. + + Ferns upon the hills abound; + _Ke_ and _e_ in marshy ground. + Each can boast its proper place, + Where it grows for use or grace. + I can only sing the woe, + Which, ill-starred, I undergo. + + + +~On the Alienation of a Friend~ + + + Gently and soft the east wind blows, + And then there falls the pelting rain. + When anxious fears pressed round you close, + Then linked together were we twain. + Now happy, and your mind at rest, + You turn and cast me from your breast. + + Gently and soft the east wind blows, + And then there comes the whirlwind wild. + When anxious fears pressed round you close, + Your bosom held me as a child. + Now happy, and in peaceful state, + You throw me off and quite forget. + + Gently and soft the east wind blows, + Then round the rocky height it storms. + Each plant its leaves all dying shows; + The trees display their withered forms. + My virtues great forgotten all, + You keep in mind my faults, though small. + + +BOOK VI + + +THE DECADE OF PIH SHAN + + + +~A Picture of Husbandry~ + + Various the toils which fields so large demand! + We choose the seed; we take our tools in hand. + In winter for our work we thus prepare; + Then in the spring, bearing the sharpened 'share, + We to the acres go that south incline, + And to the earth the different seeds consign. + Soon, straight and large, upward each plant aspires;-- + All happens as our noble lord desires. + + The plants will ear; within their sheath confined, + The grains will harden, and be good in kind. + Nor darnel these, nor wolf's-tail grass infests; + From core and leaf we pick the insect pests, + And pick we those that eat the joints and roots:-- + So do we guard from harm the growing fruits. + May the great Spirit, whom each farmer names, + Those insects take, and cast them to the flames! + + The clouds o'erspread the sky in masses dense, + And gentle rain down to the earth dispense. + First may the public fields the blessing get, + And then with it our private fields we wet! + Patches of unripe grain the reaper leaves; + And here and there ungathered are the sheaves. + Handfuls besides we drop upon the ground, + And ears untouched in numbers lie around;-- + + These by the poor and widows shall be found. + When wives and children to the toilers come, + Bringing provisions from each separate home, + Our lord of long descent shall oft appear; + The Inspector also, glad the men to cheer. + They too shall thank the Spirits of the air, + With sacrifices pure for all their care; + Now red, now black, the victims that they slay, + As North or South the sacrifice they pay; + While millet bright the altars always show;-- + And we shall thus still greater blessings know. + + + +~The Complaint of an Officer~ + + O Heaven above, before whose light + Revealed is every deed and thought, + To thee I cry. + Hither on toilsome service brought, + In this wild K'ew I watch time's flight, + And sadly sigh. + The second month had just begun, + When from the east we took our way. + Through summer hot + We passed, and many a wintry day. + Summer again its course has run. + O bitter lot! + There are my compeers, gay at court, + While here the tears my face begrime. + I'd fain return-- + But there is that dread net for crime! + The fear of it the wish cuts short. + In vain I burn! + + Ere we the royal city left, + The sun and moon renewed the year. + We marched in hope. + Now to its close this year is near. + Return deferred, of hope bereft, + All mourn and mope. + My lonesome state haunts aye my breast, + While duties grow, and cares increase, + Too hard to bear. + + Toils that oppress me never cease; + Not for a moment dare I rest, + Nigh to despair. + I think with fond regard of those, + Who in their posts at court remain, + My friends of old. + Fain would I be with them again, + But fierce reproof return would cause. + This post I hold. + + When for the West I left my home, + The sun and moon both mildly shone, + Our hearts to cheer. + We'd soon be back, our service done! + Alas! affairs more urgent come, + And fix us here. + The year is hastening to expire. + We gather now the southern-wood, + The beans we reap;-- + That for its fragrance, these for food. + Such things that constant care require + Me anxious keep. + Thinking of friends still at their posts, + I rise and pass the night outside, + So vexed my mind. + But soon what changes may betide? + I here will stay, whate'er it costs, + And be resigned. + + My honored friends, O do not deem + Your rest which seems secure from ill + Will ever last! + Your duties quietly fulfil, + And hold the upright in esteem, + With friendship fast. + So shall the Spirits hear your cry, + You virtuous make, and good supply, + In measure vast. + + My honored friends, O do not deem + Repose that seems secure from ill + Will lasting prove. + Your duties quietly fulfil, + And hold the upright in esteem, + With earnest love. + So shall the Spirits hear your prayer, + And on you happiness confer, + Your hopes above. + + +BOOK VII + + + +DECADE OF SANG HOO + + + +~The Rejoicings of a Bridegroom~ + + With axle creaking, all on fire I went, + To fetch my young and lovely bride. + No thirst or hunger pangs my bosom rent-- + I only longed to have her by my side. + I feast with her, whose virtue fame had told, + Nor need we friends our rapture to behold. + + The long-tailed pheasants surest covert find, + Amid the forest on the plain. + Here from my virtuous bride, of noble mind, + And person tall, I wisdom gain. + I praise her while we feast, and to her say, + "The love I bear you ne'er will know decay. + + "Poor we may be; spirits and viands fine + My humble means will not afford. + But what we have, we'll taste and not repine; + From us will come no grumbling word. + And though to you no virtue I can add, + Yet we will sing and dance, in spirit glad. + + "I oft ascend that lofty ridge with toil, + And hew large branches from the oaks; + Then of their leafy glory them I spoil, + And fagots form with vigorous strokes. + Returning tired, your matchless grace I see, + And my whole soul dissolves in ecstasy. + + "To the high hills I looked, and urged each steed; + The great road next was smooth and plain. + + Up hill, o'er dale, I never slackened speed; + Like lute-string sounded every rein. + I knew, my journey ended, I should come + To you, sweet bride, the comfort of my home." + + + +~Against Listening to Slanderers~ + + Like the blueflies buzzing round, + And on the fences lighting, + Are the sons of slander found, + Who never cease their biting. + O thou happy, courteous king, + To the winds their slanders fling. + + Buzzing round the blueflies hear, + About the jujubes flocking! + So the slanderers appear, + Whose calumnies are shocking. + By no law or order bound, + All the kingdom they confound. + + How they buzz, those odious flies, + Upon the hazels clust'ring! + And as odious are the lies + Of those slanderers blust'ring. + Hatred stirred between us two + Shows the evil they can do. + + + +BOOK VIII + + + +THE DECADE OF TOO JIN SZE + + + +~In Praise of By-gone Simplicity~ + + + In the old capital they stood, + With yellow fox-furs plain, + Their manners all correct and good, + Speech free from vulgar stain. + Could we go back to Chow's old days, + All would look up to them with praise. + + In the old capital they wore + _T'ae_ hats and black caps small; + And ladies, who famed surnames bore, + Their own thick hair let fall. + Such simple ways are seen no more, + And the changed manners I deplore. + + Ear-rings, made of plainest gold, + In the old days were worn. + Each lady of a noble line + A Yin or Keih seemed born. + Such officers and ladies now + I see not and my sorrows grow. + + With graceful sweep their girdles fell, + Then in the days of old. + The ladies' side-hair, with a swell, + Like scorpion's tail, rose bold. + Such, if I saw them in these days, + I'd follow with admiring gaze. + + So hung their girdles, not for show;-- + To their own length 'twas due. + 'Twas not by art their hair curled so;-- + By nature so it grew. + I seek such manners now in vain, + And pine for them with longing pain. + +[NOTE.--Yin and Keih were clan names of great families, the ladies +of which would be leaders of fashion in the capital.] + + + +~A Wife Bemoans Her Husband's Absence~ + + So full am I of anxious thought, + Though all the morn king-grass I've sought, + To fill my arms I fail. + Like wisp all-tangled is my hair! + To wash it let me home repair. + My lord soon may I hail! + + Though 'mong the indigo I've wrought + The morning long; through anxious thought + My skirt's filled but in part. + Within five days he was to appear; + The sixth has come and he's not here. + Oh! how this racks my heart! + + When here we dwelt in union sweet, + If the hunt called his eager feet, + His bow I cased for him. + Or if to fish he went away, + And would be absent all the day, + His line I put in trim. + + What in his angling did he catch? + Well worth the time it was to watch + How bream and tench he took. + Men thronged upon the banks and gazed; + At bream and tench they looked amazed, + The triumphs of his hook. + + + +~The Earl of Shaou's Work~ + + As the young millet, by the genial rain + Enriched, shoots up luxuriant and tall, + So, when we southward marched with toil and pain, + The Earl of Shaou cheered and inspired us all. + + We pushed our barrows, and our burdens bore; + We drove our wagons, and our oxen led. + "The work once done, our labor there is o'er, + And home we travel," to ourselves we said. + + Close kept our footmen round the chariot track; + Our eager host in close battalions sped. + "When once our work is done, then we go back, + Our labor over," to themselves they said. + + Hard was the work we had at Seay to do, + But Shaou's great earl the city soon upreared. + The host its service gave with ardor true;-- + Such power in all the earl's commands appeared! + + We did on plains and low lands what was meet; + We cleared the springs and streams, the land to drain. + The Earl of Shaou announced his work complete, + And the King's heart reposed, at rest again. + + + +~The Plaint of King Yew's Forsaken Wife~ + + The fibres of the white-flowered rush + Are with the white grass bound. + So do the two together go, + In closest union found. + And thus should man and wife abide, + The twain combined in one; + But this bad man sends me away, + And bids me dwell alone. + + Both rush and grass from the bright clouds + The genial dew partake. + + Kind and impartial, nature's laws + No odious difference make. + But providence appears unkind; + Events are often hard. + This man, to principle untrue, + Denies me his regard. + + Northward the pools their waters send, + To flood each paddy field; + So get the fields the sap they need, + Their store of rice to yield. + But that great man no deed of grace + Deigns to bestow on me. + My songs are sighs. At thought of him + My heart aches wearily. + + The mulberry branches they collect, + And use their food to cook; + But I must use a furnace small, + That pot nor pan will brook. + So me that great man badly treats, + Nor uses as his wife, + Degrades me from my proper place, + And fills with grief my life. + + The bells and drums inside the court + Men stand without and hear; + So should the feelings in my breast, + To him distinct appear. + All-sorrowful, I think of him, + Longing to move his love; + But he vouchsafes no kind response; + His thoughts far from me rove. + + The marabow stands on the dam, + And to repletion feeds; + The crane deep in the forest cries, + Nor finds the food it needs. + So in my room the concubine + By the great man is placed; + While I with cruel banishment + Am cast out and disgraced. + + The yellow ducks sit on the dam, + With left wing gathered low; + So on each other do they lean, + And their attachment show. + And love should thus the man and wife + In closest concord bind; + But that man turns away from me, + And shows a fickle mind. + + When one stands on a slab of stone, + No higher than the ground, + Nothing is added to his height;-- + Low with the stone he's found. + So does the favorite's mean estate + Render that great man mean, + While I by him, to distance sent, + Am pierced with sorrow keen. + + + +~Hospitality~ + + A few gourd leaves that waved about + Cut down and boiled;--the feast how spare! + But the good host his spirits takes, + Pours out a cup, and proves them rare. + + A single rabbit on the mat, + Or baked, or roast:--how small the feast! + But the good host his spirits takes, + And fills the cup of every guest. + + A single rabbit on the mat, + Roasted or broiled:--how poor the meal! + But the guests from the spirit vase + Fill their host's cup, and drink his weal. + + A single rabbit on the mat, + Roasted or baked:--no feast we think! + But from the spirit vase they take, + Both host and guests, and joyous drink. + + + +~On the Misery of Soldiers~ + + Yellow now is all the grass; + All the days in marching pass. + On the move is every man; + Hard work, far and near, they plan. + + Black is every plant become; + Every man is torn from home. + Kept on foot, our state is sad;-- + As if we no feelings had! + + Not rhinoceroses we! + Tigers do we care to be? + Fields like these so desolate + Are to us a hateful fate. + + Long-tailed foxes pleased may hide + 'Mong the grass, where they abide. + We, in box carts slowly borne, + On the great roads plod and mourn. + + + +PART III.--GREATER ODES OF THE KINGDOM + + + +BOOK I + + + +DECADE OF KING WAN + + +~Celebrating King Wan~ + + The royal Wan now rests on high, + Enshrined in brightness of the sky. + Chow as a state had long been known, + And Heaven's decree at last was shown. + Its lords had borne a glorious name; + God kinged them when the season came. + King Wan ruled well when earth he trod; + Now moves his spirit near to God. + + A strong-willed, earnest king was Wan, + And still his fame rolls widening on. + The gifts that God bestowed on Chow + Belong to Wan's descendants now. + Heaven blesses still with gifts divine + The hundred scions of his line; + And all the officers of Chow + From age to age more lustrous grow. + + More lustrous still from age to age, + All reverent plans their zeal engage; + And brilliant statesmen owe their birth + To this much-favored spot of earth. + They spring like products of the land-- + The men by whom the realm doth stand. + Such aid their numerous bands supply, + That Wan rests tranquilly on high. + + Deep were Wan's thoughts, sustained his ways; + His reverence lit its trembling rays. + Resistless came great Heaven's decree; + The sons of Shang must bend the knee;-- + The sons of Shang, each one a king, + In numbers beyond numbering. + Yet as God spoke, so must it be:-- + The sons of Shang all bent the knee. + + Now each to Chow his homage pays-- + So dark and changing are Heaven's ways. + When we pour our libations here, + The officers of Shang appear, + Quick and alert to give their aid:-- + Such is the service by them paid, + While still they do not cast aside + The cap and broidered axe--their pride. + Ye servants of our line of kings, + Remember him from whom it springs. + + Remember him from whom it springs;-- + Let this give to your virtue wings. + Seek harmony with Heaven's great mind;-- + So shall you surest blessing find. + Ere Shang had lost the nation's heart, + Its monarchs all with God had part + In sacrifice. From them you see + 'Tis hard to keep high Heaven's decree. + + 'Tis hard to keep high Heaven's decree! + O sin not, or you cease to be. + To add true lustre to your name, + See Shang expire in Heaven's dread flame. + For Heaven's high dealings are profound, + And far transcend all sense and sound. + From Wan your pattern you must draw, + And all the States will own your law. + + +[Book II. is omitted] + + +BOOK III [*] + + + +DECADE OF TANG + + + +~King Seuen on the Occasion of a Great Drought~ + + Grand shone the Milky Way on high, + With brilliant span athwart the sky, + Nor promise gave of rain. + King Seuen long gazed; then from him broke, + In anguished tones the words he spoke. + Well might he thus complain! + "O Heaven, what crimes have we to own, + That death and ruin still come down? + Relentless famine fills our graves. + Pity the king who humbly craves! + Our miseries never cease. + To every Spirit I have vowed; + The choicest victim's blood has flowed. + As offerings I have freely paid + My store of gems and purest jade. + Hear me, and give release! + + "The drought consumes us. As on wing + Its fervors fly, and torment bring. + With purest mind and ceaseless care + My sacrifices I prepare. + At thine own border altars, Heaven, + And in my father's fane, I've given + What might relief have found. + What Powers above, below, have sway, + To all my precious gifts I pay, + Then bury in the ground. + Yes, every Spirit has received + Due honor, and, still unrelieved, + Our sufferings greater grow. + How-tseih can't give the needed aid, + And help from God is still delayed! + The country lies a ruined waste. + O would that I alone might taste + This bitter cup of woe! + + "The drought consumes us. Nor do I + To fix the blame on others try. + I quake with dread; the risk I feel, + As when I hear the thunders peal, + Or fear its sudden crash. + Our black-haired race, a remnant now, + Will every one be swept from Chow, + As by the lightning's flash. + Nor I myself will live alone. + God from his great and heavenly throne + Will not spare even me. + O friends and officers, come, blend + Your prayers with mine; come, lowly bend. + Chow's dynasty will pass away; + Its altars at no distant day + In ruins all shall be! + + "The drought consumes us. It keeps on + Its fatal course. All hope is gone. + The air more fierce and fiery glows. + Where can I fly? Where seek repose? + Death marks me for its prey. + Above, no saving hand! Around, + No hope, no comfort, can be found. + The dukes and ministers of old + Give us no help. Can ye withhold + Your sympathy, who lately reigned? + And parents, how are you restrained, + In this so dreadful day? + + "The drought consumes us. There on high + The hills are parched. The streams are dry. + Drought's demon stalks abroad in ire, + And scatters wide his flames and fire. + Alas, my woful heart! + The fires within its strength consume; + The heat without creates a gloom + That from it will not part. + The dukes and ministers by-gone + Respond not to my prayer and moan. + God in great Heaven, permission give + That I may in retirement live, + And try to heal my smart! + + "The drought consumes us. Still I strive, + And will not leave while I survive. + Duty to shun I fear. + Why upon me has come this drought? + Vainly I try to search it out, + Vainly, with quest severe. + For a good harvest soon I prayed, + Nor late the rites I duly paid, + To Spirits of the air and land. + There wanted nought they could demand, + Their favor to secure. + God in great heaven, be just, be kind! + Thou dost not bear me in Thy mind. + My cry, ye wisest Spirits, hear! + Ye whom I constantly revere, + Why do I this endure? + + "The drought consumes us. People fly, + And leave their homes. Each social tie + And bond of rule is snapt. + The Heads of Boards are all perplexed; + My premier's mind is sorely vexed; + In trouble all are wrapt. + The Masters of my Horse and Guards; + My cook, and men of different wards:-- + Not one has from the struggle shrunk. + Though feeling weak, they have not sunk, + But done their best to aid. + To the great sky I look with pain;-- + Why do these grievous sorrows rain + On my devoted head? + + "Yes, at the mighty sky I gaze, + And lo! the stars pursue their maze, + And sparkle clear and bright. + Ah! Heaven nor helps, nor seems to ken. + Great officers and noble men, + With all your powers ye well have striven, + And reverently have sought from Heaven + Its aid in our great fight. + My death is near; but oh! keep on, + And do as thus far you have done. + Regard you only me? + No, for yourselves and all your friends, + On whom for rule the land depends, + You seek security. + I turn my gaze to the great sky;-- + When shall this drought be done, and I + Quiet and restful be?" + + +[NOTE *: Selections from Book II. are omitted.--EDITOR.] + + + +PART IV.--ODES OF THE TEMPLE AND ALTAR + + + +BOOK I + + + +SACRIFICIAL ODES OF CHOW + + + +~Appropriate to a Sacrifice to King Wan~ + + My offerings here are given, + A ram, a bull. + Accept them, mighty Heaven, + All-bountiful. + + Thy statutes, O great king, + I keep, I love; + So on the realm to bring + Peace from above. + + From Wan comes blessing rich; + Now on the right + He owns those gifts to which + Him I invite. + + Do I not night and day, + Revere great Heaven, + That thus its favor may + To Chow be given? + + + +~On Sacrificing to the Kings Woo, Ching, and K'ang~ + + The arm of Woo was full of might; + None could his fire withstand; + And Ching and K'ang stood forth to sight, + As kinged by God's own hand. + + We err not when we call them sage. + How grandly they maintained + Their hold of all the heritage + That Wan and Woo had gained! + + As here we worship, they descend, + While bells and drums resound, + And stones and lutes their music blend. + With blessings we are crowned. + + The rites correctly we discharge; + The feast we freely share. + Those Sires Chow's glory will enlarge, + And ever for it care. + + + +THE TRAVELS OF FA-HIEN + + + +[Translation by James Legge] + + +TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTION + + +Nothing of great importance is known about Fa-hien in addition to what +may be gathered from his own record of his travels. I have read the +accounts of him in the "Memoirs of Eminent Monks," compiled in A.D. 519, +and a later work, the "Memoirs of Marvellous Monks," by the third +emperor of the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1403-1424), which, however, is nearly +all borrowed from the other; and all in them that has an appearance of +verisimilitude can be brought within brief compass. + +His surname, they tell us, was Kung, and he was a native of Wu-yang in +P'ing-yang, which is still the name of a large department in Shan-hsi. +He had three brothers older than himself; but when they all died before +shedding their first teeth, his father devoted him to the service of the +Buddhist society, and had him entered as a Sramanera, still keeping him +at home in the family. The little fellow fell dangerously ill, and the +father sent him to the monastery, where he soon got well and refused to +return to his parents. + +When he was ten years old, his father died; and an uncle, considering +the widowed solitariness and helplessness of the mother, urged him to +renounce the monastic life, and return to her, but the boy replied, "I +did not quit the family in compliance with my father's wishes, but +because I wished to be far from the dust and vulgar ways of life. This +is why I choose monkhood." The uncle approved of his words and gave over +urging him. When his mother also died, it appeared how great had been +the affection for her of his fine nature; but after her burial he +returned to the monastery. + +On one occasion he was cutting rice with a score or two of his +fellow-disciples, when some hungry thieves came upon them to take away +their grain by force. The other Sramaneras all fled, but our young hero +stood his ground, and said to the thieves, "If you must have the grain, +take what you please. But, sirs, it was your former neglect of charity +which brought you to your present state of destitution; and now, again, +you wish to rob others. I am afraid that in the coming ages you will +have still greater poverty and distress; I am sorry for you beforehand." +With these words he followed his companions to the monastery, while the +thieves left the grain and went away, all the monks, of whom there were +several hundred, doing homage to his conduct and courage. + +When he had finished his novitiate and taken on him the obligations of +the full Buddhist orders, his earnest courage, clear intelligence, and +strict regulation of his demeanor, were conspicuous; and soon after, he +undertook his journey to India in search of complete copies of the +Vinaya-pitaka. What follows this is merely an account of his travels in +India and return to China by sea, condensed from his own narrative, with +the addition of some marvellous incidents that happened to him, on his +visit to the Vulture Peak near Rajagriha. + +It is said in the end that after his return to China, he went to the +capital (evidently Nanking), and there, along with the Indian Sramana +Buddha-bhadra, executed translations of some of the works which he had +obtained in India; and that before he had done all that he wished to do +in this way, he removed to King-chow (in the present Hoo-pih), and died +in the monastery of Sin, at the age of eighty-eight, to the great sorrow +of all who knew him. It is added that there is another larger work +giving an account of his travels in various countries. + +Such is all the information given about our author, beyond what he has +himself told us. Fa-hien was his clerical name, and means "Illustrious +in the Law," or "Illustrious master of the Law." The Shih which often +precedes it is an abbreviation of the name of Buddha as Sakyamuni, "the +Sakya, mighty in Love, dwelling in Seclusion and Silence," and may be +taken as equivalent to Buddhist. He is sometimes said to have belonged +to "the eastern Tsin dynasty" (A.D. 317-419), and sometimes to "the +Sung," that is, the Sung dynasty of the House of Liu (A.D. 420-478). If +he became a full monk at the age of twenty, and went to India when he +was twenty-five, his long life may have been divided pretty equally +between the two dynasties. + +If there were ever another and larger account of Fa-hien's travels than +the narrative of which a translation is now given, it has long ceased to +be in existence. + +In the catalogue of the imperial library of the Suy dynasty (A.D. +589-618), the name Fa-hien occurs four times. Towards the end of the +last section of it, after a reference to his travels, his labors in +translation at Kin-ling (another name for Nanking), in conjunction with +Buddha-bhadra, are described. In the second section we find "A Record of +Buddhistic Kingdoms"--with a note, saying that it was the work of "the +Sramana, Fa-hien"; and again, we have "Narrative of Fa-hien in two +Books," and "Narrative of Fa-hien's Travels in one Book." But all these +three entries may possibly belong to different copies of the same work, +the first and the other two being in separate subdivisions of the +catalogue. + +In the two Chinese copies of the narrative in my possession the title is +"Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms." In the Japanese or Corean recension the +title is twofold; first, "Narrative of the Distinguished Monk, Fa-hien"; +and then, more at large, "Incidents of Travels in India, by the Sramana +of the Eastern Tsin, Fa-hien, recorded by himself." + +There is still earlier attestation of the existence of our little work +than the Suy catalogue. The "Catalogue Raisonne" of the imperial library +of the present dynasty mentions two quotations from it by Le Tao-yueen, a +geographical writer of the dynasty of the Northern Wei (A.D. 386-584), +one of them containing eighty-nine characters, and the other two hundred +and seventy-six; both of them given as from the "Narrative of Fa-hien." + +In all catalogues subsequent to that of Suy our work appears. The +evidence for its authenticity and genuineness is all that could be +required. It is clear to myself that the "Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms" +and the "Narrative of his Travels by Fa-hien" were designations of one +and the same work, and that it is doubtful whether any larger work on +the same subject was ever current. With regard to the text subjoined to +my translation, it was published in Japan in 1779. The editor had before +him four recensions of the narrative; those of the Sung and Ming +dynasties, with appendices on the names of certain characters in them; +that of Japan; and that of Corea. He wisely adopted the Corean text, +published in accordance with a royal rescript in 1726, so far as I can +make out; but