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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/10674-0.txt b/10674-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..149eb09 --- /dev/null +++ b/10674-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4332 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 10674 *** + +HOW TO USE YOUR MIND + +A PSYCHOLOGY OF STUDY + +BEING A MANUAL FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND TEACHERS IN THE +ADMINISTRATION OF SUPERVISED STUDY + +BY + +HARRY D. KITSON, PH.D. + +PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY, INDIANA UNIVERSITY + +1921 + + + + +PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION + + +The kindly reception accorded to the first edition of this book has +confirmed the author in his conviction that such a book was needed, and +has tempted him to bestow additional labor upon it. The chief changes +consist in the addition of two new chapters, "Active Imagination," and +"How to Develop Interest in a Subject"; the division into two parts of +the unwieldy chapter on memory; the addition of readings and exercises +at the end of each chapter; the preparation of an analytical table of +contents; the correction of the bibliography to date; the addition of +an index; and some recasting of phraseology in the interest of +clearness and emphasis. + +The author gratefully acknowledges the constructive suggestions of +reviewers and others who have used the book, and hopes that he has +profited by them in this revision. + +H.D.K. + +April 1, 1921. + + + + +PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION + + +Educational leaders are seeing with increasing clearness the necessity +of teaching students not only the subject-matter of study but also +methods of study. Teachers are beginning to see that students waste a +vast amount of time and form many harmful habits because they do not +know how to use their minds. The recognition of this condition is +taking the form of the movement toward "supervised study," which +attempts to acquaint the student with principles of economy and +directness in using his mind. It is generally agreed that there are +certain "tricks" which make for mental efficiency, consisting of +methods of apperceiving facts, methods of review, devices for arranging +work. Some are the fruits of psychological experimentation; others are +derived from experience. Many of them can be imparted by instruction, +and it is for the purpose of systematizing these and making them +available for students that this book is prepared. + +The evils of unintelligent and unsupervised study are evident to all +who have any connection with modern education. They pervade the entire +educational structure from kindergarten through college. In college +they are especially apparent in the case of freshmen, who, in addition +to the numerous difficulties incident to entrance into the college +world, suffer peculiarly because they do not know how to attack the +difficult subjects of the curriculum. In recognition of these +conditions, special attention is given at The University of Chicago +toward supervision of study. All freshmen in the School of Commerce and +Administration of the University are given a course in Methods of +Study, in which practical discussions and demonstrations are given +regarding the ways of studying the freshman subjects. In addition to +the group-work, cases presenting special features are given individual +attention, for it must be admitted that while certain difficulties are +common to all students, there are individual cases that present +peculiar phases and these can be served only by personal consultations. +These personal consultations are expensive both in time and patience, +for it frequently happens that the mental habits of a student must be +thoroughly reconstructed, and this requires much time and attention, +but the results well repay the effort. A valuable accessory to such +individual supervision over students has been found in the use of +psychological tests which have been described by the author in a +monograph entitled, "The Scientific Study of the College Student."[1] + +[Footnote 1: Princeton University Press.] + +But the college is not the most strategic point at which to administer +guidance in methods of study. Such training is even more acceptably +given in the high school and grades. Here habits of mental application +are largely set, and it is of the utmost importance that they be set +right, for the sake of the welfare of the individuals and of the +institutions of higher education that receive them later. Another +reason for incorporating training in methods of study into secondary +and elementary schools is that more individuals will be helped, +inasmuch as the eliminative process has not yet reached its +culmination. + +In high schools where systematic supervision of study is a feature, +classes are usually conducted in Methods of Study, and it is hoped that +this book will meet the demand for a text-book for such classes, the +material being well within the reach of high school students. In high +schools where instruction in Methods of Study is given as part of a +course in elementary psychology, the book should also prove useful, +inasmuch as it gives a summary of psychological principles relating to +the cognitive processes. + +In the grades the book cannot be put into the hands of the pupils, but +it should be mastered by the teacher and applied in her supervising and +teaching activities. Embodying, as it does, the results of researches +in educational psychology, it should prove especially suitable for use +in teachers' reading circles where a concise presentation of the facts +regarding the psychology of the learning process is desired. + +There is another group of students who need training in methods of +study. Brain workers in business and industry feel deeply the need of +greater mental efficiency and seek eagerly for means to attain it. +Their earnestness in this search is evidenced by the success of various +systems for the training of memory, will, and other mental traits. +Further evidence is found in the efforts of many corporations to +maintain schools and classes for the intellectual improvement of their +employees. To all such the author offers the work with the hope that it +may be useful in directing them toward greater mental efficiency. + +In courses in Methods of Study in which the book is used as a +class-text, the instructor should lay emphasis not upon memorization of +the facts in the book, but upon the application of them in study. He +should expect to see parallel with progress through the book, +improvement in the mental ability of the students. Specific problems +may well be arranged on the basis of the subjects of the curriculum, +and students should be urged to utilize the suggestions immediately. +The subjects treated in the book are those which the author has found +in his experience with college students to constitute the most frequent +sources of difficulty, and under these conditions, the sequence of +topics followed in the book has seemed most favorable for presentation. +With other groups of students, however, another sequence of topics may +be found desirable; if so, the order of topics may be changed. For +example, in case the chapter on brain action is found to presuppose +more physiological knowledge than that possessed by the students, it +may be omitted or may be used merely for reference when enlightenment +is desired upon some of the physiological descriptions in later +chapters. Likewise, the chapter dealing with intellectual difficulties +of college students may be omitted with non-collegiate groups. + +The heavy obligation of the author to a number of writers will be +apparent to one familiar with the literature of theoretical and +educational psychology. No attempt is made to render specific +acknowledgments, but special mention should be made of the large +draughts made upon the two books by Professor Stiles which treat so +helpfully of the bodily relations of the student. These books contain +so much good sense and scientific information that they should receive +a prominent place among the books recommended to students. Thanks are +due to Professor Edgar James Swift and Charles Scribner's Sons for +permission to use a figure from "Mind in the Making"; and to J.B. +Lippincott Company for adaptation of cuts from Villiger's "Brain and +Spinal Cord." + +The author gratefully acknowledges helpful suggestions from Professors +James R. Angell, Charles H. Judd and C. Judson Herrick, who have read +the greater part of the manuscript and have commented upon it to its +betterment. The obligation refers, however, not only to the immediate +preparation of this work but also to the encouragement which, for +several years, the author has received from these scientists, first as +student, later as colleague. + +THE AUTHOR. + +CHICAGO, September 25, 1916. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER + +I. INTELLECTUAL PROBLEMS OF THE COLLEGE FRESHMAN + +Number. Variety. Lecture Method. Note Taking. Amount of Library Work. +High Quality Demanded. Necessity for Making Schedule. A College Course +Consists in the Formation of Habits. Requires Active Effort on Part of +Student. Importance of Good Form. + +II. NOTE TAKING + +Uses of Notes. LECTURE NOTES--Avoid Verbatim Reports. Maintain Attitude +of Mental Activity. Seek Outline Chiefly. Use Notes in Preparing Next +Lesson. READING NOTES--Summarize Rather Than Copy. Read With Questions +in Mind. How to Read. How to Make Bibliographies. LABORATORY +NOTES--Content. Form. Miscellaneous Hints. + +III. BRAIN ACTION DURING STUDY + +The Organ of Mind. Gross Structure. Microscopic Structure. The Neurone. +The Nervous Impulse. The Synapse. Properties of Nervous Tissue +--Impressibility, Conductivity, Modifiability. Pathways Used in +Study--Sensory, Motor, Association. Study is a Process of Making +Pathways in Brain. + +IV. FORMATION OF STUDY-HABITS + +Definition of Habit. Examples. Inevitableness of Habits in Brain and +Nervous System. How to Insure Useful Habits--Choose What Shall Enter; +Choose Mode of Entrance; Choose Mode of Egress; Go Slowly at First; +Observe Four Maxims. Advantages and Disadvantages of Habit. Ethical +Consequences. + +V. ACTIVE IMAGINATION + +Nature of the Image. Its Use in Imagination. Necessity for Number, +Variety, Sharpness. Source of "Imaginative" Productions. Method of +Developing Active Imaginative Powers: Cultivate Images in Great +Number, Variety, Sharpness; Actively Combine the Elements of Past +Experience. + +VI. FIRST AIDS TO MEMORY--IMPRESSION + +Four Phases. Conditions of Impression: Care, Clearness, Choice of +Favorable Sense Avenue, Repetition, Overlearning, Primacy, Distribution +of Repetitions, (Inferences Bearing Upon Theme-writing), "Whole" vs. +"Part" Method, "Rote" vs. "logical" Method, Intention. + +VII. SECOND AIDS TO MEMORY--RETENTION, RECALL AND RECOGNITION + +Retention. Recall. Recall Contrasted With Impression. Practise Recall +in Impression. Recognition. Advantages of Review. Memory Works +According to Law. Possibility of Improvement. Connection With Other +Mental Processes. + +VIII. CONCENTRATION OF ATTENTION + +Importance in Mental Life. Analysis of Concrete Attentive State. +Cross-section of Mental Stream. Focal Object, Clear; Marginal Objects, +Dim. Fluctuation. Ease of Concentration Requires (1) Removal of All +Marginal Distractions Possible, (2) Ignoring Others. Conditions +Favorable for Concentration. Relation to Other Mental Processes. + +IX. HOW WE REASON + +Reasoning Contrasted with Simpler Mental Operations. Illustrated by +Method of Studying Geometry. Analysis of Reasoning Act: Recognition of +Problem, Efforts to Solve It, Solution. Study in Problems. Requirements +for Effective Reasoning: Many Ideas, Accessible, Clear. How to Clarify +Ideas: Define, Classify. Relation Between Habit and Reasoning. Summary. + +X. EXPRESSION AS AN AID IN STUDY + +Expression an Inevitable Accompaniment of Nervous Activity. Extent of +Expressive Movements. Relation Between Ideas and Expressive Acts. +Ethical Considerations. Methods of Expression Chiefly Used in Study: +Speech, Writing, Drawing. Effects of Expression: (1) On Brain, (2) On +Ideas. Hints on Development of Freedom of Expression. + +XI. HOW TO BECOME INTERESTED IN A SUBJECT + +Nature of Interest. Intellectual Interests Gained Through Experience. +Many Possible Fields of Interest. Laws of Interest. + +XII. THE PLATEAU OF DESPOND + +Measurement of Mental Progress. Analysis of the "Learning Curve." +Irregularity. Rapid Progress at Beginning. The Plateau. Causes. +Remedies. + +XIII. MENTAL SECOND-WIND + +Description: (1) Physical, (2) Mental. Hidden Sources of Energy. +Retarding Effect of Fatigue. Analysis of Fatigue. How to Reduce +Fatigue in Study. + +XIV. EXAMINATIONS + +Purposes. Continuous Effort and Cramming. Effective Methods of +Reviewing. Immediate Preparation for an Examination Conduct in +Examination-room. Attitude of Activity. Attitude of Confidence. + +XV. BODILY CONDITIONS FOB EFFECTIVE STUDY + +FOOD: Quantity, Quality, Surroundings. SLEEP: Amount, Conditions, +Avoidance of Insomnia. EXERCISE: Regularity, Emphasis. + +SUGGESTIONS FOB FURTHER READING + +INDEX + + + + +HOW TO USE YOUR MIND + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTELLECTUAL PROBLEMS OF THE COLLEGE FRESHMAN + + +In entering upon a college course you are taking a step that may +completely revolutionize your life. You are facing new situations +vastly different from any you have previously met. They are also of +great variety, such as finding a place to eat and sleep, regulating +your own finances, inaugurating a new social life, forming new +friendships, and developing in body and mind. The problems connected +with mental development will engage your chief attention. You are now +going to use your mind more actively than ever before and should survey +some of the intellectual difficulties before plunging into the fight. + +Perhaps the first difficulty you will encounter is the substitution of +the lecture for the class recitation to which you were accustomed in +high school. This substitution requires that you develop a new technic +of learning, for the mental processes involved in an oral recitation +are different from those used in listening to a lecture. The lecture +system implies that the lecturer has a fund of knowledge about a +certain field and has organized this knowledge in a form that is not +duplicated in the literature of the subject. The manner of +presentation, then, is unique and is the only means of securing the +knowledge in just that form. As soon as the words have left the mouth +of the lecturer they cease to be accessible to you. Such conditions +require a unique mental attitude and unique mental habits. You will be +obliged, in the first place, to maintain sustained attention over long +periods of time. The situation is not like that in reading, in which a +temporary lapse of attention may be remedied by turning back and +rereading. In listening to a lecture, you are obliged to catch the +words "on the fly." Accordingly you must develop new habits of paying +attention. You will also need to develop a new technic for memorizing, +especially for memorizing things heard. As a partial aid in this, and +also for purposes of organizing material received in lectures, you will +need to develop ability to take notes. This is a process with which you +have heretofore had little to do. It is a most important phase of +college life, however, and will repay earnest study. + +Another characteristic of college study is the vast amount of reading +required. Instead of using a single text-book for each course, you may +use several. They may cover great historical periods and represent the +ideas of many men. In view of the amount of reading assigned, you will +also be obliged to learn to read faster. No longer will you have time +to dawdle sleepily through the pages of easy texts; you will have to +cover perhaps fifty or a hundred pages of knotty reading every day. +Accordingly you must learn to handle books expeditiously and to +comprehend quickly. In fact, economy must be your watchword throughout. +A German lesson in high school may cover thirty or forty lines a day, +requiring an hour's preparation. A German assignment in college, +however, may cover four or five or a dozen pages, requiring hard work +for two or three hours. + +You should be warned also that college demands not only a greater +quantity but also a higher quality of work. When you were a high school +student the world expected only a high school student's accomplishments +of you. Now you are a college student, however, and your intellectual +responsibilities have increased. The world regards you now as a person +of considerable scholastic attainment and expects more of you than +before. In academic terms this means that in order to attain a grade of +95 in college you will have to work much harder than you did for that +grade in high school, for here you have not only more difficult +subject-matter, but also keener competition for the first place. In +high school you may have been the brightest student in your class. In +college, however, you encounter the brightest students from many +schools. If your merits are going to stand out prominently, therefore, +you must work much harder. Your work from now on must be of better +quality. + +Not the least of the perplexities of your life as a college student +will arise from the fact that no daily schedule is arranged for you. +The only time definitely assigned for your work is the fifteen hours a +week, more or less, spent in the class-room. The rest of your schedule +must be arranged by yourself. This is a real task and will require care +and thought if your work is to be done with greatest economy of time +and effort. + +This brief survey completes the catalogue of problems of mental +development that will vex you most in adjusting your methods of study +to college conditions. In order to make this adjustment you will be +obliged to form a number of new habits. Indeed, as you become more and +more expert as a student, you will see that the whole process resolves +itself into one of habit-formation, for while a college education has +two phases--the acquisition of facts and the formation of habits--it is +the latter which is the more important. Many of the facts that you +learn will be forgotten; many will be outlawed by time; but the habits +of study you form will be permanent possessions. They will consist of +such things as methods of grasping facts, methods of reasoning about +facts, and of concentrating attention. In acquiring these habits you +must have some material upon which you may concentrate your attention, +and it will be supplied by the subjects of the curriculum. You will be +asked, for instance, to write innumerable themes in courses in English +composition; not for the purpose of enriching the world's literature, +nor for the delectation of your English instructor, but for the sake of +helping you to form habits of forceful expression. You will be asked to +enter the laboratory and perform numerous experiments, not to discover +hitherto unknown facts, but to obtain practice in scientific procedure +and to learn how to seek knowledge by yourself. The curriculum and the +faculty are the means, but you yourself are the agent in the +educational process. No matter how good the curriculum or how renowned +the faculty, you cannot be educated without the most vigorous efforts +on your part. Banish the thought that you are here to have knowledge +"pumped into" you. To acquire an education you must establish and +maintain not a passive attitude but an active attitude. When you go to +the gymnasium to build up a good physique, the physical director does +not tell you to hold yourself limp and passive while he pumps your arms +and legs up and down. Rather he urges you to put forth effort, to exert +yourself until you are tired. Only by so doing can you develop physical +power. This principle holds true of mental development. Learning is not +a process of passive "soaking-in." It is a matter of vigorous effort, +and the harder you work the more powerful you become. In securing a +college education you are your own master. + +In the development of physical prowess you are well aware of the +importance of doing everything in "good form." In such sports as +swimming and hurdling, speed and grace depend primarily upon it. The +same principle holds true in the development of the mind. The most +serviceable mind is that which accomplishes results in the shortest +time and with least waste motion. Take every precaution, therefore, to +rid yourself of all superfluous and impeding methods. + +Strive for the development of good form in study. Especially is this +necessary at the start. Now is the time when you are laying the +foundations for your mental achievements in college. Keep a sharp +lookout, then, at every point, to see that you build into the +foundation only those materials and that workmanship which will support +a masterly structure. + +READINGS AND EXERCISES + +NOTE.--Numbers in parentheses refer to complete citations in +Bibliography at end of book. + +Readings: Fulton (5) Lockwood (11) + +Exercise 1. List concrete problems that have newly come to you since +your arrival upon the campus. + +Exercise 2. List in order the difficulties that confront you in +preparing your daily lessons. + +Exercise 3. Prepare a work schedule similar to that provided by the +form in Chart I. Specify the subject with which you will be occupied at +each period. + +Exercise 4. Try to devise some way of registering the effectiveness +with which you carry out your schedule. Suggestions are contained in +the summary: Disposition of (1) as planned; (2) as spent. To divide the +number of hours wasted by 24 will give a partial "index of efficiency." + + + + +CHAPTER II + +NOTE-TAKING + + +Most educated people find occasion, at some time or other, to take +notes. Although this is especially true of college students, they have +little success, as any college instructor will testify. Students, as a +rule, do not realize that there is any skill involved in taking notes. +Not until examination time arrives and they try vainly to labor through +a maze of scribbling, do they realize that there must be some system in +note-taking. A careful examination of note-taking shows that there are +rules or principles, which, when followed, have much to do with +increasing ability in study. + +One criterion that should guide in the preparation of notes is the use +to which they will be put. If this is kept in mind, many blunders will +be saved. Notes may be used in three ways: as material for directing +each day's study, for cramming, and for permanent, professional use. +Thus a note-book may be a thing of far-reaching value. Notes you take +now as a student may be valuable years hence in professional life. +Recognition of this will help you in the preparation of your notes and +will determine many times how they should be prepared. + +The chief situations in college which require note-taking are lectures, +library reading and laboratory work. Accordingly the subject will be +considered under these three heads. + +LECTURE NOTES.--When taking notes on a lecture, there are two extremes +that present themselves, to take exceedingly full notes or to take +almost no notes. One can err in either direction. True, on first +thought, entire stenographic reports of lectures appear desirable, but +second thought will show that they may be dispensed with, not only +without loss, but with much gain. The most obvious objection is that +too much time would be consumed in transcribing short-hand notes. +Another is that much of the material in a lecture is undesirable for +permanent possession. The instructor repeats much for the sake of +emphasis; he multiplies illustrations, not important in themselves, but +important for the sake of stressing his point. You do not need these +illustrations in written form, however, for once the point is made you +rarely need to depend upon the illustrations for its retention. A still +more cogent objection is that if you occupy your attention with the +task of copying the lecture verbatim, you do not have time to think, +but become merely an automatic recording machine. Experienced +stenographers say that they form the habit of recording so +automatically that they fail utterly to comprehend the meaning of what +is said. You as a student cannot afford to have your attention so +distracted from the meaning of the lecture, therefore reduce your +classroom writing to a minimum. + +Probably the chief reason why students are so eager to secure full +lecture notes is that they fear to trust their memory. Such fears +should be put at rest, for your mind will retain facts if you pay close +attention and make logical associations during the time of impression. +Keep your mind free, then, to work upon the subject-matter of the +lecture. Debate mentally with the speaker. Question his statements, +comparing them with your own experience or with the results of your +study. Ask yourself frequently, "Is that true?" The essential thing is +to maintain an attitude of mental activity, and to avoid anything that +will reduce this and make you passive. Do not think of yourself as a +vat into which the instructor pumps knowledge. Regard yourself rather +as an active force, quick to perceive and to comprehend meaning, +deliberate in acceptance and firm in retention. + +After observing the stress laid, throughout this book, upon the +necessity for logical associations, you will readily see that the +key-note to note-taking is, Let your notes represent the logical +progression of thought in the lecture. Strive above all else to secure +the skeleton--the framework upon which the lecture is hung. A lecture +is a logical structure, and the form in which it is presented is the +outline. This outline, then, is your chief concern. In the case of some +lectures it is an easy matter. The lecturer may place the outline in +your hands beforehand, may present it on the black-board, or may give +it orally. Some lecturers, too, present their material in such +clear-cut divisions that the outline is easily followed. Others, +however, are very difficult to follow in this regard. + +In arranging an outline you will find it wise to adopt some device by +which the parts will stand out prominently, and the progression of +thought will be indicated with proper subordination of titles. Adopt +some system at the beginning of your college course, and use it in all +your notes. The system here given may serve as a model, using first the +Roman numerals, then capitals, then Arabic numerals: + + I. +II. + A. + B. + 1. + 2. + a. + b. + (1) + (2) + (a) + (b) + +In concluding this discussion of lecture notes, you should be urged to +make good use of your notes after they are taken. First, glance over +them as soon as possible after the lecture. Inasmuch as they will then +be fresh in your mind, you will be able to recall almost the entire +lecture; you will also be able to supply missing parts from memory. +Some students make it a rule to reduce all class-notes to typewritten +form soon after the lecture. This is an excellent practice, but is +rather expensive in time. In addition to this after-class review, you +should make a second review of your notes as the first step in the +preparation of the next day's lesson. This will connect up the lessons +with each other and will make the course a unified whole instead of a +series of disconnected parts. Too often a course exists in a student's +mind as a series of separate discussions and he sees only the horizon +of a single day. This condition might be represented by a series of +disconnected links: + + O O O O O + +A summary of each day's lesson, however, preceding the preparation for +the next day, forges new links and welds them all together into an +unbroken chain: + + OOOOOOOOOO + +A method that has been found helpful is to use a double-page system of +notetaking, using the left-hand page for the bare outline, with +largest divisions, and the right-hand page for the details. This device +makes the note-book readily available for hasty review or for more +extended study. + +READING NOTES.