the different readings of the other texts are all given in +top-notes, instead of foot-notes as with us, this being one of the +points in which customs in the East and West go by contraries. Very +occasionally, the editor indicates by a single character, equivalent to +"right" or "wrong," which reading in his opinion is to be preferred. + +The editors of the "Catalogue Raisonne" intimate their doubts of the +good taste and reliability of all Fa-hien's statements. It offends them +that he should call central India the "Middle Kingdom," and China, which +to them was the true and only Middle Kingdom, but "a Border-land"--it +offends them as the vaunting language of a Buddhist writer, whereas the +reader will see in the expressions only an instance of what Fa-hien +calls his "simple straightforwardness." + +As an instance of his unreliability they refer to his account of the +Buddhism of Khoten, whereas it is well-known, they say, that the +Khoteners from ancient times till now have been Mohammedans;--as if they +could have been so one hundred and seventy years before Mohammed was +born, and two hundred twenty-two years before the year of the Hegira! +And this is criticism in China. The catalogue was ordered by the +K'ien-lung emperor in 1722. Between three and four hundred of the "Great +Scholars" of the empire were engaged on it in various departments, and +thus egregiously ignorant did they show themselves of all beyond the +limits of their own country, and even of the literature of that country +itself. + +Much of what Fa-hien tells his readers of Buddhist miracles and legends +is indeed unreliable and grotesque; but we have from him the truth as to +what he saw and heard. + +In concluding this introduction I wish to call attention to some +estimates of the number of Buddhists in the world which have become +current, believing, as I do, that the smallest of them is much above +what is correct. + +In a note on the first page of his work on the Bhilsa Topes (1854), +General Cunningham says: "The Christians number about two hundred and +seventy millions; the Buddhists about two hundred and twenty-two +millions, who are distributed as follows: China one hundred and seventy +millions, Japan twenty-five millions, Anam fourteen millions, Siam three +millions, Ava eight millions, Nepal one million, and Ceylon one +million." In his article on M.J. Barthelemy Saint-Hilaire's "Le Bouddha +et sa Religion," republished in his "Chips from a German workshop," vol. +i. (1868), Professor Max Mueller says, "The young prince became the +founder of a religion which, after more than two thousand years, is +still professed by four hundred and fifty-five millions of human +beings," and he appends the following note: "Though truth is not settled +by majorities, it would be interesting to know which religion counts at +the present moment the largest numbers of believers. Berghaus, in his +'Physical Atlas,' gives the following division of the human race +according to religion: 'Buddhists 31.2 per cent., Christians 30.7, +Mohammedans 15.7, Brahmanists 13.4, Heathens 8.7, and Jews O.3.' As +Berghaus does not distinguish the Buddhists in China from the followers +of Confucius and Laotse, the first place on the scale belongs really to +Christianity. It is difficult in China to say to what religion a man +belongs, as the same person may profess two or three. The emperor +himself, after sacrificing according to the ritual of Confucius, visits +a Tao-tse temple, and afterwards bows before an image of Fo in a +Buddhist chapel." ("Melanges Asiatiques de St. Petersbourg," vol. ii. p. +374.) + +Both these estimates are exceeded by Dr. T.W. Rhys Davids (intimating +also the uncertainty of the statements, and that numbers are no evidence +of truth) in the introduction to his "Manual of Buddhism." The Buddhists +there appear as amounting in all to five hundred millions:--thirty +millions of Southern Buddhists, in Ceylon, Burma, Siam, Anam, and India +(Jains); and four hundred and seventy millions of Northern Buddhists, of +whom nearly thirty-three millions are assigned to Japan, and 414,686,974 +to the eighteen provinces of China proper. According to him, Christians +amount to about 26 per cent, of mankind, Hindus to about 13, Mohammedans +to about 12-1/2, Buddhists to about 40, and Jews to about one-half of +one per cent. + +In regard to all these estimates, it will be observed that the immense +numbers assigned to Buddhism are made out by the multitude of Chinese +with which it is credited. Subtract Cunningham's one hundred and seventy +millions of Chinese from his total of two hundred and twenty-two +millions, and there remain only fifty-two millions of Buddhists. +Subtract Davids's four hundred fourteen and one-half millions of Chinese +from his total of five hundred millions, and there remain only +eighty-five and one-half millions for Buddhism. Of the numbers assigned +to other countries, as well as of their whole populations, I am in +considerable doubt, excepting in the cases of Ceylon and India; but the +greatness of the estimates turns upon the immense multitudes said to be +in China. I do not know what total population Cunningham allowed for +that country, nor on what principle he allotted one hundred and seventy +millions of it to Buddhism; perhaps he halved his estimate of the whole, +whereas Berghaus and Davids allotted to it the highest estimates that +have been given of the people. + +But we have no certain information of the population of China. At an +interview with the former Chinese ambassador, Kwo Sung-tao, in Paris, in +1878, I begged him to write out for me the amount, with the authority +for it, and he assured me that it could not be done. I have read +probably almost everything that has been published on the subject, and +endeavored by methods of my own to arrive at a satisfactory +conclusion;--without reaching a result which I can venture to lay before +the public. My impression has been that four hundred millions is hardly +an exaggeration. + +But supposing that we had reliable returns of the whole population, how +shall we proceed to apportion that among Confucianists, Taoists, and +Buddhists? Confucianism is the orthodoxy of China. The common name for +it is Ju Chiao, "the Doctrines held by the Learned Class," entrance into +the circle of which is, with a few insignificant exceptions, open to all +the people. The mass of them and the masses under their influence are +preponderatingly Confucian; and in the observance of ancestral worship, +the most remarkable feature of the religion proper of China from the +earliest times, of which Confucius was not the author but the prophet, +an overwhelming majority are regular and assiduous. + +Among "the strange principles" which the emperor of the K'ang-hsi +period, in one of his famous Sixteen Precepts, exhorted his people to +"discountenance and put away, in order to exalt the correct doctrine," +Buddhism and Taoism were both included. If, as stated in the note quoted +from Professor Mueller, the emperor countenances both the Taoist worship +and the Buddhist, he does so for reasons of state; to please especially +his Buddhistic subjects in Thibet and Mongolia, and not to offend the +many whose superstitious fancies incline to Taoism. + +When I went out and in as a missionary among the Chinese people for +about thirty years, it sometimes occurred to me that only the inmates of +their monasteries and the recluses of both systems should be enumerated +as Buddhists and Taoists; but I was in the end constrained to widen that +judgment, and to admit a considerable following of both among the +people, who have neither received the tonsure nor assumed the yellow +top. Dr. Eitel, in concluding his discussion of this point in his +"Lecture on Buddhism, an Event in History," says: "It is not too much to +say that most Chinese are theoretically Confucianists, but emotionally +Buddhists or Taoists. But fairness requires us to add that, though the +mass of the people are more or less influenced by Buddhist doctrines, +yet the people, as a whole, have no respect for the Buddhist church, and +habitually sneer at Buddhist priests." For the "most" in the former of +these two sentences I would substitute "nearly all;" and between my +friend's "but" and "emotionally" I would introduce "many are," and would +not care to contest his conclusion further. It does seem to me +preposterous to credit Buddhism with the whole of the vast population of +China, the great majority of whom are Confucianists. My own opinion is +that its adherents are not so many as those even of Mohammedanism, and +that instead of being the most numerous of the religions (so-called) of +the world, it is only entitled to occupy the fifth place, ranking below +Christianity, Confucianism, Brahmanism, and Mohammedanism, and followed, +some distance off, by Taoism. To make a table of percentages of mankind, +and to assign to each system its proportion, are to seem to be wise +where we are deplorably ignorant; and, moreover, if our means of +information were much better than they are, our figures would merely +show the outward adherence. A fractional percentage might tell more for +one system than a very large integral one for another. + +JAMES LEGGE. + + + +THE TRAVELS OF FA-HIEN + + + +CHAPTER I + +~From Ch'ang-gan to the Sandy Desert~ + + +Fa-Hien had been living in Ch'ang-gan. [1] Deploring the mutilated and +imperfect state of the collection of the Books of Discipline, in the +second year of the period Hwang-che, being the Ke-hae year of the cycle, +[2] he entered into an engagement with Hwuy-king, Tao-ching, Hwuy-ying, +and Hwuy-wei, that they should go to India and seek for the Disciplinary +Rules. + +After starting from Ch'ang-gan, they passed through Lung, [3] and came +to the kingdom of K'een-kwei,[4] where they stopped for the summer +retreat. When that was over, they went forward to the kingdom of +Now-t'an, crossed the mountain of Yang-low, and reached the emporium of +Chang-yih.[5] There they found the country so much disturbed that +travelling on the roads was impossible for them. Its king, however, was +very attentive to them, kept them in his capital, and acted the part of +their danapati.[6] + +Here they met with Che-yen, Hwuy-keen, Sang-shao, Pao-yun, and +Sang-king; and in pleasant association with them, as bound on the same +journey with themselves, they passed the summer retreat of that year [7] +together, resuming after it their travelling, and going on to +T'un-hwang, [8] the chief town in the frontier territory of defence +extending for about eighty li from east to west, and about forty from +north to south. Their company, increased as it had been, halted there +for some days more than a month, after which Fa-hien and his four +friends started first in the suite of an envoy, having separated for a +time from Pao-yun and his associates. + +Le Hao, the prefect of Tun-hwang, had supplied them with the means of +crossing the desert before them, in which there are many evil demons and +hot winds. Travellers who encounter them perish all to a man. There is +not a bird to be seen in the air above, nor an animal on the ground +below. Though you look all round most earnestly to find where you can +cross, you know not where to make your choice, the only mark and +indication being the dry bones of the dead left upon the sand. + + +[Footnote 1: Ch'ang-gan is still the name of the principal district (and +its city) in the department of Se-gan, Shen-se. It had been the capital +of the first empire of Han (B.C. 202 A.D. 24), as it subsequently was +that of Suy (A.D. 589-618).] + +[Footnote 2: The period Hwang-che embraced from A.D. 399 to 414, being +the greater portion of the reign of Yao Hing of the After Ts'in, a +powerful prince. He adopted Hwang-che for the style of his reign in 399, +and the cyclical name of that year was Kang-tsze. It is not possible at +this distance of time to explain, if it could be explained, how Fa-hien +came to say that Ke-hae was the second year of the period. It seems most +reasonable to suppose that he set out on his pilgrimage in A.D. 399, the +cycle name of which was Ke-hae. In the "Memoirs of Eminent Monks" it is +said that our author started in the third year of the period Lung-gan of +the Eastern Ts'in, which was A.D. 399.] + +[Footnote 3: Lung embraced the western part of Shen-se and the eastern +part of Kan-suh. The name remains in Lung Chow, in the extreme west of +Shen-se.] + +[Footnote 4: K'een-kwei was the second king of "the Western Ts'in." +Fa-hien would find him at his capital, somewhere in the present +department of Lan-chow, Kan-suh.] + +[Footnote 5: Chang-yih is still the name of a district in Kan-chow +department, Kan-suh. It is a long way north and west from Lan-chow, and +not far from the Great Wall. Its king at this time was, probably, +Twan-yeh of "the northern Leang."] + +[Footnote 6: Dana is the name for religious charity, the first of the +six paramitas, or means of attaining to nirvana; and a danapati is "one +who practises dana and thereby crosses the sea of misery."] + +[Footnote 7: This was the second summer since the pilgrims left +Ch'ang-gan. We are now, therefore, probably, in A.D. 400.] + +[Footnote 8: T'un-hwang is still the name of one of the two districts +constituting the department of Gan-se, the most western of the +prefectures of Kan-suh; beyond the termination of the Great Wall.] + + + +CHAPTER II + +~On to Shen-shen and thence to Khoten~ + + +After travelling for seventeen days, a distance we may calculate of +about 1500 li, the pilgrims reached the kingdom of Shen-shen, a country +rugged and hilly, with a thin and barren soil. The clothes of the common +people are coarse, and like those worn in our land of Han, [1] some +wearing felt and others coarse serge or cloth of hair; this was the only +difference seen among them. The king professed our Law, and there might +be in the country more than four thousand monks, who were all students +of the hinayana. [2] The common people of this and other kingdoms in +that region, as well as the Sramans, [3] all practise the rules of +India, only that the latter do so more exactly, and the former more +loosely. So the travellers found it in all the kingdoms through which +they went on their way from this to the west, only that each had its own +peculiar barbarous speech. The monks, however, who had given up the +worldly life and quitted their families, were all students of Indian +books and the Indian language. Here they stayed for about a month, and +then proceeded on their journey, fifteen days' walking to the northwest +bringing them to the country of Woo-e. In this also there were more than +four thousand monks, all students of the hinayana. They were very strict +in their rules, so that Sramans from the territory of Ts'in were all +unprepared for their regulations. Fa-hien, through the management of Foo +Kung-sun, _maitre d'hotellerie_, was able to remain with his company in +the monastery where they were received for more than two months, and +here they were rejoined by Pao-yun and his friends. At the end of that +time the people of Woo-e neglected the duties of propriety and +righteousness, and treated the strangers in so niggardly a manner that +Che-yen, Hwuy-keen, and Hwuy-wei went back towards Kao-ch'ang, hoping to +obtain there the means of continuing their journey. Fa-hien and the +rest, however, through the liberality of Foo Kung-sun, managed to go +straight forward in a southwest direction. They found the country +uninhabited as they went along. The difficulties which they encountered +in crossing the streams and on their route, and the sufferings which +they endured, were unparalleled in human experience, but in the course +of a month and five days they succeeded in reaching Yu-teen. + + +[Footnote 1: This is the name which Fa-hien always uses when he would +speak of China, his native country, as a whole, calling it from the +great dynasty which had ruled it, first and last, for between four and +five centuries. Occasionally, as we shall immediately see, he speaks of +"the territory of Ts'in or Ch'in," but intending thereby only the +kingdom of Ts'in, having its capital in Ch'ang-gan.] + +[Footnote 2: Meaning the "small vehicle, or conveyance." There are in +Buddhism the triyana, or "three different means of salvation, i.e. of +conveyance across the samsara, or sea of transmigration, to the shores +of nirvana. Afterwards the term was used to designate the different +phases of development through which the Buddhist dogma passed, known as +the mahayana, hinayana, and madhyamayana." "The hinayana is the simplest +vehicle of salvation, corresponding to the first of the three degrees of +saintship." E.H., pp. 151-2, 45, and 117.] + +[Footnote 3: "Sraman" may in English take the place of Sramana, the name +for Buddhist monks, as those who have separated themselves from (left) +their families, and quieted their hearts from all intrusion of desire +and lust.] + + + +CHAPTER III + +~Khoten--Processions of Images~ + + +Yu-Teen is a pleasant and prosperous kingdom, with a numerous and +flourishing population. The inhabitants all profess our Law, and join +together in its religious music for their enjoyment. The monks amount to +several myriads, most of whom are students of the mahayana. [1] They all +receive their food from the common store. Throughout the country the +houses of the people stand apart like separate stars, and each family +has a small tope [2] reared in front of its door. The smallest of these +may be twenty cubits high, or rather more. They make in the monasteries +rooms for monks from all quarters, the use of which is given to +travelling monks who may arrive, and who are provided with whatever else +they require. + +The lord of the country lodged Fa-hien and the others comfortably, and +supplied their wants, in a monastery called Gomati, of the mahayana +school. Attached to it there are three thousand monks, who are called to +their meals by the sound of a bell. When they enter the refectory, their +demeanor is marked by a reverent gravity, and they take their seats in +regular order, all maintaining a perfect silence. No sound is heard from +their alms-bowls and other utensils. When any of these pure men require +food, they are not allowed to call out to the attendants for it, but +only make signs with their hands. + +Hwuy-king, Tao-ching, and Hwuy-tah set out in advance towards the +country of K'eeh-ch'a; but Fa-hien and the others, wishing to see the +procession of images, remained behind for three months. There are in +this country four great monasteries, not counting the smaller ones. +Beginning on the first day of the fourth month, they sweep and water the +streets inside the city, making a grand display in the lanes and byways. +Over the city gate they pitch a large tent, grandly adorned in all +possible ways, in which the king and queen, with their ladies +brilliantly arrayed, take up their residence for the time. + +The monks of the Gomati monastery, being mahayana students, and held in +greatest reverence by the king, took precedence of all the others in the +procession. At a distance of three or four li from the city, they made a +four-wheeled image car, more than thirty cubits high, which looked like +the great hall of a monastery moving along. The seven precious +substances [3] were grandly displayed about it, with silken streamers +and canopies hanging all around. The chief image stood in the middle of +the car, with two Bodhisattvas [4] in attendance on it, while devas were +made to follow in waiting, all brilliantly carved in gold and silver, +and hanging in the air. When the car was a hundred paces from the gate, +the king put off his crown of state, changed his dress for a fresh suit, +and with bare feet, carrying in his hands flowers and incense, and with +two rows of attending followers, went out at the gate to meet the image; +and, with his head and face bowed to the ground, he did homage at its +feet, and then scattered the flowers and burnt the incense. When the +image was entering the gate, the queen and the brilliant ladies with her +in the gallery above scattered far and wide all kinds of flowers, which +floated about and fell promiscuously to the ground. In this way +everything was done to promote the dignity of the occasion. The +carriages of the monasteries were all different, and each one had its +own day for the procession. The ceremony began on the first day of the +fourth month, and ended on the fourteenth, after which the king and +queen returned to the palace. + +Seven or eight li to the west of the city there is what is called the +King's new monastery, the building of which took eighty years, and +extended over three reigns. It may be two hundred and fifty cubits in +height, rich in elegant carving and inlaid work, covered above with gold +and silver, and finished throughout with a combination of all the +precious substances. Behind the tope there has been built a Hall of +Buddha, of the utmost magnificence and beauty, the beams, pillars, +venetianed doors and windows, being all overlaid with gold-leaf. Besides +this, the apartments for the monks are imposingly and elegantly +decorated, beyond the power of words to express. Of whatever things of +highest value and preciousness the kings in the six countries on the +east of the Ts'ung range of mountains are possessed, they contribute the +greater portion to this monastery, using but a small portion of them +themselves. + + +[Footnote 1: Mahayana is a later form of the Buddhist doctrine, the +second phase of its development corresponding to the state of a +Bodhisattva, who, being able to transport himself and all mankind to +nirvana, may be compared to a huge vehicle.] + +[Footnote 2: A worshipping place, an altar, or temple.] + +[Footnote 3: The Sapta-ratna, gold, silver, lapis lazuli, rock crystal, +rubies, diamonds or emeralds, and agate.] + +[Footnote 4: A Bodhisattva is one whose essence has become intelligence; +a Being who will in some future birth as a man (not necessarily or +usually the next) attain to Buddhahood. The name does not include those +Buddhas who have not yet attained to parinirvana. The symbol of the +state is an elephant fording a river.] + + + +CHAPTER IV + +~Through the Ts'ung Mountains to K'eech-ch'a~ + + +When the processions of images in the fourth month were over, Sang-shao, +by himself alone, followed a Tartar who was an earnest follower of the +Law, and proceeded towards Ko-phene. Fa-hien and the others went forward +to the kingdom of Tsze-hoh, which it took them twenty-five days to +reach. Its king was a strenuous follower of our Law, and had around him +more than a thousand monks, mostly students of the mahayana. Here the +travellers abode fifteen days, and then went south for four days, when +they found themselves among the Ts'ung-ling mountains, and reached the +country of Yu-hwuy, where they halted and kept their retreat. [1] When +this was over, they went on among the hills for twenty-five days, and +got to K'eeh-ch'a, there rejoining Hwuy-king and his two companions. + + +[Footnote 1: This was the retreat already twice mentioned as kept by the +pilgrims in the summer, the different phraseology, "quiet rest," without +any mention of the season, indicating their approach to India. Two, if +not three, years had elapsed since they left Ch'ang-gan. Are we now with +them in 402?] + + + +CHAPTER V + +~Great Quinquennial Assembly of Monks~ + + +It happened that the king of the country was then holding the pancha +parishad; that is, in Chinese, the great quinquennial assembly. When +this is to be held, the king requests the presence of the Sramans from +all quarters of his kingdom. They come as if in clouds; and when they +are all assembled, their place of session is grandly decorated. Silken +streamers and canopies are hung out in it, and water-lilies in gold and +silver are made and fixed up behind the places where the chief of them +are to sit. When clean mats have been spread, and they are all seated, +the king and his ministers present their offerings according to rule and +law. The assembly takes place in the first, second, or third month, for +the most part in the spring. + +After the king has held the assembly, he further exhorts the ministers +to make other and special offerings. The doing of this extends over one, +two, three, five, or even seven days; and when all is finished, he takes +his own riding-horse, saddles, bridles, and waits on him himself, while +he makes the noblest and most important minister of the kingdom mount +him. Then, taking fine white woollen cloth, all sorts of precious +things, and articles which the Sramans require, he distributes them +among them, uttering vows at the same time along with all his ministers; +and when this distribution has taken place, he again redeems whatever he +wishes from the monks. + +The country, being among the hills and cold, does not produce the other +cereals, and only the wheat gets ripe. After the monks have received +their annual portion of this, the mornings suddenly show the hoar-frost, +and on this account the king always begs the monks to make the wheat +ripen [1] before they receive their portion. There is in the country a +spittoon which belonged to Buddha, made of stone, and in color like his +alms-bowl. There is also a tooth of Buddha, for which the people have +reared a tope, connected with which there are more than a thousand monks +and their disciples, all students of the hinayana. To the east of these +hills the dress of the common people is of coarse materials, as in our +country of Ts'in, but here also there were among them the differences of +fine woollen cloth and of serge or haircloth. The rules observed by the +Sramans are remarkable, and too numerous to be mentioned in detail. The +country is in the midst of the Onion range. As you go forward from these +mountains, the plants, trees, and fruits are all different from those of +the land of Han, excepting only the bamboo, pomegranate, and sugarcane. + + +[Footnote 1: Watters calls attention to this as showing that the monks +of K'eeh-ch'a had the credit of possessing weather-controlling powers.] + + + +CHAPTER VI + +~North India--Image of Maitreya Bodhisattva~ + + +From this the travellers went westward towards North India, and after +being on the way for a month, they succeeded in getting across and +through the range of the Onion mountains. The snow rests on them both +winter and summer. There are also among them venomous dragons, which, +when provoked, spit forth poisonous winds, and cause showers of snow and +storms of sand and gravel. Not one in ten thousand of those who +encounter these dangers escapes with his life. The people of the country +call the range by the name of "The Snow mountains." When the travellers +had got through them, they were in North India, and immediately on +entering its borders, found themselves in a small kingdom called +T'oleih, where also there were many monks, all students of the hinayana. + +In this kingdom there was formerly an Arhan, [1] who by his supernatural +power took a clever artificer up to the Tushita [2] heaven, to see the +height, complexion, and appearance of Maitreya Bodhisattva, [3] and then +return and make an image of him in wood. First and last, this was done +three times, and then the image was completed, eighty cubits in height, +and eight cubits at the base from knee to knee of the crossed legs. On +fast-days it emits an effulgent light. The kings of the surrounding +countries vie with one another in presenting offerings to it. Here it +is--to be seen now as of old. + +[Footnote 1: Lo-han, Arhat, Arahat are all designations of the perfected +Arya, the disciple who has passed the different stages of the Noble +Path, or eightfold excellent way, who has conquered all passions, and is +not to be reborn again. Arhatship implies possession of certain +supernatural powers, and is not to be succeeded by Buddhaship, but +implies the fact of the saint having already attained Nirvana.] + +[Footnote 2: Tushita is the fourth Devaloka, where all Bodhisattvas are +reborn before finally appearing on earth as Buddha. Life lasts in +Tushita four thousand years, but twenty-four hours there are