--The question of full or scanty notes arises in reading +notes as in lecture notes. In general, your notes should represent a +summary, in your own words, of the author's discussion, not a +duplication of it. Students sometimes acquire the habit of reading +single sentences at a time, then of writing them down, thinking that by +making an exact copy of the book, they are playing safe. This is a +pernicious practice; it spoils continuity of thought and application. +Furthermore, isolated sentences mean little, and fail grossly to +represent the real thought of the author. A better way is to read +through an entire paragraph or section, then close the book and +reproduce in your own words what you have read. Next, take your summary +and compare with the original text to see that you have really grasped +the point. This procedure will be beneficial in several ways. It will +encourage continuous concentration of attention to an entire argument; +it will help you to preserve relative emphasis of parts; it will lead +you to regard thought and not words. (You are undoubtedly familiar with +the state of mind wherein you find yourself reading merely words and +not following the thought.) Lastly, material studied in this way is +remembered longer than material read scrappily. In short, such a method +of reading makes not only for good memory, but for good mental habits +of all kinds. In all your reading, hold to the conception of yourself +as a thinker, not a sponge. Remember, you do not need to accept +unqualifiedly everything you read. A worthy ideal for every student to +follow is expressed in the motto carved on the wall of the great +reading-room of the Harper Memorial Library at The University of +Chicago: "Read not to contradict, nor to believe, but to weigh and +consider." Ibsen bluntly states the same thought: + +"Don't read to swallow; read to choose, for 'Tis but to see what one +has use for." + +Ask yourself, when beginning a printed discussion, What am I looking +for? What is the author going to talk about? Often this will be +indicated in topical headings. Keep it in the background of your mind +while reading, and search for the answer. Then, when you have read the +necessary portion, close the book and summarize, to see if the author +furnished what you sought. In short, always read for a purpose. +Formulate problems and seek their solutions. In this way will there be +direction in your reading and your thought. + +This discussion of reading notes has turned into an essay on "How to +Read," and you must be convinced by this time that there is much to +learn in this respect, so much that we may profitably spend more time +in discussing it. + +Every book you take up should be opened with some preliminary ceremony. +This does not refer to the physical operation of opening a new book, +but to the mental operation. In general, take the following steps: + +1. Observe the title. See exactly what field the book attempts to +cover. + +2. Observe the author's name. If you are to use his book frequently, +discover his position in the field. Remember, you are going to accept +him as authority, and you should know his status. You may be told this +on the title-page, or you may have to consult Who's Who, or the +biographical dictionary. + +3. Glance over the preface. Under some circumstances you should read it +carefully. If you are going to refer to the book very often, make +friends with the author; let him introduce himself to you; this he will +do in the preface. Observe the date of publication, also, in order to +get an idea as to the recency of the material. + +4. Glance over the table of contents. If you are very familiar with the +field, and the table of contents is outlined in detail, you might +advantageously study it and dispense with reading the book. On the +other hand, if you are going to consult the book only briefly, you +might find it necessary to study the table of contents in order to see +the relation of the part you read to the entire work. + +5. Use the index intelligently; it may save you much time. + +You will have much to do throughout your college course with the making +of bibliographies, that is, with the compilation of lists of books +bearing upon special topics. You may have bibliographies given you in +some of your courses, or you may be asked to compile your own. Under +all circumstances, prepare them with the greatest care. Be scrupulous +in giving references. There is a standard form for referring to books +and periodicals, as follows: + +C.R. Henderson, Industrial Insurance (2d ed.; Chicago: The University +of Chicago Press, 1912), p. 321. + +S.I. Curtis, "The Place of Sacrifice," Biblical World, Vol. XXI (1902), +p. 248 _ff_. + +LABORATORY NOTES.--The form for laboratory notes varies with the +science and is usually prescribed by the instructor. Reports of +experiments are usually written up in the order: Object, Apparatus, +Method, Results, Conclusions. When detailed instructions are given by +the instructor, follow them accurately. Pay special attention to +neatness. Instructors say that the greatest fault with laboratory +note-books is lack of neatness. This reacts upon the instructor, +causing him much trouble in correcting the note-book. The resulting +annoyance frequently prejudices him, against his will, against the +student. It is safe to assert that you will materially increase your +chances of a good grade in a laboratory course by the preparation of a +neat note-book. + +The key-note of the twentieth century is economy, the tendency in all +lines being toward the elimination of waste. College students should +adopt this aim in the regulation of their study affairs, and there is +much opportunity for applying it in note-taking. So far, the discussion +has had to do with the _content_ of the note-book, but _its form_ is +equally important. Much may be done by utilization of mechanical +devices to save time and energy. + +First, write in ink. Pencil marks blur badly and become illegible in a +few months. Remember, you may be using the notebook twenty years hence, +therefore make it durable. + +Second, write plainly. This injunction ought to be superfluous, for +common sense tells us that writing which is illegible cannot be read +even by the writer, once it has "grown cold." Third, take care in +forming sentences. Do not make your notes consist simply of separate, +scrappy jottings. True, it is difficult, under stress, to form +complete sentences. The great temptation is to jot down a word here +and there and trust to luck or an indulgent memory to supply the +context at some later time. A little experience, however, will quickly +demonstrate the futility of such hopes; therefore strive to form +sensible phrases, and to make the parts of the outline cohere. Apply +the principles of English composition to the preparation of your +note-book. + +A fourth question concerns size and shape of the note-book. These +features depend partly upon the nature of the course and partly upon +individual taste. It is often convenient and practicable to keep the +notes for all courses in a single note-book. Men find it advantageous +to use a small note-book of a size that can be carried in the coat +pocket and studied at odd moments. + +A fifth question of a mechanical nature is, Which is preferable, bound +or loose-leaf note-books? Generally the latter will be found more +desirable. Leaves are easily inserted and the sections are easily filed +on completion of a course. + +It goes without saying that the manner in which notes, are to be taken +will be determined by many factors, such as the nature of individual +courses, the wishes of instructors, personal tastes and habits. +Nevertheless, there are certain principles and practices which are +adaptable to nearly all conditions, and it is these that we have +discussed. Remember, note-taking is one of the habits you are to form +in college. See that the habit is started rightly. Adopt a good plan at +the start and adhere to it. You may be encouraged, too, with the +thought that facility in note-taking will come with practice. +Note-taking is an art and as you practise you will develop skill. + +We have noted some of the most obvious and immediate benefits derived +from well-prepared notes, consisting of economy of time, ease of +review, ease of permanent retention. There are other benefits, however, +which, though less obvious, are of far greater importance. These are +the permanent effects upon the mind. Habits of correct thinking are the +chief result of correct note-taking. As you develop in this particular +ability, you will find corresponding improvement in your ability to +comprehend and assimilate ideas, to retain and reproduce facts, and to +reason with thoroughness and independence. + +READINGS AND EXERCISES + +Readings: + +Adams (1) Chapter VIII. + +Dearborn (2) Chapter II. + +Kerfoot (10) + +Seward (17) + +Exercise 1. Contrast the taking of notes from reading and from +lectures. + +Exercise 2. Make an outline of this chapter. + +Exercise 3. Make an outline of some lecture. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +BRAIN ACTION DURING STUDY + + +Though most people understand more or less vaguely that the brain acts +in some way during study, exact knowledge of the nature of this action +is not general. As you will be greatly assisted in understanding mental +processes by such knowledge, we shall briefly examine the brain and its +connections. It will be manifestly impossible to inquire into its +nature very minutely, but by means of a description you will be able to +secure some conception of it and thus will be able better to control +the mental processes which it underlies. + +To the naked eye the brain is a large jelly-like mass enclosed in a +bony covering, about one-fourth of an inch thick, called the skull. +Inside the skull it is protected by a thick membrane. At its base +emerges the spinal cord, a long strand of nerve fibers extending down +the spine. For most of its length, the cord is about as large around as +your little finger, but it tapers at the lower end. From it at right +angles throughout its length branch out thirty-one pairs of fibrous +nerves which radiate to all parts of the body. The brain and spinal +cord, with all its ramifications, are known as the nervous system. You +see now that, though we started with the statement that the mind is +intimately connected with the brain, we must now enlarge our statement +and say it is connected with the entire nervous system. It is therefore +to the nervous system that we must turn our attention. + +Although to the naked eye the nervous system is apparently made up of a +number of different kinds of material, still we see, when we turn our +microscopes upon it, that its parts are structurally the same. Reduced +to lowest terms, the nervous system is found to be composed of minute +units of structure called nerve-cells or neurones. Each of these looks +like a string frayed out at both ends, with a bulge somewhere along its +length. The nervous system is made up of millions of these little cells +packed together in various combinations and distributed throughout the +body. Some of the neurones are as long as three feet; others measure +but a fraction of an inch in length. + +We do not know exactly how the mind, that part of us which feels, +reasons and wills, is connected with this mass of cells called the +nervous system. We do know, however, that every time anything occurs in +the mind, there is a change in some part of the nervous system. +Applying this fact to study, it is obvious that when you are performing +any of the operations of study, memorizing foreign vocabularies, making +arithmetical calculations, reasoning out problems in geometry, you are +making changes in your nervous system. The question before us, then, +is, What is the nature of these changes? + +According to present knowledge, the action of the nervous system is +best conceived as a form of chemical change that spreads among the +nerve-cells. We call this commotion the nervous current. It is very +rapid, moving faster than one hundred feet a second, and runs along the +cells in much the same way as a "spark runs along a train of +gunpowder." It is important to note that neurones never act singly; +they always act in groups, the nervous current passing from neurone to +neurone. It is thought that the most important changes in the nervous +system do not occur within the individual neurones, but at the points +where they join with each other. This point of connection is called the +synapse and although we do not understand its exact nature, it may well +be pictured as a valve that governs the passage of the nervous current +from neurone to neurone. At time of birth, most of the valves are +closed. Only a few are open, mainly those connected with the vegetative +processes such as breathing and digestion. But as the individual is +played upon by the objects of the environment, the valves open to the +passage of the nervous current. With increased use they become more and +more permeable, and thus learning is the process of making easier the +passage of the nervous current from one neurone to another. + +We shall secure further light upon the action of the nervous system if +we examine some of the properties belonging to nerve-cells. The first +one is _impressibility_. Nerve-cells are very sensitive to impressions +from the outside. If you have ever had the dentist touch an exposed +nerve, you know how extreme this sensitivity is. Naturally such a +property is very important in education, for had we not the power to +receive impressions from the outside world we should not be able to +acquire knowledge. We should not even be able to perceive danger and +remove ourselves from harm. "If we compare a man's body to a building, +calling the steel frame-work his skeleton and the furnace and power +station his digestive organs and lungs, the nervous system would +include, with other things, the thermometers, heat regulators, electric +buttons, door-bells, valve-openers,--the parts of the building, in +short, which are specifically designed to respond to influences of the +environment." The second property of nerve-cells which is important in +study is _conductivity_. As soon as a neurone is stimulated at one end, +it communicates its excitement, by means of the nervous current, to the +next neurone or to neighboring neurones. Just as an electric current +might pass along one wire, thence to another, and along it to a third, +so the nervous current passes from neurone to neurone. As might be +expected, the two functions of impressibility and conductivity are +aided by such an arrangement of the nerve-cells that the nervous +current may pass over definitely laid pathways. These systems of +pathways will be described in a later paragraph. + +The third property of nerve-cells which is important in study is +_modifiability_. That is, impressions made upon the nerve-cells are +retained. Most living tissue is modifiable to some extent. The features +of the face are modifiable, and if one habitually assumes a peevish +expression, it becomes, after a time, permanently fixed. The nervous +system, however, possesses the power of modifiability to a marked +degree, even a single impression sufficing to make striking +modification. This is very important in study, being the basis for the +retentive powers of the mind. + +Having examined the action of the nervous system in its simplicity, we +have now to examine the ways in which the parts of the nervous system +are combined. We shall be helped if we keep to the conception of it as +an aggregation of systems or groups of pathways. Some of these we shall +attempt to trace out. Beginning with those at the outermost parts of +the body, we find them located in the sense-organs, not only within +the traditional five, but also within the muscles, tendons, joints, +and internal organs of the body such as the heart, and digestive +organs. In all these places we find ends of neurones which converge at +the spinal cord and travel to the brain. They are called sensory +neurones and their function is to carry messages inward to the brain. +Thus, the brain represents, in great part, a central receiving station +for impressions from the outside world. The nerve-cells carrying +messages from the various parts of the body terminate in particular +areas. Thus an area in the back part of the brain receives messages +from the eyes; another area near the top of the brain receives messages +from the skin. These areas are quite clearly marked out and may be +studied in detail by means of the accompanying diagram. + +There is another large group of nerve-cells which, when traced out, are +found to have one terminal in the brain and the other in the muscles +throughout the body. The area in the brain, where these neurones +emerge, is near the top of the brain in the area marked _Motor_ on the +diagram. From here the fibers travel down through the spinal cord and +out to the muscles. The nerve-cells in this group are called motor +neurones and their function is to carry messages from the brain out to +the muscles, for a muscle ordinarily does not act without a nervous +current to set it off. + +So far we have seen that the brain has the two functions of receiving +impressions from the sense-organs and of sending out orders to the +muscles. There is a further mechanism that must now be described. When +messages are received in the sensory areas, it is necessary that there +be some means within the brain of transmitting them over to the motor +area so that they may be acted upon. Such an arrangement is provided by +another group of nerve-cells in the brain, having as their function the +transmission of the nervous current from one area to another. They are +called association neurones and transmit the nervous current from +sensory areas to motor areas or from one sensory area to another. For +example, suppose you see a brick falling from above and you dodge +quickly back. The neural action accompanying this occurrence consists +of an impression upon the nerve-cells in the eye, the conduction of the +nervous current back to the visual area of the brain, the transmission +of the current over association neurones to the motor area, then its +transmission over the motor neurones, down the spinal cord, to the +muscles that enable you to dodge the missile. The association neurones +have the further function of connecting one sensory area in the brain +with another. For example, when you see, smell, taste and touch an +orange, the corresponding areas in the brain act in conjunction and are +associated by means of the association neurones connecting them. The +association neurones play a large part in the securing and organizing +of knowledge. They are very important in study, for all learning +consists in building up associations. + +From the foregoing description we see that the nervous system consists +merely of a mechanism for the reception and transmission of incoming +messages and their transformation into outgoing messages which produce +movement. The brain is the center where such transformations are made, +being a sort of central switchboard which permits the sense-organs to +come into communication with muscles. It is also the instrument by +means of which the impressions from the various senses can be united +and experience can be unified. The brain serves further as the medium +whereby impressions once made can be retained. That is, it is the great +organ of memory. Hence we see that it is to this organ we must look for +the performance of the activities necessary to study. Everything that +enters it produces some modification within it. Education consists in a +process of undergoing a selected group of experiences of such a nature +as to leave beneficial results in the brain. By means of the changes +made there, the individual is able better to adjust himself to new +situations. For when the individual enters the world, he is not +prepared to meet many situations; only a few of the neural connections +are made and he is able to perform only a meagre number of simple acts, +such as breathing, crying, digestion. The pathways for complex acts, +such as speaking English or French, or writing, are not formed at birth +but must be built up within the life-time of the individual. It is the +process of building them up that we call education. This process is a +physical feat involving the production of changes in physical material +in the brain. Study involves the overcoming of resistance in the +nervous system. That is why it is so hard. In your early school-days, +when you set about laboriously learning the multiplication table, your +unwilling protests were wrung because you were being compelled to force +the nervous current through new pathways, and to overcome the inertia +of physical matter. Today, when you begin a train of reasoning, the +task is difficult because you are opening hitherto untravelled +pathways. There is a comforting thought, however, which is derived from +the factor of modifiability, in that with each succeeding repetition, +the task becomes easier, because the path becomes worn smoothly and the +nervous current seeks it of its own accord; in other words, each act +and each thought tends to become habitualized. Education is then a +process of forming habits, and the rest of the book will be devoted to +the description and discussion of habits which a student should form. + +READING AND EXERCISE + +Reading: Herrick (7) + +Exercise 1. Draw a picture of the brain, showing roughly what takes +place there (a) when you read a book, (6) listen to a lecture, (c) take +notes. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +FORMATION OF STUDY-HABITS + + +As already intimated, this book adopts the view that education is a +process of forming habits in the brain. In the formation of habits +there are several principles that must be observed. Accordingly we +shall devote a chapter to the consideration of habits in general before +discussing the specific habits involved in various kinds of study. + +Habit may be defined roughly as the tendency to act time after time in +the same way. Thus defined, you see that the force of habit extends +throughout the entire universe. It is a habit for the earth to revolve +on its axis once every twenty-four hours and to encircle the sun once +every year. When a pencil falls from your hand it has a habit of +dropping to the floor. A piece of paper once folded tends to crease in +the same place. These are examples of the force of habit in nonliving +matter. Living matter shows its power even more clearly. If you assume +a petulant expression for some time, it gets fixed and the expression +becomes habitual. The hair may be trained to lie this way or that. +These are examples of habit in living tissue. But there is one +particular form of living tissue which is most susceptible to habit; +that is nerve tissue. Let us review briefly the facts which underlie +this characteristic. In nerve tissue, impressibility, conductivity and +modifiability are developed to a marked degree. The nerve-cells in the +sense organs are impressed by stimulations from the outside world. The +nervous current thus generated is conducted over long nerve fibers, +through the spinal cord to the brain where it is received and we +experience a sensation. Thence it pushes on, over association neurones +in the brain to motor neurones, over which it passes down the spinal +cord again to muscles, and ends in some movement. In the pathway which +it traverses it leaves its impression, and, thereafter, when the first +neurone is excited, the nervous current tends to take the same pathway +and to end in the same movement. + +It should be emphasized that the nervous current, once started, always +tends to seek outlet in movement. This is an extremely important +feature of neural action, and, as will be shown in another chapter, is +a vital factor in study. Movement may be started by the stimulation of +a sense organ or by an idea. In the latter case it starts from regions +in the brain without the immediately preceding stimulation of a sense +organ. Howsoever it starts you may be sure that it seeks a way out, and +prefers pathways already traversed. Hence you see you are bound to have +habits. They will develop whether you wish them or not. Already you are +"a bundle of habits"; they manifest themselves in two ways--as habits +of action and habits of thought. You illustrate the first every time +you tie your shoes or sign your name. To illustrate the second, I need +only ask you to supply the end of this sentence: Columbus discovered +America in----. Speech reveals many of these habits of thought. Certain +phrases persist in the mind as habits so that when the phrase is once +begun, you proceed habitually with the rest of it. When some one starts +"in spite," your mind goes on to think "of"; "more or" calls up "less." +When I ask you what word is called up by "black," you reply "white" +according to the principles of mental habit. Your mind is arranged in +such habitual patterns, and from these examples you readily see that a +large part of what you do and think during the course of twenty-four +hours is habitual. Twenty years hence you will be even more bound by +this overpowering despot. + +Our acts our angels are, or good, or ill, +Our constant shadows that walk with us still. + +Since you cannot avoid forming habits, how important it is that you +seek to form those that are useful and desirable. In acquiring them, +there are several general principles deducible from the facts of +nervous action. The first is: Guard the pathways leading to the brain. +Nerve tissue is impressible and everything that touches it leaves an +ineradicable trace. You can control your habits to some extent, then, +by observing caution in permitting things to impress you. Many +unfortunate habits of study arise from neglect of this. The habit of +using a "pony," for example, arises when one permits oneself to depend +upon a group of English words in translating from a foreign language. + +Nerve pathways should then be guarded with respect to _what_ enters. +They should also be guarded with respect to the _way_ things enter. +Remember, as the first pathway is cut, subsequent nervous currents will +be directed. Consequently if you make a wrong pathway, you will have +trouble undoing it. + +Another maxim which will obviously prevent undesirable pathways is, go +slowly at first. This is an important principle in all learning. If, +when trying to learn the date 1453, you carelessly impress it first as +1435, you are likely to have trouble ever after in remembering which is +right, 1453 or 1435. As you value your intellectual salvation, then, go +slowly in making the first impression and be sure it is right. The next +rule is: Guard the exits of the nervous currents. That is, watch the +movements you make in response to impressions and ideas. This is +necessary because the nervous current pushes on past obstructions, +through areas in the brain, until it ends in some form of movement, and +in finding the way out, it seeks those pathways that have been most +frequently travelled. In study, it usually takes the form of movements +of speech or writing. You will need to guard this part of the process +just as you did the incoming pathway You must see that the movement is +made which you wish to build into a habit. In learning the +pronunciation of a foreign word, for example, see that your first +pronunciation of it is absolutely right. When learning to typewrite +see that you always hit the right key during the early trials. The +point of exit of a nervous current is the point also where precautions +are to be taken in developing good form. The path should be the +shortest possible, involving only those muscles that are absolutely +necessary. This makes for economy of effort. + +The third general principle to be kept in mind is that habits are most +easily formed in youth, for this is the period when nerve tissue is +most easily impressed and modified. With respect to habit formation, +then, you see that youth is the time when emphasis should be laid upon +the formation of as many useful habits as possible. The world +recognizes this to some extent and society is so organized that the +youth of the race are given leisure and protection so that they may +form useful habits. The world asks nothing of you during the next four +years except that you develop yourself and form useful habits which +will enable you in later life to take your place as a useful and stable +member of society. + +In addition to the principles just discussed, there are a number of +other maxims which have been laid down as guides in the formation of +new habits. The first is, _make an assertion of will_. Vow to yourself +that you will form the habit, and keep that resolve ever before you. + +The second maxim is, _make an emphatic start._ Surround yourself with +every aid possible. Make it easy at first to perform the act and +difficult not to perform it. For example, if you desire to form the +habit of arising at six every morning, surround yourself with a number +of aids. Buy an alarm clock, and tell some one of your decision. Such +efforts at the start "will give your new beginning such a momentum that +the temptation to break down will not occur as soon as it otherwise +might; and every day during which a breakdown is postponed adds to the +chances of its not occurring at all." Man has discovered the value of +such devices during the course of his long history, and has evolved +customs accordingly. When men decide to swear off smoking, they choose +the opening of a new year when many other new things are being started; +they make solemn promises to themselves, to each other, and finally to +their friends. Such customs are precautions which help to bolster up +the determination at the time when extraordinary effort and +determination are required. In forming the habits incidental to college +life, take pains from the start to surround yourself with as many aids +as possible. This will not constitute a confession of