equal to +four hundred years on earth.] + +[Footnote 3: Maitreya was a Bodhisattva, the principal one, indeed, of +Sakyamuni's retinue, but is not counted among the ordinary disciples, +nor is anything told of his antecedents. It was in the Tushita heaven +that Sakyamuni met him and appointed him as his successor, to appear as +Buddha after the lapse of five thousand years. Maitreya is therefore the +expected Messiah of the Buddhists, residing at present in Tushita.] + + + +CHAPTER VII + +~The Perilous Crossing of the Indus~ + + +The travellers went on to the southwest for fifteen days at the foot of +the mountains, and following the course of their range. The way was +difficult and rugged, running along a bank exceedingly precipitous, +which rose up there, a hill-like wall of rock, ten thousand cubits from +the base. When one approached the edge of it, his eyes became unsteady; +and if he wished to go forward in the same direction, there was no place +on which he could place his foot; and beneath were the waters of the +river called the Indus. In former times men had chiselled paths along +the rocks, and distributed ladders on the face of them, to the number +altogether of seven hundred, at the bottom of which there was a +suspension bridge of ropes, by which the river was crossed, its banks +being there eighty paces apart. The place and arrangements are to be +found in the Records of the Nine Interpreters, but neither Chang K'een +[1] nor Kan Ying [2] had reached the spot. + +The monks asked Fa-hien if it could be known when the Law of Buddha +first went to the east. He replied, "When I asked the people of those +countries about it, they all said that it had been handed down by their +fathers from of old that, after the setting up of the image of Maitreya +Bodhisattva, there were Sramans of India who crossed this river, +carrying with them Sutras and Books of Discipline. Now the image was set +up rather more than three hundred years after the Nirvana of Buddha, +which may be referred to the reign of king P'ing of the Chow dynasty. +According to this account we may say that the diffusion of our great +doctrines in the East began from the setting up of this image. If it had +not been through that Maitreya, the great spiritual master who is to be +the successor of the Sakya, who could have caused the 'Three Precious +Ones,' [3] to be proclaimed so far, and the people of those border lands +to know our Law? We know of a truth that the opening of the way for such +a mysterious propagation is not the work of man; and so the dream of the +emperor Ming of Han had its proper cause." + + +[Footnote 1: Chang K'een, a minister of the emperor Woo of Han (B.C. +140-87), is celebrated as the first Chinese who "pierced the void," and +penetrated to "the regions of the west," corresponding very much to the +present Turkestan. Through him, by B.C. 115, a regular intercourse was +established between China and the thirty-six kingdoms or states of that +quarter.] + +[Footnote 2: Less is known of Kan Ying than of Chang K'een. Being sent +in A.D. 88 by his patron Pan Chao on an embassy to the Roman empire, he +only got as far as the Caspian sea, and returned to China. He extended, +however, the knowledge of his countrymen with regard to the western +regions.] + +[Footnote 3: "The precious Buddha," "the precious Law," and "the +precious Monkhood"; Buddha, Dharma, and Sangha; the whole being +equivalent to Buddhism.] + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +~Woo-chang, or Udyana--Traces of Buddha~ + + +After crossing the river, the travellers immediately came to the kingdom +of Woo-chang, which is indeed a part of North India. The people all use +the language of Central India, "Central India" being what we should call +the "Middle Kingdom." The food and clothes of the common people are the +same as in that Central Kingdom. The Law of Buddha is very flourishing +in Woo-chang. They call the places where the monks stay for a time or +reside permanently Sangharamas; and of these there are in all five +hundred, the monks being all students of the hinayana. When stranger +bhikshus [1] arrive at one of them, their wants are supplied for three +days, after which they are told to find a resting-place for themselves. + +There is a tradition that when Buddha came to North India, he came at +once to this country, and that here he left a print of his foot, which +is long or short according to the ideas of the beholder on the subject. +It exists, and the same thing is true about it, at the present day. Here +also are still to be seen the rock on which he dried his clothes, and +the place where he converted the wicked dragon. The rock is fourteen +cubits high, and more than twenty broad, with one side of it smooth. + +Hwuy-king, Hwuy-tah, and Tao-ching went on ahead towards the place of +Buddha's shadow in the country of Nagara; but Fa-hien and the others +remained in Woo-chang, and kept the summer retreat. That over, they +descended south, and arrived in the country of Soo-ho-to. + + +[Footnote 1: Bhikshu is the name for a monk as "living by alms," a +mendicant. All bhikshus call themselves Sramans. Sometimes the two names +are used together by our author.] + + + +CHAPTER IX + +~Soo-ho-to--Legends of Buddha~ + + +In that country also Buddhism is flourishing. There is in it the place +where Sakra, [1] Ruler of Devas, in a former age, tried the Bodhisattva, +by producing a hawk in pursuit of a dove, when the Bodhisattva cut off a +piece of his own flesh, and with it ransomed the dove. After Buddha had +attained to perfect wisdom, and in travelling about with his disciples +arrived at this spot, he informed them that this was the place where he +ransomed the dove with a piece of his own flesh. In this way the people +of the country became aware of the fact, and on the spot reared a tope, +adorned with layers of gold and silver plates. + + +[Footnote 1: Sakra is a common name for the Brahmanic Indra, adopted by +Buddhism into the circle of its own great adherents;--it has been said, +"because of his popularity." He is now the representative of the secular +power, the valiant protector of the Buddhist body, but is looked upon as +inferior to Sakyamuni, and every Buddhist saint.] + + + +CHAPTER X + +~Gandhara--Legends of Buddha~ + + +The travellers, going downwards from this towards the east, in five days +came to the country of Gandhara, the place where Dharma-vivardhana, the +son of Asoka, [1] ruled. When Buddha was a Bodhisattva, he gave his eyes +also for another man here; and at the spot they have also reared a large +tope, adorned with layers of gold and silver plates. The people of the +country were mostly students of the hinayana. + + +[Footnote 1: Asoka is here mentioned for the first time--the Constantine +of the Buddhist society, and famous for the number of viharas and topes +which he erected. He was the grandson of Chandragupta, a rude +adventurer, who at one time was a refugee in the camp of Alexander the +Great; and within about twenty years afterwards drove the Greeks out of +India, having defeated Seleucus, the Greek ruler of the Indus provinces. +His grandson was converted to Buddhism by the bold and patient demeanor +of an Arhat whom he had ordered to be buried alive, and became a most +zealous supporter of the new faith.] + + + +CHAPTER XI + +~Takshasila--Legends--The Four Great Topes~ + + +Seven days' journey from this to the east brought the travellers to the +kingdom of Takshasila, which means "the severed head" in the language of +China. Here, when Buddha was a Bodhisattva, he gave away his head to a +man; and from this circumstance the kingdom got its name. + +Going on further for two days to the east, they came to the place where +the Bodhisattva threw down his body to feed a starving tigress. In these +two places also large topes have been built, both adorned with layers of +all the precious substances. The kings, ministers, and peoples of the +kingdoms around vie with one another in making offerings at them. The +trains of those who come to scatter flowers and light lamps at them +never cease. The nations of those quarters call those and the other two +mentioned before "the four great topes." + + + +CHAPTER XII + +~Buddha's Alms-bowl--Death of Hwuy-king~ + + +Going southwards from Gandhara, the travellers in four days arrived at +the kingdom of Purushapura. [1] Formerly, when Buddha was travelling in +this country with his disciples, he said to Ananda, [2] "After my +pari-nirvana, [3] there will be a king named Kanishka, who shall on this +spot build a tope." + +This Kanishka was afterwards born into the world; and once, when he had +gone forth to look about him, Sakra, Ruler of Devas, wishing to excite +the idea in his mind, assumed the appearance of a little herd-boy, and +was making a tope right in the way of the king, who asked what sort of a +thing he was making. The boy said, "I am making a tope for Buddha." The +king said, "Very good;" and immediately, right over the boy's tope, he +proceeded to rear another, which was more than four hundred cubits high, +and adorned with layers of all the precious substances. Of all the topes +and temples which the travellers saw in their journeyings, there was not +one comparable to this in solemn beauty and majestic grandeur. There is +a current saying that this is the finest tope in Jambudvipa [4]. When +the king's tope was completed, the little tope of the boy came out from +its side on the south, rather more than three cubits in height. + +Buddha's alms-bowl is in this country. Formerly, a king of Yueeh-she +raised a large force and invaded this country, wishing to carry the bowl +away. Having subdued the kingdom, as he and his captains were sincere +believers in the Law of Buddha, and wished to carry off the bowl, they +proceeded to present their offerings on a great scale. When they had +done so to the Three Precious Ones, he made a large elephant be grandly +caparisoned, and placed the bowl upon it. But the elephant knelt down on +the ground, and was unable to go forward. Again he caused a four-wheeled +wagon to be prepared in which the bowl was put to be conveyed away. +Eight elephants were then yoked to it, and dragged it with their united +strength; but neither were they able to go forward. The king knew that +the time for an association between himself and the bowl had not yet +arrived, and was sad and deeply ashamed of himself. Forthwith he built a +tope at the place and a monastery, and left a guard to watch the bowl, +making all sorts of contributions. + +There may be there more than seven hundred monks. When it is near +mid-day, they bring out the bowl, and, along with the common people, +make their various offerings to it, after which they take their mid-day +meal. In the evening, at the time of incense, they bring the bowl out +again. It may contain rather more than two pecks, and is of various +colors, black predominating, with the seams that show its fourfold +composition distinctly marked. Its thickness is about the fifth of an +inch, and it has a bright and glossy lustre. When poor people throw into +it a few flowers, it becomes immediately full, while some very rich +people, wishing to make offering of many flowers, might not stop till +they had thrown in hundreds, thousands, and myriads of bushels, and yet +would not be able to fill it.[5] + +Pao-yun and Sang-king here merely made their offerings to the alms-bowl, +and then resolved to go back. Hwuy-king, Hwuy-tah, and Tao-ching had +gone on before the rest to Nagara, to make their offerings at the places +of Buddha's shadow, tooth, and the flat-bone of his skull. There +Hwuy-king fell ill, and Tao-ching remained to look after him, while +Hwuy-tah came alone to Purushapura, and saw the others, and then he with +Pao-yun and Sang-king took their way back to the land of Ts'in. +Hwuy-king came to his end in the monastery of Buddha's alms-bowl, and on +this Fa-hien went forward alone towards the place of the flat-bone of +Buddha's skull.[6] + + +[Footnote 1: The modern Peshawur.] + +[Footnote 2: A first cousin of Sakyamuni, and born at the moment when he +attained to Buddhaship. Under Buddha's teaching, Ananda became an Arhat, +and is famous for his strong and accurate memory; and he played an +important part at the first council for the formation of the Buddhist +canon. The friendship between Sakyamuni and Ananda was very close and +tender; and it is impossible to read much of what the dying Buddha said +to him and of him, as related in the Mahapari-nirvana Sutra, without +being moved almost to tears. Ananda is to reappear on earth as Buddha in +another Kalpa.] + +[Footnote 3: On his attaining to nirvana, Sakyamuni became the Buddha, +and had no longer to mourn his being within the circle of +transmigration, and could rejoice in an absolute freedom from passion, +and a perfect purity. Still he continued to live on for forty-five +years, till he attained to pari-nirvana, and had done with all the life +of sense and society, and had no more exercise of thought. He died; but +whether he absolutely and entirely ceased to be, in any sense of the +word being, it would be difficult to say. Probably he himself would not +and could not have spoken definitely on the point. So far as our use of +language is concerned, apart from any assured faith in and hope of +immortality, his pari-nirvana was his death.] + +[Footnote 4: Jambudvipa is one of the four great continents of the +universe, representing the inhabited world as fancied by the Buddhists, +and so-called because it resembles in shape the leaves of the jambu +tree.] + +[Footnote 5: Compare the narrative in Luke's Gospel, xxi. 1-4.] + +[Footnote 6: This story of Hwuy-king's death differs from the account +given in chapter xiv.--EDITOR.] + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +~Festival of Buddha's Skull-bone~ + + +Going west for sixteen yojanas, [1] he came to the city He-lo [2] in the +borders of the country of Nagara, where there is the flat-bone of +Buddha's skull, deposited in a vihara [3] adorned all over with +gold-leaf and the seven sacred substances. The king of the country, +revering and honoring the bone, and anxious lest it should be stolen +away, has selected eight individuals, representing the great families in +the kingdom, and committed to each a seal, with which he should seal its +shrine and guard the relic. At early dawn these eight men come, and +after each has inspected his seal, they open the door. This done, they +wash their hands with scented water and bring out the bone, which they +place outside the vihara, on a lofty platform, where it is supported on +a round pedestal of the seven precious substances, and covered with a +bell of lapis lazuli, both adorned with rows of pearls. Its color is of +a yellowish white, and it forms an imperfect circle twelve inches round, +curving upwards to the centre. Every day, after it has been brought +forth, the keepers of the vihara ascend a high gallery, where they beat +great drums, blow conches, and clash their copper cymbals. When the king +hears them, he goes to the vihara, and makes his offerings of flowers +and incense. When he has done this, he and his attendants in order, one +after another, raise the bone, place it for a moment on the top of their +heads, and then depart, going out by the door on the west as they had +entered by that on the east. The king every morning makes his offerings +and performs his worship, and afterwards gives audience on the business +of his government. The chiefs of the Vaisyas [4] also make their +offerings before they attend to their family affairs. Every day it is +so, and there is no remissness in the observance of the custom. When all +of the offerings are over, they replace the bone in the vihara, where +there is a vimoksha tope, of the seven precious substances, and rather +more than five cubits high, sometimes open, sometimes shut, to contain +it. In front of the door of the vihara, there are parties who every +morning sell flowers and incense, and those who wish to make offerings +buy some of all kinds. The kings of various countries are also +constantly sending messengers with offerings. The vihara stands in a +square of thirty paces, and though heaven should shake and earth be +rent, this place would not move. + +Going on, north from this, for a yojana, Fa-hien arrived at the capital +of Nagara, the place where the Bodhisattva once purchased with money +five stalks of flowers, as an offering to the Dipankara Buddha. In the +midst of the city there is also the tope of Buddha's tooth, where +offerings are made in the same way as to the flat-bone of his skull. + +A yojana to the northeast of the city brought him to the mouth of a +valley, where there is Buddha's pewter staff; and a vihara also has been +built at which offerings are made. The staff is made of Gosirsha +Chandana, and is quite sixteen or seventeen cubits long. It is contained +in a wooden tube, and though a hundred or a thousand men were to try to +lift it, they could not move it. + +Entering the mouth of the valley, and going west, he found Buddha's +Sanghali, [5] where also there is reared a vihara, and offerings are +made. It is a custom of the country when there is a great drought, for +the people to collect in crowds, bring out the robe, pay worship to it, +and make offerings, on which there is immediately a great rain from the +sky. + +South of the city, half a yojana, there is a rock-cavern, in a great +hill fronting the southwest; and here it was that Buddha left his +shadow. Looking at it from a distance of more than ten paces, you seem +to see Buddha's real form, with his complexion of gold, and his +characteristic marks in their nicety, clearly and brightly displayed. +The nearer you approach, however, the fainter it becomes, as if it were +only in your fancy. When the kings from the regions all around have sent +skilful artists to take a copy, none of them have been able to do so. +Among the people of the country there is a saying current that "the +thousand Buddhas must all leave their shadows here." + +Rather more than four hundred paces west from the shadow, when Buddha +was at the spot, he shaved off his hair and clipped his nails, and +proceeded, along with his disciples, to build a tope seventy or eighty +cubits high, to be a model for all future topes; and it is still +existing. By the side of it there is a monastery, with more than seven +hundred monks in it. At this place there are as many as a thousand topes +of Arhans and Pratyeka Buddhas. + + +[Footnote 1: Now in India, Fa-hien used the Indian measure of distance; +but it is not possible to determine exactly what its length then was. +The estimates of it are very different, and vary from four and a half or +five miles to seven, and sometimes more.] + +[Footnote 2: The present Hidda, west of Peshawur, and five miles south +of Jellalabad.] + +[Footnote 3: "The vihara," says Hardy, "is the residence of a recluse or +priest;" and so Davids--"the clean little hut where the mendicant +lives."] + +[Footnote 4: The Vaisyas, or the bourgeois caste of Hindu society, are +described here as "resident scholars."] + +[Footnote 5: Or Sanghati, the double or composite robe, part of a monk's +attire, reaching from the shoulders to the knees, and fastened round the +waist.] + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +~Crossing the Indus to the East~ + + +Having stayed there till the third month of winter, Fa-hien and the two +others, proceeding southwards, crossed the Little Snowy mountains. On +them the snow lies accumulated both winter and summer. On the north side +of the mountains, in the shade, they suddenly encountered a cold wind +which made them shiver and become unable to speak. Hwuy-king could not +go any farther. A white froth came from his mouth, and he said to +Fa-hien, "I cannot live any longer. Do you immediately go away, that we +do not all die here"; and with these words he died. Fa-hien stroked the +corpse, and cried out piteously, "Our original plan has failed; it is +fate. What can we do?" He then again exerted himself, and they succeeded +in crossing to the south of the range, and arrived in the kingdom of +Lo-e, [1] where there were nearly three thousand monks, students of both +the mahayana and hinayana. Here they stayed for the summer retreat, [2] +and when that was over, they went on to the south, and ten days' journey +brought them to the kingdom of Poh-na, where there are also more than +three thousand monks, all students of the hinayana. Proceeding from this +place for three days, they again crossed the Indus, where the country on +each side was low and level. + + +[Footnote 1: Lo-e, or Rohi, or Afghanistan; only a portion of it can be +intended.] + +[Footnote 2: We are now therefore in A.D. 404.] + + + +CHAPTER XV + +~Sympathy of Monks with the Pilgrims~ + + +After they had crossed the river, there was a country named Pe-t'oo, +where Buddhism was very flourishing, and the monks studied both the +mahayana and hinayana. When they saw their fellow-disciples from Ts'in +passing along, they were moved with great pity and sympathy, and +expressed themselves thus: "How is it that these men from a border-land +should have learned to become monks, and come for the sake of our +doctrines from such a distance in search of the Law of Buddha?" They +supplied them with what they needed, and treated them in accordance with +the rules of the Law. + + + +CHAPTER XVI + +~Condition and Customs of Central India~ + + +From this place they travelled southeast, passing by a succession of +very many monasteries, with a multitude of monks, who might be counted +by myriads. After passing all these places, they came to a country named +Ma-t'aou-lo. They still followed the course of the P'oo-na river, on the +banks of which, left and right, there were twenty monasteries, which +might contain three thousand monks; and here the Law of Buddha was still +more flourishing. Everywhere, from the Sandy Desert, in all the +countries of India, the kings had been firm believers in that Law. When +they make their offerings to a community of monks, they take off their +royal caps, and along with their relatives and ministers, supply them +with food with their own hands. That done, the king has a carpet spread +for himself on the ground, and sits down on it in front of the +chairman;--they dare not presume to sit on couches in front of the +community. The laws and ways, according to which the kings presented +their offerings when Buddha was in the world, have been handed down to +the present day. + +All south from this is named the Middle Kingdom. In it the cold and heat +are finely tempered, and there is neither hoarfrost nor snow. The people +are numerous and happy; they have not to register their households, or +attend to any magistrates and their rules; only those who cultivate the +royal land have to pay a portion of the gain from it. If they want to go +they go; if they want to stay on, they stay. The king governs without +decapitation or other corporal punishments. Criminals are simply fined, +lightly or heavily, according to the circumstances of each case. Even in +cases of repeated attempts at wicked rebellion, they only have their +right hands cut off. The king's body-guards and attendants all have +salaries. Throughout the whole country the people do not kill any living +creature, nor drink intoxicating liquor, nor eat onions or garlic. The +only exception is that of the Chandalas. That is the name for those who +are held to be wicked men, and live apart from others. When they enter +the gate of a city or a market-place, they strike a piece of wood to +make themselves known, so that men know and avoid them, and do not come +into contact with them. In that country they do not keep pigs and fowls, +and do not sell live cattle; in the markets there are no butchers' shops +and no dealers in intoxicating drink. In buying and selling commodities +they use cowries. Only the Chandalas are fishermen and hunters, and sell +flesh meat. + +After Buddha attained to pari-nirvana the kings of the various countries +and the heads of the Vaisyas built viharas for the priests, and endowed +them with fields, houses, gardens, and orchards, along with the resident +populations and their cattle, the grants being engraved on plates of +metal, so that afterwards they were handed down from king to king, +without any one daring to annul them, and they remain even to the +present time. + +The regular business of the monks is to perform acts of meritorious +virtue, and to recite their Sutras and sit wrapped in meditation. When +stranger monks arrive at any monastery, the old residents meet and +receive them, carry for them their clothes and alms-bowl, give them +water to wash their feet, oil with which to anoint them, and the liquid +food permitted out of the regular hours. [1] When the stranger has +enjoyed a very brief rest, they further ask the number of years that he +has been a monk, after which he receives a sleeping apartment with its +appurtenances, according to his regular order, and everything is done +for him which the rules prescribe. + +Where a community of monks resides, they erect topes to Sariputtra, [2] +to Maha-maudgalyayana, [3] and to Ananda, and also topes in honor of the +Abhidharma, [4] the Vinaya, [4] and the Sutras. [4] A month after the +annual season of rest, the families which are looking out for blessing +stimulate one another to make offerings to the monks, and send round to +them the liquid food which may be taken out of the ordinary hours. All +the monks come together in a great assembly, and preach the Law; after +which offerings are presented at the tope of Sariputtra, with all kinds +of flowers and incense. All through the night lamps are kept burning, +and skilful musicians are employed to perform. + +When Sariputtra was a great Brahman, he went to Buddha, and begged to be +permitted to quit his family and become a monk. The great Mugalan and +the great Kas'yapa also did the same. The bhikshunis [5] for the most +part make their offerings at the tope of Ananda, because it was he who +requested the World-honored one to allow females to quit their families +and become nuns. The Sramaneras [6] mostly make their offerings to +Rahula. [7] The professors of the Abhidharma make their offerings to it; +those of the Vinaya to it. Every year there is one such offering, and +each class has its own day for it. Students of the mahayana present +offerings to the Prajna-paramita, to Manjus'ri, and to Kwan-she-yin. +When the monks have done receiving their annual tribute from the +harvests, the Heads of the Vaisyas and all the Brahmans bring clothes +and such other articles as the monks require for use, and distribute +among them. The monks, having received them, also proceed to give +portions to one another. From the nirvana of Buddha, the forms of +ceremony, laws, and rules, practised by the sacred communities, have +been handed down from one generation to another without interruption. + +From the place where the travellers crossed the Indus to South India, +and on to the Southern Sea, a distance of forty or fifty thousand li, +all is level plain. There are no large hills with streams among them; +there are simply the waters of the rivers. + + +[Footnote 1: No monk can eat solid food except between sunrise and noon, +and total abstinence from intoxicating drinks is obligatory. Food eaten +at any other part of the day is called vikala, and forbidden; but a +weary traveller might receive unseasonable refreshment, consisting of +honey, butter, treacle, and sesamum oil.] + +[Footnote 2: Sariputtra was one of the principal disciples of Buddha, +and indeed the most learned and ingenious of them all.] + +[Footnote 3: Mugalan, the Singhalese name of this disciple, is more +pronounceable. He also was one of the principal disciples, called +Buddha's "left-hand attendant." He was distinguished for his power of +vision, and his magic powers.] + +[Footnote 4: The different parts of the tripitaka.] + +[Footnote 5: The bhikshunis are the female monks or nuns, subject to the +same rules as the bhikshus, and also to special ordinances of +restraint.] + +[Footnote 6: The Sramaneras are the novices, male or female, who