weakness. It is +only a wise and natural precaution which the whole experience of the +race has justified. The third maxim is, _never permit an exception to +occur_. Suppose you have a habit of saying "aint" which you wish to +replace with a habit of saying "isn't." If the habit is deeply rooted, +you have worn a pathway in the brain to a considerable depth, +represented in the accompanying diagram by the line _A X B_. + + A + | + X + / \ + B C + +Let us suppose that you have already started the new habit, and have said +the correct word ten times. That means you have worn another pathway +_A X C_ to a considerable depth. During all this time, however, the old +pathway is still open and at the slightest provocation will attract the +nervous current. Your task is to deepen the new path so that the nervous +current will flow into it instead of the old. Now suppose you make an +exception on some occasion and allow the nervous current to travel over +the old path. This unfortunate exception breaks down the bridge which +you had constructed at _X_ from _A_ to _C_. But this is not the only +result. The nervous current, as it revisits the old path, deepens it +more than it was before, so the next time a similar situation arises, +the current seeks the old path with much greater readiness than before, +and vastly more effort is required to overcome it. Some one has likened +the effect of these exceptions to that produced when one drops a ball +of string that is partially wound. By a single slip, more is undone +than can be accomplished in a dozen windings. + +The fourth maxim is, _seize every opportunity to act upon your +resolution_. The reason for this will be understood better if you keep +in mind the fact, stated before, that nervous currents once started, +whether from a sense-organ or from a brain-center, always tend to seek +egress in movement. These outgoing nervous currents leave an imprint +upon the modifiable nerve tissues as inevitably as do incoming +impressions. Therefore, if you wish your resolves to be firmly fixed, +you should act upon them speedily and often. "It is not in the moment +of their forming, but in the moment of their producing _motor effects_, +that resolves and aspirations communicate the new 'set' to the brain." +"No matter how full a reservoir of _maxims_ one may possess, and no +matter how good one's _sentiments_ may be, if one has not taken +advantage of every concrete opportunity to _act_, one's character may +remain entirely unaffected for the better." Particularly at time of +emotional excitement one makes resolves that are very good, and a glow +of fine feeling is present. Beware that these resolves do not evaporate +in mere feeling. They should be crystallized in some form of action as +soon as possible. "Let the expression be the least thing in the +world--speaking genially to one's grandmother, or giving up one's seat +in a ... car, if nothing more heroic offers--but let it not fail to take +place." Strictly speaking you have not really completed a resolve until +you have acted upon it. You may determine to go without lunch, but you +have not consummated that resolve until you have permitted it to +express itself by carrying you past the door of the dining-room. That +is the crucial test which determines the strength of your resolve. Many +repetitions will be required before a pathway is worn deep enough to be +settled. Seize the very earliest opportunity to begin grooving it out, +and seize every other opportunity for deepening it. + +After this view of the place in your life occupied by habit, you +readily see its far-reaching possibilities for welfare of body and +mind. Its most obvious, because most annoying, effects are on the side +of its disadvantages. Bad habits secure a grip upon us that we are +sometimes powerless to shake off. True, this ineradicableness need have +no terrors if we have formed good habits. Indeed, as will be pointed +out in the next paragraph, habit may be a great asset. Nevertheless, it +may work positive harm, or at best, may lead to stagnation. The +fixedness of habit tends to make us move in ruts unless we exert +continuous effort to learn new things. If we permit ourselves to move +in old grooves we cease to progress and become "old fogy." + +But the advantages of habit far outweigh its disadvantages. Habit helps +the individual to be consistent and helps people to know what to expect +from one. It helps society to be stable, to incorporate within itself +modes of action conducive to the common good. For example, the respect +which we all have for the property of others is a habit, and is so +firmly intrenched that we should find ourselves unable to steal if we +wished to. Habit is thus a very desirable asset and is truly called the +"enormous fly-wheel of society." + +A second advantage of habit is that it makes for accuracy. Acts that +have become habitualized are performed more accurately than those not +habitualized. Movements such as those made in typewriting and +piano-playing, when measured in the psychological laboratory, are found +to copy each other with extreme fidelity. The human body is a machine +which may be adjusted to a high degree of nicety, and habit is the +mechanism by which this adjustment is made. + +A third advantage is that a stock of habits makes life easier. "There +is no more miserable human being than one in whom nothing is habitual +but indecision, for whom the lighting of every cigar, the drinking of +every cup, the time of rising and going to bed every day and the +beginning of every bit of work, are subjects of express volitional +deliberation. Full half the time of such a man goes to the deciding or +regretting of matters which ought to be so ingrained in him as +practically not to exist for his consciousness at all." Have you ever +reflected how miserable you would be and what a task living would be if +you had to learn to write anew every morning when you go to class; or +if you had to relearn how to tie your necktie every day? The burden of +living would be intolerable. + +The last advantage to be discerned in habit is economy. Habitual acts +do not have to be actively directed by consciousness. While they are +being performed, consciousness may be otherwise engaged. "The more of +the details of our daily life we can hand over to the effortless +custody of automatism, the more our higher powers of mind will be set +free for their own proper work." While you are brushing your hair or +tying your shoes, your mind may be engaged in memorizing poetry or +calculating arithmetical problems. Habit is thus a great economizer. + +The ethical consequences of habit are so striking that before leaving +the subject we must give them acknowledgment. We can do no better than +to turn to the statement by Professor James, whose wise remarks upon +the subject have not been improved upon: + +"The physiological study of mental conditions is thus the most powerful +ally of hortatory ethics. The hell to be endured hereafter, of which +theology tells, is no worse than the hell we make for ourselves in this +world by habitually fashioning our characters in the wrong way. Could +the young but realize how soon they will become mere walking bundles of +habits, they would give more heed to their conduct while in the plastic +state. We are spinning our own fates, good or evil, and never to be +undone. Every smallest stroke of virtue or of vice leaves its +never-so-little scar. The drunken Rip Van Winkle, in Jefferson's play, +excuses himself for every fresh dereliction by saying, 'I won't count +this time!' Well! he may not count it and a kind heaven may not count +it; but it is being counted none the less. Down among his nerve-cells +and fibers the molecules are counting it, registering it, and storing +it up to be used against him when the next temptation comes. Nothing we +ever do is, in strict scientific literalness, wiped out. Of course this +has its good side as well as its bad one. As we become permanent +drunkards by so many drinks, so we become saints in the moral, and +authorities and experts in the practical and scientific, spheres, by so +many separate acts and hours of work. But let no youth have any anxiety +about the upshot of his education, whatever the line of it may be. If +he keep faithfully busy each hour of the working day, he may safely +leave the final result to itself. He can with perfect certainty count +on waking up some fine morning, to find himself one of the competent +ones of his generation, in whatever pursuit he has singled out. +Silently, between all the details of his business, the _power of +judging_ in all that class of matter will have built itself up within +him as a possession that will never pass away. Young people should know +the truth of this in advance. The ignorance of it has probably +engendered more discouragement and faintheartedness in youths embarking +on arduous careers than all other causes put together." + +EXERCISE + +Exercise 1. Point out an undesirable habit that you are determined to +eradicate. Describe the desirable habit which you will adopt in its +place. Give the concrete steps you will take in forming the new habit. +How long a time do you estimate will be required for the formation of +the new habit? Mark down the date and refer back to it when you have +formed the habit, to see how accurately you estimated. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +ACTIVE IMAGINATION + + +A very large part of the mental life of a student consists in the +manipulation of images. By images we mean the revivals of things that +have been impressed upon the senses. Call to mind for the moment your +house-number as it appears upon the door of your home. In so doing you +mentally reinstate something which has been impressed upon your senses +many times; and you see it almost as clearly as if it were actually +before you. The mental thing thus revived is called an image. + +The word image is somewhat ill-chosen; for it usually signifies +something connected with the eye, and implies that the stuff of mental +images is entirely visual. The true fact of the matter is, we can image +practically anything that we can sense. We may have tactual images of +things touched; auditory images of things heard; gustatory images of +things tasted; olfactory images of things smelled. How these behave in +general and how they interact in study will engage our attention in +this chapter. + +The most highly dramatic use of images is in connection with that +mental process known as Imagination. As we study the writings of Jack +London, Poe, Defoe, Bunyan, we move in a realm almost wholly imaginary. +And as we take a cross-section of our minds when thus engaged, we find +them filled with images. Furthermore, they are of great variety--images +of colors, sounds, tastes, smells, touches, even of sensations from our +own internal organs, such as the palpitations of the heart that +accompany feelings of pride, indignation, remorse, exaltation. A +further characteristic is that they are sharp, clean-cut, vivid. + +Note in the balcony scene from Romeo and Juliet, the number, variety +and vividness of the images: + +"But, soft! What light through yonder window breaks? +It is the east, and Juliet is the sun. +Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, +Who is already sick and pale with grief +That thou, her maid, art far more fair than she. +Be not her maid, since she is envious; +Her vestal livery is but sick and green.... +Two of the fairest stars in all the heaven, +Having some business, do entreat her eyes +To twinkle in their spheres till they return. +What if her eyes were there, they in her head? +The brightness in her cheek would shame those stars, +As daylight doth a lamp; her eyes in heaven +Would through the airy regions stream so bright +That birds would sing and think it were not night. +See, how she leans her cheek upon her hand! +O, that I were a glove upon that hand, +That I might touch that cheek!" + +We may conclude, then, that three of the desirable attributes of great +works of the imagination are _number, variety_ and _vividness_ of +mental images. + +One question that frequently arises concerning works of the imagination +is, What is their source? Superficial thinkers have loosely answered, +"Inspiration," implying, (according to the literal meaning of the word, +"to breathe in"), that some mysterious external force (called by the +ancients, "A Muse") enters into the mind of the author with a special +revelation. + +Psychological analysis of these imaginative works shows that this +explanation is untrue. That the bizarre and apparently novel products +arise from the experiences of the author, revived in imagination and +combined in new ways. The horrendous incidents depicted in Dante's +"Divine Comedy" never occurred within the lifetime experience of the +author as such. Their separate elements did, however, and furnished the +basis for Dante's clever combinations. The oft-heard saying that there +is nothing new under the sun is psychologically true. + +In the light of this brief analysis of products of the imagination we +are ready to develop a program which we may follow in cultivating an +active imagination. + +Recognizing that images have their source in sensory experience, we see +that the first step to take is to seek a multitude of experiences. Make +intimate acquaintance with the objects of your environment. Handle +them, tear them apart, put them together, place them next to other +objects, noting the likenesses and differences. Thus you will acquire +the stuff out of which images are made and will stock your mind with a +number of images. Then when you wish to convey your ideas you will have +a number of terms in which to do it--one of the characteristics of a +free-flowing imagination. + +The second characteristic we found to be variety. To secure this, seek +a variety of sensational experiences. Perceive the objects of your +experience through several senses--touch, smell, sight, hearing, +taste. By means of this variety in sensations you will secure +corresponding variety in your images. + +To revive them easily sometimes requires practice. For it has been +discovered that all people do not naturally call up images related to +the various senses with equal ease. Most people use visual and auditory +images more freely than they do other kinds. In order to develop skill +in evoking the others, practise recalling them. Sit down for an hour of +practice, as you would sit down for an hour of piano practice. Try to +recall the taste of raisins, English walnuts; the smell of hyacinths, +of witch-hazel; the rough touch of an orange-skin. Though you may at +first have difficulty you will develop, with practice, a gratifying +facility in recalling all varieties of images. + +The third characteristic which we observed in works of the imagination +is vividness. To achieve this, pay close attention to the details of +your sensory experiences. Observe sharply the minute but characteristic +items--the accent mark on _après_; the coarse stubby beard of the +typical alley tough. Stock your mind with a wealth of such detailed +impressions. Keep them alive by the kind of practice recommended in the +preceding paragraph. Then describe the objects of your experience in +terms of these significant details. + +We discovered, in discussing the source of imaginative works, that the +men whom we are accustomed to call imaginative geniuses do not have +unique communication with heaven or with any external reservoir of +ideas. Instead, we found their wonder-evoking creations to be merely +new combinations of old images. The true secret of their success is +their industrious utilization of past experiences according to the +program outlined above. They select certain elements from their +experiences and combine them in novel ways. This is the explanation of +their strange, beautiful and bizarre productions. This is what Carlyle +meant when he characterized genius as "the transcendent capacity for +taking trouble" This is what Hogarth meant when he said, "Genius is +nothing but labor and diligence." For concrete exemplification of this +truth we need only turn to the autobiographies of great writers. In +this passage from "John Barleycorn," Jack London describes his methods: + +"Early and late I was at it--writing, typing, studying grammar, +studying writing and all forms of writing, and studying the writers who +succeeded in order to find out how they succeeded. I managed on five +hours' sleep in the twenty-four, and came pretty close to working the +nineteen waking hours left to me." + +By saying that the novel effects of imagination come by way of +industry, we do not mean to imply that one should strain after novelty +and eccentricity. Unusual and happy combinations will come of +themselves and naturally if one only makes a sufficient number. + +There are laws of combination, known as the psychological laws of +association, by which images will unite naturally. The number of +possible combinations is infinite. By industriously making a large +number, you will by the very laws of chance, stumble upon some that are +especially happy and striking. + +In summarizing this discussion, we may conclude that an active fertile +imagination comes from crowding into one's life a large number of +varied and vivid experiences; storing them up in the mind in the form +of images; and industriously recalling and combining them in novel +relationships. Mental images occur in other mental processes besides +Imagination. They bulk importantly in memorizing, as we shall see in +Chapters VI and VII; and in reasoning, as we shall see in Chapter IX. +Throughout the book we shall find that as we develop ability to +manipulate mental images, we shall increase the adaptability of all the +mental processes. + +READING AND EXERCISES + +Reading: Dearborn (2) Chapter III. + +Exercise 1. Call up in imagination the sound of your French +instructor's voice as he says _étudiant_. Call up the appearance on the +page of the conjugation of _être_, present tense. + +Exercise 2. Choose some word which you have had difficulty in learning. +Look at it attentively, securing a perfectly clear impression of it; +then practise calling up the visual image of it, until you secure +perfect reproduction. + +Exercise 3. List the different images called up by the passage from +_Romeo and Juliet_. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +FIRST AIDS TO MEMORY; IMPRESSION + + +Of all the mental operations employed by the student, memory is +probably the one in which the greatest inefficiency is manifested. +Though we often fail to realize it, much of our life is taken up with +memorizing. Every time we make use of past experience, we rely upon +this function of the mind, but in no occupation is it quite so +practically important as in study. We shall begin our investigation of +memory by dividing it into four phases or stages--Impression, +Retention, Recall and Recognition. Any act of memory involves them all. +There is first a stage when the material is being impressed; second, a +stage when it is being retained so that it may be revived in the +future; third, a stage of recall when the retained material is revived +to meet present needs; fourth, a feeling of recognition, through which +the material is recognized as having previously been in the mind. + +Impression is accomplished through the sense organs; and in the +foregoing chapter we laid down the rule: Guard the avenues of +impression and admit only such things as you wish to retain. This +necessitates that you go slowly at first. This is a principle of all +habit formation, but is especially important in habits of memorizing. +Much of the poor memory that people complain about is due to the fact +that they make first impressions carelessly. One reason why people fail +to remember names is that they do not get a clear impression of the +name at the start. They are introduced in a hurry or the introducer +mumbles; consequently no clear impression is secured. Under such +circumstances how could one expect to retain and recall the name? Go +slowly, then, in impressing material for the first time. As you look up +the words of a foreign language in the lexicon, trying to memorize +their English equivalents, take plenty of time. Obtain a clear +impression of the sound and appearance of the words. + +Inasmuch as impressions may be made through any of the sense organs, +one problem in the improvement of memory concerns the choice of sense +avenues. As an infant you used all senses impartially in your eager +search after information. You voraciously put things into your mouth +and discovered that some things were sweet, some sour. You bumped your +head against things and learned that some were hard and some soft. In +your insatiable curiosity you pulled things apart and peered into them; +in short, utilized all the sense organs. In adult life, however, and in +education as it takes place through the agency of books and +instructors, most learning depends upon the eye and ear. Even yet, +however, you learn many things through the sense of touch and through +muscle movement, though you may be unaware of it. You probably have +better success retaining impressions made upon one sense than another. +The majority of people retain better things that are visually +impressed. Such persons think often in terms of visual images. When +thinking of water running from a faucet, they can see the water fall, +see it splash, but have no trace of the sound. The whole event is +noiseless in memory. When they think of their instructor, they can see +him standing at his desk but cannot imagine the sound of his voice. +When striving to think of the causes leading to the Civil War, they +picture them as they are listed on the page of the text-book or +note-book. Other people have not this ability to recall in visual +terms, but depend to greater extent upon sounds. When asked to think +about their instructor, they do it in terms of his voice. When asked to +conjugate a French verb, they hear it pronounced mentally but do not +see it on the page. These are extremes of imagery type, but they +illustrate preferences as they are found in many persons. Some persons +use all senses with ease; others unconsciously work out combinations, +preferring one sense for some kinds of material and another for other +kinds. For example, one might prefer visual impression for remembering +dates in history but auditory impression for conjugating French verbs. +You will find it profitable to examine yourself and discover your +preferences. If you find that you have greater difficulty in +remembering material impressed through the ear than through the eye, +reduce things to visual terms as much as possible. Make your lecture +notes more complete or tabulate things that you wish to remember, thus +securing impression from the written form. The writer has difficulty in +remembering names that are only heard. So he asks that the name be +spelled, then projects the letters on an imaginary background, thus +forming visual stuff which can easily be recalled. If, on the contrary, +you remember best the things that you hear, you may find it a good plan +to read your lessons aloud. Many a student, upon the discovery of such +a preference, has increased his memory ability many fold by adopting +the simple expedient of reading his lessons aloud. It might be pointed +out that while you are reading aloud, you are making more than auditory +impressions. By the use of the vocal organs you are making muscular +impressions, which also aid in learning, as will be pointed out in +Chapter X. + +After this discussion do not jump to the conclusion that just because +you find some difficulty in using one sense avenue for impression, it +is therefore impossible to develop it. Facility in using particular +senses can be gained by practice. To improve ability to form visual +images of things, practise calling up visions of things. Try to picture +a page of your history textbook. Can you see the headlines of the +sections and the paragraphs? To develop auditory imagery, practise +calling up sounds. Try to image your French instructor's voice in +saying _élève_. The development of these sense fields is a slow and +laborious process and one questions whether it is worth while for a +student to undertake the labor involved when another sense is already +very efficient. Probably it is most economical to Arrange impressions +so as to favor the sense that is already well developed and reliable. + +Another important condition of impression is repetition. It is well +known that material which is repeated several times is remembered more +easily than that impressed but once. If two repetitions induce a given +liability to recall, four or eight will secure still greater liability +of recall. Your knowledge of brain action makes this rule intelligible, +because you know the pathway is deepened every time the nervous current +passes over it. + +Experiments in the psychological laboratory have shown that it is best +in making impressions to make more than enough impressions to insure +recall. "If material is to be retained for any length of time, a simple +mastery of it for immediate recall is not sufficient. It should be +learned far beyond the point of immediate reproduction if time and +energy are to be saved." This principle of learning points out the fact +that there are two kinds of memory--immediate and deferred. The first +kind involves recall immediately after impression is made; the second +involves recall at some later time. It is a well-known fact that things +learned a long time before they are to be recalled fade away. If you +are not going to recall material until a long time after the +impression, store up enough impressions so that you can afford to lose +a few and still retain enough until time for recall. Another reason for +"overlearning" is that when the time comes for recall you are likely to +be disturbed. If it is a time of public performance, you may be +embarrassed; or you may be hurried or under distractions. Accordingly +you should have the material exceedingly well memorized so that these +distractions will not prove detrimental. + +The mere statement made above, that repetition is necessary in +impression, is not sufficient. It is important to know how to +distribute the repetitions. Suppose you are memorizing "Psalm of Life" +to be recited a month from to-day, and that you require thirty +repetitions of the poem to learn it. Shall you make these thirty +repetitions at one sitting? Or shall you distribute them among several +sittings? In general, it is better to spread the repetitions over a +period of time. The question then arises, what is the most effective +distribution? Various combinations are possible. You might rehearse the +poem once a day during the month, or twice a day for the first fifteen +days, or the last fifteen days, four times every fourth day, _ad +infinitum_. In the face of these possibilities is there anything that +will guide us in distributing the repetitions? We shall get some light +on the question from an examination of the curve of forgetting--a curve +that has been plotted showing the rate at which the mind tends to +forget. Forgetting proceeds according to law, the curve descending +rapidly at first and then more slowly. "The larger proportion of the +material learned is forgotten the first day or so. After that a +constantly decreasing amount is forgotten on each succeeding day for +perhaps a week, when the amount remains practically stationary." This +gives us some indication that the early repetitions should be closer +together than those at the end of the period. So long as you are +forgetting rapidly you will need more repetitions in order to +counterbalance the tendency to forget. You might well make five +repetitions; then rest. In about an hour, five more; within the next +twenty-four hours, five more. By this time you should have the poem +memorized, and all within two days. You would still have fifteen +repetitions of the thirty, and these might be used in keeping the poem +fresh in the mind by a repetition every other day. + +As intimated above, one important principle in memorizing is to make +the first impressions as early as possible, for older impressions have +many chances of being retained. This is evidenced by the vividness of +childhood scenes in the minds of our grandparents. An old soldier +recalls with great vividness events that happened during the Civil War, +but forgets events of yesterday. There is involved here a principle of +nervous action that you have already encountered; namely, that +impressions are more easily made and retained in youth. It should also +be observed that pathways made early have more chances of being used +than those made recently. Still another peculiarity of nervous action +is revealed in these extended periods of memorizing. It has been +discovered that if a rest is taken between impressions, the impressions +become more firmly fixed. This points to the presence of a surprising +power, by which we are able to learn, as it were, while we sleep. We +shall understand this better if we try to imagine what is happening in +the nervous system. Processes of nutrition are constantly going on. The +blood brings in particles to repair the nerve cells, rebuilding them +according to the pattern left by the last impression. Indeed, the +entrance of this new material makes the impression even more fixed. The +nutritional processes seem to set the impression much as a hypo bath +fixes or sets an impression on a photographic plate. This peculiarity +of memory led Professor James to suggest, paradoxically, that we learn +to skate in summer and to swim in winter. And, indeed, one usually +finds, in beginning the skating season, that after the initial +stiffness of muscles wears off, one glides along with surprising +agility. You see then that if you plan things rightly, Nature will do +much of your learning for you. It might be suggested that perhaps +things impressed just before going to sleep have a better chance to +"set" than things impressed at other times for the reason that sleep is +the time when the reparative processes of the body are most active. + +Since the brain pattern requires time to "set," it is important that +after the first impression you refrain from introducing anything +immediately into the mind that might disturb it. After you have +impressed the poem you are memorizing, do not immediately follow it by +another poem. Let the brain rest for three or four minutes until after +the first impressions have had a chance to "set." + +Now that we have regarded this "unconscious memorizing" from the +neurological standpoint, let us consider it from the psychological +standpoint. How are the ideas being modified during the intervals +between impressions? Modern psychology has discovered that much +memorizing goes on without our knowing it, paradoxical as that may +seem. The processes may be described in terms of the doctrine of +association, which is that whenever two things have once been +associated together in the mind, there is a tendency thereafter "if the +first of them recurs, for the other to come with it." After the poem of +our illustration has once been repeated, there is a tendency for events +in everyday experience that are like it to associate themselves with +it. For example, in the course of a day or week many things might arise +and recall to you the line, "Life is real, life is earnest", and it +would become, by that fact, more firmly fixed in the mind. This +valuable semi-conscious recall requires that you must make the first +impression as early as possible before the time for ultimate recall. +This persistence of ideas in the mind means "that the process of +learning does not cease with the actual work of learning, but that, if +not disturbed, this process runs on of itself for a time, and adds a +little to the result of our labors. It also means that, if it is to our +advantage to stand in readiness with some word or thought, we shall be +able to do so, if only this word or thought recur to us but once, some +time before the critical moment. So we remember to keep a promise to +pay a call, to make a remark at the proper time, even though we turn +our mind to other work or talk for some hours between. We can do this +because, if not vigorously prevented, ideas and words keep on +reappearing in the mind." You may utilize this principle in +theme-writing to good advantage. As soon as the instructor announces +the subject for a theme, begin to think about it. Gather together all +the ideas you have about the subject and start your mind to work upon +it. Suppose you take as a theme-subject The Value of Training in Public +Speaking for a Business Man. The first time this is suggested to you, a +few thoughts, at least, will come to you. Write them down, even though +they are disconnected and heterogeneous. Then as you go about your +other work you will find a number of occasions that will arouse ideas +bearing upon this subject. You may read in a newspaper of a brilliant +speech made before the Chamber of Commerce by a leading business man, +which will serve as an illustration to support your affirmative +position; or you may attend a banquet where a prominent business man +disappoints his audience with a wretched speech. Such experiences, and +many others, bearing more or less directly upon the subject, will come +to you, and will call up the theme-subject, with which they will unite +themselves. Write down these ideas as they occur, and you will find +that when you start to compose the theme formally, it almost writes +itself, requiring for the most part only expansion and arrangement of +ideas. While thus organizing the theme you will reap even more benefits +from your early start, for, as you are composing it, you will find new +ideas crowding in upon you which you did not know you possessed, but +which had been associating themselves in your mind with this topic even +when you were unaware of the fact. + +In writing themes, the principle of distribution of time may also be +profitably employed. After you have once written a theme, lay it aside +for a while--perhaps a week. Then when you take it up, read it in a +detached manner and you will note many places where it may be improved. +These benefits are to be enjoyed only when a theme is planned a long +time ahead. Hence the rule to start as early as possible. + +Before leaving the subject of theme-writing, which was called up by the +discussion of unconscious memory, another suggestion will be given that +may be of service to you. When correcting a theme, employ more than one +sense avenue. Do not simply glance over it with your eye. Read it +aloud, either to yourself or, better still, to someone else. When you +do this you will be amazed to discover how different it sounds and what +a new view you secure of it. When you thus change your method of +composition, you will find a new group of ideas thronging into your +mind. In the auditory rendition of a theme you will discover faults of +syntax which escaped you in silent reading. You will note duplication +of words, split infinitives, mixed tenses, poorly balanced sentences. +Moreover, if your mind has certain peculiarities, you may find even +more advantages accruing from such a practice. The author, for example, +has a slightly different set of ideas at his disposal according to the +medium of expression employed. When writing with a pencil, one set of +ideas comes to mind; with a typewriter slightly different ideas arise; +when talking to an audience, still different ideas. Three sets of ideas +and three vocabularies are thus available for use on any subject. In +adopting this device of composing through several mediums, you should +combine with it the principle of distributing time already discussed in +connection with repetition of impressions. Write a theme one day, +then lay it aside for a few days and go back to it with a fresh mind. +The rests will be found very beneficial in helping you to get a new +viewpoint of the subject. + +Reverting to our discussion of memory, we come upon another question: +In memorizing material like the poem of our example, should one impress +the entire poem at once, or break it up into parts, impressing a stanza +each day? Most people would respond, without thought, the latter, and, +as a matter of fact, most memorizing takes place in this way. +Experimental psychology, however, has discovered that this is +uneconomical. The selection, if of moderate length, should be impressed +as a whole. If too long for this, it should be broken up as little as +possible. In order to see the necessity for this let us examine your +experiences with the memorization of poems in your early school days. +You probably proceeded as follows: After school one day, you learned +the first stanza, then went out to play. The next day you learned the +second one, and so on. You thought at the end of a week that you had +memorized it because, at the end of each day's sitting, you were able +to recite perfectly the stanza learned that day. On "speaking day" you +started out bravely and recited the first stanza without mishap. When +you started to think of the second one, however, it would not come. The +memory balked. Now what was the matter? How can we explain this +distressing blank? In psychological terms, we ascribe the difficulty to +the failure to make proper associations between stanzas. Association +was made effectively between the lines of the single stanzas, but not +between the separate stanzas. After you finished impressing the first +stanza, you went about something else; playing ball, perhaps. When you +approached the poem the next day you started in with the second stanza. +There was then no bridge between the two. There was nothing to link the +last line of the first stanza, + +"And things are not what they seem," + +with the first line of the next stanza, + +"Life is real, life is earnest." + +This makes clear the necessity of impressing the poem as a whole +instead of by parts. + +According to another classification, there are two ways of +memorizing--by rote and by logical associations. Rote memorizing +involves the repetition of material just as it stands, and usually +requires such long and laborious drill that it is seldom economical. +True, some matter must be memorized this way; such as the days of the +week and the names of the months; but there is another and gentler +method which is usually more effective and economical than that of +brutal repetition. That is the method of logical association, by which +one links up a new fact with something already in the mind. If, for +example, you wish to remember the date of the World's Fair in Chicago, +you might proceed as follows: Ask yourself, What did the Fair +commemorate? The discovery of America in 1492, the four hundredth +anniversary occurring in 1892. The Fair could not be made ready in that +year, however, so was postponed a year. Such a process of memorizing +the date is less laborious than the method of rote memory, and is +usually more likely to lead to ready recall. The old fact already in +mind acts as a magnet which at some later time may call up other facts +that had once been associated with it. You can easily see that this new +fact might have been associated with several old facts, thus securing +more chances of being called up. From this it may be inferred that the +more facts you have in your mind about a subject the more chances you +have of retaining new facts. It is sometimes thought that if a person +stores so much in his memory it will soon be so full that he cannot +memorize any more. This is a false notion, involving a conception of +the brain as a hopper into which impressions are poured until it runs +over. On the contrary, it should be regarded as an interlacing of +fibers with infinite possibilities of inter-connection, and no one ever +exhausts the number of associations that can be made. + +The method of logical association may be employed with telling effect +in the study of foreign languages. When you meet a new word scrutinize +it carefully for some trace of a word already familiar to you either in +that language or in another. This independent discovery of meanings is +a very great aid in saving time and in fixing the meaning of new words. +Opportunities for this method are especially frequent in the German +language, since so many German words are formed by compounding other +words. "Rathausmarkt" is a long and apparently difficult German word, +and one's first temptation is to look it up in the lexicon and promptly +forget it. Let us analyze it, however, and we shall see that it is only +a compound of already familiar words. "_Rat_" is already familiar as +the word for counsel ("_raten"_ to give advice); "_haus_" is equally +familiar. So we see that the first part of the word means +council-house; the council-house of a city is called a city hall. +"_Markt_" is equally familiar as market-square, so the significance of +the entire word stands, city-hall-square. By such a method of utilizing +facts already known, you may make yourself much more independent of the +lexicon and may make your memory for foreign words much more tenacious. + +We approach a phase of impression the importance of which is often +unsuspected; namely, the intention with which memorizing is done. The +fidelity of memory is greatly affected by the intention. If, at the +time of impression, you intend to retain only until the time of recall, +the material tends to slip away after that time. If, however, you +impress with the intention to retain permanently the material stays by +you better. Students make a great mistake when they study for the +purpose merely of retaining until after examination time. Intend to +retain facts permanently, and there will be greater likelihood of their +permanence. + +READINGS AND EXERCISES + +Readings: Adams (1) Chapter III. Seashore (16) Chapter II. Swift (20) +Chapter VII. Watt (21). + +Exercise I. Cite examples from your own experience showing the effects +of the following faults in making impressions. _a_. First impression +not clear. _b_. Insufficient number of repetitions. _c_. Use of rote +method instead of method of logical association. _d_. Impressions not +distributed. _e_. Improper use of "part" method. + +Exercise 2. After experimentation, state what is your most effective +sense avenue for the impression of foreign words, facts in history, the +pronunciation of English words. + +Exercise 3. Make a preliminary draft of your next theme; lay it aside +for a day or two; then write another on the same subject; combine the +two, using the best parts of each; lay this aside for a day or two; +then read it aloud, making such changes as are prompted by the auditory +presentation. Can you find elements of worth in this method, which will +warrant you in adopting it, at least, in part? + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +SECOND AIDS TO MEMORY: RETENTION, RECALL AND RECOGNITION + + +Our discussion up to this point has centred around the phase of memory +called impression. We have described some of the conditions favorable +to impression and have seen that certain and accurate memory depends +upon adherence to them. The next phase of memory--Retention--cannot be +described in psychological terms. We know we retain facts after they +are once impressed, but as to their status in the mind we can say +nothing. If you were asked when the Declaration of Independence was +signed, you would reply instantly. When asked, however, where that fact +was five minutes ago, you could not answer. Somewhere in the recesses +of the mind, perhaps, but as to immediate awareness of it, there was +none. We may try to think of retention in terms of nerve cells and say +that at the time when the material was first impressed there was some +modification made in certain nerve cells which persisted. This trait of +nerve modifiability is one factor which accounts for greater retentive +power in some persons than in others. It must not be concluded, +however, that all good memory is due to the inheritance of this trait. +It is due partly to observance of proper conditions of impression, and +much can be done to overcome or offset innate difficulty of +modification by such observance. + +We are now ready to examine the third phase of memory--Recall. This is +the stage at which material that has been impressed and retained is +recalled to serve the purpose for which it was memorized. Recall is +thus the goal of memory, and all the devices so far discussed have it +for their object. Can we facilitate recall by any other means than by +faithful and intelligent impressions? For answer let us examine the +state of mind at time of recall. + +We find that it is a unique mental state. It differs from impression in +being a period of more active search for facts in the mind accompanied +by expression, instead of a concentration upon the external impression. +It is also usually accompanied by motor expressions, either talking or +writing. Since recall is a unique mental state, you ought to prepare +for it by means of a rehearsal. When you are memorizing anything to be +recalled, make part of your memorizing a rehearsal of it, if possible, +under same conditions as final recall. In memorizing from a book, first +make impression, then close the book and practise recall. When +memorizing a selection to be given in a public speaking class, +intersperse the periods of impression with periods of recall. This is +especially necessary in preparation for public speaking, for facing an +audience gives rise to a vastly different psychic attitude from that of +impression. The sight of an audience may be embarrassing or exciting. +Furthermore, unforeseen distractions may arise. Accordingly, create +those conditions as nearly as possible in your preparation. Imagine +yourself facing the audience. Practise aloud so that you will become +accustomed to the sound of your own voice. The importance of the +practice of recall as a part of the memory process can hardly be +overestimated. One psychologist has advised that in memorizing +significant material more than half the time should be spent in +practising recall. + +There still remains a fourth phase of memory--Recognition. Whenever a +remembered fact is recalled, it is accompanied by a characteristic +feeling which we call the feeling of recognition. It has been described +as a feeling of familiarity, a glow of warmth, a sense of ownership, a +feeling of intimacy. As you walk down the street of a great city you +pass hundreds of faces, all of them strange. Suddenly in the crowd you +catch sight of some one you know and are instantly suffused with a glow +of feeling that is markedly different from your feeling toward the +others. That glow represents the feeling of recognition. It is always +present during recall and may be used in great advantage in studying. +It derives its virtue for our purpose from the fact that it is a +feeling, and at the time of feeling the bodily activities in general +are affected. Changes occur in heart beat, breathing; various glandular +secretions are affected, the digestive organs respond. In this general +quickening of bodily activity we have reason to believe that the +nervous system partakes, and things become impressed more readily. Thus +the feeling of recognition that accompanies recall is responsible for +one of the benefits of reviews. At such a time material once memorized +becomes tinged with a feelingful color different from that which +accompanied it when new. Review, then, not merely to produce additional +impressions, but also to take advantage of the feeling of recognition. + +We have now discussed memory in its four phases and have seen clearly +that it operates not in a blind, chaotic manner, but according to law. +Certain conditions are required and when they are met memory is good. +After providing proper conditions for memory, then, trust your memory. +An attitude of confidence is very necessary. If, when you are +memorizing, you continually tremble for fear that you will not recall +at the desired moment, the fixedness of the impression will be greatly +hindered. Therefore, after utilizing all your knowledge about the +conditions of memorizing, rest content and trust to the laws of Nature. +They will not fail you. + +By this time you have seen that memory is not a mysterious mental +faculty with which some people are generously endowed, and of which +others are deprived. All people of normal intelligence can remember and +can improve their ability if they desire. The improvement does not take +the form that some people expect, however. No magic wand can transform +you into a good memorizes You must work the transformation yourself. +Furthermore, it is not an instantaneous process to be accomplished +overnight. It will come about only after you have built up a set of +habits, according to our conception of study as a process of habit +formation. + +A final word of caution should be added. Some people think of memory as +a separate division or compartment of the mind which can be controlled +and improved by exercising it alone. Such a conception is fallacious. +Improvement in memory will involve improvement in other mental +abilities, and you will find that as you improve your ability to +remember, you will develop at the same time better powers to +concentrate attention, to image, to associate facts and to reason. + +READING AND EXERCISE + +Reading: See readings for Chapter VI. + +Exercise I. Compare the mental conditions of impression with those of +recall. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +CONCENTRATION OF ATTENTION + + +Nearly everyone has difficulty in the concentration of attention. Brain +workers in business and industry, students in high school and college, +and even professors in universities, complain of the same difficulty. +Attention seems in some way to be at the very core of mental activity, +for no matter from what aspect we view the mind, its excellence seems +to depend upon the power to concentrate attention. When we examine a +growing infant, one of the first signs by which we judge the awakening +of intelligence is the power to pay attention or to "notice things." +When we examine the intellectual ability of normal adults we do so by +means of tests that require close concentration of attention. In +judging the intelligence of people with whom we associate every day, we +regard one who is able to maintain close attention for long periods of +time as a person of strong mind. We rate Thomas Edison as a powerful +thinker when we read that he becomes so absorbed in work that he +neither eats nor sleeps. Finally, when we examine the insane and the +feeble-minded, we find that one form which their derangements take is +an inability to control the attention. This evidence, added to our own +experience, shows us the importance of concentration of attention in +study and we become even more desirous of investigating attention to +see how we may develop it. + +We shall be better able to discuss attention if we select for analysis +a concrete situation when the mind is in a state of concentrated +attention. Concentrate for a moment upon the letter O. Although you are +ostensibly focussing all your powers of attention upon the letter, +nevertheless you are really aware of a number of things besides: of +other words on the page; of other objects in the field of vision; of +sounds in the room and on the street; of sensations from your clothing; +and of sensations from your bodily organs, such as the heart and lungs. +In addition to these sensations, you will find, if you introspect +carefully enough, that your mind also contains a number of ideas and +imaginings; thoughts about the paragraph you just read or about one of +your lessons. Thus we see that at a time when we apparently focus our +attention upon but one thing, we really have a large number of things +in our mind, and they are of a great variety. The mental field might be +represented by a circle, at the centre of which is the object of +attention. It may be an object in the external world perceived through +one of the senses, or it may be an idea we are thinking about, such, +for example, as the idea of infinity. But whether the thing attended to +is a perception or an idea, we may properly speak of it as the object +of attention or the "focal" object. In addition to this, we must +recognize the presence of a large number of other objects, both sensory +and ideational. These are nearer the margin of the mental field, so we +call them "marginal." + +The distinctive thing about a state of mind such as that just described +is that the focal object is much clearer than the marginal objects. For +example, when you fixated the letter O, it was only in the vaguest sort +of fashion that you were aware of the contact of your clothing or the +lurking ideas of other lessons. As we examine these marginal objects +further, we find that they are continually seeking to crowd into the +centre of attention and to become clear. You may be helped in forming a +vivid picture of conditions if you think of the mind as a stream ever +in motion, and as it flows on, the objects in it continually shift +their positions. A cross-section of the stream at any moment may show +the contents of the mind arranged in a particular pattern, but at the +very next moment they may be arranged in a different pattern, another +object occupying the focus, while the previous tenant is pushed to the +margin. Thus we see that it is a tendency of the mind to be forever +changing. If left to itself, it would be in ceaseless fluctuation, the +whim of every passing fancy. This tendency to fluctuate comes with more +or less regularity, some psychologists say every second or two. True, +we do not always yield to the fluctuating tendency, nevertheless we are +recurrently tempted, and we must exercise continuous effort to keep a +particular object at the focus. The power to exert effort and to +regulate the arrangement of our states of mind is the peculiar gift of +man, and is a prime function of education. Viewed in this light, then, +we see that the voluntary focusing of our attention consists in the +selecting of certain objects to be attended to, and the ignoring of +other objects which act as distractions. We may conveniently classify +the latter as external sensations, bodily sensations and irrelevant +ideas. + +Let us take an actual situation that may arise in study and see how +this applies. Suppose you are in your room studying about Charlemagne, +a page of your history text occupying the centre of your attention. The +marginal distractions in such a case would consist, first, in external +sensations, such as the glare from your study-lamp, the hissing of the +radiator, the practising of a neighboring vocalist, the rattle of +passing street-cars. The bodily distractions might consist of +sensations of weariness referred to the back, the arms and the eyes, +and fainter sensations from the digestive organs, heart and lungs. The +irrelevant ideas might consist of thoughts about a German lesson which +you are going to study, visions of a face, or thoughts about some +social engagement. These marginal objects are in the mind even when you +conscientiously focus your mind upon the history lesson, and, though +vague, they try to force their way into the focus and become clear. The +task of paying attention, then, consists in maintaining the desired +object at the centre of the mental field and keeping the distractions +away. With this definition of attention, we see that in order to +increase the effectiveness of attention during study, we must devise +means for overcoming the distractions peculiar to study. Obviously the +first thing is to eliminate every distraction possible. Such a plan of +elimination may require a radical rearrangement of study conditions, +for students often fail to realize how wretched their conditions of +study are from a psychological standpoint. They attempt to study in +rooms with two or three others who talk and move about continually; +they drop down in any spot in the library and expose themselves +needlessly to a great number of distractions. If you wish to become a +good student, you must prepare conditions as favorable as possible for +study. Choose a quiet room to live in, free from distracting sounds and +sights. Have your room at a temperature neither too hot nor too cold; +68° F. is usually considered favorable for study. When reading in the +library, sit down in a quiet spot, with your back to the door, so you +will not be tempted to look up as people enter the room. Do not sit +near a group of gossipers or near a creaking door. Having made the +external conditions favorable for study, you should next address +yourself to the task of eliminating bodily distractions. The most +disturbing of these in study are sensations of fatigue, for, contrary +to the opinion of many people, study is very fatiguing work and +involves continual strain upon the muscles in holding the body still, +particularly those of the back, neck, arms, hands and, above all, the +eyes. How many movements are made by your eyes in the course of an +hour's study! They sweep back and forth across the page incessantly, +being moved by six muscles which are bound to become fatigued. Still +more fatigue comes from the contractions of delicate muscles within the +eyeball, where adjustments are made for far and near vision and for +varying amounts of light. The eyes, then, give rise to much fatigue, +and, altogether, are the source of a great many bodily distractions in +study. + +Other distractions may consist of sensations from the clothing. We are +always vaguely aware of pressure of our clothing. Usually it is not +sufficiently noticeable to cause much annoyance, but occasionally it +is, as is demonstrated at night when we take off a shoe with such a +sigh of relief that we realize in retrospect it had been vaguely +troubling us all day. + +In trying to create conditions for efficient study, many bodily +distractions can be eliminated. The study chair should be easy to sit +in so as to reduce fatigue of the muscles supporting the body; the +book-rest should be arranged so as to require little effort to hold the +book; the light should come over the left shoulder. This is especially +necessary in writing, so that