have +vowed to observe the Shikshapada, or ten commandments.] + +[Footnote 7: The eldest son of Sakyamuni by Yasodhara. Converted to +Buddhism, he followed his father as an attendant; and after Buddha's +death became the founder of a philosophical realistic school +(vaibhashika). He is now revered as the patron saint of all novices, and +is to be reborn as the eldest son of every future Buddha.] + + + +CHAPTER XVII + +~Legend of the Trayastrimsas Heaven~ + + +From this they proceeded southeast for eighteen yojanas, and found +themselves in a kingdom called Sankas'ya, at the place where Buddha +came down, after ascending to the Trayastrims'as heaven [1], and there +preaching for three months his Law for the benefit of his mother [2]. +Buddha had gone up to this heaven by his supernatural power, without +letting his disciples know; but seven days before the completion of the +three months he laid aside his invisibility, and Anuruddha [3], with his +heavenly eyes, saw the World-honored one, and immediately said to the +honored one, the great Mugalan, "Do you go and salute the World-honored +one," Mugalan forthwith went, and with head and face did homage at +Buddha's feet. They then saluted and questioned each other, and when +this was over, Buddha said to Mugalan, "Seven days after this I will go +down to Jambudvipa"; and thereupon Mugalan returned. At this time the +great kings of eight countries with their ministers and people, not +having seen Buddha for a long time, were all thirstily looking up for +him, and had collected in clouds in this kingdom to wait for the +World-honored one. + +Then the bhikshuni Utpala thought in her heart, "To-day the kings, with +their ministers and people, will all be meeting and welcoming Buddha. I +am but a woman; how shall I succeed in being the first to see him?" +Buddha immediately, by his spirit-like power, changed her into the +appearance of a holy Chakravartti king, and she was the foremost of all +in doing reverence to him. + +As Buddha descended from his position aloft in the Trayastrims'as +heaven, when he was coming down, there were made to appear three flights +of precious steps. Buddha was on the middle flight, the steps of which +were composed of the seven precious substances. The king of Brahma-loka +[4] also made a flight of silver steps appear on the right side, where +he was seen attending with a white chowry in his hand. Sakra, Ruler of +Devas, made a flight of steps of purple gold on the left side, where he +was seen attending and holding an umbrella of the seven precious +substances. An innumerable multitude of the devas followed Buddha in his +descent. When he was come down, the three flights all disappeared in the +ground, excepting seven steps, which continued to be visible. Afterwards +king As'oka, wishing to know where their ends rested, sent men to dig +and see. They went down to the yellow springs without reaching the +bottom of the steps, and from this the king received an increase to his +reverence and faith, and built a vihara over the steps, with a standing +image, sixteen cubits in height, right over the middle flight. Behind +the vihara he erected a stone pillar, about fifty cubits high, with a +lion on the top of it. [5] Let into the pillar, on each of its four +sides, there is an image of Buddha, inside and out shining and +transparent, and pure as it were of lapis lazuli. Some teachers of +another doctrine once disputed with the S'ramanas about the right to +this as a place of residence, and the latter were having the worst of +the argument, when they took an oath on both sides on the condition +that, if the place did indeed belong to the S'ramanas, there should be +some marvellous attestation of it. When these words had been spoken, the +lion on the top gave a great roar, thus giving the proof; on which their +opponents were frightened, bowed to the decision, and withdrew. + +Through Buddha having for three months partaken of the food of heaven, +his body emitted a heavenly fragrance, unlike that of an ordinary man. +He went immediately and bathed; and afterwards, at the spot where he did +so, a bathing-house was built, which is still existing. At the place +where the bhikshuni Utpala was the first to do reverence to Buddha, a +tope has now been built. + +At the places where Buddha, when he was in the world, cut his hair and +nails, topes are erected; and where the three Buddhas [6] that preceded +S'akyamuni Buddha and he himself sat; where they walked, and where +images of their persons were made. At all these places topes were made, +and are still existing. At the place where S'akra, Ruler of the Devas, +and the king of the Brahma-loka followed Buddha down from the +Trayastrimsas heaven they have also raised a tope. + +At this place the monks and nuns may be a thousand, who all receive +their food from the common store, and pursue their studies, some of the +mahayana and some of the hinayana. Where they live, there is a +white-eared dragon, which acts the part of danapati to the community of +these monks, causing abundant harvests in the country, and the enriching +rains to come in season, without the occurrence of any calamities, so +that the monks enjoy their repose and ease. In gratitude for its +kindness, they have made for it a dragon-house, with a carpet for it to +sit on, and appointed for it a diet of blessing, which they present for +its nourishment. Every day they set apart three of their number to go to +its house, and eat there. Whenever the summer retreat is ended, the +dragon straightway changes its form, and appears as a small snake, with +white spots at the side of its ears. As soon as the monks recognize it, +they fill a copper vessel with cream, into which they put the creature, +and then carry it round from the one who has the highest seat at their +tables to him who has the lowest, when it appears as if saluting them. +When it has been taken round, immediately it disappears; and every year +it thus comes forth once. The country is very productive, and the people +are prosperous, and happy beyond comparison. When people of other +countries come to it, they are exceedingly attentive to them all, and +supply them with what they need. + +Fifty yojanas northwest from the monastery there is another, called "The +Great Heap." Great Heap was the name of a wicked demon, who was +converted by Buddha, and men subsequently at this place reared a vihara. +When it was being made over to an Arhat by pouring water on his hands, +some drops fell on the ground. They are still on the spot, and however +they may be brushed away and removed, they continue to be visible, and +cannot be made to disappear. + +At this place there is also a tope to Buddha, where a good spirit +constantly keeps all about it swept and watered, without any labor of +man being required. A king of corrupt views once said, "Since you are +able to do this, I will lead a multitude of troops and reside there till +the dirt and filth has increased and accumulated, and see whether you +can cleanse it away or not." The spirit thereupon raised a great wind, +which blew the filth away, and made the place pure. + +At this place there are many small topes, at which a man may keep +counting a whole day without being able to know their exact number. If +he be firmly bent on knowing it, he will place a man by the side of each +tope. When this is done, proceeding to count the number of the men, +whether they be many or few, he will not get to know the number. [7] + +There is a monastery, containing perhaps six hundred or seven hundred +monks, in which there is a place where a Pratyeka Buddha used to take +his food. The nirvana ground where he was burned after death is as large +as a carriage wheel; and while grass grows all around, on this spot +there is none. The ground also where he dried his clothes produces no +grass, but the impression of them, where they lay on it, continues to +the present day. + + +[Footnote 1: The heaven of Indra or Sakya, meaning "the heaven of +thirty-three classes," a name which has been explained both historically +and mythologically. "The description of it," says Eitel, "tallies in all +respects with the Svarga of Brahmanic mythology. It is situated between +the four peaks of the Meru, and consists of thirty-two cities of devas, +eight on each of the four corners of the mountain. Indra's capital of +Bellevue is in the centre. There he is enthroned, with a thousand heads +and a thousand eyes, and four arms grasping the vajra, with his wife and +119,000 concubines. There he receives the monthly reports of the four +Maharajas, concerning the progress of good and evil in the world," etc., +etc.] + +[Footnote 2: Buddha's mother, Maya and Maha-maya, died seven days after +his birth.] + +[Footnote 3: Anuruddha was a first cousin of Sakyamuni, being the son of +his uncle Amritodana. He is often mentioned in the account we have of +Buddha's last moments. His special gift was the "heavenly eye," the +first of the six "supernatural talents," the faculty of comprehending in +one instantaneous view, or by intuition, all beings in all worlds.] + +[Footnote 4: This was Brahma, the first person of the Brahmanical +Trimurti, adopted by Buddhism, but placed in an inferior position, and +surpassed by every Buddhist saint who attains to bodhi.] + +[Footnote 5: A note of Mr. Beal says on this:--"General Cunningham, who +visited the spot (1862), found a pillar, evidently of the age of Asoka, +with a well-carved elephant on the top, which, however, was minus trunk +and tail. He supposes this to be the pillar seen by Fa-hien, who mistook +the top of it for a lion. It is possible such a mistake may have been +made, as in the account of one of the pillars at Sravasti, Fa-hien says +an ox formed the capital, whilst Hsuean-chwang calls it an elephant."] + +[Footnote 6: These three predecessors of Sakya-muni were the three +Buddhas of the present or Maha-bhadra Kalpa, of which he was the fourth, +and Maitreya is to be the fifth and last. They were: (i) Kra-kuchanda, +"he who readily solves all doubts"; a scion of the Kasyapa family. Human +life reached in his time forty thousand years, and so many persons were +converted by him. (2) Kanakamuni, "body radiant with the color of pure +gold"; of the same family. Human life reached in his time thirty +thousand years, and so many persons were converted by him. (3) Kasyapa, +"swallower of light." Human life reached in his time twenty thousand +years, and so many persons were converted by him.] + +[Footnote 7: This would seem to be absurd; but the writer evidently +intended to convey the idea that there was something mysterious about +the number of the topes.] + + + +CHAPTER XVIII + +~Buddha's Subjects of Discourse~ + + +Fa-Hien stayed at the Dragon vihara till after the summer retreat, [1] +and then, travelling to the southeast for seven yojanas, he arrived at +the city of Kanyakubja, lying along the Ganges. There are two +monasteries in it, the inmates of which are students of the hinayana. At +a distance from the city of six or seven li, on the west, on the +northern bank of the Ganges, is a place where Buddha preached the Law to +his disciples. It has been handed down that his subjects of discourse +were such as "The bitterness and vanity of life as impermanent and +uncertain," and that "The body is as a bubble or foam on the water." At +this spot a tope was erected, and still exists. + +Having crossed the Ganges, and gone south for three yojanas, the +travellers arrived at a village named A-le, containing places where +Buddha preached the Law, where he sat, and where he walked, at all of +which topes have been built. + + +[Footnote 1: This was, probably, in A.D. 405.] + + + +CHAPTER XIX + +~Legend of Buddha's Danta-kashtha~ + + +Going on from this to the southeast for three yojanas, they came to the +great kingdom of Sha-che. As you go out of the city of Sha-che by the +southern gate, on the east of the road is the place where Buddha, after +he had chewed his willow branch, stuck it in the ground, when it +forthwith grew up seven cubits, at which height it remained, neither +increasing nor diminishing. The Brahmans, with their contrary doctrines, +became angry and jealous. Sometimes they cut the tree down, sometimes +they plucked it up, and cast it to a distance, but it grew again on the +same spot as at first. Here also is the place where the four Buddhas +walked and sat, and at which a tope was built that is still existing. + + + +CHAPTER XX + +~The Jetavana Vihara--Legends of Buddha~ + + +Going on from this to the south, for eight yojanas, the travellers came +to the city of Sravasti in the kingdom of Kosala, in which the +inhabitants were few and far between, amounting in all only to a few +more than two hundred families; the city where king Prasenajit ruled, +and the place of the old vihara of Maha-prajapati; [1] of the well and +walls of the house of the Vaisya head Sudatta; [2] and where the +Angulimalya [3] became an Arhat, and his body was afterwards burned on +his attaining to pari-nirvana. At all these places topes were +subsequently erected, which are still existing in the city. The +Brahmans, with their contrary doctrine, became full of hatred and envy +in their hearts, and wished to destroy them, but there came from the +heavens such a storm of crashing thunder and flashing lightning that +they were not able in the end to effect their purpose. + +As you go out from the city by the south gate, and one thousand two +hundred paces from it, the Vais'ya head Sudatta built a vihara, facing +the south; and when the door was open, on each side of it there was a +stone pillar, with the figure of a wheel on the top of that on the left, +and the figure of an ox on the top of that on the right. On the left and +right of the building the ponds of water clear and pure, the thickets of +trees always luxuriant, and the numerous flowers of various hues, +constituted a lovely scene, the whole forming what is called the +Jetavana vihara. + +When Buddha went up to the Trayastrimsas heaven, and preached the Law +for the benefit of his mother, after he had been absent for ninety days, +Prasenajit, longing to see him, caused an image of him to be carved in +Gosirsha Chandana wood, and put in the place where he usually sat. When +Buddha, on his return entered the vihara, this image immediately left +its place, and came forth to meet him. Buddha said to it, "Return to +your seat. After I have attained to pari-nirvana, you will serve as a +pattern to the four classes of my disciples," [4] and on this the image +returned to its seat. This was the very first of all the images of +Buddha, and that which men subsequently copied. Buddha then removed, and +dwelt in a small vihara on the south side of the other, a different +place from that containing the image, and twenty paces distant from it. + +The Jetavana vihara was originally of seven stories. The kings and +people of the countries around vied with one another in their offerings, +hanging up about it silken streamers and canopies, scattering flowers, +burning incense, and lighting lamps, so as to make the night as bright +as the day. This they did day after day without ceasing. It happened +that a rat, carrying in its mouth the wick of a lamp, set one of the +streamers or canopies on fire, which caught the vihara, and the seven +stories were all consumed. The kings, with their officers and people, +were all very sad and distressed, supposing that the sandalwood image +had been burned; but lo! after four or five days, when the door of a +small vihara on the east was opened, there was immediately seen the +original image. They were all greatly rejoiced, and cooperated in +restoring the vihara. When they had succeeded in completing two stories, +they removed the image back to its former place. + +When Fa-hien and Tao-ching first arrived at the Jetavana monastery, and +thought how the World-honored one had formerly resided there for +twenty-five years, painful reflections arose in their minds. Born in a +border-land, along with their like-minded friends, they had travelled +through so many kingdoms; some of those friends had returned to their +own land, and some had died, proving the impermanence and uncertainty of +life; and today they saw the place where Buddha had lived now unoccupied +by him. They were melancholy through their pain of heart, and the crowd +of monks came out, and asked them from what kingdom they were come. "We +are come," they replied, "from the land of Han." "Strange," said the +monks with a sigh, "that men of a border country should be able to come +here in search of our Law!" Then they said to one another, "During all +the time that we, preceptors and monks, have succeeded to one another, +we have never seen men of Han, followers of our system, arrive here." + +Four li to the northwest of the vihara there is a grove called "The +Getting of Eyes." Formerly there were five hundred blind men, who lived +here in order that they might be near the vihara. Buddha preached his +Law to them, and they all got their eyesight. Full of joy, they stuck +their staves in the earth, and with their heads and faces on the ground, +did reverence. The staves immediately began to grow, and they grew to be +great. People made much of them, and no one dared to cut them down, so +that they came to form a grove. It was in this way that it got its name, +and most of the Jetavana monks, after they had taken their mid-day meal, +went to the grove, and sat there in meditation. + +Six or seven li northeast from the Jetavana, mother Vaisakha built +another vihara, to which she invited Buddha and his monks, and which is +still existing. + +To each of the great residences for the monks at the Jetavana vihara +there were two gates, one facing the east and the other facing the +north. The park containing the whole was the space of ground which the +Vaisaya head, Sudatta, purchased by covering it with gold coins. The +vihara was exactly in the centre. Here Buddha lived for a longer time +than at any other place, preaching his Law and converting men. At the +places where he walked and sat they also subsequently reared topes, each +having its particular name; and here was the place where Sundari [5] +murdered a person and then falsely charged Buddha with the crime. +Outside the east gate of the Jetavana, at a distance of seventy paces to +the north, on the west of the road, Buddha held a discussion with the +advocates of the ninety-six schemes of erroneous doctrine, when the king +and his great officers, the householders, and people were all assembled +in crowds to hear it. Then a woman belonging to one of the erroneous +systems, by name Chanchamana, prompted by the envious hatred in her +heart, and having put on extra clothes in front of her person, so as to +give her the appearance of being with child, falsely accused Buddha +before all the assembly of having acted unlawfully towards her. On this, +Sakra, Ruler of Devas, changed himself and some devas into white mice, +which bit through the strings about her waist; and when this was done, +the extra clothes which she wore dropped down on the ground. The earth +at the same time was rent, and she went down alive into hell. This also +is the place where Devadatta, trying with empoisoned claws to injure +Buddha, went down alive into hell. Men subsequently set up marks to +distinguish where both these events took place. + +Further, at the place where the discussion took place, they reared a +vihara rather more than sixty cubits high, having in it an image of +Buddha in a sitting posture. On the east of the road there was a +devalaya [6] of one of the contrary systems, called "The Shadow +Covered," right opposite the vihara on the place of discussion, with +only the road between them, and also rather more than sixty cubits high. +The reason why it was called "The Shadow Covered" was this: When the sun +was in the west, the shadow of the vihara of the World-honored one fell +on the devalaya of a contrary system; but when the sun was in the east, +the shadow of that devalaya was diverted to the north, and never fell on +the vihara of Buddha. The malbelievers regularly employed men to watch +their devalaya, to sweep and water all about it, to burn incense, light +the lamps, and present offerings; but in the morning the lamps were +found to have been suddenly removed, and in the vihara of Buddha. The +Brahmans were indignant, and said, "Those Sramanas take our lamps and +use them for their own service of Buddha, but we will not stop our +service for you!" [7] On that night the Brahmans themselves kept watch, +when they saw the deva spirits which they served take the lamps and go +three times round the vihara of Buddha and present offerings. After this +administration to Buddha they suddenly disappeared. The Brahmans +thereupon knowing how great was the spiritual power of Buddha, forthwith +left their families, and became monks. It has been handed down, that, +near the time when these things occurred, around the Jetavana vihara +there were ninety-eight monasteries, in all of which there were monks +residing, excepting only in one place which was vacant. In this Middle +Kingdom there are ninety-six sorts of views, erroneous and different +from our system, all of which recognize this world and the future world +and the connection between them. Each has its multitude of followers, +and they all beg their food: only they do not carry the alms-bowl. They +also, moreover, seek to acquire the blessing of good deeds on +unfrequented ways, setting up on the roadside houses of charity, where +rooms, couches, beds, and food and drink are supplied to travellers, and +also to monks, coming and going as guests, the only difference being in +the time for which those parties remain. + +There are also companies of the followers of Devadatta still existing. +They regularly make offerings to the three previous Buddhas, but not to +Sakyamuni Buddha. + +Four li southeast from the city of Sravasti, a tope has been erected at +the place where the World-honored one encountered king Virudhaha, when +he wished to attack the kingdom of Shay-e, and took his stand before him +at the side of the road. + + +[Footnote 1: Explained by "Path of Love," and "Lord of Life." Prajapati +was aunt and nurse of Sakyamuni, the first woman admitted to the +monkhood, and the first superior of the first Buddhistic convent. She is +yet to become a Buddha.] + +[Footnote 2: Sudatta, meaning "almsgiver," was the original name of +Anatha-pindika, a wealthy householder, or Vaisya head, of Sravasti, +famous for his liberality. Of his old house, only the well and walls +remained at the time of Fa-hien's visit to Sravasti.] + +[Footnote 3: The Angulimalya were a sect or set of Sivaitic fanatics, +who made assassination a religious act. The one of them here mentioned +had joined them by the force of circumstances. Being converted by +Buddha, he became a monk.] + +[Footnote 4: Arya, meaning "honorable," "venerable," is a title given +only to those who have mastered the four spiritual truths:--(i) that +"misery" is a necessary condition of all sentient existence; this is +duhka: (ii) that the "accumulation" of misery is caused by the passions; +this is samudaya: (iii) that the "extinction" of passion is possible; +this is nirodha: and (iv) that the "path" leads to the extinction of +passion; which is marga. According to their attainment of these truths, +the Aryas, or followers of Buddha, are distinguished into four +classes--Srotapannas, Sakridagamins, Anagamins, and Arhats.] + +[Footnote 5: Hsuean-chwang does not give the name of this murderer; see +in Julien's "Vie et Voyages de Hiouen-thsang "--"a heretical Brahman +killed a woman and calumniated Buddha." See also the fuller account in +Beal's "Records of Western Countries," where the murder is committed by +several Brahmacharins. In this passage Beal makes Sundari to be the name +of the murdered person. But the text cannot be so construed.] + +[Footnote 6: A devalaya is a place in which a deva is worshipped--a +general name for all Brahmanical temples.] + +[Footnote 7: Their speech was somewhat unconnected, but natural enough +in the circumstances. Compare the whole account with the narrative in 1 +Samuel v. about the Ark and Dagon, that "twice-battered god of +Palestine."] + + + +CHAPTER XXI + +~The Three Predecessors of Sakyamuni~ + + +Fifty li to the west of the city brings the traveller to a town +named Too-wei, the birthplace of Kasyapa Buddha. At the +place where he and his father met, and at that where he attained +to pari-nirvana, topes were erected. Over the entire relic +of the whole body of him, the Kasyapa Tathagata, a great tope +was also erected. + +Going on southeast from the city of Sravasti for twelve yojanas, +the travellers came to a town named Na-pei-kea, the birthplace +of Krakuchanda Buddha. At the place where he and his father met, +and at that where he attained to pari-nirvana, topes were erected. +Going north from here less than a yojana, they came to a town +which had been the birthplace of Kanakamuni Buddha. At the place +where he and his father met, and where he attained to pari-nirvana, +topes were erected. + + + +CHAPTER XXII + +~Legends of Buddha's Birth~ + + +Less than a yojana to the east from this brought them to the city of +Kapilavastu; but in it there was neither king nor people. All was mound +and desolation. Of inhabitants there were only some monks and a score or +two of families of the common people. At the spot where stood the old +palace of king Suddhodana there have been made images of his eldest son +and his mother; and at the places where that son appeared mounted on a +white elephant when he entered his mother's womb, and where he turned +his carriage round on seeing the sick man after he had gone out of the +city by the eastern gate, topes have been erected. The places were also +pointed out where the rishi A-e inspected the marks of Buddhaship on the +body of the heir-apparent when an infant; where, when he was in company +with Nanda and others, on the elephant being struck down and drawn on +one side, he tossed it away; [1] where he shot an arrow to the +southeast, and it went a distance of thirty li, then entering the ground +and making a spring to come forth, which men subsequently fashioned into +a well from which travellers might drink; where, after he had attained +to Wisdom, Buddha returned and saw the king, his father; where five +hundred Sakyas quitted their families and did reverence to Upali [2] +while the earth shook and moved in six different ways; where Buddha +preached his Law to the devas, and the four deva kings and others kept +the four doors of the hall, so that even the king, his father, could not +enter; where Buddha sat under a nyagrodha tree, which is still standing, +with his face to the east, and his aunt Maha-prajapati presented him +with a Sanghali; and where king Vaidurya slew the seed of Sakya, and +they all in dying became Srotapannas. [3] A tope was erected at this +last place, which is still existing. + +Several li northeast from the city was the king's field, where the +heir-apparent sat under a tree, and looked at the ploughers. + +Fifty li east from the city was a garden, named Lumbini, where the queen +entered the pond and bathed. Having come forth from the pond on the +northern bank, after walking twenty paces, she lifted up her hand, laid +hold of a branch of a tree, and, with her face to the east, gave birth +to the heir-apparent. When he fell to the ground, he immediately walked +seven paces. Two dragon-kings appeared and washed his body. At the place +where they did so, there was immediately formed a well, and from it, as +well as from the above pond, where the queen bathed, the monks even now +constantly take the water, and drink it. + +There are four places of regular and fixed occurrence in the history of +all Buddhas: first, the place where they attained to perfect Wisdom and +became Buddha; second, the place where they turned the wheel of the Law; +third, the place where they preached the Law, discoursed of +righteousness, and discomfited the advocates of erroneous doctrines; and +fourth, the place where they came down, after going up to the +Trayastrimsas heaven to preach