the writing hand will not cast a shadow +upon the work. The muscles of the eyes will be rested and fatigue will +be retarded if you close the eyes occasionally. Then in order to lessen +the general fatigue of the body, you may find it advantageous to rise +and walk about occasionally. Lastly, the clothing should be loose and +unconfining; especially should there be plenty of room for circulation. + +In the overcoming of distractions, we have seen that much may be done +by way of eliminating distractions, and we have pointed out the way to +accomplish this to a certain extent. But in spite of our most careful +provisions, there will still be distractions that cannot be eliminated. +You cannot, for example, chloroform the vocalist in the neighboring +apartment, nor stop the street-cars while you study; you cannot rule +out fatigue sensations entirely, and you cannot build a fence around +the focus of your mind so as to keep out unwelcome and irrelevant +ideas. The only thing to do then is to accept as inevitable the +presence of some distractions, and to realise that to pay attention, it +is necessary to habituate yourself to the ignoring of distractions. + +In the accomplishment of this end it will be necessary to apply the +principles of habit formation already described. Start out by making a +strong determination to ignore all distractions. Practise ignoring +them, and do not let a slip occur. Try to develop interest in the +object of attention, because we pay attention to those things in which +we are most interested. A final point that may help you is to use the +first lapse of attention as a reminder of the object you desire to +fixate upon. This may be illustrated by the following example: Suppose, +in studying a history lesson, you come upon a reference to the royal +apparel of Charlemagne. The word "royal" might call up purple, a +Northwestern University pennant, the person who gave it to you, and +before you know it you are off in a long day-dream leading far from the +history lesson. Such migrations as these are very likely to occur in +study, and constitute one of the most treacherous pitfalls of student +life. In trying to avoid them, you must form habits of disregarding +irrelevant ideas when they try to obtrude themselves. And the way to do +this is to school yourself so that the first lapse of attention will +remind you of the lesson in hand. It can be done if you keep yourself +sensitive to wanderings of attention, and let the first slip from the +topic with which you are engaged remind you to pull yourself back. Do +this before you have taken the step that will carry you far away, for +with each step in the series of associations it becomes harder to draw +yourself back into the correct channel. + +In reading, one frequent cause for lapses of attention and for the +intrusion of unwelcome ideas is obscurity in the material being read. +If you trace back your lapses of attention, you will often find that +they first occur when the thought becomes difficult to follow, the +sentence ambiguous, or a single word unusual. As a result, the meaning +grows hazy in your mind and you fail to comprehend it. Naturally, then, +you drift into a channel of thought that is easier to follow. This +happens because the mental stream tends to seek channels of least +resistance. If you introspect carefully, you will undoubtedly discover +that many of your annoying lapses of attention can be traced to such +conditions. The obvious remedy is to make sure that you understand +everything as you read. As soon as you feel the thought growing +difficult to follow, begin to exert more effort; consult the dictionary +for the meanings of words you do not understand. Probably the ordinary +freshman in college ought to look up the meaning of as many as twenty +words daily. + +Again, the thought may be difficult to follow because your previous +knowledge is deficient; perhaps the discussion involves some fact which +you never did comprehend clearly, and you will naturally fail to +understand something built upon it. If deficiency of knowledge is the +cause of your lapses of attention, the obvious remedy is to turn back +and study the fundamental facts; to lay a firm foundation in your +subjects of study. + +This discussion shows that the conditions at time of concentrated +attention are very complex; that the mind is full of a number of +things; that your object as a student is to keep some one thing at the +focus of your mind, and that in doing so you must continuously ignore +other mental contents. In our psychological descriptions we have +implied that the mind stands still at times, permitting us to take a +cross-section and examine it minutely. As a matter of fact, the mind +never stands still. It continually moves along, and at no two moments +is it exactly the same. This results in a condition whereby an idea +which is at one moment at the centre cannot remain there unless it +takes on a slightly different appearance from moment to moment. When +you attempted to fix your attention upon the letter O, you found a +constant tendency to shift the attention, perhaps to a variation in the +intensity of the type or to a flaw in the type or in the paper. In view +of the inevitable nature of these changes, you see that in spite of +your best efforts you cannot expect to maintain any object of study +inflexibly at the centre of attention. The way to do is to manipulate +the object so that it will appear from moment to moment in a slightly +different light. If, for example, you are trying to concentrate upon a +rule of English grammar long enough to memorize it, do not read it over +and over again, depending solely upon repetition. A better way, after +thoroughly comprehending it, is to think about it in several relations; +compare it with other rules, noting points of likeness and difference; +apply it to the construction of a sentence. The essential thing is to +do something with it. Only thus can you keep it in the focus of +attention. This is equivalent to the restatement of another fact +stressed in a previous chapter, namely, that the mind is not a passive +thing that stands still, but an active thing. When you give attention, +you actively select from a number of possible objects one to be clearer +than the rest. This selection requires effort under most conditions of +study, but you may be cheered by the thought that as you develop +interest in the fields of study, and as you develop habits of ignoring +distractions, you will be able to fixate your attention with less and +less effort. A further important fact is that as you develop power to +select objects for the consideration of attention, you develop +simultaneously other mental processes--the ability to memorize, to +economize time and effort and to control future thoughts and actions. +In short, power to concentrate attention means power in all the mental +processes. + +EXERCISES + +Exercise I. "Watch a small dot so far away that it can just be seen. +Can you see it all the time? How many times a minute does it come and +go?" Make what inference you can from this regarding the fluctuation of +attention during study. + +Exercise 2. What concrete steps will you take in order to accommodate +your study to the fluctuations of attention? + +Exercise 3. The next time you have a lapse of attention during study, +retrace your steps of thought, write down the ideas from the last one +in your mind to the one which started the digression. Represent the +digression graphically if you can. + +Exercise 4. Make a list of the things that most persistently distract +your attention during study. What specific steps will you take to +eliminate them; to ignore the unavoidable ones? + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +HOW WE REASON + + +If you were asked to describe the most embarrassing of your class-room +experiences, you would probably cite the occasions when the instructor +asks you a series of questions demanding close reasoning. As he pins +you down to statement of facts and forces you to draw valid +conclusions, you feel in a most perplexed frame of mind. Either you +find yourself unable to give reasons, or you entangle yourself in +contradictions. In short, you flounder about helplessly and feel as +though the bottom of your ship of knowledge has dropped out. And when +the ordeal is over and you have made a miserable botch of a recitation +which you thought you had been perfectly prepared for, you complain +that "if the instructor had followed the book," or "if he had asked +straight questions," you would have answered every one perfectly, +having memorized the lesson "word for word." + +This complaint, so often voiced by students, reveals the fundamental +characteristic which distinguishes the mental operation of reasoning +from the others we have studied. In reasoning we face a new kind of +situation presenting difficulties not encountered in the simpler +processes of sensation, memory, and imagery, and when we attempt to +substitute these simple processes for reasoning, we fail miserably, for +the two kinds of processes are essentially different, and cannot be +substituted one for the other. + +Broadly speaking, the mental activities of study may be divided into +two groups, which, for want of better names, we shall call processes of +acquisition and processes of construction. The mental attitude of the +first is that of acquirement. "Sometimes our main business seems to be +to acquire knowledge; certain matters are placed before us in books or +by our teachers, and we are required to master them, to make them part +of our stock of knowledge. At other times we are called upon to use the +knowledge we already possess in order to attain some end that is set +before us." "In geography, for example, so long as we are merely +learning the bare facts of the subject, the size and contours of the +different continents, the political divisions, the natural features, we +are at the acquisitive stage." "But when we go on to try to find out +the reasons why certain facts that we have learned should be as they +are and not otherwise, we pass to the constructive stage. We are +working constructively when we seek to discover why it is that great +cities are so often found on the banks of rivers, why peninsulas more +frequently turn southward than northward." You readily see that this +constructive method of study involves the setting and solving of +problems as its distinguishing feature, and that in the solution of +these problems we make use of reason. + +A little reflection will show that though there is a distinct +difference between processes of acquisition and of construction, +nevertheless the two must not be regarded as entirely separate from +each other. "In acquiring new facts we must always use a little reason, +while in constructive work, we cannot always rely upon having all the +necessary matter ready to hand. We have frequently to stop our +constructive work for a little in order to acquire some new facts that +we find to be necessary. Thus we acquire a certain number of new facts +while we are reasoning about things, and while we are engaged in +acquiring new matter we must use our reason at least to some small +extent." The two overlap, then. But there is a difference between them +from the standpoint of the student, and the terms denote two +fundamentally different attitudes which students take in study. The two +attitudes may be illustrated by contrasting the two methods often used +in studying geometry. Some students memorize the theorem and the steps +in the demonstration, reciting them verbatim at class-hour. Others do +not memorize, but reason out each step to see its relation to the +preceding step, and when they see it must necessarily follow, they pass +on to the next and do the same. These two types of students apparently +arrive at the same conclusions, but the mental operations leading up to +the Q.E.D. of each are vastly different. The one student does his +studying by the rote memory method, the other by the road of reasoning. +The former road is usually considered the easier, and so we find it +most frequently followed. To memorize a table, a definition, or a +series of dates is relatively easy. One knows exactly where one is, and +can keep track of one's progress and test one's success. Some people +are attracted by such a task and are perfectly happy to follow this +plan of study. The kind of mind that contents itself with such +phonographic records, however, must be acknowledged to be a commonplace +sort of affair. We recognize its limitations in ordinary life, +invariably rating it lower than the mind that can reason to new +conclusions and work independently. Accordingly, if we wish to possess +minds of superior quality, we see that we must develop the reasoning +processes. + +When we examine the mental processes by which we think constructively, +or, in other words, reason, we find first of all that there is +recognition of a problem to be solved. When we start to reason, we do +it because we find ourselves in a situation from which we must +extricate ourselves. The situation may be physical, as when our +automobile stops suddenly on a country road; or it may be mental, as +when we are deciding what college to attend. In both cases, we +recognize that we are facing a problem which must be solved. + +After recognition of the problem, our next step is to start vigorous +efforts to solve it. In doing this, we cast about for means; we summon +all the powers at our disposal. In the case of the automobile, we call +to mind other accidents and the causes of them; we remember that once +the spark-plug played out, so we test this hypothesis. At another time +some dust got into the carburetor, so we test this. So we go on, +calling up possible causes and applying appropriate remedies until the +right one is found and the engine is started. In bringing to bear upon +the problem facts from our past experience, we form a series of +judgments. In the case of the problem as to what college to attend, we +might form these judgments: this college is nearer home; that one has a +celebrated faculty; this one has good laboratories; that one is my +father's alma mater. So we might go on, bringing up all the facts +regarding the problem and fitting each one mentally to see how it +works. Note that this utilization of ideas should not consist merely of +fumbling about in a vague hope of hitting upon some solution. It must +be a systematic search, guided by carefully chosen ideas. For example, +"if the clock on the mantle-piece has stopped, and we have no idea how +to make it go again, but mildly shake it in the hope that something +will happen to set it going, we are merely fumbling. But if, on moving +the clock gently so as to set the pendulum in motion, we hear it +wobbling about irregularly, and at the same time observe that there is +no ticking of any kind, we come to the conclusion that the pendulum has +somehow or other escaped the little catch that connects it with the +mechanism, we have been really thinking. From the fact that the +pendulum wobbles irregularly, we infer that it has lost its proper +catch. From the fact that there is no ticking, we infer the same thing, +for even when there is something wrong with the clock that will prevent +it from going permanently, if the pendulum is set in motion by force +from without it will tick for a few seconds before it comes to rest +again. The important point to observe is that there must be inference. +This is always indicated by the word _therefore_ or its equivalent. If +you reach a conclusion without having to use or at any rate to imply a +_therefore_, you may take it for granted that you have not been really +thinking, but only jumping to conclusions." + +This process of putting facts in the form of judgments and drawing +inferences, may be likened to a court-room scene where arguments are +presented to the judge. As each bit of evidence is submitted, it is +subjected to the test of its applicability to the situation or to +similar situations in the past. It is rigidly examined and nothing is +accepted as a candidate for the solution until it is found by trial (of +course, in imagination) to be pertinent to the situation. + +The third stage of the reasoning process comes when some plan which has +been suggested as a possible solution of the difficulty proves +effective, and we make the decision; the arguments support or overthrow +each other, adding to and eliminating various considerations until +finally only one course appears possible. As we said before, the +solution comes inevitably, as represented by the word _therefore_. +Little active work on our part is necessary, for if we have gone +through these other phases properly the decision will make itself. You +cannot make a wrong decision if you have the facts before you and have +given each the proper weight. When the solution comes, it is recognized +as right, for it comes tinged with a feeling that we call belief. + +Now that we have found the reasoning process to be one of +problem-solving, of which the first step is to acknowledge and +recognize the difficulty, the second, to call up various methods of +solution, and the third, to decide on the basis of one of the solutions +that comes tinged with certainty, we are ready to apply this schema to +study in the hope that we may discover the causes and remedies for the +reasoning difficulties of students. In view of the fact that reasoning +starts out with a problem, you see at once that to make your study +effective you must study in problems. Avoid an habitual attitude of +mere acquisition. Do not memorize facts in the same pattern as they are +handed out to you. In history, in general literature, in science, do +not read facts merely as they come in the text, but seek the relations +between them. Voluntarily set before yourself intellectual problems. +Ask yourself, _why_ is this so? In other words, in your study do not +merely acquire, but also _construct_. The former makes use mostly of +memory and though your memorizing be done ever so conscientiously, if +it comprise the main part of your study, you fail to utilize your mind +to its fullest extent. + +Let us now consider the second stage of the reasoning process as found +in study. At this stage the facts in the mind are brought forward for +the purpose of being fitted into the present situation, and the +essential thing is that you have a large number of facts at your +disposal. If you are going to reason effectively about problems in +history, mathematics, geography, it is absolutely indispensable that +you know many facts about the subjects. One reason why you experience +difficulty in reasoning about certain subjects is that you do not know +enough about them. Particularly is this true in such subjects as +political economy, sociology and psychology. The results of such +ignorance are often demonstrated in political and social movements. Why +do the masses so easily fall victims to doubtful reforms in national +and municipal policies? Because they do not know enough about these +matters to reason intelligently. Watch ignorant people listening to a +demagogue and see what unreasonable things they accept. The speaker +propounds a question and then proceeds to answer it in his own way. He +makes it appear plausible, assuring his hearers it is the only way, and +they agree because they do not have enough other facts at their command +to refute it. They are unable, as we say, to see the situation in +several aspects. The mistakes in reasoning which children make have a +similar basis. The child reaches for the moon, reasoning--"Here is +something bright; I can touch most bright things; therefore, I can +touch this." His reasoning is fallacious because he does not have all +the facts. This condition is paralleled in the class-room when students +make what are shamefacedly looked back upon as miserable blunders. When +one of these fiascos occurs the cause can many times be referred to the +fact that the student did not have enough facts at his command. +Speaking broadly, the most effective reasoning in a field can be done +by one who has had the most extensive experiences in that field. If one +had complete acquaintance with all facts, one would have perfect +conditions for reasoning. Thus we see that effectiveness in reasoning +demands an extensive array of facts. Accordingly, in your courses of +study you must read with avidity. When you are given a list of readings +in a course, some of which are required and some optional, read both +sets, and every new fact thus secured will make you better able to +reason in the field. + +But good reasoning demands more than mere quantity of ideas. The ideas +must conform to certain qualitative standards before they may be +effectively employed in reasoning. They must arise with promptness, in +an orderly manner, pertinent to the matter in hand, and they must be +clear. In securing promptness of association on the part of your ideas, +employ the methods described in the chapter on memory. Make many +logical associations with clearness and repetition. In order to insure +the rise of ideas in an orderly manner, pay attention to the manner in +which you acquire them. + +Remember, things will be recalled as they were impressed, so the value +of your ideas in reasoning will depend upon the manner in which you +make original impressions. A further characteristic of serviceable +ideas is clarity. Ideas are sometimes described as "clear" in +opposition to "muddy." You know what is meant by these distinctions, +and you may be assured that one cause for your failures in reasoning is +that your ideas are not clear. This manifests itself in inability to +make clear statements and to comprehend clearly. The latter condition +is easily illustrated. When you began the study of geometry you faced a +multitude of new terms; we call them technical terms, such as +projection, scalene, theory of limits. These had to be clearly +understood before you could reason in the subject. And when, in the +progress of your study, you experienced difficulty in reasoning out +problems, it was very likely due to the fact that you did not master +the technical terms, and as soon as you encountered the difficulties of +the course, you failed because your foundation laying did not involve +the acquisition of clear ideas. Examine your difficulties in reasoning +subjects and if you find them traceable to vagueness of ideas, take +steps to clarify them. + +Ideas may be clarified in two ways: by definition and by +classification. Definition is a familiar device, for you have had much +to do with it in learning. The memorization of definitions is an +excellent practice, not as an end in itself, but as a means to the end +of effective reasoning. Throughout your study, then, pay much attention +to definitions. Some you will find in your texts, but others you will +have to make for yourself. In order to get practice in this, undertake +the manufacture of a few definitions, using terms such as charity, +benevolence, natural selection. This exercise will reveal what an +exacting mental operation definition is and will prove how vague most of +your thinking really is. + +A large stock of definitions will help you to think rapidly. Standing +as they do for a large group of experiences, definitions are a means of +mental economy. For illustration of their service in reasoning, suppose +you were asked to compare the serf, the peon and the American slave. If +you have a clean-cut definition of each of these terms, you can readily +differentiate between them, but if you cannot define them, you will +hardly be able to reason concerning them. + +The second means of clarifying ideas is classification. By this is +meant the process of grouping similar ideas or similar points of ideas. +For example, your ideas of serf, peon and slave have some points in +common. Group the ideas, then, with reference to these points. Then in +reasoning you can quickly place an idea in its proper group. + +The third stage of the reasoning process is decision, based on belief, +and it comes inevitably, provided the other two processes have been +performed rightly. Accordingly, we need say little about its place in +study. One caution should be pointed out in making decisions. Do not +make them hastily on the basis of only one or two facts. Wait until you +have canvassed all the ideas that bear importantly upon the case. The +masses that listen top eagerly to the demagogue do not err merely from +lack of ideas, but partly because they do not utilize all the facts at +their disposal. This fault is frequently discernible in impulsive +people, who notoriously make snap-judgments, which means that they +decide before canvassing all the evidence. This trait marks the +fundamental difference between superficial and profound thinkers. The +former accept surface facts and decide immediately, while the latter +refuse to decide until after canvassing many facts. + +In the improvement of reasoning ability your task is mainly one of +habit formation. It is necessary, first, to form the habit of stating +things in the form of problems; second, to form habits by which ideas +arise promptly and profusely; third, to form habits of reserving +decisions until the important facts are in. These are all specific +habits that must be built up if the reasoning processes of the mind are +to be effective. Already you have formed some habits, if not habits of +careful looking into things, then habits of hasty, heedless, impatient +glancing over the surface. Apply the principles of habit formation +already enunciated, and remember that with every act of reasoning you +perform, you are moulding yourself into a careless reasoner or an +accurate reasoner, into a clear thinker or a muddy thinker. This +chapter shows that reasoning is one of the highest powers of man. It is +a mark of originality and intelligence, and stamps its possessor not a +copier but an originator, not a follower but a leader, not a slave, to +have his thinking foisted upon him by others, but a free and +independent intellect, unshackled by the bonds of ignorance and +convention. The man who employs reason in acquiring knowledge, finds +delights in study that are denied to a rote memorizer. When one looks +at the world through glasses of reason, inquiring into the eternal +_why_, then facts take on a new meaning, knowledge comes with new +power, the facts of experience glow with vitality, and one's own +relations with them appear in a new light. + +READINGS AND EXERCISES + +Readings: + +Adams (1) Chapter IV. + +Dearborn (2) Chapter V. + +Dewey (3) Chapters III and VI. + +Exercise I. Illustrate the steps of the reasoning process, by +describing the way in which you studied this chapter. + +Exercise 2. Try to define the following words without the assistance of +a dictionary: College, university, grammatical, town-meeting. + +Exercise 3. Prepare a set of maxims designed to help a student change +from the "rote memory" method of study to the "reason-why" (or +"problem") method. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +EXPRESSION AS AN AID IN STUDY + + +In our discussion of the nervous basis underlying study we observed +that nerve pathways are affected not only by what enters over the +sensory pathways, but also by what flows out over the motor pathways. +As the nerve currents travel out from the motor centres in the brain to +the muscles, they leave traces which modify future thoughts and +actions. This being so, it is easy to see that what we give out is +fully as important as what we take in; in other words, our +_expressions_ are just as important as our _impressions_. By +expressions we mean the motor consequences of our thoughts, and in +study they usually take the form of speech and writing of a kind to be +specified later. + +The far-reaching effects of motor expressions are too infrequently +emphasized, but psychology forces us to give them prime consideration. +We are first apprised of their importance when we study the nervous +system, and find that every incoming sensory message pushes on and on +until it finds a motor pathway over which it may travel and produce +movement. This is inevitable. The very structure and arrangement of the +neurones is such that we are obliged to make some movement in response +to objects affecting our sense organs. The extent of movement may vary +from the wide-spread tremors that occur when we are frightened by a +thunderstorm to the merest flicker of an eye-lash. But whatever be its +extent, movement invariably occurs when we are stimulated by some +object. This has been demonstrated in startling ways in the +psychological laboratory, where even so simple a thing as a piece of +figured wall-paper has been shown to produce measurable bodily +disturbances. Ordinarily we do not notice these because they are so +slight, sometimes being merely twitches of deep-seated muscles or +slight enlargements or contractions of arteries which are very +responsive to nerve currents. But no matter how large or how small, we +may be sure that movements always occur on the excitation of a sense +organ. This led us to assert in an earlier chapter that the function of +the nervous system is to convert incoming sensory currents into +outgoing motor currents. + +So ingrained is this tendency toward movement that we do not need even +a sensory cue to start it off; an idea will do as well. In other words, +the nervous current need not start at a sense organ, but may start in +the brain and still produce movement. This fact is embodied in the law +of ideo-motor action (distinguished from sensory-motor action), "every +idea in the mind tends to express itself in movement." This motor +character of ideas is manifested in a most thorough-going way and +renders our muscular system a faithful mirror of our thoughts. We have +in the psychological laboratory delicate apparatus which enables us to +measure many of these slight movements. For example, we fasten a +recording device to the top of a person's head, so that his slightest +movements will be recorded, then we ask him while standing perfectly +still to think of an object at his right side. After several moments +the record shows that he involuntarily leans in the direction of the +object about which he is thinking. We find further illustration of this +law when we examine people as they read, for they involuntarily +accompany the reading with movements of speech, measurable in the +muscles of the throat, the tongue and the lips. These facts, and many +others, constitute good evidence for the statement that ideas seek +expression in movement. + +The ethical consequences of this are so momentous that we must remark +upon them in passing. We now see the force of the biblical statement, +"Not that which entereth into the mouth defileth the man; but that +which proceedeth out of the mouth, this defileth the man." Think what +it means to one's character that every thought harbored in the mind is +bound to come out. It may not manifest itself at once in overt action, +but it affects the motor pathways and either weakens or strengthens +connections so that when the opportunity comes, some act will be +furthered or hindered. In view of the proneness to permit base thoughts +to enter the mind, human beings might sometimes fear even to think. A +more optimistic idea, however, is that noble thoughts lead to noble +acts. Therefore, keep in your mind the kind of thoughts that you wish +to see actualized in your character and the appropriate acts will +follow of their own accord. + +But it is with the significance of expressions in study that we are at +present concerned, and here we find them of supreme importance. We +ordinarily regard learning as a process of taking things into the mind, +and regard expression as a thing apart from acquisition of knowledge. +We shall find in this discussion, however, that there is no such sharp +demarcation between acquiring knowledge and expressing knowledge, but +that the two are intimately bound together, expressions being properly +a part of wise and economical learning. + +When we survey the modes of expression that may be used in study, we +find them to be of several kinds. Speech is one. This is the form of +expression for which the class-recitation is provided. If you wish to +grow as a student, utilize the recitation period and welcome every +chance to recite orally, for things about which you recite in class are +more effectively learned. Talking about a subject under all +circumstances will help you learn. When studying subjects like +political economy, sociology or psychology, seize every opportunity to +talk over the questions involved. Hold frequent conferences with your +instructor; voice your difficulties freely, and the very effort to +state them will help to clarify them. It is a good plan for two +students in the same course to come together and talk over the +problems; the debates thus stimulated and the questions aroused by +mental interaction are very helpful in impressing facts more vividly +upon the mind. + +Writing is a form of expression and is one thing that gives value to +note-taking and examinations. Its value is further recognized by the +requirements of themes and term-papers. These are all mediums by which +you may develop yourself, and they merit your earnest cooperation. + +Another medium of expression that students may profitably employ is +drawing. This is especially valuable in such subjects as geology, +physiology and botany. Students in botany are compelled to do much +drawing of the plant-forms which they study, and this is a wise +requirement, for it makes them observe more carefully, report more +faithfully and recall with greater ease. You may secure the same +advantages by employing the graphic method in other studies. For +example, when reading in a geology text-book about the stratification +of the earth in a certain region, draw the parts described and label +them according to the description. You will be surprised to see how +clear the description becomes and how easily it is later recalled. + +Let us examine the effects of the expressive movements of speech, +writing and the like, and see the mechanism by which they facilitate +the study process. We may describe their effects in two ways: +neurologically and psychologically. As may be expected from our +preliminary study of the nervous system, we see their first effects +upon the motor pathways leading out to the muscles. Each passage of the +nerve current from brain to muscle leaves traces so that the resulting +act is performed with greater ease upon each repetition. This fact has +already been emphasized by the warning, Guard the avenues of +expression. + +Especially is it important at the first performance of an act, +because this determines the path of later performances. In such studies +as piano-playing, vocalizing and pronunciation of foreign words, see +that your first performance is absolutely right, then as the expressive +movements are repeated, they will be more firmly ingrained because of +the deepening of the motor pathways. + +The next effect of acts of expression is to be found in the +modifications made in the sensory areas of the brain. You will recall +that every movement of a muscle produces nervous currents which go back +to the brain and register there in the form of kinaesthetic sensations. +To demonstrate kinaesthetic sensations, close your eyes and move your +index finger up and down. You can feel the muscles contracting and the +tendons moving back and forth, even into the back of the hand. These +sensations ordinarily escape our attention, but they occupy a prominent +place in the control of our actions. For example, when ascending +familiar stairs in the dark, they notify us when we have reached the +top. We are still further impressed with their importance when we are +deprived of them; when we try to walk upon a foot or a leg that has +gone "to sleep"; that is, when the kinaesthetic nerves are temporarily +paralyzed we find it difficult to walk. But besides being used to +control muscular actions, they may be used in study, for they may be +made the source of impressions, and impressions, as we learned in the +chapter on memory, are a prime requisite for learning. Each expression +becomes, then, through its kinaesthetic results, the source of new +impressions, when, for example, you pronounce the German word, +_anwenden_, with the English word "to employ," in addition to the +impressions made through the ear, you make impressions through the +muscles of speech (kinaesthetic impressions), and these kinaesthetic +impressions enter into the body of your knowledge and later may serve +as the means by which the word may be revived. When you write the word, +you make kinaesthetic impressions which may later serve as forms of +revival. So the movements of expression produce sensory material that +may serve as tentacles by means of which you can later reach back into +your memory and recall facts. + +We shall now consider another service of expressions which, though +little regarded, nevertheless is of much moment. When we make +expressive movements, much nervous energy is generated; much more than +during passive impression. Energy is sent back to the brain over the +kinaesthetic nerve cells, and the greater the extent of the movement, +the greater is the amount of new energy sent to the brain. It pours +into the brain and diffuses itself especially throughout the +association areas. Here it excites regions which could not be excited +by a more limited amount of energy. This means, in psychical terms, +that new ideas are being aroused. The obvious inference from this fact +is that you may, by starting movements of expression, actually summon +to your assistance added powers of mind. For example, when you are +called upon to recite in class, your mind seems to be a complete +blank--in a state of "deadlock." You may break this "deadlock" and +start brain-action by some kind of movement. It may be only to clear +your throat, to ejaculate "well," or to squirm about in the seat, but +whatever form the movement takes, it will usually be effective in +creating the desired nervous energy, and after the inertia is once +overcome the mental stream will flow freely. The unconscious +application of this device is seen when a man is called on suddenly to +make a speech for which he has not prepared. He usually starts out by +telling a story, thus liberating nervous energy to pour back into the +brain and start thinking processes. With increasing vehemence of +expression, the ideas come more and more freely, and the result is a +speech which surpasses the expectations of the speaker himself. The +gesticulations of many speakers have this same function, being +frequently of great service in arousing more nervous energy, which goes +back to the brain and arouses more ideas. + +The device of stimulating ideas by expressive movements may be utilized +in theme- or letter-writing. It is generally recognized that the +difficult thing in such writing is to get a start, and the too common +practice is to sit listlessly gazing into space waiting for +"inspiration." This is usually a futile procedure. The better way is to +begin to write anything about the topic in hand. What you write may +have little merit, either of substance or form. Nevertheless, if you +persist in keeping up the activity of writing, making more and more +movements, you will find that the ideas will begin to come in greater +profusion until they come so fast you can hardly write them down. + +Having tried to picture the neural effect of expression, we may now +translate them into psychological terms, asking what service the +expressions render to the conscious side of our study. First of all, we +note that the expressions help to make the acts and ideas in study +habitual. We find ourselves, with each expression, better able to +perform such acts as the pronunciation of foreign words. Second, they +furnish new impressions through the kinaesthetic sense, thus being a +source of sense-impression. Third, they give rise to a greater number +of ideas and link them up with the idea dominant at the moment. There +is a further psychological effect of expression in the clarification of +ideas. It is a well-attested fact that when we attempt to explain a +thing to someone else, it becomes clearer in our own minds. You can +demonstrate this for yourself by attempting to explain to someone an +intricate conception such as the nebular hypothesis. The effort +involved in making the explanation makes the fact more vivid to you. +The habit of thus utilizing your knowledge in conversation is an +excellent one to acquire. Indeed, expression is the only objective test +of knowledge and we cannot say that we really know until we can express +our knowledge. Expression is thus the great clarification agency and +the test of knowledge. Before leaving this discussion, it might be well +to remark upon one phase of expression that is sometimes a source of +difficulty. This is the embarrassment incident to some forms of +expression, notably oral. Many people are deterred from utilizing this +form of expression because of shyness and embarrassment in the presence +of others. If you have this difficulty in such excess that it hinders +you from free expression, resolve at once to overcome it. Begin at the +very outset of your academic career to form habits of disregarding your +impulses to act in frightened manner. Take a course in public speaking. +The practice thus secured will be a great aid in developing habits of +fearless and free oral expression. + +This discussion has shown that expression is a powerful aid in +learning, and is a most important feature of mental life. Cultivate +your powers of expression, for your college education should consist +not only in the development of habits of impression, but also in the +development of habits of expression. Grasp eagerly every opportunity +for the development of skill in clear and forceful expression. Devote +assiduous attention to themes and all written work, and make serious +efforts to speak well. Remember you are forming habits that will +persist throughout your life. Emphasize, therefore, at every step, +methods of expression, for it is this phase of learning in which you +will find greatest growth. + +EXERCISE + +Exercise I. Give an example from your own experience, showing how +expression (a) stimulates ideas, (b) clarifies ideas. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +HOW TO BECOME INTERESTED IN A SUBJECT + + +"I can't get interested in Mediaeval History." This illustrates a kind +of complaint frequently made by college students. It is our purpose in +this chapter to show the fallacy of this; to prove that interest may be +developed in an "uninteresting" subject; and to show how. + +In order to lay a firm foundation for our psychologizing, let us +examine into the nature of interest and see what it really is. It has +been defined as: "the recognition of a thing which has been vitally +connected with experience before--a thing recognized as old"; "impulse +to attend"; "interest naturally arouses tendencies to act"; "the root +idea of the term seems to be that of being engaged, engrossed, or +entirely taken up with some activity because of its recognized worth"; +"interest marks the annihilation of the distance between the person and +the materials and results of his action; it is the sign of their +organic union." + +In addition to the characteristics just mentioned should be noted the +pleasurableness that usually attends any activity in which we are +"interested." A growing feeling of pleasure is the sign which notifies +us that we are growing interested in a subject. And it is such an aid +in the performance of work that we should seek earnestly to acquire it +in connection with any work we have to do. + +The persons who make the complaint at the head of this chapter notice +that they take interest easily in certain things: a Jack London story, +a dish of ice cream, a foot-ball game. And they take interest in them +so spontaneously and effortlessly that they think these interests must +be born within them. + +When we examine carefully the interests of man, and trace their +sources, we see that the above view is fallacious. We acquire most of +our interests in the course of our experience. Professor James asserts: +"An adult man's interests are almost every one of them intensely +artificial; they have been slowly built up. The objects of professional +interest are most of them in their original nature, repulsive; but by +their connection with such natively exciting objects as one's personal +fortune, one's social responsibilities and especially by the force of +inveterate habit, they grow to be the only things for which in middle +life a man profoundly cares." + +Since interests are largely products of experience, then, it follows +that if we wish to have an interest in a given subject, we must +consciously and purposefully develop it. There is wide choice open to +us. We may develop interest in early Victorian literature, prize-fight +promoting, social theory, lignitic rocks, history of Siam, the +collection of scarabs, mediaeval history. + +We should not be deceived by the glibness of the above statements into +assuming that the development of interest is an easy matter. It +requires adherence to certain definite psychological laws which we may +call the laws of interest. The first may be stated as follows: _In +order to develop interest in a subject, secure information about it_. +The force of this law will be apparent as soon as we analyze one of our +already-developed interests. Let us take one that is quite common--the +interest which a typical young girl takes in a movie star. Her interest +in him comes largely from what she has been able to learn about him; +the names of the productions in which he has appeared, his age, the +color of his automobile, his favorite novel. Her interest may be said +actually to consist, at least in part, of these facts. The astute press +agent knows the force of this law, and at well-timed intervals he lets +slip through bits of information about the star, which fan the interest +of the fair devotee to a still whiter heat. + +The relation of information to interest is still further illustrated by +the case of the typical university professor or scientist. He is +interested in certain objects of research--infusoria, electrons, plant +ecology,--because he knows so much about them. His interest may be +said to _consist_ partly of the body of knowledge that he possesses. He +was not always interested in the specific, obscure field, but by +saturating himself in facts about it, he has developed an interest in +it amounting to passionate absorption, which manifests itself in +"absent-mindedness" of such profundity as to make him often an object +of wonder and ridicule. + +Let us demonstrate the application of the law again showing how +interest may be developed in a specific college subject. Let us choose +one that is generally regarded as so "difficult" and "abstract" that +not many people are interested in it--philology, the study of language +as a science. Let us imagine that we are trying to interest a student +of law in this. As a first step we shall select some legal term and +show what philology can tell about it. A term frequently encountered in +law is indenture--a certain form of contract. Philological researches +have uncovered an interesting history regarding this word. It seems +that in olden days when two persons made an agreement they wrote it on +two pieces of paper, then notched the edges so that when placed +together, the notches on the edge of one paper would just match those +of the other. This protected both parties against substitution of a +fraudulent contract at time of fulfillment. + +Still earlier in man's development, before he could write, it was +customary to record such agreements by breaking a stick in two pieces +and leaving the jagged ends to be fitted together at time of +fulfillment. Sometimes a bone was used this way. Because its critical +feature was the saw-toothed edge, this kind of contract was called +indenture (derived from the root _dent_--tooth, the same one from which +we derive our word dentist). + +The formal, legal-looking document which we today call an indenture +gives us no hint of its humble origin, but the word when analyzed by +the technique of philology tells the whole story, and throws much light +upon the legal practices of our forbears. Having discovered one such +valuable fact in philology, the student of law may be led to +investigate the science still further and find many more. As a result +still he will become interested in philology. + +By this illustration we have demonstrated the first psychological law +of interest, and also its corollary which is: _State the new in terms +of the old_. For we not only gave our lawyer new information culled +from philological sources; we also introduced our fact in terms of an +old fact which was already "interesting" to the lawyer. This is +recognized as such an important principle in education that it has +become embodied in a maxim: Proceed from the known to the unknown. + +A classic example of good educational practice in this connection is +the way in which Francis W. Parker, a progressive educator of a former +generation, taught geography. When he desired to show how water running +over hard rocky soil produced a Niagara, he took his class down to the +creek behind the school house, built a dam and allowed the water to +flow over it. When he wished to show how water flowing over soft ground +resulted in a deltoid Nile, he took the class to a low, flat portion of +the creek bed and pointed out the effect. The creek bed constituted an +old familiar element in the children's experience. Niagara and the Nile +described in terms of it were intelligible. + +Naturally in modern educational practice it is not always possible to +have miniature waterfalls and river bottoms at hand, still it is +possible to follow this principle. When, in studying Mediaeval History, +you read a description of the guilds, do not regard them as distant, +cold, inert institutions devoid of significance in your life. Rather, +think of them in terms of things you already know: modern Labor Unions, +technical schools, in so far as the comparison holds good. Then trace +their industrial descendants down to the present time. By thus thinking +about the guilds, hitherto distant and uninteresting, you will begin to +see them suffused with meaning, alight with significance, a real part +of yourself. In short, you will have achieved interest. + +There is still another psychological law of interest: _In order to +develop interest in a subject, exert activity toward it_. We see the +force of this law when we observe a man in the process of developing an +interest in golf. At the start he may have no interest in it whatever; +he may even deride it. Yielding to the importunities of his friends, +however, he takes his stick in hand and samples the game. Then he +begins to relent; admits that perhaps there may be something +interesting about the game after all. As he practises with greater +frequency he begins to develop a warmer and still warmer interest until +finally he thinks of little else; neglecting social and professional +obligations and boring his friends _ad nauseum_ with recitals of +golfing incidents. The methods by which the new-fledged golfer develops +an interest in golf will apply with equal effectiveness in the case of +a student. In trying to become interested in Mediaeval History, keep +actively engaged in it. Read book after book dealing with the subject. +Apply it to your studies in Political Economy, English, and American +History. Choose sub-topics in Mediaeval History as the subjects for +themes in English composition courses. Try to help some other student +in the class. Take part in class discussions and talk informally with +the instructor outside of the classroom. Use your ingenuity to devise +methods of keeping active toward the subject. Presently you will +discover that the subject no longer appears cold and forbidding; but +that it glows warm with virility; that it has become interesting. + +It will readily be noticed that the two laws of interest here set forth +are closely interrelated. One can hardly seek information about a +subject without exerting activity toward it; conversely, one cannot +maintain activity on behalf of a subject without at the same time +acquiring information about it. These two easily-remembered and +easily-applied rules of study will go far toward solving some of the +most trying conditions of student life. Memorize them, apply them, and +you will find yourself in possession of a power which will stay with +you long after you quit college walls; one which you may apply with +profit in many different situations of life. + +We have shown in this chapter the fallacy of the assumption that a +student cannot become genuinely interested in a subject which at first +seems uninteresting. + +We have shown that he may develop interest in any subject if he but +employs the proper psychological methods. That he must obey the +two-fold law--secure information about the subject (stating the new in +terms of the old) and exert activity toward it. That when he has thus +lighted the flame of interest, he will find his entire intellectual +life illuminated, glowing with purpose, resplendent with success. + +In concluding this discussion we should note the wide difference +between the quality of study which is done with interest and that done +without it. Under the latter condition the student is a slave, a +drudge; under the former, a god, a creator. Touched by the galvanic +spark he sees new significance in every page, in every line. As his +vision enlarges, he perceives new relations between his study and his +future aims, indeed, between his study and the progress of the +universe. And he goes to his educational tasks not as a prisoner +weighted down by ball and chain, but as an eager prospector infatuated +by the lust for gold. Encouraged by the continual stores of new things +he uncovers, intoxicated by the ozone of mental activity, he delves +continually deeper until finally he emerges rich with knowledge and +full of power--the intellectual power that signifies mastery over a +subject. + +READINGS AND EXERCISES + +Readings: James (8) Chapters X and XI. Dewey (3) + +Exercise I. Show how your interest in some subject, for example, the +game of foot-ball, has grown in proportion to the number of facts you +have discovered about it and the activity you have exerted toward it. + +Exercise 2. Choose some subject in which you are not at present +interested. Make the statement:--"I am determined to develop an +interest in--. I will take the following specific steps toward this +end." + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE PLATEAU OF DESPOND + + +In our investigation of the psychology of study we have so far directed +our attention chiefly toward the subjective side of the question, +seeking to discover the _contents_ of mind during study. We shall now +take an objective view of study, examining not the contents of mind nor +methods of study, but the objective results of study. In doing this, we +choose certain units of measurement, the number of minutes required for +learning a given amount or the amount learned in a stated period of +time. We may do this for the learning of any material, whether it be +Greek verbs or typewriting. All that is necessary is to decide upon +some method by which progress can be noted and expressed in numerical +units. This, you will observe, constitutes a statistical approach to +the processes of study, such as is employed in science; and just as the +statistical method has been useful in science, so it may be of value in +education, and by means of statistical investigations of learning we +may hope to discover some of the factors operative in good learning. + +Progress in learning is best observable when we represent our +measurements graphically, when they take the form of a curve, variously +called "the curve of efficiency," "practice curve," "learning curve." +We shall take a sample curve for the basis of our discussion, showing +the progress of a beginner in the Russian language for sixty-five days +(indicated in the figure by horizontal divisions). The student studied +industriously for thirty minutes each day and then translated as +rapidly as possible for fifteen minutes, the number of words translated +being represented by the vertical spaces on the chart. Thus, on the +tenth day, twenty-five words were translated, on the twentieth day, +forty-five words. + +[Illustration (graph): STUDY OF RUSSIAN] + +In making an analysis of this typical curve, we note immediately an +exceeding irregularity. At one time there is extraordinary +improvement, but a later measurement registers pronounced loss. This +irregularity is very common in learning. Some days we do a great amount +of work and do it well, but perhaps the very next day shows marked +diminution in our work. + +The second characteristic we note is that there is extremely rapid +progress at the beginning, the curve slanting up quite sharply. This is +common in learning, and may be accounted for in several ways. In the +first place, the easiest things come first. For example, when you are +beginning the study of German, you are given mostly monosyllabic words +to learn. These are easily remembered, hence progress is rapid. A +second reason is that at the beginning there are many different +respects in which progress can be made. For example, the beginner in +German must learn nouns, case endings, declension of adjectives, days +of the week; in short, a vast number of new things all at once. At a +later period however, the number of new things to be learned is much +smaller and improvement cannot be so rapid. A third reason why learning +proceeds more rapidly at first is that the interest is greater at this +time. You have doubtless many times experienced this fact, and you know +that when a thing has the interest of novelty you work harder upon it. + +If you will examine the learning curve closely, you will note that +after the initial spurt, there is a slowing up. The curve at this point +resembles a plateau and indicates cessation of progress if not +retrogression. This