the Law for the benefit of their +mothers. Other places in connection with them became remarkable, +according to the manifestations which were made at them at particular +times. + +The country of Kapilavastu is a great scene of empty desolation. The +inhabitants are few and far between. On the roads people have to be on +their guard against white elephants [4] and lions, and should not travel +incautiously. + + +[Footnote 1: The Lichchhavis of Vaisali had sent to the young prince a +very fine elephant; but when it was near Kapilavastu, Deva-datta, out of +envy, killed it with a blow of his fist. Nanda (not Ananda, but a +half-brother of Siddhartha), coming that way, saw the carcass lying on +the road, and pulled it on one side; but the Bodhisattva, seeing it +there, took it by the tail, and tossed it over seven fences and ditches, +when the force of its fall made a great ditch.] + +[Footnote 2: They did this, probably, to show their humility, for Upali +was only a Sudra by birth, and had been a barber; so from the first did +Buddhism assert its superiority to the conditions of rank and caste. +Upali was distinguished by his knowledge of the rules of discipline, and +praised on that account by Buddha. He was one of the three leaders of +the first synod, and the principal compiler of the original Vinaya +books.] + +[Footnote 3: The Srotapannas are the first class of saints, who are not +to be reborn in a lower sphere, but attain to nirvana after having been +reborn seven times consecutively as men or devas. The Chinese editions +state there were one thousand of the Sakya seed. The general account is +that they were five hundred, all maidens, who refused to take their +place in king Vaidurya's harem, and were in consequence taken to a pond, +and had their hands and feet cut off. There Buddha came to them, had +their wounds dressed, and preached to them the Law. They died in the +faith, and were reborn in the region of the four Great Kings. Thence +they came back and visited Buddha at Jetavana in the night, and there +they obtained the reward of Srotapanna.] + +[Footnote 4: Fa-hien does not say that he himself saw any of these white +elephants, nor does he speak of the lions as of any particular color. We +shall find by and by, in a note further on, that, to make them appear +more terrible, they are spoken of as "black."] + + + +CHAPTER XXIII + +~Legends of Rama and its Tope~ + + +East from Buddha's birthplace, and at a distance of five yojanas, there +is a kingdom called Rama. The king of this country, having obtained one +portion of the relics of Buddha's body, returned with it and built over +it a tope, named the Rama tope. By the side of it there was a pool, and +in the pool a dragon, which constantly kept watch over the tope, and +presented offerings at it day and night. When king Asoka came forth +into the world, he wished to destroy the eight topes over the relics, +and to build instead of them eighty-four thousand topes. [1] After he +had thrown down the seven others, he wished next to destroy this tope. +But then the dragon showed itself, and took the king into its palace; +when he had seen all the things provided for offerings, it said to him, +"If you are able with your offerings to exceed these, you can destroy +the tope, and take it all away. I will not contend with you." The king, +however, knew that such appliances for offerings were not to be had +anywhere in the world, and thereupon returned without carrying out his +purpose. + +Afterwards, the ground all about became overgrown with vegetation, and +there was nobody to sprinkle and sweep about the tope; but a herd of +elephants came regularly, which brought water with their trunks to water +the ground, and various kinds of flowers and incense, which they +presented at the tope. Once there came from one of the kingdoms a +devotee to worship at the tope. When he encountered the elephants he was +greatly alarmed, and screened himself among the trees; but when he saw +them go through with the offerings in the most proper manner, the +thought filled him with great sadness--that there should be no monastery +here, the inmates of which might serve the tope, but the elephants have +to do the watering and sweeping. Forthwith he gave up the great +prohibitions by which he was bound, and resumed the status of a +Sramanera. With his own hands he cleared away the grass and trees, put +the place in good order, and made it pure and clean. By the power of his +exhortations, he prevailed on the king of the country to form a +residence for monks; and when that was done, he became head of the +monastery. At the present day there are monks residing in it. This event +is of recent occurrence; but in all the succession from that time till +now, there has always been a Sramanera head of the establishment. + +[Footnote 1: The bones of the human body are supposed to consist of +84,000 atoms, and hence the legend of Asoka's wish to build 84,000 +topes, one over each atom of Sakyamuni's skeleton.] + + + +CHAPTER XXIV + +~Where Buddha Renounced the World~ + + +East from here four yojanas, there is the place where the heir-apparent +sent back Chandaka, with his white horse; and there also a tope was +erected. + +Four yojanas to the east from this, the travellers came to the Charcoal +tope, where there is also a monastery. + +Going on twelve yojanas, still to the east, they came to the city of +Kusanagara, on the north of which, between two trees, on the bank of the +Nairanjana river, is the place where the World-honored one, with his +head to the north, attained to pan-nirvana and died. There also are the +places where Subhadra, [1] the last of his converts, attained to Wisdom +and became an Arhat; where in his coffin of gold they made offerings to +the World-honored one for seven days, where the Vajrapani laid aside his +golden club, and where the eight kings divided the relics of the burnt +body: at all these places were built topes and monasteries, all of which +are now existing. + +In the city the inhabitants are few and far between, comprising only the +families belonging to the different societies of monks. + +Going from this to the southeast for twelve yojanas, they came to the +place where the Lichchhavis wished to follow Buddha to the place of his +pari-nirvana, and where, when he would not listen to them and they kept +cleaving to him, unwilling to go away, he made to appear a large and +deep ditch which they could not cross over, and gave them his alms-bowl, +as a pledge of his regard, thus sending them back to their families. +There a stone pillar was erected with an account of this event engraved +upon it. + + +[Footnote 1: A Brahman of Benares, said to have been one hundred and +twenty years old, who came to learn from Buddha the very night he died. +Ananda would have repulsed him; but Buddha ordered him to be introduced; +and then putting aside the ingenious but unimportant question which he +propounded, preached to him the Law. The Brahman was converted and +attained at once to Arhatship.] + + + +CHAPTER XXV + +~The Kingdom of Vaisali~ + + +East from this city ten yojanas, the travellers came to the kingdom of +Vaisali. North of the city so named is a large forest, having in it the +double-galleried vihara where Buddha dwelt, and the tope over half the +body of Ananda. Inside the city the woman Ambapali [1] built a vihara in +honor of Buddha, which is now standing as it was at first. Three li +south of the city, on the west of the road, is the garden which the same +Ambapali presented to Buddha, in which he might reside. When Buddha was +about to attain to his pari-nirvana, as he was quitting the city by the +west gate, he turned round, and, beholding the city on his right, said +to them, "Here I have taken my last walk." Men subsequently built a tope +at this spot. + +Three li northwest of the city there is a tope called, "Bows and weapons +laid down." The reason why it got that name was this: The inferior wife +of a king, whose country lay along the river Ganges, brought forth from +her womb a ball of flesh. The superior wife, jealous of the other, said, +"You have brought forth a thing of evil omen," and immediately it was +put into a box of wood and thrown into the river. Farther down the +stream another king was walking and looking about, when he saw the +wooden box floating in the water. He had it brought to him, opened it, +and found a thousand little boys, upright and complete, and each one +different from the others. He took them and had them brought up. They +grew tall and large, and very daring and strong, crushing all opposition +in every expedition which they undertook. By and by they attacked the +kingdom of their real father, who became in consequence greatly +distressed and sad. His inferior wife asked what it was that made him +so, and he replied, "That king has a thousand sons, daring and strong +beyond compare, and he wishes with them to attack my kingdom; this is +what makes me sad." The wife said, "You need not be sad and sorrowful. +Only make a high gallery on the wall of the city on the east; and when +the thieves come, I shall be able to make them retire." The king did as +she said; and when the enemies came, she said to them from the tower, +"You are my sons; why are you acting so unnaturally and rebelliously?" +They replied, "Who are you that say you are our mother?" "If you do not +believe me," she said, "look, all of you, towards me, and open your +mouths." She then pressed her breasts with her two hands, and each sent +forth five hundred jets of milk, which fell into the mouths of the +thousand sons. The thieves thus knew that she was their mother, and laid +down their bows and weapons. The two kings, the fathers, hereupon fell +into reflection, and both got to be Pratyeka Buddhas. The tope of the +two Pratyeka Buddhas is still existing. + +In a subsequent age, when the World-honored one had attained to perfect +Wisdom and become Buddha, he said to his disciples, "This is the place +where I in a former age laid down my bow and weapons." [2] It was thus +that subsequently men got to know the fact, and raised the tope on this +spot, which in this way received its name. The thousand little boys were +the thousand Buddhas of this Bhadra-kalpa. [3] + +It was by the side of the "Weapons-laid-down" tope that Buddha, having +given up the idea of living longer, said to Ananda, "In three months +from this I will attain to pari-nirvana"; and king Mara [4] had so +fascinated and stupefied Ananda, that he was not able to ask Buddha to +remain longer in this world. + +Three or four li east from this place there is a tope commemorating the +following occurrence: A hundred years after the pari-nirvana of Buddha, +some Bhikshus of Vaisali went wrong in the matter of the disciplinary +rules in ten particulars, and appealed for their justification to what +they said were the words of Buddha. Hereupon the Arhats and Bhikshus +observant of the rules, to the number in all of seven hundred monks, +examined afresh and collated the collection of disciplinary books [5]. +Subsequently men built at this place the tope in question, which is +still existing. + + +[Footnote 1: Ambapali, Amrapali, or Amradarika, "the guardian of the +Amra (probably the mango) tree," is famous in Buddhist annals. She was a +courtesan. She had been in many narakas or hells, was one hundred +thousand times a female beggar, and ten thousand times a prostitute; but +maintaining perfect continence during the period of Kasyana Buddha, +Sakyamuni's predecessor, she had been born a devi, and finally appeared +in earth under an Amra tree in Vaisali. There again she fell into her +old ways, and had a son by king Bimbisara; but she was won over by +Buddha to virtue and chastity, renounced the world, and attained to the +state of an Arhat.] + +[Footnote 2: Thus Sakyamuni had been one of the thousand little boys who +floated in the box in the Ganges. How long back the former age was we +cannot tell. I suppose the tope of the two fathers who became Pratyeka +Buddhas had been built like the one commemorating the laying down of +weapons after Buddha had told his disciples of the strange events in the +past.] + +[Footnote 3: Bhadra-kalpa, "the Kalpa of worthies or sages." "This," +says Eitel, "is a designation for a Kalpa of stability, so-called +because one thousand Buddhas appear in the course of it. Our present +period is a Bhadra-kalpa, and four Buddhas have already appeared. It is +to last two hundred and thirty-six millions of years, but over one +hundred and fifty-one millions have already elapsed."] + +[Footnote 4: "The king of demons." The name Mara is explained by "the +murderer," "the destroyer of virtue," and similar appellations. "He is," +says Eitel, "the personification of lust, the god of love, sin, and +death, the arch-enemy of goodness, residing in the heaven Paranirmita +Vasavartin on the top of the Kamadhatu. He assumes different forms, +especially monstrous ones, to tempt or frighten the saints, or sends his +daughters, or inspires wicked men like Devadatta or the Nirgranthas to +do his work. He is often represented with 100 arms, and riding on an +elephant."] + +[Footnote 5: Or the Vinaya-pitaka. The meeting referred to was an +important one, and is generally spoken of as the second Great Council of +the Buddhist Church. The first Council was that held at Rajagriha, +shortly after Buddha's death, under the presidency of Kasyapa--say about +B.C. 410. The second was that spoken of here--say about B.C. 300.] + + + +CHAPTER XXVI + +~Remarkable Death of Ananda~ + + +Four yojanas on from this place to the east brought the travellers to +the confluence of the five rivers. When Ananda was going from Magadha to +Vaisali, wishing his pari-nirvana to take place there, the devas +informed king Ajatasatru [1] of it, and the king immediately pursued +him, in his own grand carriage, with a body of soldiers, and had reached +the river. On the other hand, the Lichchhavis of Vaisali had heard that +Ananda was coming to their city, and they on their part came to meet +him. In this way, they all arrived together at the river, and Ananda +considered that, if he went forward, king Ajatasatru would be very +angry, while, if he went back, the Lichchhavis would resent his conduct. +He thereupon in the very middle of the river burnt his body in a fiery +ecstasy of Samadhi [2], and his pari-nirvana was attained. He divided +his body into two parts, leaving one part on each bank; so that each of +the two kings got one part as a sacred relic, and took it back to his +own capital, and there raised a tope over it. + + +[Footnote 1: He was the son of king Bimbisara, who was one of the first +royal converts to Buddhism. Ajasat murdered his father, or at least +wrought his death; and was at first opposed to Sakyamuni, and a favorer +of Devadotta. When converted, he became famous for his liberality in +almsgiving.] + +[Footnote 2: "Samadhi," says Eitel, "signifies the highest pitch of +abstract, ecstatic meditation; a state of absolute indifference to all +influences from within or without; a state of torpor of both the +material and spiritual forces of vitality; a sort of terrestrial +Nirvana, consistently culminating in total destruction of life."] + + + +CHAPTER XXVII + +~King Asoka's Spirit-built Palace and Halls~ + + +Having crossed the river, and descended south for a yojana, the +travellers came to the town of Pataliputtra [1], in the kingdom of +Magadha, the city where king Asoka ruled. The royal palace and halls +in the midst of the city, which exist now as of old, were all made by +spirits which he employed, and which piled up the stones, reared the +walls and gates, and executed the elegant carving and inlaid +sculpture-work--in a way which no human hands of this world could +accomplish. + +King Asoka had a younger brother who had attained to be an Arhat, and +resided on Gridhra-kuta hill, finding his delight in solitude and quiet. +The king, who sincerely reverenced him, wished and begged him to come +and live in his family, where he could supply all his wants. The other, +however, through his delight in the stillness of the mountain, was +unwilling to accept the invitation, on which the king said to him, "Only +accept my invitation, and I will make a hill for you inside the city." +Accordingly, he provided the materials of a feast, called to him the +spirits, and announced to them, "Tomorrow you will all receive my +invitation; but as there are no mats for you to sit on, let each one +bring his own seat." Next day the spirits came, each one bringing with +him a great rock, like a wall, four or five paces square, for a seat. +When their sitting was over, the king made them form a hill with the +large stones piled on one another, and also at the foot of the hill, +with five large square stones, to make an apartment, which might be more +than thirty cubits long, twenty cubits wide, and more than ten cubits +high. + +In this city there had resided a great Brahman, named Radha-sami, a +professor of the mahayana, of clear discernment and much wisdom, who +understood everything, living by himself in spotless purity. The king of +the country honored and reverenced him, and served him as his teacher. +If he went to inquire for and greet him, the king did not presume to sit +down alongside of him; and if, in his love and reverence, he took hold +of his hand, as soon as he let it go, the Brahman made haste to pour +water on it and wash it. He might be more than fifty years old, and all +the kingdom looked up to him. By means of this one man, the Law of +Buddha was widely made-known, and the followers of other doctrines did +not find it in their power to persecute the body of monks in any way. + +By the side of the tope of Asoka, there has been made a mahayana +monastery, very grand and beautiful; there is also a hinayana one; the +two together containing six hundred or seven hundred monks. The rules of +demeanor and the scholastic arrangements in them are worthy of +observation. + +Shamans of the highest virtue from all quarters, and students, inquirers +wishing to find out truth and the grounds of it, all resort to these +monasteries. There also resides in this monastery a Brahman teacher, +whose name also is Manjusri, whom the Shamans of greatest virtue in +the kingdom, and the mahayana Bhikshus honor and look up to. + +The cities and towns of this country are the greatest of all in the +Middle Kingdom. The inhabitants are rich and prosperous, and vie with +one another in the practice of benevolence and righteousness. Every year +on the eighth day of the second month they celebrate a procession of +images. They make a four-wheeled car, and on it erect a structure of +five stories by means of bamboos tied together. This is supported by a +king-post, with poles and lances slanting from it, and is rather more +than twenty cubits high, having the shape of a tope. White and silk-like +cloth of hair is wrapped all round it, which is then painted in various +colors. They make figures of devas, with gold, silver, and lapis lazuli +grandly blended and having silken streamers and canopies hung out over +them. On the four sides are niches, with a Buddha seated in each, and a +Bodhisattva standing in attendance on him. There may be twenty cars, all +grand and imposing, but each one different from the others. On the day +mentioned, the monks and laity within the borders all come together; +they have singers and skilful musicians: they say their devotions with +flowers and incense. The Brahmans come and invite the Buddhas to enter +the city. These do so in order, and remain two nights in it. All through +the night they keep lamps burning, have skilful music, and present +offerings. This is the practice in all the other kingdoms as well. The +Heads of the Vaisya families in them establish in the cities houses for +dispensing charity and medicines. All the poor and destitute in the +country, orphans, widowers, and childless men, maimed people and +cripples, and all who are diseased, go to those houses, and are provided +with every kind of help, and doctors examine their diseases. They get +the food and medicines which their cases require, and are made to feel +at ease; and when they are better, they go away of themselves. + +When king Asoka destroyed the seven topes, intending to make eighty-four +thousand, the first which he made was the great tope, more than three li +to the south of this city. In front of this there is a footprint of +Buddha, where a vihara has been built. The door of it faces the north, +and on the south of it there is a stone pillar, fourteen or fifteen +cubits in circumference, and more than thirty cubits high, on which +there is an inscription, saying, "Asoka gave the Jambudvipa to the +general body of all the monks, and then redeemed it from them with +money. This he did three times." North from the tope three hundred or +four hundred paces, king Asoka built the city of Ne-le. In it there is a +stone pillar, which also is more than thirty feet high, with a lion on +the top of it. On the pillar there is an inscription recording the +things which led to the building of Ne-le, with the number of the year, +the day, and the month. + + +[Footnote 1: The modern Patna. The Sanscrit name means "The city of +flowers." It is the Indian Florence.] + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII + +~Rajagriha, New and Old--Legends Connected with It~ + + +The travellers went on from this to the southeast for nine yojanas, and +came to a small solitary rocky hill, at the head or end of which was an +apartment of stone, facing the south--the place where Buddha sat, when +Sakra, Ruler of Devas, brought the deva-musician, Panchasikha, to give +pleasure to him by playing on his lute. Sakra then asked Buddha about +forty-two subjects, tracing the questions out with his finger one by one +on the rock. The prints of his tracing are still there; and here also +there is a monastery. + +A yojana southwest from this place brought them to the village of Nala, +where Sariputtra was born, and to which also he returned, and attained +here his pari-nirvana. Over the spot where his body was burned there was +built a tope, which is still in existence. + +Another yojana to the west brought them to New Rajagriha--the new city +which was built by king Ajatasatru. There were two monasteries in it. +Three hundred paces outside the west gate, king Ajatasatru, having +obtained one portion of the relics of Buddha, built over them a tope, +high, large, grand, and beautiful. Leaving the city by the south gate, +and proceeding south four li, one enters a valley, and comes to a +circular space formed by five hills, which stand all round it, and have +the appearance of the suburban wall of a city. Here was the old city of +king Bimbisara; from east to west about five or six li, and from north +to south seven or eight. It was here that Sariputtra and Maudgalyayana +first saw Upasena [1]; that the Nirgrantha made a pit of fire and +poisoned the rice, and then invited Buddha to eat with him; that king +Ajatasatru made a black elephant intoxicated with liquor, wishing him to +injure Buddha; and that at the northeast corner of the city in a large +curving space Jivaka built a vihara in the garden of Ambapali, and +invited Buddha with his one thousand two hundred and fifty disciples to +it, that he might there make his offerings to support them. These places +are still there as of old, but inside the city all is emptiness and +desolation; no man dwells in it. + +[Footnote 1: One of the five first followers of Sakyamuni. He is also +called Asvajit; in Pali Assaji; but Asvajit seems to be a military +title, "Master or trainer of horses." The two more famous disciples met +him, not to lead him, but to be directed by him, to Buddha.] + + + +CHAPTER XXIX + +~Fa-Hien Passes a Night on Gridhra-kuta Hill~ + + +Entering the valley, and keeping along the mountains on the southeast, +after ascending fifteen li, the travellers came to mount Gridhra-kuta. +Three li before you reach the top, there is a cavern in the rocks, +facing the south, in which Buddha sat in meditation. Thirty paces to the +northwest there is another, where Ananda was sitting in meditation, when +the deva Mara Pisuna, having assumed the form of a large vulture, took +his place in front of the cavern, and frightened the disciple. Then +Buddha, by his mysterious, supernatural power, made a cleft in the rock, +introduced his hand, and stroked Ananda's shoulder, so that his fear +immediately passed away. The footprints of the bird and the cleft for +Buddha's hand are still there, and hence comes the name of "The Hill of +the Vulture Cavern." + +In front of the cavern there are the places where the four Buddhas sat. +There are caverns also of the Arhats, one where each sat and meditated, +amounting to several hundred in all. At the place where in front of his +rocky apartment Buddha was walking from east to west in meditation, and +Devadatta, from among the beetling cliffs on the north of the mountain, +threw a rock across, and hurt Buddha's toes, the rock is still there. + +The hall where Buddha preached his Law has been destroyed, and only the +foundations of the brick walls remain. On this hill the peak is +beautifully green, and rises grandly up; it is the highest of all the +five hills. In the New City Fa-hien bought incense-sticks, flowers, oil +and lamps, and hired two bhikshus, long resident at the place, to carry +them to the peak. When he himself got to it, he made his offerings with +the flowers and incense, and lighted the lamps when the darkness began +to come on. He felt melancholy, but restrained his tears and said, "Here +Buddha delivered the Surangama Sutra. I, Fa-hien, was born when I could +not meet with Buddha; and now I only see the footprints which he has +left, and the place where he lived, and nothing more." With this, in +front of the rock cavern, he chanted the Surangama Sutra, remained there +over the night, and then returned towards the New City. + + + +CHAPTER XXX + +~Srataparna Cave, or Cave of the First Council~ + + +Out from the old city, after walking over three hundred paces, on the +west of the road, the travellers found the Karanda Bamboo garden, where +the old vihara is still in existence, with a company of monks, who keep +the ground about it swept and watered. + +North of the vihara two or three li there was the Smasanam, which name +means in Chinese "the field of graves into which the dead are thrown." + +As they kept along the mountain on the south, and went west for three +hundred paces, they found a dwelling among the rocks, named the Pippala +cave, in which Buddha regularly sat in meditation after taking his +mid-day meal. + +Going on still to the west for five or six li, on the north of the hill, +in the shade, they found the cavern called Srataparna, [1] the place +where, after the nirvana of Buddha, five hundred Arhats collected the +Sutras. When they brought the Sutras forth, three lofty seats had been +prepared and grandly ornamented. Sariputtra occupied the one on the +left, and Maudgalyayana that on the right. Of the number of five hundred +one was wanting. Mahakasyapa was president on the middle seat. Ananda +was then outside the door, and could not get in. At the place there was +subsequently raised a tope, which is still existing. + +Along the sides of the hill, there are also a very great many cells +among the rocks, where the various Arhans sat and meditated. As you +leave the old city on the north, and go down east for three li, there is +the rock dwelling of Devadatta, and at a distance of fifty paces from it +there is a large, square, black rock. Formerly there was a bhikshu, who, +as he walked backwards and forwards upon it, thought with +himself:--"This body is impermanent, a thing of bitterness and vanity, +and which cannot be looked on as pure. I am weary of this body, and +troubled by it as an evil." With this he grasped a knife, and was about +to kill himself. But he thought again:--"The World-honored one laid down +a prohibition against one's killing himself." [2] Further it occurred to +him:--"Yes, he did; but I now only wish to kill three poisonous +thieves." Immediately with the knife he cut his throat. With