period of no progress is regarded as a +characteristic of the learning curve and is a time of great +discouragement to the conscientious student, so distressing that we may +designate it "the plateau of despond." Most people describe it as a +time when they feel unable to learn more about a subject; the mind +seems to be sated; new ideas cannot be assimilated, and old ones seem +to be forgotten. The plateau may extend for a long or a short time, +depending upon the nature of the subject-matter and the length of time +over which the learning extends. In the case of professional training, +it may extend over a year or more. In the case of growing children in +school, it sometimes happens that an entire year elapses during which +the learning of an apparently bright student is retarded. In a course +of study in high school or college, it may come on about the third week +and extend a month or more. Something akin to the plateau may come in +the course of a day, when we realize that our efficiency is greatly +diminished and we seem, for an hour or more, to make no progress. + +Inasmuch as the plateau is such a common occurrence in human activity, +we should analyze it and see what factors operate to influence it. It +is interesting to note that the plateau generally occurs just before an +abrupt rise in efficiency. This is significant, for it may mean that +the plateau is necessary in learning, especially just before reaching +the really advanced stages of proficiency. Accordingly, when you are +experiencing a plateau in the mastery of some accomplishment, you may +perhaps derive some comfort from the prospect of an approaching rise in +efficiency. On the theory that it is a necessary part of learning, it +has been regarded as a resting place. We are so constituted by nature +that we cannot run on indefinitely; nature sometimes must call a halt. +Consequently, the plateau may be a warning that we cannot learn more +for the present and that the proper remedy is to refrain for a little +while from further efforts in that line. We have possible justification +for this interpretation when we reflect that a vacation does us much +good, and though we begin it feeling stale, we end it feeling much +fresher and more efficient. + +But to stop work temporarily is not the only way to meet a plateau, and +fatigue or ennui is probably not the sole or most compelling +explanation. It may be that we should not regard the objective results +as the true measure of learning; perhaps learning is going on even +though the results are not apparent. We discovered something in the +nature of unconscious learning in our discussion of memory, and it may +be that a period of little objective progress marks a period of active +unconscious learning. + +Another meaning which the plateau may have is simply to mark places of +greater difficulty. As already remarked, the early period is a stage of +comparative ease, but as the work becomes more difficult, progress is +slower. It is also quite likely that the plateau may indicate that some +of the factors operative at the start are operative no longer. Thus, +although the learning was rapid at the beginning because the material +learned at that time was easy, the plateau may come because the things +to be learned have become difficult. Or, whereas the beginning was +attacked with considerable interest, the plateau may mean that the +interest is dying down, and that less effort is being exerted. + +If these theories are the true explanation of the plateau, we see that +it is not to be regarded as a time of reduction in learning, to be +contemplated with despair. The appropriate attitude may be one of +resignation, with the determination to make it as slightly disturbing +as possible. But though the reasons just described may have something +to do with the production of the plateau, as yet we have no evidence +that the plateau cannot be dispensed with. It is practically certain +that the plateau is not caused entirely by necessity for rest or +unconscious learning. It frequently is due, we must regretfully admit, +to poor early preparation. If at the beginning of a period of learning +an insecure foundation is laid, it cannot be expected to support the +burden of more difficult subject-matter. + +We have enumerated a number of the explanations that have been advanced +to account for the plateau, and have seen that it may have several +causes, among which are necessity for rest, increased difficulty of +subject-matter, loss of interest and insufficient preparation. In +trying to eliminate the plateau, our remedy should be adapted to the +cause. In recognition of the fact that learning proceeds irregularly, +we see that it is rational to expect the amount of effort to be exerted +throughout a period of learning, to vary. It will vary partly with the +difficulty of subject-matter and partly with fluctuations in bodily and +mental efficiency which are bound to occur from day to day. Since this +irregularity is bound to occur, you may well make your effort vary from +one extreme to the other. At times, perhaps your most profitable move +may be to take a complete vacation. The vacation might cover several +weeks, a week-end, or if the plateau is merely a low period in the +day's work, then ten minutes may suffice for a vacation. As an adjunct +to such rest periods, some form of recreation should usually be +planned, for the essential thing is to permit the mind to rest from the +tiresome activity. + +If your plateau represents greater difficulty of subject-matter and +loss of interest, your duty is plainly to work harder. In exerting more +effort, make some changes in your methods of study. For example, if you +have been accustomed to study a certain subject by silent reading, +begin to read your lessons aloud. Change your method of taking notes, +or change the hour of day in which you prepare your lesson. In short, +try any of the methods described in this book, and use your own +ingenuity, and the change in method may overcome the plateau. + +If a plateau is due to our last-mentioned cause, insufficient +preparation, the remedy must be drastic. To make new resolutions and to +put forth additional effort is not enough; you must go back and relay +the foundation. Make a thorough review of the work which you covered +slightingly, making sure that every step is clear. This process was +described in an earlier chapter as the clarification of ideas and is +absolutely essential in building up a structure of knowledge that will +stand. Indeed, as you take various courses you will find that your +study will be much improved by periodical reviews. The benefits cannot +all be enumerated here, but we may reasonably claim that a review will +be very likely to remove a plateau, and used with the other remedies +herein suggested, will help you to rid yourself of one of the most +discouraging features of student life. + +READING AND EXERCISE + +Reading: Swift (20) Chapter IV. + +Exercise I. Describe one or more plateaus that you have observed in +your own experience. What do you regard as the causes? + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +MENTAL SECOND-WIND + + +Did you ever engage in any exhausting physical work for a long period +of time? If so, you probably remember that as you proceeded, you became +more and more fatigued, finally reaching a point when it seemed that +you could not endure the strain another minute. You had just decided to +give up, when suddenly the fatigue seemed to diminish and new energy +seemed to come from some source. This curious thing, which happens +frequently in athletic activities, is known as second-wind, and is +described, by those who have experienced it, as a time of increased +power, when the work is done with greater ease and effectiveness and +with a freshness and vigor in great contrast to the staleness that +preceded it. It is as though one "tapped a level of new energy," +revealing hidden stores of unexpected power. And it is commonly +reported that with persistence in pushing one's self farther and +farther, a third and fourth wind may be uncovered, each one leading to +greater heights of achievement. + +This phenomenon occurs not alone on the physical plane; it is +discernible in mental exertion as well. True, we seldom experience it +because we are mentally lazy and have the habit of stopping our work at +the first signs of fatigue. Did we persist, however, disregarding +fatigue and ennui, we should find ourselves tapping vast reserves of +mental power and accomplishing mental feats of astonishing brilliancy. + +The occasional occurrence of the phenomenon of second-wind gives ground +for the statement that we possess more energy than we ordinarily use. +There are several lines of evidence for this statement. One is to be +found in the energizing effects of emotional excitement. Under the +impetus of anger, a man shows far greater strength than he ordinarily +uses. Similarly, a mother manifests the strength of a tigress when her +young is endangered. A second line of evidence is furnished by the +effect of stimulants. Alcohol brings to the fore surprising reserves of +physical and psychic energy. Lastly, we have innumerable instances of +accession of strength under the stimulus of an idea. Under the +domination of an all-absorbing idea, one performs feats of +extraordinary strength, utilizing stores of energy otherwise out of +reach. We have only to read of the heroic achievements of little Joan +of Arc for an example of such manifestation of reserve power. + +When we examine this accession of energy we find it to be describable +in several ways--physiologically, neurologically and psychologically. +The physiological effects consist in a heightening of the bodily +functions in general. The muscles become more ready to act, the +circulation is accelerated, the breathing more rapid. Curious things +take place in various glands throughout the body. One, the adrenal +gland, has been the object of special study and has been shown, upon +the arousal of these reserves of energy, to produce a secretion of the +utmost importance in providing for sudden emergencies. This little +gland is located above the kidney, and is aroused to intense activity +at times, pouring out into the blood a fluid that goes all over the +body. Some of its effects are to furnish the blood with chemicals that +act as fuel to the muscles, assisting them to contract more vigorously, +to make the lungs more active in introducing oxygen into the system, to +make the heart more active in distributing the blood throughout the +body. Such glandular activity is an important physiological condition +of these higher levels of energy. In neurological terms, the increase +in energy consists in the flow of more nervous energy into the brain, +particularly into those areas where it is needed for certain kinds of +controlled thought and action. An abundance of nervous energy is very +advantageous, for, as has been intimated in a former chapter, nervous +energy is diffused and spread over all the pathways that are easily +permeable to its distribution. This results in the use of considerable +areas of brain surface, and knits up many associations, so that one +idea calls up many other ideas. This leads us to recognize the +psychological conditions of increased energy, which are, first, the +presence of more ideas, second, the more facile flow of ideas; the +whole accompanied by a state of marked pleasurableness. Pleasure is a +notable effect of increased energy. When work progresses rapidly and +satisfactorily, it is accomplished with great zest and a feeling almost +akin to exaltation. These conditions describe to some degree the +conditions when we are doing efficient work. + +Since we are endowed with the energy requisite for such efficient work, +the obvious question is, why do we not more frequently use it? The +answer is to be found in the fact that we have formed the habit of +giving up before we create conditions of high efficiency. You will note +that the conditions require long-continued exertion and resolute +persistence. This is difficult, and we indulgently succumb to the first +symptoms of fatigue, before we have more than scratched the surface of +our real potentialities. + +Because of the prominent place occupied by fatigue in thus being +responsible for our diminished output, we shall briefly consider its +place in study. Everyone who has studied will agree that fatigue is an +almost invariable attendant of continuous mental exertion. We shall lay +down the proposition at the start, however, that the awareness of +fatigue is not the same as the objective fatigue in the organs of the +body. Fatigue should be regarded as a twofold thing--a state of mind, +designated its subjective aspect, and a condition of various parts of +the body, designated its objective aspect. The former is observable by +introspection, the latter by analysis of bodily secretions and by +measurement of the diminution of work, entirely without reference to +the way the mind regards the work. Fatigue subjectively, or fatigue as +we _feel_ it, is not at all the same as fatigue as manifested in the +body. If we were to make two curves, the one showing the advancement of +the _feeling_ of fatigue, and the other showing the advancement of +impotence on the part of the bodily processes, the two curves would not +at all coincide. Stated another way, fatigue is a complex thing, a +product of ideas, feelings and sensations, and sometimes the ideas +overbalance the sensations and we think we are more tired then we are +objectively. It is this fact that accounts for our too rapid giving up +when we are engaged in hard work. + +A psychological analysis of the subjective side of fatigue will make +its true nature more apparent. Probably the first thing we find in the +mind when fatigued is a large mass of sensations. They are referred to +various parts of the body, mostly the part where muscular activity has +been most violent and prolonged. Not all of the sensations, however, +are intense enough to be localizable, some being so vague that we +merely say we are "tired all over." These vague sensations are often +overlooked; nevertheless, as will be shown later, they may be +exceedingly important. + +But sensations are not the only contents of the mind at time of +fatigue. Feelings are present also, usually of a very unpleasant kind. +They are related partly to the sensations mentioned above, which are +essentially painful, and they are feelings of boredom and ennui. We +have yet to examine the ideas in mind and their behavior at time of +fatigue. They come sluggishly, associations being made slowly and +inaccurately, and we make many mistakes. But constriction of ideas is +not the sole effect of fatigue. At such a time there are usually other +ideas in the mind not relevant to the fatiguing task of the moment, +and exceedingly distracting. Often they are so insistent in forcing +themselves upon our attention that we throw up the work without further +effort. It is practically certain that much of our fatigue is due, not +to real weariness and inability to work, but to the presence of ideas +that appear so attractive in contrast with the work in hand that we say +we are tired of the latter. What we really mean is that we would rather +do something else. These obtruding ideas are often introduced into our +minds by other people who tell us that we have worked long enough and +ought to come and play, and though we may not have felt tired up to +this point, still the suggestion is so strong that we immediately begin +to feel tired. Various social situations can arouse the same +suggestion. For example, as the clock nears quitting time, we feel that +we ought to be tired, so we allow ourselves to think we are. + +Let us now examine the bodily conditions to see what fatigue is +objectively. "Physiologically it has been demonstrated that fatigue is +accompanied by three sorts of changes. First, poisons accumulate in the +blood and affect the action of the nervous system, as has been shown by +direct analysis. Mosso ... selected two dogs as nearly alike as +possible. One he kept tied all day; the other, he exercised until by +night it was thoroughly tired. Then he transfused the blood of the +tired animal into the veins of the rested one and produced in him all +the signs of fatigue that were shown by the other. There can be no +doubt that the waste products of the body accumulate in the blood and +interfere with the action of the nerve cells and muscles. It is +probable that these accumulations come as a result of mental as well as +of physical work. + +"A second change in fatigue has been found in the cell body of the +neurone. Hodge showed that the size of the nucleus of the cell in the +spinal cord of a bee diminished nearly 75 per cent, as a result of the +day's activity, and that the nucleus became much less solid. A third +change that has been demonstrated as a result of muscular work is the +accumulation of waste products in the muscle tissue. Fatigued muscles +contain considerable percentages of these products. That they are +important factors in the fatigue process has been shown by washing them +from a fatigued muscle. As a result the muscle gains new capacity for +work. The experiments are performed on the muscles of a frog that have +been cut from the body and fatigued by electrical stimulation. When +they will no longer respond, their sensitivity may be renewed by +washing them in dilute alcohol or in a weak salt solution that will +dissolve the products of fatigue. It is probable that these products +stimulate the sense-organs in the muscles and thus give some of the +sensations of fatigue. Of these physical effects of fatigue, the +accumulation of waste products in the blood and the effects upon the +nerve cells are probably common both to mental and physical fatigue. +The effect upon the muscles plays a part in mental fatigue only so far +as all mental work involves some muscular activity." + +By this time you must be convinced that the subject of fatigue is +exceedingly complicated; that its effects are manifested differently in +mind and body. In relieving fatigue the first step to be taken is to +rest properly. Man cannot work incessantly; he must rest sometimes, and +it is just as important to know how to rest efficiently as to know how +to work efficiently. By this is not meant that one should rest as soon +as fatigue begins to be felt. Quite the reverse. Keep on working all +the harder if you wish the second-wind to appear. Perhaps two hours +will exhaust your first supply of energy and will leave you greatly +fatigued. Do not give up at this time, however. Push yourself farther +in order to uncover the second layer of energy. Before entering upon +this, however, it will be possible to secure some advantage by resting +for about fifteen minutes. Do not rest longer than this, or you may +lose the momentum already secured and your two hours will have gone for +naught. If one indulges in too long a rest, the energy seems to run +down and more effort is required to work it up again than was +originally expended. It is also important to observe the proper mental +conditions during rest. Do not spend the fifteen minutes in getting +interested in some other object; for that will leave distracting ideas +in the mind which will persist when you resume work. Make the rest a +time of physical and mental relief. Move cramped muscles, rest your +eyes and let your thoughts idly wander; then come back to work in ten +or fifteen minutes and you will be amazed at the refreshed feeling with +which you do your work and at the accession of new energy that will +come to you. Keep on at this new plane and your work will take on all +the attributes of the second-wind level of efficiency. + +Besides planning intelligent rests, you may also adjust yourself to +fatigue by arranging your daily program so as to do your hardest work +when you are fresh, and your easiest when your efficiency is low. In +other words, you are a human dynamo, and should adjust yourself to the +different loads you carry. When carrying a heavy load, employ your best +energies, but when carrying only a light load, exert a proportionate +amount of energy. Every student has tasks of a routine nature which do +not require a high degree of energy, such as copying material. Plan to +perform such work when your stock of energy is lowest. + +One of the best ways to insure the attainment of a higher plane of +mental efficiency is to assume an attitude of interestedness. This is +an emotional state and we have seen that emotion calls forth great +energy. + +A final aid in promoting increase of energy is that gained through +stimulating ideas. Other things being equal, the student who is +animated by a stimulating idea works more diligently and effectively +than one without. The idea may be a lofty professional ideal; it may be +a desire to please one's family, a sense of duty, or a wish to excel. +Whatever it is, an idea may stimulate to extraordinary achievements. +Adopt some compelling aim if you have none. A vocational aim often +serves as a powerful incentive throughout one's student life. An idea +may operate for even more transient purposes; it may make one oblivious +to present discomfort to a remarkable degree. This is accomplished +through the aid of suggestion. When feelings of fatigue approach, you +may ward them off by resolutely suggesting to yourself that you are +feeling fresh. + +Above all, the will is effective in lifting one to higher levels of +efficiency. It is notorious that a single effort of the will, "such as +saying 'no' to some habitual temptation or performing some courageous +act, will launch a man on a higher level of energy for days and weeks, +will give him a new range of power. 'In the act of uncorking the +whiskey bottle which I had brought home to get drunk upon,' said a man +to me, 'I suddenly found myself running out into the garden, where I +smashed it on the ground. I felt so happy and uplifted after this act, +that for two months I wasn't tempted to touch a drop.'" But the results +of exertions of the will are not usually so immediate, and you may +accept it as a fact that in raising yourself to a higher level of +energy you cannot do it by a single effort. Continuous effort is +required until the higher levels of energy have _formed the habit_ of +responding when work is to be done. In laying the burden upon Nature's +mechanism of habit, you see you are again face to face with the +proposition laid down at the beginning of the book--that education +consists in the process of forming habits of mind. The particular habit +most important to cultivate in connection with the production of +second-wind is the habit of resisting fatigue. Form the habit of +persisting in spite of apparent obstacles and limitations. Though they +seem almost unsurmountable, they are really only superficial. Buried +deep within you are stores of energy that you yourself are unaware of. +They will assist you in accomplishing feats far greater than you think +yourself capable of. Draw upon these resources and you will find +yourself gradually living and working upon a higher plane of +efficiency, improving the quality of your work, increasing the quantity +of your work and enhancing your enjoyment in work. + + +READINGS AND EXERCISE + +Readings: James (9) Seashore (14) Chapter III. Swift (20) Chapter V. + +Exercise I. Describe conditions you have observed at time of +second-wind in connection with prolonged (a) physical exertion, (b) +intellectual exertion. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +EXAMINATIONS + + +One of the most vexatious periods of student life is examination time. +This is almost universally a time of great distress, giving rise in +extreme cases to conditions of nervous collapse. The reason for this is +not far to seek, for upon the results of examinations frequently depend +momentous consequences, such as valuable appointments, diplomas, +degrees and other important events in the life of a student. In view of +the importance of examinations, then, it is natural that they be +regarded with considerable fear and trepidation, and it is important +that we devise what rules we can for meeting their exactious demands +with greatest ease and effectiveness. + +Examinations serve several purposes, the foremost of which is to inform +the examiner regarding the amount of knowledge possessed by the +student. In discovering this, two methods may be employed; first, to +test whether or not the student knows certain things, plainly a +reproductive exercise; second, to see how well the student can apply +his knowledge. But this is not the only function of an examination. It +also shows the student how much he knows or does not know. Again the +examination often serves as an incentive to harder work on the part of +the student, for if one knows there will be an examination in a +subject, one usually studies with greater zeal than when an examination +is not expected. Lastly, an examination may help the student to link up +facts in new ways, and to see them in new relationships. In this +aspect, you readily see that examinations constitute a valuable device +in learning. + +But students are not very patient in philosophizing about the purpose +of examinations, declaring that if examinations are a necessary part of +the educational process, they wish some advice that will enable them to +pass examinations easily and with credit to themselves. So we shall +turn our attention to the practical problems of passing examinations. + +Our first duty in giving advice is to call attention to the necessity +for faithful work throughout the course of study. Some students seem to +think that they can slight their work throughout a course, and by +vigorous cramming at the end make up for slighted work and pass the +examination. This is an extremely dangerous attitude to take. It might +work with certain kinds of subject-matter, a certain type of +student-mind and a certain kind of examiner, but as a general practice +it is a most treacherous method of passing a course. The greatest +objection from a psychological standpoint is that we have reason to +believe that learning thus concentrated is not so permanently effective +as that extended over a long period of time. For instance, a German +course extending over a year has much to commend it over a course with +the same number of recitation-hours crowded into two months. We already +discussed the reasons for this in Chapter VI, when we showed the +beneficial results coming from the distribution of impressions over a +period of time. + +Against cramming it may further be urged that the hasty impression of a +mass of new material is not likely to be lasting; particularly is this +true when the cramming is made specifically for a certain examination. +As we saw in the chapter on memory, the intention to remember affects +the firmness of retention, and if the cramming is done merely with +reference to the examination, the facts learned may be forgotten and +never be available for future use. So we may lay it down as a rule that +feverish exertions at the end of a course cannot replace conscientious +work throughout the course. In spite of these objections, however, we +must admit that cramming has some value, if it does not take the form +of new acquisition of facts, but consists more of a manipulation of +facts already learned. As a method of review, it has an eminently +proper place and may well be regarded as indispensable. Some students, +it is true, assert that they derive little benefit from a +pre-examination review, but one is inclined to question their methods. +We have already found that learning is characteristically aided by +reviews, and that recall is facilitated by recency of impression. +Reviewing just before examination serves the memory by providing +repetition and recency, which, as we learned in the chapter on memory, +are conditions for favorable impression. + +A further value of cramming is that by means of such a summarizing +review one is able to see facts in a greater number of relations than +before. It too often happens that when facts are taken up in a course +they come in a more or less detached form, but at the conclusion of the +course a review will show the facts in perspective and will disclose +many new relations between them. + +Another advantage of cramming is that at such a time, one usually works +at a high plane of efficiency; the task of reviewing in a few hours the +work of an entire course is so huge that the attention is closely +concentrated, impressions are made vividly, and the entire mentality is +tuned up so that facts are well impressed, coordinated and retained. +These advantages are not all present in the more leisurely learning of +a course, so we see that cramming may be regarded as a useful device in +learning. + +We must not forget that many of the advantages secured by cramming are +dependent upon the methods pursued. There are good methods and poor +methods of cramming. One of the most reprehensible of the latter is to +get into a flurry and scramble madly through a mass of facts without +regard to their relation to each other. This method is characterized