the first +gash into the flesh he attained the state of a Srotapanna; when he had +gone half through, he attained to be an Anagamin; and when he had cut +right through, he was an Arhat, and attained to pari-nirvana, and died. + + +[Footnote 1: A very great place in the annals of Buddhism. The Council +in the Srataparna cave did not come together fortuitously, but appears +to have been convoked by the older members to settle the rules and +doctrines of the order. The cave was prepared for the occasion by king +Ajatasatru.] + +[Footnote 2: Buddha made a law forbidding the monks to commit suicide. +He prohibited any one from discoursing on the miseries of life in such a +manner as to cause desperation.] + + + +CHAPTER XXXI + +~Sakyamuni's Attaining to the Buddhaship~ + + +From this place, after travelling to the west for four yojanas, the +pilgrims came to the city of Gaya; but inside the city all was emptiness +and desolation. Going on again to the south for twenty li, they arrived +at the place where the Bodhisattva for six years practised with himself +painful austerities. All around was forest. + +Three li west from here they came to the place where, when Buddha had +gone into the water to bathe, a deva bent down the branch of a tree, by +means of which he succeeded in getting out of the pool. + +Two li north from this was the place where the Gramika girls presented +to Buddha the rice-gruel made with milk; and two li north from this was +the place where, seated on a rock under a great tree, and facing the +east, he ate the gruel. The tree and the rock are there at the present +day. The rock may be six cubits in breadth and length, and rather more +than two cubits in height. In Central India the cold and heat are so +equally tempered that trees live for several thousand and even for ten +thousand years. + +Half a yojana from this place to the northeast there was a cavern in the +rocks, into which the Bodhisattva entered, and sat cross-legged with his +face to the west. As he did so, he said to himself, "If I am to attain +to perfect wisdom and become Buddha, let there be a supernatural +attestation of it." On the wall of the rock there appeared immediately +the shadow of a Buddha, rather more than three feet in length, which is +still bright at the present day. At this moment heaven and earth were +greatly moved, and devas in the air spoke plainly, "This is not the +place where any Buddha of the past, or he that is to come, has attained, +or will attain, to perfect Wisdom. Less than half a yojana from this to +the southwest will bring you to the patra tree, where all past Buddhas +have attained, and all to come must attain, to perfect Wisdom." When +they had spoken these words, they immediately led the way forward to the +place, singing as they did so. As they thus went away, the Bodhisattva +arose and walked after them. At a distance of thirty paces from the +tree, a deva gave him the grass of lucky omen, which he received and +went on. After he had proceeded fifteen paces, five hundred green birds +came flying towards him, went round him thrice, and disappeared. The +Bodhisattva went forward to the patra tree, placed the kusa grass at the +foot of it, and sat down with his face to the east. Then king Mara sent +three beautiful young ladies, who came from the north, to tempt him, +while he himself came from the south to do the same. The Bodhisattva put +his toes down on the ground, and the demon soldiers retired and +dispersed, and the three young ladies were changed into old +grandmothers. + +At the place mentioned above of the six years' painful austerities, and +at all these other places, men subsequently reared topes and set up +images, which all exist at the present day. + +Where Buddha, after attaining to perfect Wisdom, for seven days +contemplated the tree, and experienced the joy of vimukti; where, under +the patra tree, he walked to and fro from west to east for seven days; +where the devas made a hall appear, composed of the seven precious +substances, and presented offerings to him for seven days; where the +blind dragon Muchilinda [1] encircled him for seven days; where he sat +under the nyagrodha tree, on a square rock, with his face to the east, +and Brahma-deva came and made his request to him; where the four deva +kings brought to him their alms-bowls; where the five hundred merchants +presented to him the roasted flour and honey; and where he converted the +brothers Kasyapa and their thousand disciples;--at all these places +topes were reared. + +At the place where Buddha attained to perfect Wisdom, there are three +monasteries, in all of which there are monks residing. The families of +their people around supply the societies of these monks with an abundant +sufficiency of what they require, so that there is no lack or stint. The +disciplinary rules are strictly observed by them. The laws regulating +their demeanor in sitting, rising, and entering when the others are +assembled, are those which have been practised by all the saints since +Buddha was in the world down to the present day. The places of the four +great topes have been fixed, and handed down without break, since Buddha +attained to nirvana. Those four great topes are those at the places +where Buddha was born; where he attained to Wisdom; where he began to +move the wheel of his Law; and where he attained to pari-nirvana. + + +[Footnote 1: Called also Maha, or the Great Muchilinda. Eitel says: "A +naga king, the tutelary deity of a lake near which Sakyamuni once sat +for seven days absorbed in meditation, whilst the king guarded him." The +account in "The Life of the Buddha" is:--"Buddha went to where +lived the naga king Muchilinda, and he, wishing to preserve him from the +sun and rain, wrapped his body seven times round him, and spread out his +hood over his head; and there he remained seven days in thought."] + + + +CHAPTER XXXII + +~Legend of King Asoka in a Former Birth~ + + +When king Asoka, in a former birth, was a little boy and playing on the +road, he met Kasyapa Buddha walking. The stranger begged food, and the +boy pleasantly took a handful of earth and gave it to him. The Buddha +took the earth, and returned it to the ground on which he was walking; +but because of this the boy received the recompense of becoming a king +of the iron wheel, to rule over Jambudvipa. Once when he was making a +judicial tour of inspection through Jambudvipa, he saw, between the iron +circuit of the two hills, a naraka for the punishment of wicked men. +Having thereupon asked his ministers what sort of a thing it was, they +replied, "It belongs to Yama, [1] king of demons, for punishing wicked +people." The king thought within himself:--"Even the king of demons is +able to make a naraka in which to deal with wicked men; why should not +I, who am the lord of men, make a naraka in which to deal with wicked +men?" He forthwith asked his ministers who could make for him a naraka +and preside over the punishment of wicked people in it. They replied +that it was only a man of extreme wickedness who could make it; and the +king thereupon sent officers to seek everywhere for such a bad man; and +they saw by the side of a pond a man tall and strong, with a black +countenance, yellow hair, and green eyes, hooking up the fish with his +feet, while he called to him birds and beasts, and, when they came, then +shot and killed them, so that not one escaped. Having got this man, they +took him to the king, who secretly charged him, "You must make a square +enclosure with high walls. Plant in it all kinds of flowers and fruits; +make good ponds in it for bathing; make it grand and imposing in every +way, so that men shall look to it with thirsting desire; make its gates +strong and sure; and when any one enters, instantly seize him and punish +him as a sinner, not allowing him to get out. Even if I should enter, +punish me as a sinner in the same way, and do not let me go. I now +appoint you master of that naraka." + +Soon after this a bhikshu, pursuing his regular course of begging his +food, entered the gate of the place. When the lictors of the naraka saw +him, they were about to subject him to their tortures; but he, +frightened, begged them to allow him a moment in which to eat his +mid-day meal. Immediately after, there came in another man, whom they +thrust into a mortar and pounded till a red froth overflowed. As the +bhikshu looked on, there came to him the thought of the impermanence, +the painful suffering and inanity of this body, and how it is but as a +bubble and as foam; and instantly he attained to Arhatship. Immediately +after, the lictors seized him, and threw him into a caldron of boiling +water. There was a look of joyful satisfaction, however, in the +bhikshu's countenance. The fire was extinguished, and the water became +cold. In the middle of the caldron there rose up a lotus flower, with +the bhikshu seated on it. The lictors at once went and reported to the +king that there was a marvellous occurrence in the naraka, and wished +him to go and see it; but the king said, "I formerly made such an +agreement that now I dare not go to the place." The lictors said, "This +is not a small matter. Your Majesty ought to go quickly. Let your former +agreement be altered." The king thereupon followed them, and entered the +naraka, when the bhikshu preached the Law to him, and he believed, and +was made free. Forthwith he demolished the naraka, and repented of all +the evil which he had formerly done. From this time he believed in and +honored the Three Precious Ones, and constantly went to a patra tree, +repenting under it, with self-reproach, of his errors, and accepting the +eight rules of abstinence. + +The queen asked where the king was constantly going to, and the +ministers replied that he was constantly to be seen under such and such +a patra tree. She watched for a time when the king was not there, and +then sent men to cut the tree down. When the king came, and saw what had +been done, he swooned away with sorrow, and fell to the ground. His +ministers sprinkled water on his face, and after a considerable time he +revived. He then built all round the stump with bricks, and poured a +hundred pitchers of cows' milk on the roots; and as he lay with his four +limbs spread out on the ground, he took this oath, "If the tree do not +live, I will never rise from this." When he had uttered this oath, the +tree immediately began to grow from the roots, and it has continued to +grow till now, when it is nearly one hundred cubits in height. + + +[Footnote 1: Yama was originally the Aryan god of the dead, living in a +heaven above the world, the regent of the south; but Brahmanism +transferred his abode to hell. Both views have been retained by +Buddhism. The Yama of the text is the "regent of the narakas, residing +south of Jambudvipa, outside the Chakravalas (the double circuit of +mountains above), in a palace built of brass and iron. He has a sister +who controls all the female culprits, as he exclusively deals with the +male sex. Three times, however, in every twenty-four hours, a demon +pours boiling copper into Yama's mouth, and squeezes it down his throat, +causing him unspeakable pain." Such, however, is the wonderful +"transrotation of births," that when Yama's sins have been expiated, he +is to be reborn as Buddha, under the name of "The Universal King."] + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII + +~Kasyapa Buddha's Skeleton on Mount Gurupada~ + + +The travellers, going on from this three li to the south, came to a +mountain named Gurupada, inside which Mahakasyapa even now is. He made a +cleft, and went down into it, though the place where he entered would +not now admit a man. Having gone down very far, there was a hole on one +side, and there the complete body of Kasyapa still abides. Outside the +hole at which he entered is the earth with which he had washed his +hands. If the people living thereabouts have a sore on their heads, they +plaster on it some of the earth from this, and feel immediately easier. +On this mountain, now as of old, there are Arhats abiding. Devotees of +our Law from the various countries in that quarter go year by year to +the mountain, and present offerings to Kasyapa; and to those whose +hearts are strong in faith there come Arhats at night, and talk with +them, discussing and explaining their doubts, and disappearing suddenly +afterwards. + +On this hill hazels grow luxuriantly; and there are many lions, tigers, +and wolves, so that people should not travel incautiously. + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV + +~On the Way Returning to Patna~ + + +Fa-Hien returned from here towards Pataliputtra, keeping along the +course of the Ganges and descending in the direction of the west. After +going ten yojanas he found a vihara, named "The Wilderness"--a place +where Buddha had dwelt, and where there are monks now. + +Pursuing the same course, and going still to the west, he arrived, after +twelve yojanas, at the city of Varanasi in the kingdom of Kasi. Rather +more than ten li to the northeast of the city, he found the vihara in +the park of "The rishi's Deer-wild." [1] In this park there formerly +resided a Pratyeka Buddha, with whom the deer were regularly in the +habit of stopping for the night. When the World-honored one was about to +attain to perfect Wisdom, the devas sang in the sky, "The son of king +Suddhodana, having quitted his family and studied the Path of Wisdom, +will now in seven days become Buddha." The Pratyeka Buddha heard their +words, and immediately attained to nirvana; and hence this place was +named "The Park of the rishi's Deer-wild." After the World-honored one +had attained to perfect Wisdom, men built the vihara in it. + +Buddha wished to convert Kaundinya and his four companions; but they, +being aware of his intention, said to one another, "This Sramana Gotama +[2] for six years continued in the practice of painful austerities, +eating daily only a single hemp-seed, and one grain of rice, without +attaining to the Path of Wisdom; how much less will he do so now that he +has entered again among men, and is giving the reins to the indulgence +of his body, his speech, and his thoughts! What has he to do with the Path +of Wisdom? To-day, when he comes to us, let us be on our guard not to +speak with him." At the places where the five men all rose up, and +respectfully saluted Buddha, when he came to them; where, sixty paces +north from this, he sat with his face to the east, and first turned the +wheel of the Law, converting Kaundinya and the four others; where, +twenty paces further to the north, he delivered his prophecy concerning +Maitreya; and where, at a distance of fifty paces to the south, the +dragon Elapattra asked him, "When shall I get free from this naga +body?"--at all these places topes were reared, and are still existing. +In the park there are two monasteries, in both of which there are monks +residing. + +When you go northwest from the vihara of the Deer-wild park for thirteen +yojanas, there is a kingdom named Kausambi. Its vihara is named +Ghochiravana--a place where Buddha formerly resided. Now, as of old, +there is a company of monks there, most of whom are students of the +hinayana. + +East from this, when you have travelled eight yojanas, is the place +where Buddha converted the evil demon. There, and where he walked in +meditation and sat at the place which was his regular abode, there have +been topes erected. There is also a monastery, which may contain more +than a hundred monks. + + +[Footnote 1: "The rishi," says Eitel, "is a man whose bodily frame has +undergone a certain transformation by dint of meditation and asceticism, +so that he is, for an indefinite period, exempt from decrepitude, age, +and death. As this period is believed to extend far beyond the usual +duration of human life, such persons are called, and popularly believed +to be, immortals." Rishis are divided into various classes; and +rishi-ism is spoken of as a seventh path of transrotation, and rishis +are referred to as the seventh class of sentient beings.] + +[Footnote 2: This is the only instance in Fa-hien's text where the +Bodhisattva or Buddha is called by the surname "Gotama." For the most +part our traveller uses Buddha as a proper name, though it properly +means "The Enlightened." He uses also the combinations "Sakya Buddha," +which means "The Buddha of the Sakya tribe," and "Sakyamuni," which +means "The Sakya sage." This last is the most common designation of the +Buddha in China. Among other Buddhistic peoples "Gotama" and "Gotama +Buddha" are the more frequent designations.] + + + +CHAPTER XXXV + +~Dakshina, and the Pigeon Monastery~ + + +South from this two hundred yojanas, there is a country named Dakshina, +where there is a monastery dedicated to the by-gone Kasyapa Buddha, and +which has been hewn out from a large hill of rock. It consists in all of +five stories;--the lowest, having the form of an elephant, with five +hundred apartments in the rock; the second, having the form of a lion, +with four hundred apartments; the third, having the form of a horse, +with three hundred apartments; the fourth, having the form of an ox, +with two hundred apartments; and the fifth, having the form of a pigeon, +with one hundred apartments. At the very top there is a spring, the +water of which, always in front of the apartments in the rock, goes +round among the rooms, now circling, now curving, till in this way it +arrives at the lowest story, having followed the shape of the structure, +and flows out there at the door. Everywhere in the apartments of the +monks, the rock has been pierced so as to form windows for the admission +of light, so that they are all bright, without any being left in +darkness. At the four corners of the tiers of apartments, the rock has +been hewn so as to form steps for ascending to the top of each. The men +of the present day, being of small size, and going up step by step, +manage to get to the top; but in a former age they did so at one step. +Because of this, the monastery is called Paravata, that being the Indian +name for a pigeon. There are always Arhats residing in it. + +The country about is a tract of uncultivated hillocks, without +inhabitants. At a very long distance from the hill there are villages, +where the people all have bad and erroneous views, and do not know the +Sramanas of the Law of Buddha, Brahmanas, or devotees of any of the +other and different schools. The people of that country are constantly +seeing men on the wing, who come and enter this monastery. On one +occasion, when devotees of various countries came to perform their +worship at it, the people of those villages said to them, "Why do you +not fly? The devotees whom we have seen hereabouts all fly"; and the +strangers answered, on the spur of the moment, "Our wings are not yet +fully formed." + +The kingdom of Dakshina is out of the way, and perilous to traverse. +There are difficulties in connection with the roads; but those who know +how to manage such difficulties and wish to proceed should bring with +them money and various articles, and give them to the king. He will then +send men to escort them. These will, at different stages, pass them over +to others, who will show them the shortest routes. Fa-hien, however, was +after all unable to go there; but having received the above accounts +from men of the country, he has narrated them. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI + +~Fa-Hien's Indian Studies~ + + +From Varanasi the travellers went back east to Pataliputtra. Fa-hien's +original object had been to search for copies of the Vinaya. In the +various kingdoms of North India, however, he had found one master +transmitting orally the rules to another, but no written copies which he +could transcribe. He had therefore travelled far and come on to Central +India. Here, in the mahayana monastery, he found a copy of the Vinaya, +containing the Mahasanghika [1] rules--those which were observed in the +first Great Council, while Buddha was still in the world. The original +copy was handed down in the Jetavana vihara. As to the other eighteen +schools, each one has the views and decisions of its own masters. Those +agree with this in the general meaning, but they have small and trivial +differences, as when one opens and another shuts. This copy of the +rules, however, is the most complete, with the fullest explanations. [2] + +He further got a transcript of the rules in six or seven thousand +gathas, [3] being the sarvastivadah [4] rules--those which are observed +by the communities of monks in the land of Ts'in; which also have all +been handed down orally from master to master without being committed to +writing. In the community here, moreover, he got the +Samyuktabhi-dharma-hridaya-sastra, containing about six or seven +thousand gathas; he also got a Sutra of two thousand five hundred +gathas; one chapter of the Pari-nirvana-vaipulya Sutra, of about five +thousand gathas; and the Mahasanghika Abhidharma. + +In consequence of this success in his quest Fa-hien stayed here for +three years, learning Sanscrit books and the Sanscrit speech, and +writing out, the Vinaya rules. When Tao-ching arrived in the Central +Kingdom, and saw the rules observed by the Sramanas, and the dignified +demeanor in their societies which he remarked under all occurring +circumstances, he sadly called to mind in what a mutilated and imperfect +condition the rules were among the monkish communities in the land of +Ts'in, and made the following aspiration: "From this time forth till I +come to the state of Buddha, let me not be born in a frontier-land." He +remained accordingly in India, and did not return to the land of Han. +Fa-hien, however, whose original purpose had been to secure the +introduction of the complete Vinaya rules into the land of Han, returned +there alone. + + +[Footnote 1: Mahasanghika simply means "the Great Assembly," that is, of +monks.] + +[Footnote 2: It was afterwards translated by Fa-hien into Chinese.] + +[Footnote 3: A gatha is a stanza, generally consisting of a few, +commonly of two, lines somewhat metrically arranged.] + +[Footnote 4: "A branch," says Eitel, "of the great vaibhashika school, +asserting the reality of all visible phenomena, and claiming the +authority of Rahula."] + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII + +~Fa-hien's Stay in Champa and Tamalipti~ + + +Following the course of the Ganges, and descending eastward for eighteen +yojanas, he found on the southern bank the great kingdom of Champa, with +topes reared at the places where Buddha walked in meditation by his +vihara, and where he and the three Buddhas, his predecessors, sat. There +were monks residing at them all. Continuing his journey east for nearly +fifty yojanas, he came to the country of Tamalipti, the capital of which +is a seaport. In the country there are twenty-two monasteries, at all of +which there are monks residing. The Law of Buddha is also flourishing in +it. Here Fa-hien stayed two years, writing out his Sutras, and drawing +pictures of images. + +After this he embarked in a large merchant-vessel, and went floating +over the sea to the southwest. It was the beginning of winter, and the +wind was favorable; and, after fourteen days, sailing day and night, +they came to the country of Singhala. The people said that it was +distant from Tamalipti about seven hundred yojanas. + +The kingdom is on a large island, extending from east to west fifty +yojanas, and from north to south thirty. Left and right from it there +are as many as one hundred small islands, distant from one another ten, +twenty, or even two hundred li; but all subject to the large island. +Most of them produce pearls and precious stones of various kinds; there +is one which produces the pure and brilliant pearl--an island which +would form a square of about ten li. The king employs men to watch and +protect it, and requires three out of every ten pearls which the +collectors find. + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII + +~At Ceylon--Feats of Buddha--His Statue in Jade~ + + +The country originally had no human inhabitants, but was occupied only +by spirits and nagas, with which merchants of various countries carried +on a trade. When the trafficking was taking place, the spirits did not +show themselves. They simply set forth their precious commodities, with +labels of the price attached to them; while the merchants made their +purchases according to the price; and took the things away. + +Through the coming and going of the merchants in this way, when they +went away, the people of their various countries heard how pleasant the +land was, and flocked to it in numbers till it became a great nation. +The climate is temperate and attractive, without any difference of +summer and winter. The vegetation is always luxuriant. Cultivation +proceeds whenever men think fit: there are no fixed seasons for it. + +When Buddha came to this country, wishing to transform the wicked nagas +by his supernatural power, he planted one foot at the north of the royal +city, and the other on the top of a mountain, [1] the two being fifteen +yojanas apart. Over the footprint at the north of the city the king +built a large tope, four hundred cubits high, grandly adorned with gold +and silver, and finished with a combination of all the precious +substances. By the side of the tope he further built a monastery, called +the Abhayagiri, where there are now five thousand monks. There is in it +a hall of Buddha, adorned with carved and inlaid work of gold and +silver, and rich in the seven precious substances, in which there is an +image of Buddha in green jade, more than twenty cubits in height, +glittering all over with those substances, and having an appearance of +solemn dignity which words cannot express. In the palm of the right hand +there is a priceless pearl. Several years had now elapsed since Fa-hien +left the land of Han; the men with whom he had been in intercourse had +all been of regions strange to him; his eyes had not rested on an old +and familiar hill or river, plant or tree: his fellow-travellers, +moreover, had been separated from him, some by death, and others flowing +off in different directions; no face or shadow was now with him but his +own, and a constant sadness was in his heart. Suddenly one day, when by +the side of this image of jade, he saw a merchant presenting as his +offering a fan of white silk; [2] and the tears of sorrow involuntarily +filled his eyes and fell down. + +A former king of the country had sent to Central India and got a slip of +the patra tree, which he planted by the side of the hall of Buddha, +where a tree grew up to the height of about two hundred cubits. As it +bent on one side towards the southeast, the king, fearing it would fall, +propped it with a post eight or nine spans around. The tree began to +grow at the very heart of the prop, where it met the trunk; a shoot +pierced through the post, and went down to the ground, where it entered +and formed roots, that rose to the surface and were about four spans +round. Although the post was split in the middle, the outer portions +kept hold of the shoot, and people did not remove them. Beneath the tree +there has been built a vihara, in which there is an image of Buddha +seated, which the monks and commonalty reverence and look up to without +ever becoming wearied. In the city there has been reared also the vihara +of Buddha's tooth, in which, as well as on the other, the seven precious +substances have been employed. + +The king practises the Brahmanical purifications, and the sincerity of +the faith and reverence of the population inside the city are also +great. Since the establishment of government in the kingdom there has +been no famine or scarcity, no revolution or disorder. In the treasuries +of the monkish communities there are many precious stones, and the +priceless manis. One of the kings once entered one of those treasuries, +and when he looked all round and saw the priceless pearls, his covetous +greed was excited, and he wished to take them to himself by force. In +three days, however, he came to himself, and immediately went and bowed +his head to the ground in the midst of the monks, to show his repentance +of the evil thought. As a sequel to this, he informed the monks of what +had been in his mind, and desired them to make a regulation that from +that day forth the king should not be allowed to enter the treasury and +see what it contained, and that no bhikshu should enter it till after he +had been in orders for a period of full forty years. + +In the city there are many Vaisya elders and Sabaean merchants, whose +houses are stately and beautiful. The lanes and passages are kept in +good order. At the heads of the four principal streets there have been +built preaching halls, where, on the eighth, fourteenth, and fifteenth +days of the month, they spread carpets, and set forth a pulpit, while +the monks and commonalty from all quarters come together to hear the +Law. The people say that in the kingdom there may be altogether sixty +thousand monks, who get their food from their common stores. The king, +besides, prepares elsewhere in the city a common supply of food for five +or six thousand more. When any want, they take their great bowls, and go +to the place of distribution, and take as much as the vessels will hold, +all returning with them full. + +The tooth of Buddha is always brought forth in the middle of the third +month. Ten days beforehand the king grandly caparisons a large elephant, +on which he mounts a man who can speak distinctly, and is dressed in +royal robes, to beat a large drum, and make the following proclamation: +"The Bodhisattva, during three Asankhyeya-kalpas, [3] manifested his +activity, and did not spare his own life. He gave up kingdom, city, +wife, and son; he plucked out his eyes and gave them to another; he cut +off a piece of his flesh to ransom the life of a dove; he cut off his +head and gave it as an alms; he gave his body to feed a starving +tigress; he grudged not his marrow and brains. In many such ways as +these did he undergo pain for the sake of all living. And so it was, +that, having become Buddha, he continued in the world for forty-five +years, preaching his Law, teaching and transforming, so that those who +had no rest found rest, and the unconverted were converted. When his +connection with the living was completed, he attained to pari-nirvana +and died. Since that event, for one thousand four hundred and +ninety-seven years, the light of the world has gone out, and all living +things have had long-continued sadness. Behold! ten days after this, +Buddha's tooth will be brought forth, and taken to the Abhayagiri +-vihara. Let all and each, whether monks or laics, who wish to amass +merit for themselves, make the roads smooth and in good condition, +grandly adorn the lanes and by-ways, and provide abundant store of +flowers and incense to be used as offerings to it." + +When this proclamation is over, the king exhibits, so as to line both +sides of the road, the five hundred different bodily forms in which the +Bodhisattva has in the course of his history appeared:--here as Sudana, +there as Sama; now as the king of elephants, and then as a stag or a +horse. All these figures are brightly colored and grandly executed, +looking as if they were alive. After this the tooth of Buddha is brought +forth, and is carried along in the middle of the road. Everywhere on the +way offerings are presented to it, and thus it arrives at the hall of +Buddha in the Abhayagiri-vihara. There monks and laics are collected in +crowds. They burn incense, light lamps, and perform all the prescribed +services, day and night without ceasing, till ninety days have been +completed, when the tooth is returned to the vihara within the city. On +fast-days the door of that vihara is opened, and the forms of ceremonial +reverence are observed according to the rules. + +Forty li to the east of the Abhayagiri-vihara there is a hill, with a +vihara on it, called the Chaitya, where there may be two thousand monks. +Among them there is a Sramana of great virtue, named Dharma-gupta, +honored and looked up to by all the kingdom. He has lived for more than +forty years in an apartment of stone, constantly showing such gentleness +of heart, that he has brought snakes and rats to stop together in the +same room, without doing one another any harm. + + +[Footnote 1: This would be what is known as "Adam's peak," having, +according to Hardy, the three names of Selesumano, Samastakuta, and +Samanila. There is an indentation on the top of it, a superficial +hollow, 5 feet 3 3/4 inches long, and 2 1/2 feet wide. The Hindus regard +it as the footprint of Siva; the Mohammedans, as that of Adam; and the +Buddhists, as in the text--as having been, made by Buddha.] + +[Footnote 2: We naturally suppose that the merchant-offerer was a +Chinese, as indeed the Chinese texts say, and the fan such as Fa-hien +had seen and used in his native land.] + +[Footnote 3: A Kalpa, we have seen, denotes a great period of time; a +period during which a physical universe is formed and destroyed. +Asankhyeya denotes the highest sum for which a conventional term +exists--according to Chinese calculations equal to one followed by +seventeen ciphers; according to Thibetan and Singhalese, equal to one +followed by ninety-seven ciphers. Every Maha-kalpa consists of four +Asankhye-yakalpas.] + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX + +~Cremation of an Arhat--Sermon of a Devotee~ + + +South of the city seven li there is a vihara, called the Maha-vihara, +where three thousand monks reside. There had been among them a Sramana, +of such lofty virtue, and so holy and pure in his observance of the +disciplinary rules, that the people all surmised that he was an Arhat. +When he drew near his end, the king came to examine into the point; and +having assembled the monks according to rule, asked whether the bhikshu +had attained to the full degree of Wisdom. They answered in the +affirmative, saying that he was an Arhat. The king accordingly, when he +died, buried him after the fashion of an Arhat, as the regular rules +prescribed. Four or five li east from the vihara there was reared a +great pile of firewood, which might be more than thirty cubits square, +and the same in height. Near the top were laid sandal, aloe, and other +kinds of fragrant wood. + +On the four sides of the pile they made steps by which to ascend it. +With clean white hair-cloth, almost like silk, they wrapped the body +round and round. They made a large carriage-frame, in form like our +funeral car, but without the dragons and fishes. + +At the time of the cremation, the king and the people, in multitudes +from all quarters, collected together, and presented offerings of +flowers and incense. While they were following the car to the +burial-ground, the king himself presented flowers and incense. When this +was finished, the car was lifted on the pile, all over which oil of +sweet basil was poured, and then a light was applied. While the fire was +blazing, every one, with a reverent heart, pulled off his upper garment, +and threw it, with his feather-fan and umbrella, from a distance into +the midst of the flames, to assist the burning. When the cremation was +over, they collected and preserved the bones, and proceeded to erect a +tope. Fa-hien had not arrived in time to see the distinguished Shaman +alive, and only saw his burial. + +At that time the king, who was a sincere believer in the Law of Buddha +and wished to build a new vihara for the monks, first convoked a great +assembly. After giving the monks a meal of rice, and presenting his +offerings on the occasion, he selected a pair of first-rate oxen, the +horns of which were grandly decorated with gold, silver, and the +precious substances. A golden plough had been provided, and the king +himself turned up a furrow on the four sides of the ground within which +the building was to be. He then endowed the community of the monks with +the population, fields, and houses, writing the grant on plates of +metal, to the effect that from that time onwards, from generation to +generation, no one should venture to annul or alter it. + +In this country Fa-hien heard an Indian devotee, who was reciting a +Sutra from the pulpit, say: "Buddha's alms-bowl was at first in Vaisali, +and now it is in Gandhara. After so many hundred years (he gave, when +Fa-hien heard him, the exact number of years, but he has forgotten it), +it will go to Western Tukhara; after so many hundred years, to Khoten; +after so many hundred years, to Kharachar; after so many hundred years, +to the land of Han; after so many hundred years, it will come to +Sinhala; and after so many hundred years, it will return to Central +India. After that, it will ascend to the Tushita heaven; and when the +Bodhisattva Maitreya sees it, he will say with a sigh, 'The alms-bowl of +Sakyamuni Buddha is come'; and with all the devas he will present to it +flowers and incense for seven days. When these have expired, it will +return to Jambudvipa, where it will be received by the king of the sea +nagas, and taken into his naga palace. When Maitreya shall be about to +attain to perfect Wisdom and become Buddha, it will again separate into +four bowls, which will return to the top of mount Anna, whence they +came. After Maitreya has become Buddha, the four deva kings will again +think of the Buddha with their bowls as they did in the case of the +previous Buddha. The thousand Buddhas of this Bhadra-kalpa, indeed, will +all use the same alms-bowl; and when the bowl has disappeared, the Law +of Buddha will go on gradually to be extinguished. After that extinction +has taken place, the life of man will be shortened, till it is only a +period of five years. During this period of a five years' life, rice, +butter, and oil will all vanish away, and men will become exceedingly +wicked. The grass and trees which they lay hold of will change into +swords and clubs, with which they will hurt, cut, and kill one another. +Those among them on whom there is blessing will withdraw from society +among the hills; and when the wicked have exterminated one another, they +will again come forth, and say among themselves, 'The men of former +times enjoyed a very great longevity; but through becoming exceedingly +wicked, and doing all lawless things, the length of our life has been +shortened and reduced even to five years. Let us now unite together in +the practice of what is good, cherishing a gentle and sympathizing +heart, and carefully cultivating good faith and righteousness. When each +one in this way practises that faith and righteousness, life will go on +to double its length till it reaches eighty thousand years. When +Maitreya appears in the world, and begins to turn the wheel of this Law, +he will in the first place save those among the disciples of the Law +left by the Sakya who have quitted their families, and those who have +accepted the three Refuges, undertaken the five Prohibitions and the +eight Abstinences, and given offerings to the Three Precious Ones; +secondly and thirdly, he will save those between whom and conversion +there is a connection transmitted from the past.'" [1] + +Such was the discourse, and Fa-hien wished to write it down as a portion +of doctrine; but the man said, "This is taken from no Sutra, it is only +the utterance of my own mind." + + +[Footnote 1: That is, those whose Karma in the past should be rewarded +by such conversion in the present.] + + + +CHAPTER XL + +~After Two Years Fa-hien Takes Ship for China~ + + +Fa-hien abode in this country two years; and, in addition to his +acquisitions in Patna, succeeded in getting a copy of the Vinaya-pitaka +of the Mahisasakah school; the Dirghagama and Samyuktagama Sutras; and +also the Samyukta-sanchaya-pitaka;--all being works unknown in the land +of Han. Having obtained these Sanscrit works, he took passage in a large +merchantman, on board of which there were more than two hundred men, and +to which was attached by a rope a smaller vessel, as a provision against +damage or injury to the large one from the perils of the navigation. +With a favorable wind, they proceeded eastward for three days, and then +they encountered a great wind. The vessel sprang a leak and the water +came in. The merchants wished to go to the smaller vessel; but the men +on board it, fearing that too many would come, cut the connecting rope. +The merchants were greatly alarmed, feeling their risk of instant death. +Afraid that the vessel would fill, they took their bulky goods and threw +them into the water. Fa-hien also took his pitcher and washing-basin, +with some other articles, and cast them into the sea; but fearing that +the merchants would cast overboard his books and images, he could only +think with all his heart of Kwan-she-yin, and commit his life to the +protection of the church of the land of Han, saying in effect, "I have +travelled far in search of our Law. Let me, by your dread and +supernatural power, return from my wanderings, and reach my +resting-place!" + +In this way the tempest continued day and night, till on the thirteenth +day the ship was carried to the side of an island, where, on the ebbing +of the tide, the place of the leak was discovered, and it was stopped, +on which the voyage was resumed. On the sea hereabouts there are many +pirates, to meet with whom is speedy death. The great ocean spreads out, +a boundless expanse. There is no knowing east or west; only by observing +the sun, moon, and stars was it possible to go forward. If the weather +were dark and rainy, the ship went as she was carried by the wind, +without any definite course. In the darkness of the night, only the +great waves were to be seen, breaking on one another, and emitting a +brightness like that of fire, with huge turtles and other monsters of +the deep all about. The merchants were full of terror, not knowing where +they were going. The sea was deep and bottomless, and there was no place +where they could drop anchor and stop. But when the sky became clear, +they could tell east and west, and the ship again went forward in the +right direction. If she had come on any hidden rock, there would have +been no way of escape. + +After proceeding in this way for rather more than ninety days, they +arrived at a country called Java-dvipa, where various forms of error and +Brahmanism are flourishing, while Buddhism in it is not worth speaking +of. After staying there for five months, Fa-hien again embarked in +another large merchantman, which also had on board more than two hundred +men. They carried provisions for fifty days, and commenced the voyage on +the sixteenth day of the fourth month. + +Fa-hien kept his retreat on board the ship. They took a course to the +northeast, intending to fetch Kwang-chow. After more than a month, when +the night-drum had sounded the second watch, they encountered a black +wind and tempestuous rain, which threw the merchants and passengers into +consternation. Fa-hien again, with all his heart, directed his thoughts +to Kwan-she-yin and the monkish communities of the land of Han; and, +through their dread and mysterious protection, was preserved to +daybreak. After daybreak, the Brahmans deliberated together and said, +"It is having this Sramana on board which has occasioned our misfortune +and brought us this great and bitter suffering. Let us land the bhikshu +and place him on some island-shore. We must not for the sake of one man +allow ourselves to be exposed to such imminent peril." A patron of +Fa-hien, however, said to them, "If you land the bhikshu, you must at +the same time land me; and if you do not, then you must kill me. If you +land this Sramana, when I get to the land of Han, I will go to the king, +and inform against you. The king also reveres and believes the Law of +Buddha, and honors the bhikshus." The merchants hereupon were perplexed, +and did not dare immediately to land Fa-hien. + +At this time the sky continued very dark and gloomy, and the +sailing-masters looked at one another and made mistakes. More than +seventy days passed from their leaving Java, and the provisions and +water were nearly exhausted. They used the salt-water of the sea for +cooking, and carefully divided the fresh water, each man getting two +pints. Soon the whole was nearly gone, and the merchants took counsel +and said, "At the ordinary rate of sailing we ought to have reached +Kwang-chow, and now the time is passed by many days;--must we not have +held a wrong course?" Immediately they directed the ship to the +northwest, looking out for land; and after sailing day and night for +twelve days, they reached the shore on the south of mount Lao, on the +borders of the prefecture of Ch'ang-kwang, and immediately got good +water and vegetables. They had passed through many perils and hardships, +and had been in a state of anxious apprehension for many days together; +and now suddenly arriving at this shore, and seeing those well-known +vegetables, the lei and kwoh, [1] they knew indeed that it was the land +of Han. Not seeing, however, any inhabitants nor any traces of them, +they did not know whereabouts they were. Some said that they had not yet +got to Kwang-chow, and others that they had passed it. Unable to come to +a definite conclusion, some of them got into a small boat and entered a +creek, to look for someone of whom they might ask what the place was. +They found two hunters, whom they brought back with them, and then +called on Fa-hien to act as interpreter and question them. Fa-hien first +spoke assuringly to them, and then slowly and distinctly asked them, +"Who are you?" They replied, "We are disciples of Buddha." He then +asked, "What are you looking for among these hills?" They began to +lie,[2] and said, "To-morrow is the fifteenth day of the seventh month. +We wanted to get some peaches to present to Buddha." He asked further, +"What country is this?" They replied, "This is the border of the +prefecture of Ch'ang-kwang, a part of Ts'ing-chow under the ruling House +of Ts'in." When they heard this, the merchants were glad, immediately +asked for a portion of their money and goods, and sent men to +Ch'ang-kwang city. + +The prefect Le E was a reverent believer in the Law of Buddha. When he +heard that a Sramana had arrived in a ship across the sea, bringing with +him books and images, he immediately came to the sea-shore with an +escort to meet the traveller, and receive the books and images, and took +them back with him to the seat of his government. On this the merchants +went back in the direction of Yang-chow; but when Fa-hien arrived at +Ts'ing-chow, the prefect there begged him to remain with him for a +winter and a summer. After the summer retreat was ended, Fa-hien, having +been separated for a long time from his fellows, wished to hurry to +Ch'ang-gan; but as the business which he had in hand was important, he +went south to the Capital; and at an interview with the masters there +exhibited the Sutras and the collection of the Vinaya which he had +procured. + +After Fa-hien set out from Ch'ang-gan, it took him six years to reach +Central India; stoppages there extended over six years; and on his +return it took him three years to reach Ts'ing-chow. The countries +through which he passed were a few under thirty. From the sandy desert +westwards on to India, the beauty of the dignified demeanor of the +monkhood and of the transforming influence of the Law was beyond the +power of language fully to describe; and reflecting how our masters had +not heard any complete account of them, he therefore went on without +regarding his own poor life, or the dangers to be encountered on the sea +upon his return, thus incurring hardships and difficulties in a double +form. He was fortunate enough, through the dread power of the three +Honored Ones, to receive help and protection in his perils; and +therefore he wrote out an account of his experiences, that worthy +readers might share with him in what he had heard and said. + + +[Footnote 1: What these vegetables exactly were it is difficult to say; +and there are different readings of the characters for kwoh, brings the +two names together in a phrase, but the rendering of it is simply "a +soup of simples."] + +[Footnote 2: It is likely that these men were really hunters; and, when +brought before Fa-hien, because he was a Sramana, they thought they +would please him by saying they were disciples of Buddha. But what had +disciples of Buddha to do with hunting and taking life? They were caught +in their own trap, and said they were looking for peaches.] + + + + + +~THE SORROWS OF HAN~ + + +[Translated into English by John Francis Davis] + + + +INTRODUCTION + + +"The Sorrows of Han" is considered by Chinese scholars to be one of the +largest tragedies in the whole range of the Chinese drama, which is very +voluminous. Although, properly speaking, there are no theatres in China, +the Chinese are passionately fond of dramatic representations. Chinese +acting is much admired and praised by travellers who are competent to +follow the dialogue. The stage is generally a temporary erection +improvised in a market-place, and the stage arrangements are of the most +primitive character; no scenery is employed, and the actors introduce +themselves in a sort of prologue, in which they state the name and +character they represent in the drama. They also indicate the place +where they are in the story, or the house which they have entered. Yet +the Chinese stage has many points in common with that of Ancient Greece. +It is supported and controlled by government, and has something of a +religious and national character, being particularly employed for +popular amusement in the celebration of religious festivals. Only two +actors are allowed to occupy the stage at the same time, and this is +another point in common with the early Greek drama. The plots or stories +of the Chinese plays are simple and effective, and Voltaire is known to +have taken the plot of a Chinese drama, as Moliere took a comedy of +Plautus, and applied it in writing a drama for the modern French stage. +"The Sorrows of Han" belongs to the famous collection entitled "The +Hundred Plays of the Yuen Dynasty." It is divided into acts and is made +up of alternate prose and verse. The movement of the drama is good, and +the denouement arranged with considerable skill. + +E.W. + + + + +TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE + + +The following drama was selected from the "Hundred Plays of Yuen," which +has already supplied to Europe two specimens of the Chinese stage--the +first, called the "Orphan of Chaou," translated by Pere Premare; and the +second, entitled an "Heir in Old Age," by the author of the present +version. "The Sorrows of Han" is historical, and relates to one of the +most interesting periods of the Chinese annals, when the growing +effeminacy of the court, and consequent weakness of the government, +emboldened the Tartars in their aggressions, and first gave rise to the +temporizing and impolitic system of propitiating those barbarians by +tribute, which long after produced the downfall of the empire and the +establishment of the Mongol dominion. + +The moral of the piece is evidently to expose the evil consequences of +luxury, effeminacy, and supineness in the sovereign. + + "When love was all an easy monarch's care, + Seldom at council--never in a war." + +The hero, or rather the chief personage, of the drama, came to the +throne very near the beginning of the Christian era, about B.C. 42. The +fate of the Lady Chaoukeun is a favorite incident in history, of which +painters, poets, and romancers frequently avail themselves; her "Verdant +Lamb" is said to exist at the present day, and to remain green all the +year round, while the vegetation of the desert in which it stands is +parched by the summer sun. + +In selecting this single specimen from among so many, the translator was +influenced by the consideration of its remarkable accordance with our +own canons of criticism. The Chinese themselves make no regular +classification of comedy and tragedy; but we are quite at liberty to +give the latter title to a play which so completely answers to the +European definition. The unity of action is complete, and the unities of +time and place much less violated than they frequently are on our own +stage. The grandeur and gravity of the subject, the rank and dignity of +the personages, the tragical catastrophe, and the strict award of +poetical justice, might satisfy the most rigid admirer of Grecian rules. +The translator has thought it necessary to adhere to the original by +distinguishing the first act (or Proem) from the four which follow it: +but the distinction is purely nominal, and the piece consists, to all +intents and purposes, of five acts. It is remarkable that this peculiar +division holds true with regard to a large number of the "Hundred Plays +of Yuen." + +The reader will doubtless be struck by the apparent shortness of the +drama which is here presented to him; but the original is eked out, in +common with all Chinese plays, by an irregular operatic species of song, +which the principal character occasionally chants forth in unison with a +louder or a softer accompaniment of music, as may best suit the +sentiment or action of the moment. Some passages have been embodied in +our version: but the translator did not give all, for the same reasons +that prompted Pere Premare to give none--"they are full of allusions to +things unfamiliar to us, and figures of speech very difficult for us to +observe." They are frequently, moreover, mere repetitions or +amplifications of the prose parts; and being intended more for the ear +than the eye, are rather adapted to the stage than to the closet. + +His judgment may perhaps be swayed by partiality towards the subject of +his own labors; but the translator cannot help thinking the plot and +incidents of "The Sorrows of Han" superior to those of the "Orphan of +Chaou"--though the genius of Voltaire contrived to make the last the +ground-work of an excellent French tragedy. Far is he, however, from +entertaining the presumptuous expectation that a destiny of equal +splendor awaits the present drama; and he will be quite satisfied if the +reader has patience to read it to the end, and then pronounces it to be +a somewhat curious sample of a very foreign literature. + +JOHN FRANCIS DAVIS. + + + + +DRAMATIS PERSONAE + +YUENTE, Emperor of China of the Dynasty Han. +HANCHENYU, K'han of the Tartars. +MAOUYENSHOW, a worthless Minister of the Emperor. +SHANGSHOO (a title), President of the Imperial Council. +CHANGSHEE (a title), Officer in waiting. +FANSHE (a title), Envoy of the K'han. +CHAOUKEUN, Lady, raised to be Princess of Han. + Tartar Soldiers, Female Attendants, Eunuchs. + +The Scene is laid in the Tartar Camp on the Frontiers; and +in the Palace of Han. + + + + +~THE SORROWS OF HAN~ [1] + + + +~PROLOGUE~ + + +_Enter Hanchenyu, K'han [2] of the Tartars, reciting four verses_. + + +K'HAN. The autumnal gale blows wildly through the grass, + amidst our woolen tents. + And the moon of night, shining on the rude huts, hears the + lament of the mournful pipe: + The countless hosts, with their bended horns, obey me as + their leader. + + Our tribes are ten distinguished friends of the family of Han. I am + Hanchenyu, the old inhabitant of the sandy waste; the sole ruler of + the northern regions. The wild chase is our trade; battle and + conquest our chief occupation. The Emperor Wunwong retired before + our Eastern tribes; Weikeang trembled at us, and sued for our + friendship. The ancient title of our chiefs has in the course of + time been changed to that which I now bear. When the two races of + Tsin and Han contended in battle, and filled the empire with tumult, + our tribes were in full power: numberless was the host of armed + warriors with their bended horns. For seven days my ancestor hemmed + in with his forces the Emperor Kaoute; until, by the contrivance of + the minister, a treaty was concluded, and the Princesses of China + were yielded in marriage to our K'hans. Since the time of Hoeyte and + the Empress Leuhow, [3] each successive generation has adhered to + the established rule, and sought our alliance with its daughters. In + the reign of the late Emperor Seuente, my brothers contended with + myself for the rule of our nation, and its power was weakened until + the tribes elected me as their chief. I am a real descendant of the + empire of Han. I command a hundred thousand armed warriors. We have + moved to the South, and approached the border, claiming an alliance + with the Imperial race. Yesterday I despatched an envoy with + tributary presents to demand a princess in marriage; but know not if + the Emperor will ratify the engagement with the customary oaths. The + fineness of the season has drawn away our chiefs on a hunting + excursion amidst the sandy steppes. May they meet with success, for + we Tartars have no fields--our bows and arrows are our sole means of + subsistence. + +_Enter Minister of Han, reciting verses_. + +MINISTER. Let a man have the heart of a kite, and the talons + of an eagle. + Let him deceive his superiors, and oppress those below + him; + Let him enlist flattery, insinuation, profligacy, and avarice + on his side, + + And he will find them a lasting assistance through life. I am no + other than Maouyenshow, a minister of the sovereign of Han. By a + hundred arts of specious flattery and address I have deceived the + Emperor, until he places his whole delight in me alone. My words he + listens to; and he follows my counsel. Within the precincts of the + palace, as without them, who is there but bows before me--who is + there but trembles at my approach? But observe the chief art which I + have learned: It is this: to persuade the Emperor to keep aloof from + his wise counsellors, and seek all his pleasures amidst the women of + his palace. Thus it is that I strengthen my power and greatness. + But, in the midst of my lucubrations--Here comes the Emperor. + +_Enter Emperor Yuente, attended by Eunuchs and Women_. + +EMPEROR [_recites verses]_. During the ten generations that + have succeeded our acquisition of Empire, my race has alone + possessed the four hundred districts of the world. Long have the + frontiers been bound in tranquillity by the ties of mutual oaths. + And our pillow has been undisturbed by grief or anxiety. Behold in + us the Emperor Yuente, of the race of Han. Our ancestor Kaoute + emerged from a private station, and raised his family by + extinguishing the dynasty of Tsin, and slaughtering their race. Ten + generations have passed away since he left this inheritance to us. + The four boundaries of the empire have been tranquil; the eight + regions at rest! But not through our personal merits; we have wholly + depended on the exertions of our civil and military rulers. On the + demise of our late father, the female inmates of the palace were all + dispersed, and our harem is now solitary and untenanted; but how + shall this be endured! + +MINISTER. Consider, sir, that even the thriving husbandman + may desire to change his partner; then why not your Majesty, whose + title is the Law of Heaven, whose possessions are the whole world! + May I advise that commissioners be despatched to search throughout + the empire for all of whatever rank that is most beautiful between + the ages of fifteen and twenty, for the peopling of the inner + palace. + + EMPEROR. You say well. We appoint you at once our minister of + selection, and will invest you with a written authority. Search + diligently through our realms; and when you have selected the most + worthy, let us be provided with portraits of each, as a means of + fixing our choice. By the merits of your services, you may supply us + with an occasion of rewarding you on your return. [_Exeunt_. + + + +[Footnote 1: Han Koong Tsew, literally "Autumn in the Palace of Han"; +but in Chinese, Autumn is emblematic of Sorrow, as Spring is of Joy, and +may therefore be rendered by what it represents.] + +[Footnote 2: In Chinese, Ko-ban.] + +[Footnote 3: The mother of Hoeyte, a bold and able woman, who ruled for +her son, the second emperor of Han.] + + + +~ACT FIRST~ + + + +MINISTER [_repeats verses_]. The huge ingots of yellow gold I + appropriate to myself. + I heed not the seas of blood which flow by perverting the + laws. + + During life I am determined to have abundance of riches; what care I + for the curses of mankind after my death? Having received the + Emperor's commission to search far and wide for the most beautiful + damsels, I have fixed upon ninety and nine. Their families were glad + to invite my selection by rich gifts, and the treasure that I have + amassed is not small. On arriving yesterday at a district pertaining + to Chingtoo city, I met with a maiden, daughter of one Wongchang. + The brightness of her charms was piercing as an arrow. She was + perfectly beautiful--and doubtless unparalleled in the whole empire. + But, unfortunately, her father is a cultivator of the land, not + possessed of much wealth. When I insisted on a hundred ounces of + gold to secure her being the chief object of the imperial choice, + they first pleaded their poverty--and then, relying on her + extraordinary beauty, rejected my offers altogether. I therefore + left them. [_Considers awhile_.] But no!----I have a better plan. + [_He knits his brows and matures his scheme_.] I will disfigure her + portrait in such a manner that when it reaches the Emperor it shall + secure her being doomed to neglected seclusion. Thus I shall + contrive to make her unhappy for life--Base is the man who delights + not in revenge! [_Exit._ + + +_Night_.--_Enter the Lady Chaoukeun, with two female attendants_. + + +CHAOUKEUN [_recites verses_]. Though raised to be an inhabitant + of the imperial dwelling + I have long been here without the good fortune to see + my prince. + + This beautiful night must I pass in lonely solitude, with no + companion but my lute to solace my retirement. I am a native of + Chingtoo city; and my father's occupation is husbandry. My mother + dreamed on the day I was born that the light of the moon shone on + her bosom, but was soon cast low to the earth.[1] I was just + eighteen years of age when chosen as an inhabitant of the imperial + palace; but the minister Maouyenshow, disappointed in the treasure + which he demanded on my account, disfigured my portrait in such a + manner as to keep me out of the Emperor's presence; and now I live + in neglected solitude. While at home, I learned a little music, and + could play a few airs on the lute. Thus sorrowing in the stillness + of midnight, let me practise one of my songs to dispel my griefs. + [_Begins to play on the lute_. + +_Enter Emperor, attended by a Eunuch, carrying a light_. + +EMPEROR. Since the beauties were selected to grace our palace, + we have not yet discovered a worthy object on whom to fix our + preference. Vexed and disappointed, we pass this day of leisure + roaming in search of her who may be destined for our imperial + choice. [_Hears the lute._] Is not that some lady's lute? + +ATTENDANT. It is.--I hasten to advise her of your Majesty's + approach. + +EMPEROR. No, hold! Keeper of the yellow gate, discover to + what part of our palace that lady pertains; and bid her approach our + presence; but beware lest you alarm her. + +ATTENDANT [_approaches in the direction of the sound, and + speaks_]. What lady plays there? The Emperor comes! approach to meet + him. [_Lady advances_. + +EMPEROR. Keeper of the yellow gate, see that the light burns + brightly within your gauze [2] lamp, and hold it nearer to us. + +LADY _[approaching_]. Had your handmaid but known it was + your Majesty, she would have been less tardy; forgive, then, this + delay. + +EMPEROR. Truly this is a very perfect beauty! From what + quarter come such superior charms? + +LADY. My name is Chaoukeun: my father cultivates at Chingtoo + the fields which he has derived from his family. Born in an humble + station, I am ignorant of the manners that befit a palace. + +EMPEROR. But with such uncommon attractions, what chance + has kept you from our sight? + +LADY. When I was chosen by the minister Maouyenshow, he + demanded of my father an amount of treasure which our poverty could + not supply; he therefore disfigured my portrait, by representing a + scar under the eyes, and caused me to be consigned to seclusion and + neglect. + +EMPEROR. Keeper of the yellow gate, bring us that picture, + that we may view it. [_Sees the picture_.] Ah, how has he dimmed the + purity of the gem, bright as the waves in autumn. [_To the + attendant_] Transmit our pleasure to the officer of the guard, to + behead Maouyenshow and report to us his execution. + +LADY. My parents, sir, are subject to the tax [3] in our native + district. Let me entreat your Majesty to remit their contributions + and extend favor towards them! + +EMPEROR. That shall readily be done. Approach and hear our + imperial pleasure. We create you a Princess of our palace. + +LADY. How unworthy is your handmaid of such gracious distinction! + [_Goes through the form of returning thanks_.] Early to-morrow I + attend your Majesty's commands in this place. The Emperor is gone: + let the attendants close the doors:--I will retire to rest. _[Exit._ + + + +[Footnote 1: Boding a short but fatal distinction to her offspring.] + +[Footnote 2: Instead of glass, to defend it from the wind.] + +[Footnote 3: The principal taxes in China are the land-tax, customs, +salt monopoly, and personal service; which last is the source of much +oppression to the lowest orders, who have nothing but their labor to +contribute.] + + + +~ACT SECOND~ + + + +_Enter K'han of the Tartars, at the head of his Tribes_. + +K'HAN. I lately sent an envoy to the sovereign of Han, with + the demand of a princess in marriage; but the Emperor has returned a + refusal, under the plea that the princess is yet too young. This + answer gives me great trouble. Had he not plenty of ladies in his + palace, of whom he might have sent me one? The difference was of + little consequence. [1] Let me recall my envoy with all speed, for I + must invade the South with out forces. And yet I am unwilling to + break a truce of so many years' standing! We must see how matters + turn out, and be guided by the event. + +_Enter Minister of Han_. + +MINISTER. The severity with which I extorted money, in the + selection of beauties for the palace, led me to disfigure the + picture of Chaoukeun, and consign her to neglected seclusion. But + the Emperor fell in with her, obtained the truth, and condemned me + to lose my head. I contrived to make my escape--though I have no + home to receive me. I will take this true portrait of Chaoukeun and + show it to the Tartar K'han, persuading him to demand her from the + Emperor, who will no doubt be obliged to yield her up. A long + journey has brought me to this spot, and from the troops of men and + horses I conclude I have reached the Tartar camp. [_Addresses + himself to somebody_] Leader, inform King Hanchenyu that a great + minister of the empire of Han is come to wait on him. + +K'HAN [_on being informed_]. Command him to approach. + [_Seeing Maouyenshow_] What person are you? + +MINISTER. I am a minister of Han. In the western palace of + the Emperor is a lady, named Chaoukeun, of rare and surpassing + charms. When your envoy, great king, came to demand a princess, this + lady would have answered the summons, but the Emperor of Han could + not bring himself to part with her, and refused to yield her up. I + repeatedly renewed my bitter reproaches, and asked how he could + bear, for the sake of a woman's beauty, to implicate the welfare of + two nations. For this the Emperor would have beheaded me; and I + therefore escaped with the portrait of the lady, which I present, + great king, to yourself. Should you send away an envoy with the + picture to demand her, she must certainly be delivered up. Here is + the portrait. [_Hands it up_. + +K'HAN. Whence could so beautiful a female have appeared + in the world! If I can only obtain her, my wishes are complete. + Immediately shall an envoy be despatched, and my ministers prepare a + letter to the Emperor of Han, demanding her in marriage as the + condition of peace. Should he refuse, I will presently invade the + South: his hills and rivers shall be exposed to ravage. Our warriors + will commence by hunting, as they proceed on their way; and thus + gradually entering the frontiers, I shall be ready to act as may + best suit the occasion. [_Exit._ + +_The Palace of Han. Enter Lady, attended by females_. + +PRINCESS. A long period has elapsed since I had to thank his + Majesty for his choice. The Emperor's fondness for me is so great, + that he has still neglected to hold a court. I hear he is now gone + to the hall of audience, and will therefore ornament myself at my + toilet and be ready to wait on him at his return. [_Stands opposite + a mirror_. + +_Enter Emperor_. + +EMPEROR. Since we first met with Chaoukeun in the western + palace, we have been as it were deranged and intoxicated; a long + interval has elapsed since we held a court; and on entering the hall + of audience this day, we waited not until the assembly had + dispersed, but returned hither to obtain a sight of her. + [_Perceiving the Princess_.] Let us not alarm her, but observe in + secret what she is doing. + [_Comes close behind and looks over her._] Reflected in that round + mirror, she resembles the Lady in the Moon. [2] + +_Enter President, and an Officer in waiting_. + +PRESIDENT [_recites verses._] Ministers should devote themselves + to the regulation of the empire; They should be occupied with public + cares in the hall of government. But they do nought but attend at + the banquets in the palace. When have they employed a single day in + the service of their prince? + + This day, when the audience was concluded, an envoy arrived from the + Tartars to demand Chaoukeun in marriage, as the only condition of + peace. It is my duty to report this to his Majesty, who has retired + to his western palace. Here I must enter. [_Perceiving the + Emperor._] I report to your Majesty that Hanchenyu, the leader of + the northern foreigners, sends an envoy to declare that Maouyenshow + has presented to him the portrait of the princess, and that he + demands her in marriage as the only condition of peace. If refused, + he will invade the South with a great power, and our rivers and + hills will be exposed to rapine. + +EMPEROR. In vain do we maintain and send forth armies; vain + are the crowds of civil and military officers about our palace! + Which of them will drive back for us these foreign troops? They are + all afraid of the Tartar swords and arrows! But if they cannot exert + themselves to expel the barbarians, why call for the princess to + propitiate them? + +PRESIDENT. The foreigners say that through your Majesty's + devoted fondness for the princess, the affairs of your empire are + falling into ruin. They declare that if the government does not + yield her up, they will put their army in motion, and subdue the + country. Your servant reflects, that Chow-wong [3] who lost his + empire and life entirely through his blind devotion to Takee, is a + fit example to warn your Majesty. Our army is weak, and needs the + talents of a fit general. Should we oppose the Tartars, and be + defeated, what will remain to us? Let your Majesty give up your + fondness for the princess, to save your people. + +OFFICER. The envoy waits without for an audience. + +EMPEROR. Well; command that he approach us. + +_Enter Envoy_. + +ENVOY. Hanchenyu, K'han of the Tartars, sends me, his minister, + to state before the great Sovereign of Han, that the Northern tribes + and the Southern empire have long been bound in peace by mutual + alliances; but that envoys being twice sent to demand a princess, + his requisitions have been refused. The late minister, Maouyenshow, + took with him the portrait of a beautiful lady, and presented it to + the K'ban, who now sends me, his envoy, on purpose to demand the + Lady Chaoukeun, and no other, as the only condition of peace between + the two nations. Should your Majesty refuse, the K'han has a + countless army of brave warriors, and will forthwith invade the + South to try the chances of war. I trust your Majesty will not err + in your decision. + +EMPEROR. The envoy may retire to repose himself in his lodging. + [_Exit the Envoy_.] Let our civil and military officers consult, and + report to us the best mode of causing the foreign troops to retire, + without yielding up the princess to propitiate them. They take + advantage of the compliant softness of her temper. Were the Empress + Leuhow alive--let her utter a word--which of them would dare to be + of a different opinion? It would seem that, for the future, instead + of men for ministers, we need only have fair women to keep our + empire in peace. + +PRINCESS. In return for your Majesty's bounties, it is your + handmaid's duty to brave death to serve you. I can cheerfully enter + into this foreign alliance, for the sake of producing peace, and + shall leave behind me a name still green in history.--But my + affection for your Majesty, how am I to lay aside! + +EMPEROR. Alas, I [4] know too well that I can do no more than + yourself! + +PRESIDENT. I entreat your Majesty to sacrifice your love, and + think of the security of your Dynasty. Hasten, sir, to send the + princess on her way! + +EMPEROR. Let her this day advance a stage on her journey, + and be presented to the envoy.--To-morrow we will repair as far as + the bridge of Pahling, and give her a parting feast. + +PRESIDENT. Alas! Sir, this may not be! It will draw on us + the contempt of these barbarians. + +EMPEROR. We have complied with all our minister's propositions--shall + they not, then, accede to ours? Be it as it may, we will witness her + departure--and then return home to hate the traitor Maouyenshow! + +PRESIDENT. Unwillingly we advise that the princess be sacrificed + for the sake of peace; but the envoy is instructed to insist upon + her alone--and from ancient times, how often hath a nation suffered + for a woman's beauty! + +PRINCESS. Though I go into exile for the nation's good, yet ill + can I bear to part from your Majesty! _[Exeunt._ + + +[Footnote 1: The honor of the imperial alliance being the chief object.] + +[Footnote 2: Changngo, the goddess of the moon, gives her name to the +finely curved eyebrows of the Chinese ladies, which are compared to the +lunar crescent when only a day or two old.] + +[Footnote 3: Chow-wong was the last of the Shang dynasty, and infamous +by his debaucheries and cruelties, in concert with his empress Takee, +the Theodora of Chinese history.] + +[Footnote 4: The imperial pronoun "Tchin," _me_, is with very good taste +supplied by _I_ in these impassioned passages.] + + + +~ACT THIRD~ + + + +_Enter Envoy, escorting the Princess, with a band of music_. + +PRINCESS. Thus was I, in spite of the treachery of Maouyenshow, + who disfigured my portrait, seen and exalted by his Majesty; but the + traitor presented a truer likeness to the Tartar king, who comes at + the head of an army to demand me, with a threat of seizing the + country. There is no remedy--I must be yielded up to propitiate the + invaders! How shall I bear the rigors--the winds and frosts of that + foreign land! It has been said of old, that "surpassing beauty is + often coupled with an unhappy fate." Let me grieve, then, without + entertaining fruitless resentment at the effects of my own + attractions. + +_Enter Emperor, attended by his several officers_. + +EMPEROR. This day we take leave of the princess at Pahling + bridge! [_To his ministers_.] Can ye not devise a way to send out + these foreign troops, without yielding up the princess for the sake + of peace? [_Descends from his horse and seems to grieve with + Chaoukeun_.] Let our attendants delay awhile, till we have conferred + the parting cup. + +ENVOY. Lady, let us urge you to proceed on your way--the + sky darkens, and night is coming on. + +PRINCESS. Alas! when shall I again behold your Majesty? I + will take off my robes of distinction and leave them behind me. + To-day in the palace of Han--to-morrow I shall be espoused to a + stranger. I cease to wear these splendid vestments--they shall no + longer adorn my beauty in the eyes of men. + +ENVOY. Again let us urge you, princess, to depart; we have + delayed but too long already! + +EMPEROR. 'Tis done!--Princess, when you are gone, let your + thoughts forbear to dwell with sorrow and resentment upon us! [_They + part_.] And am I the great Monarch of the line of Han? + +PRESIDENT. Let your Majesty cease to dwell with such grief + upon this subject! + +EMPEROR. She is gone! In vain have we maintained those + armed heroes on the frontier. [1] Mention but swords and spears, and + they tremble at their hearts like a young deer. The princess has + this day performed what belonged to themselves: and yet they affect + the semblance of men! + +PRESIDENT. Your Majesty is entreated to return to the palace: + dwell not so bitterly, Sir, on her memory:--allow her to depart! + +EMPEROR. Did I not think of her, I had a heart of iron--a + heart of iron! The tears of my grief stream in thousand + channels--this evening shall her likeness be suspended in the + palace, where I will sacrifice to it--and tapers with their silver + lights shall illuminate her chamber. + +PRESIDENT. Let your Majesty return to the palace--the princess + is already far distant! [_Exeunt_. + + +_The Tartar Camp. Enter K'han at the head of his tribes, leading +in the Princess_. + + +K'HAN. The Emperor of Han having now, in observance of + old treaties, yielded up to me the Lady Chaoukeun in marriage, I + take her as my rightful queen. The two nations shall enjoy the + benefits of peace. [_To his generals_] Leaders, transmit my + commands to the army to strike our encampment, and proceed to the + north. [_They march_. + + +_The river Amoor. [2] Tartar army on its march_. + + +PRINCESS. What place is this? + +ENVOY. It is the River of the Black Dragon, the frontier of + the Tartar territories and those of China. This southern shore is + the Emperor's; on the northern side commences our Tartar dominion. + +PRINCESS [_to the K'han_]. Great King, I take a cup of wine, + and pour a libation towards the South--my last farewell to the + Emperor--[_pours the libation_] of Han, this life is finished. I + await thee in the next! + +[_Throws herself into the river. The K'han, in great consternation, +endeavors to save her, but in vain_. + +K'HAN. Alas! alas!--so determined was her purpose against + this foreign alliance--she has thrown herself into the stream, and + perished! Tis done, and remediless! Let her sepulchre be on this + river's bank, and be it called "the verdant tomb," [3] She is no + more; and vain has been our enmity with the dynasty of Han! The + traitor Maouyenshow was the author of all this misery. [_To an + officer_] Take Maouyenshow and let him be delivered over to the + Emperor for punishment. I will return to our former friendship with + the dynasty of Han. We will renew and long preserve the sentiments + of relationship. The traitor disfigured the portrait to injure + Chaoukeun--then deserted his sovereign, and stole over to me, whom + he prevailed on to demand the lady in marriage. How little did I + think that she would thus precipitate herself into the stream, and + perish!--In vain did my spirit melt at the sight of her! But if I + detained this profligate and traitorous rebel, he would certainly + prove to us a root of misfortune: it is better to deliver him for + his reward to the Emperor of Han, with whom I will renew, and long + retain, our old feelings of friendship and amity. _[Exeunt._ + + + +[Footnote 1: It may be observed that the great wall is never once +expressly mentioned through this drama. The expression used is Peensih, +the border, or frontier. The wall had existed two hundred years at this +time, but the real frontier was beyond it.] + +[Footnote 2: Or Saghalien, which falls into the sea of Ochotsk.] + +[Footnote 3: Said to exist now and to be green all the year.] + + + +~ACT FOURTH~ + + + +_Enter Emperor, with an attendant_. + +EMPEROR. Since the princess was yielded to the Tartars, we + have not held an audience. The lonely silence of night but increases + our melancholy! We take the picture of that fair one and suspend it + here, as some small solace to our griefs, [_To the attendant_] + Keeper of the yellow gate, behold, the incense in yonder vase is + burnt out: hasten then to add some more. Though we cannot see her, + we may at least retain this shadow; and, while life remains, betoken + our regard. But oppressed and weary, we would fain take a little + repose. + +[_Lies down to sleep. The Princess appears before him in a +vision_.] [1] + +PRINCESS. Delivered over as a captive to appease the barbarians, + they would have conveyed me to their Northern country: but I took an + occasion to elude them and have escaped back. Is not this the + Emperor, my sovereign? Sir, behold me again restored. + +[_A Tartar soldier appears in the vision_.] + +SOLDIER. While I chanced to sleep, the lady, our captive, has + made her escape, and returned home. In eager pursuit of her, I have + reached the imperial palace.--Is not this she? + +[_Carries her off. The Emperor starts from his sleep_.] + +EMPEROR. We just saw the Princess returned--but alas, how + quickly has she vanished! In bright day she answered not to our + call--but when morning dawned on our troubled sleep, a vision + presented her in this spot. [_Hears the wild fowl's [2] cry_] Hark, + the passing fowl screamed twice or thrice!--Can it know there is no + one so desolate as I? [_Cries repeated_] Perhaps worn out and weak, + hungry and emaciated, they bewail at once the broad nets of the + South and the tough bows of the North. [_Cries repeated_] The + screams of those water-birds but increase our melancholy. + +ATTENDANT. Let your Majesty cease this sorrow, and have + some regard to your sacred [3] person. + +EMPEROR. My sorrows are beyond control. Cease to upbraid + this excess of feeling, since ye are all subject to the same. Yon + doleful cry is not the note of the swallow on the carved rafters, + nor the song of the variegated bird upon the blossoming tree. The + princess has abandoned her home! Know ye in what place she grieves, + listening like me to the screams of the wild bird? + +_Enter President_. + +PRESIDENT. This day after the close of the morning council, + a foreign envoy appeared, bringing with him the fettered traitor + Maouyenshow. He announces that the renegade, by deserting his + allegiance, led to the breach of truce, and occasioned all these + calamities. The princess is no more! and the K'han wishes for peace + and friendship between the two nations. The envoy attends, with + reverence, your imperial decision. + +EMPEROR. Then strike off the traitor's head, and be it presented + as an offering to the shade of the princess! Let a fit banquet be + got ready for the envoy, preparatory to his return. _[Recites these + verses_. + +At the fall of the leaf, when the wild-fowl's cry was heard + in the recesses of the palace. +Sad dreams returned to our lonely pillow; we thought of + her through the night: +Her verdant tomb remains--but where shall we seek her + self? +The perfidious painter's head shall atone for the beauty + which he wronged. + + +[Footnote 1: There is nothing in this more extravagant than the similar +vision in the tragedy of Richard III.] + +[Footnote 2: Yengo, a species of wild goose, is the emblem in China of +intersexual attachment and fidelity, being said never to pair again +after the loss of its mate. An image of it is worshipped by newly +married couples.] + +[Footnote 3: Literally, "dragon person." The emperor's throne is often +called the "dragon seat."] + + + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Chinese Literature, by Anonymous + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CHINESE LITERATURE *** + +***** This file should be named 10056.txt or 10056.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/0/5/10056/ + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tam and PG Distributed Proofreaders + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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