by +breathless haste and an anxious fear lest something be missed or +forgotten. Perhaps its most serious evil is its formlessness and lack +of plan. In other words the facts should not be seized upon singly but +should be regarded in the light of their different relations with each +other. Suppose, for example, you are reviewing for an examination in +mediaeval history. The important events may be studied according to +countries, studying one country at a time, but that is not sufficient; +the events occurring during one period in one country should be +correlated with those occurring in another country at the same time. +Likewise the movements in the field of science and discovery should be +correlated with movements in the fields of literature, religion and +political control. Tabulate the events in chronological order and +compare the different series of events with each other. In this way the +facts will be seen in new relations and will be more firmly impressed +so that you can use them in answering a great variety of questions. + +Having made preparation of the subject-matter of the examination, the +next step is to prepare yourself physically for the trying ordeal, for +it is well known that the mind acts more ably under physically +healthful conditions. Go to the examination-room with your body rested +after a good night's sleep. Eat sparingly before the examination, for +mental processes are likely to be clogged if too heavy food is taken. + +Having reached the examination-room, there are a number of +considerations that are requisite for success. Some of the advice here +given may seem to be superfluous but if you had ever corrected +examination papers you would see the need of it all. Let your first +step consist of a preliminary survey of the examination questions; read +them all over slowly and thoughtfully in order to discover the extent +of the task set before you. A striking thing is accomplished by this +preliminary reading of the questions. It seems as though during the +examination period the knowledge relating to the different questions +assembles itself, and while you are focusing your attention upon the +answer to one question, the answers to the other questions are +formulating themselves in your mind. It is a semi-conscious operation, +akin to the "unconscious learning" discussed in the chapter on memory. +In order to take advantage of it, it is necessary to have the questions +in mind as soon as possible; then it will be found that relevant +associations will form and will come to the surface when you reach the +particular questions. + +During the examination when some of these associations come into +consciousness ahead of time, it is often wise to digress from the +question in hand long enough to jot them down. By all means preserve +them, for if you do not write them down they may leave you and be lost. +Sometimes very brilliant ideas come in flashes, and inasmuch as they +are so fleeting, it is wise to grasp them and fix them while they are +fresh. + +In writing the examination, be sure you read every question carefully. +Each question has a definite point; look for it, and do not start +answering until you are sure you have found it. Discover the +implications of each question; canvass its possible interpretations, +and if it is at all ambiguous seek light from the instructor if he is +willing to make any further comment. + +It is well to have scratch paper handy and make outlines for your +answers to long questions. It is a good plan, also, when dealing with +long questions, to watch the time carefully, for there is danger that +you will spend too much time upon some question to the detriment of +others equally important, though shorter. + +One error which students often commit in taking examinations is to +waste time in dreaming. As they come upon a difficult question they sit +back and wait for the answer to come to them. This is the wrong plan. +The secret of freedom of ideas lies in activity. Therefore, at such +times, keep active, so that the associative processes will operate +freely. Stimulate brain activity by the method suggested in Chapter X, +namely, by means of muscular activity. Instead of idly waiting for +flashes of inspiration, begin to write. You may not be able to write +directly upon the point at issue, but you can write something about it, +and as you begin to explore and to express your meagre fund of +knowledge, one idea will call up another and soon the correct answer +will appear. + +After you have prepared yourself to the extent of your ability, you +should maintain toward the examination an attitude of confidence. +Believe firmly that you will pass the examination. Make strong +suggestions to yourself, affirming positively that you have the +requisite amount of information and the ability to express it +coherently and forcefully. Fortified by the consciousness of faithful +application throughout the work of a course, reinforced by a thorough, +well-planned review, and with a firm conviction in the strength of your +own powers, you may approach your examinations with comparative ease +and with good chances of passing them creditably. + +READINGS AND EXERCISE + +Readings: + +Adams (1) Chapter X. + +Dearborn (2) Chapter II. + +Exercise I. Make a schedule of your examinations for the next +examination week. Show exactly what preparatory steps you will take (a) +before coming to the examination room, (6) after entering it. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +BODILY CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE STUDY + + +It is a truism to say that mental ability is affected by bodily +conditions. A common complaint of students is that they cannot study +because of a headache, or they fail in class because of loss of sleep. +So patent is the interrelation between bodily condition and study that +we cannot consider our discussion of study problems complete without +recognition of the topic. We shall group our discussions about three of +the most important physical activities, eating, sleeping and +exercising. These make up the greater part of our daily activities and +if they are properly regulated our study is likely to be effective. + +FOOD.--It is generally agreed that the main function of food is to +repair the tissues of the body. Other effects are present, such as +pleasure and sociability, but its chief benefit is reparative, so we +may well regard the subject from a strictly utilitarian standpoint and +inquire how we may produce the highest efficiency from our eating. Some +of the important questions about eating are, how much to eat, what kind +of food to eat, when to eat, what are the most favorable conditions for +eating? + +The quantity of food to be taken varies with the demands of the +individual appetite and the individual powers of absorption. In +general, one who is engaged in physical labor needs more, because of +increased appetite and increased waste of tissues. So a farm-hand needs +more food than a college student, whose work is mostly indoors and +sedentary. Much has been said recently about the ills of overeating. +One of the most enthusiastic defenders of a decreased diet is Mr. +Horace Fletcher, who, by the practice of protracted mastication, +"contrives to satisfy the appetite while taking an exceptionally small +amount of food. Salivary digestion is favored and the mechanical +subdivision of the food is carried to an extreme point. Remarkably +complete digestion and absorption follow. By faithfully pursuing this +system Mr. Fletcher has vastly bettered his general health, and is a +rare example of muscular and mental power for a man above sixty years +of age. He is a vigorous pedestrian and mountain-climber and holds +surprising records for endurance tests in the gymnasium. + +"The chief gain observed in his case, as in others which are more or +less parallel, is the acquiring of immunity to fatigue, both muscular +and central. It is not claimed that the sparing diet confers great +strength for momentary efforts--'explosive strength,' as the term +goes--but that moderate muscular contractions may be repeated many +times with far less discomfort than before. The inference appears to be +that the subject who eats more than is best has in his circulation and +his tissues by-products which act like the muscular waste which is +normally responsible for fatigue. According to this conception he is +never really fresh for his task, but is obliged to start with a +handicap. When he reduces his diet the cells and fluids of his body +free themselves of these by-products and he realizes a capacity quite +unguessed in the past. + +"The same assumption explains the fact mentioned by Mr. Fletcher, that +the hours of sleep can be reduced decidedly when the diet is cut down. +It would seem as though a part of our sleep might often be due to +avoidable auto-intoxication. If one can shorten his nightly sleep +without feeling the worse for it this is an important gain." + +But the amount of food is probably not so important as the kind. Foods +containing much starch, as potatoes and rice, may ordinarily be taken +in greater quantities than foods containing much protein, such as meats +and nuts. So our problem is not so much concerned with quantity as with +the choice of kinds of food. Probably the most favorable distribution +of foods for students is a predominance of fruits, coarse cereals, +starch and sugar and less prominence to meats. Do not begin the day's +study on a breakfast of cakes. They are a heavy tax upon the digestive +powers and their nutritive value is low. The mid-day meal is also a +crucial factor in determining the efficiency of afternoon study, and +many students almost completely incapacitate themselves for afternoon +work by a too-heavy noon meal. Frequently an afternoon course is +rendered quite valueless because the student drowses through the +lecture soddened by a heavy lunch. One way of overcoming this +difficulty is by dispensing with the mid-day meal; another way is to +drink a small amount of coffee, which frequently keeps people awake; +but these devices are not to be universally recommended. + +The heavy meal of a student may well come at evening. It should consist +of a varied assortment of foods with some liquids, preferably clear +soup, milk and water. Meat also forms a substantial part of this meal, +though ordinarily it should not be taken more than once a day. Much is +heard nowadays about the dangers of excessive meat-eating and the +objections are well-founded in the case of brain-workers. The +undesirable effects are "an unprofitable spurring of the metabolism-- +more particularly objectionable in warm weather--and the menace of +auto-intoxication." Too much protein, found in meat, lays a burden upon +the liver and kidneys and when the burden is too great, wastes, which +cannot be taken care of, gather and poison the blood, giving rise to +that feeling of being "tired all over" which is so inimical to mental +and physical exertion. When meat is eaten, care should be taken to +choose right kinds. "Some kinds of meat are well known to occasion +indigestion. Pork and veal are particularly feared. While we may not +know the reason why these foods so often disagree with people, it seems +probable that texture is an important consideration. In both these +meats the fibre is fine, and fat is intimately mingled with the lean. A +close blending of fat with nitrogenous matter appears to give a fabric +which is hard to digest. The same principle is illustrated by +fat-soaked fried foods. Under the cover of the fat, thorough-going +bacterial decomposition of the proteins may be accomplished with the +final release of highly poisonous products. Attacks of acute +indigestion resulting from this cause are much like the so-called +ptomaine poisoning." + +Much of the benefit of meat may be secured from other foods. Fat, for +example, may be obtained from milk and butter freed from the +objectionable qualities of the meat-fibre. In this connection it is +important to call attention to the use of fried fat. Avoid fat that is +mixed with starch particles in such foods as fried potatoes and +pie-crust. + +The conditions during meals should always be as pleasant as possible. +This refers both to physical surroundings and mental condition. "The +processes occurring in the alimentary canal are greatly subject to +influences radiating from the brain. It is especially striking that +both the movements of the stomach and the secretion of the gastric +juice may be inhibited as a result of disturbing circumstances. +Intestinal movements may be modified in similar fashion." + +"Cannon has collected various instances of the suspension of digestion +in consequence of disagreeable experiences, and it would be easy for +almost anyone to add to his list. He tells us, for example, of the case +of a woman whose stomach was emptied under the direction of a +specialist in order to ascertain the degree of digestion undergone by a +prescribed breakfast. The dinner of the night before was recovered and +was found almost unaltered. Inquiry led to the fact that the woman had +passed a night of intense agitation as the result of misconduct on the +part of her husband. People who are seasick some hours after a meal +vomit undigested food. Apprehension of being sick has probably +inhibited the gastric activities. + +"Just as a single occasion of painful emotion may lead to a passing +digestive disturbance, so continued mental depression, worry, or grief +may permanently impair the working of the (alimentary) tract and +undermine the vigor and capacity of the sufferer. Homesickness is not +to be regarded lightly as a cause of malnutrition. Companionship is a +powerful promoter of assimilation. The attractive serving of food, a +pleasant room, and good ventilation are of high importance. The lack of +these, so commonly faced by the lonely student or the young man making +a start in a strange city, may be to some extent counteracted by the +cultivation of optimism and the mental discipline which makes it +possible to detach one's self from sordid surroundings." + +Almost as important as eating is drinking, for liquids constitute the +"largest item in the income" of the body. Free drinking is recommended +by physiologists, the beneficial results being, "the avoidance of +constipation, and the promotion of the elimination of dissolved waste +by the kidneys and possibly the liver." In regard to the use of water +with meals, a point upon which emphatic cautions were formerly offered, +recent experiments have failed to show any bad effects from this, and +the advice is now given to drink "all the water that one chooses with +meals." Caution should be observed, however, about introducing hot and +cold liquids into the stomach in quick succession. + +Other liquids have been much discussed by dietitians, especially tea +and coffee. "These beverages owe what limited food value they have to +the cream and sugar usually mixed with them. They give pleasure by +their aroma, but they are given a peculiar position among articles of +diet by the presence in them of the compound caffein, which is +distinctly a drug. It is a stimulant to the heart, the kidneys, and the +central nervous system." + +"Individual susceptibility to the action of caffein varies greatly. +Where one person notices little or no reaction after a cup of coffee, +another is exhilarated to a marked degree and hours later may find +himself lying sleepless with tense or trembling muscles, a dry, burning +skin, and a mind feverishly active. Often it is found that a more +protracted disturbance follows the taking of coffee with cream than is +caused by black coffee. + +"It is too much to claim that the use of tea and coffee is altogether +to be condemned. Many people, nevertheless, are better without them. +For all who find themselves strongly stimulated it is the part of +wisdom to limit the enjoyment of these decoctions to real emergencies +when uncommon demands are made upon the endurance and when for a time +hygienic considerations have to be ignored. If young people will +postpone the formation of the habit they will have one more resource +when the pressure of mature life becomes severe." + +Before concluding this discussion a word might be added concerning the +relation between fasting and mental activity. Prolonged abstinence from +food frequently results in highly sharpened intellectual powers. +Numerous examples of this are found in the literature of history and +biography; many actors, speakers and singers habitually fast before +public performances. There are some disadvantages to fasting, +especially loss of weight and weakness, but when done under the +direction of a physician, fasting has been known to produce very +beneficial effects. It is mentioned here because it has such marked +effects in speeding up the mental processes and clearing the mind; and +the well-nourished student may find the practice a source of mental +strength during times of stress such as examinations. + +SLEEP.--"About one-third of an average human life is passed in the +familiar and yet mysterious state which we call sleep. From one point +of view this seems a large inroad upon the period in which our +consciousness has its exercise; a subtraction of twenty-five years from +the life of one who lives to be seventy-five. Yet we know that the +efficiency and comfort of the individual demand the surrender of all +this precious time. It has often been said that sleep is a more +imperative necessity than food, and the claim seems to be well +founded." It is quite likely that some students indulge in too much +sleep. This may sometimes be due to laziness, but frequently it is due +to actual intoxication, from an excess of food which results in the +presence of poisonous "narcotizing substances absorbed from the +burdened intestine". This theory is rendered tenable by the fact that +when the diet is reduced the hours of sleep may be reduced. If one is +in good health, it seems right to expect that one should be able to +arise gladly and briskly upon awaking. By all means do not indulge +yourself in long periods of lying in bed after a good night's rest. If +we examine the physical and physiological conditions of sleep we shall +better understand its hygiene. Sleep is a state in which the tissues of +the body which have been used up may be restored. Of course some +restoration of broken-down tissue takes place as soon as it begins to +wear out, but so long as the body keeps working, the one process can +never quite compensate for the other, so there must be a periodic +cessation of activity so that the energies of the body may be devoted +to restoration. Viewing sleep as a time when broken-down bodily cells +are restored, we see that we tax the energies of the body less if we go +to sleep each day before the cells are entirely depleted. That is the +significance of the old teaching that sleep before midnight is more +efficacious than sleep after midnight. It is not that there is any +mystic virtue in the hours before twelve, but that in the early part of +the evening the cells are not so nearly exhausted as they are later in +the evening, and it is much easier to repair them in the partially +exhausted stage than it is in the completely exhausted stage. For this +reason, a mid-day nap is often effective, or a short nap after the +evening dinner. By thus catching the cells at an early stage of their +exhaustion, they can be restored with comparative ease, and more energy +will be available for use during the remainder of the working hours. + +A problem that may occasionally trouble a student is sleeplessness and +we may properly consider here some of the ways of avoiding it. One +prime cause of sleeplessness is external disturbance. The disturbance +may be visual. Although it is ordinarily thought that if the eyes are +closed, no visual disturbances can be sensed, nevertheless, as a matter +of fact the eye-lids are not wholly opaque. Sight may be obtained +through them, as you may prove by closing your eyes and moving your +fingers before them. The lids transmit light to the retina and it is +quite likely that you are frequently awakened by a beam of light +falling upon your closed eye-lids. For this reason, one who is inclined +to be wakeful should shut out from the bed-room all avenues whereby +light may enter as a distraction. + +The temperature sense is also a source of distraction in sleep, and it +is a common experience to be awakened by extreme cold. The ears, too, +may be the source of disturbance in sleep; for even though we are +asleep, the tympanic membrane is always exposed to vibrations of air. +In fact, stimuli are continually playing upon the sense-organs and are +arousing nervous currents which try to break over the boundaries of +sleep and impress themselves upon the brain. + +For this reason, one who wishes to have untroubled sleep should remove +all possible distractions. + +But apart from external distractions, wakefulness may still be caused +by distractions from within. Troublesome ideas may be present and +persist in keeping one awake. This means that brain activity has been +started and needs suppression. Various devices have been suggested. One +is to eat something very light, just enough to draw the surplus blood, +which excites the brain, away from the brain to the digestive tract. +This advice should be taken with caution, however, for eating just +before retiring may use up in digestion much of the energy needed in +repairing the body, and may leave one greatly fatigued in the morning. + +One way to relieve the mind of mental distractions is to fill it with +non-worrisome, restful thoughts. Read something light, a restful essay +or a non-exciting story, or poetry. Another device is to bathe the head +in cold water so as to relieve congestion of blood in the brain. A +tepid or warm bath is said to have a similar effect. + +Dreams constitute one source of annoyance to many, and while they are +not necessarily to be avoided, still they may disturb the night's rest. +We may avoid them in some measure by creating conditions free from +sensory distractions, for many of our dreams are direct reflections of +sensations we are experiencing at the moment. A dream with an arctic +setting may be the result of becoming uncovered on a cold night. To use +an illustration from Ellis: "A man dreams that he enlists in the army, +goes to the front, and is shot. He is awakened by the slamming of a +door. It seems probable that the enlistment and the march to the field +are theories to account for the report which really caused the whole +train of thought, though it seemed to be its latest item." Such dreams +may be partially eliminated by care in arranging conditions so that +there will be few distractions. Especially should they be guarded +against in the later hours of the sleep, for we do not sleep so soundly +after the first two hours as we do before, and stimuli can more easily +impress themselves and affect the brain. + +Before leaving the subject of sleep, we should note the benefit to be +derived from regularity in sleep. All Nature seems to move rhythmically +and sleep is no exception. Insomnia may be treated by means of +habituating one's self to get sleepy at a certain time, and there is no +question that the rising process may be made easier if one forms the +habit of arising at the same time every morning. To rhythmize this +important function is a long step towards the efficient life. + +EXERCISE.--Brain workers do not ordinarily get all the exercise they +should. Particularly is this true of some conscientious students who +feel they must not take any time from their study. But this denotes a +false conception of mental action. The human organism needs exercise. +Man is not a disembodied spirit; he must pay attention to the claims of +the body. Indeed it will be found that time spent in exercise will +result in a higher grade of mental work. This is recognized by colleges +and universities by the requirement of gymnasium work, and the +opportunity should be welcomed by the student. Inasmuch as institutions +generally give instruction in this subject, we need not go specifically +into the matter of exercises. Perhaps the only caution that need be +urged is that against the excessive participation in such exhausting +games as foot-ball. It is seriously to be questioned whether the +strenuous grilling that a foot-ball player must undergo does not +actually impair his ability to concentrate upon his studies. + +If you undertake a course of exercise, by all means have it regular. +Little is gained by sporadic exercising. Adopt the principle of +regularity and rhythmize this important phase of bodily activity as +well as all other phases. + +In concluding our discussion of physical hygiene for the student, we +cannot stress too much the value of relaxation. The life of a student +is a trying one. It exercises chiefly the higher brain centres and +keeps the organism keyed up to a high pitch. These centres become +fatigued easily and ought to be rested occasionally. Therefore, the +student should relax at intervals, and engage in something remote from +study. To forget books for an entire week-end is often wisdom; to have +a hobby or an avocation is also wise. A student must not forget that he +is something more than an intellectual being. He is a physical organism +and a social being, and the well-rounded life demands that all phases +receive expression. We grant that it is wrong to exalt the physical and +stunt the mental, but it is also wrong to develop the intellectual and +neglect the physical. We must recognize with Browning that, + + all good things +Are ours, nor soul helps flesh more, now, + than flesh helps soul. + +READINGS AND EXERCISE + +Readings: + +Patrick (14) Chapters I, II and VII. Stiles (18) and (19). + +Swift (20) Chapter X. + +Exercise 1. With the help of a book on dietetics prepare an ideal day's +bill of fare for a student. + +SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING + +Besides the standard texts in general and educational psychology, the +following books bear with especial intimacy upon the topics treated in +this book: + +1. Adams, John, Making the Most of One's Mind, New York: George H. +Doran Co., 1915. + +2. Dearborn, George V., How to Learn Easily, Boston: Little, Brown & +Co., 1918. + +3. Dewey, John, How we Think, Boston: D.C. Heath & Co., 1910. + +4. Dewey, John, Interest and Effort in Education, Boston: Houghton, +Mifflin Co., 1913. + +5. Fulton, Maurice (ed.), College Life, Its Conditions and Problems, +The Macmillan Co., 1915. + +6. Hall-Quest, Alfred L., Supervised Study, New York: The Macmillan +Co., 1916. + +7. Herrick, C. Judson, An Introduction to Neurology, Philadelphia: W.B. +Saunders Co., 1915. + +8. James, William, Talks to Teachers on Psychology, and to Students on +Some of Life's Ideals, New York. 1899. + +9. James, William, The Energies of Men, New York: Moffatt, Yard & Co., +1917. + +10. Kerfoot, John B., How to Read, Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., +1916. + +11. Lockwood, Francis (comp.), The Freshman and His College, Boston: +D.C. Heath & Co., 1913. + +12. Lowe, John Adams, Books and Libraries, Boston: The Boston Book Co., +1917. + +13. McMurry, Frank M., How to Study, Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., +1909. + +14. Patrick, George T. W., The Psychology of Relaxation, Boston: +Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1916. + +15. Sandwick, Richard L., How to Study and What to Study, Boston: D.C. +Heath & Co., 1915. + +16. Seashore, Carl E., Psychology in Daily Life, New York: D. Appleton +& Co., 1918. + +17. Seward, S., Note-taking, Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1910. + +18. Stiles, Percy G., Nutritional Physiology Philadelphia: W. B. +Saunders Co., 1912. + +19. Stiles, Percy G., The Nervous System and Its Conservation, +Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co., 1914. + +20. Swift, Edgar J., Psychology and the Day's Work, New York: C. +Scribner's Sons, 1919. + +21. Watt, Henry J., The Economy and Training of Memory, New York: +Longmans, Green & Co., 1909. + +22. Whipple, Guy M., How to Study Effectively, Bloomington, Ill.: +Public School Publishing Co., 1916. + + + + +INDEX + + +Acquisition, vs. "construction" +Activity, mental +Association, laws of; + in memory; + in reasoning; + in examination +Attention; + fluctuation of; + resistance of distractions; + lapses of + +Bibliographies +Bodily activities, in recognition; + distractions in attention +Brain, description of; + elementary cells; + tissue, properties of; + tracts; + areas + +Charlemagne +Clarification of ideas, through definition and classification; + through expression +Classification of ideas +Class room +College, difficulties; + demands of +Constructive study +Cramming + +Day dreaming +Decision, in reasoning +Definition +Distractions, in attention; + in sleep +Dreams +Drinking + +Ennui +Ethical, consequences, of habit; + of expression +Examinations, importance; + purposes of; + preparation for +Exercise +Expression; + neural basis + +Fasting +Fatigue +Feelings, pleasurable; + unpleasant +Fletcher, Horace +Food + +Geometry + +Golf + +Graphic methods; + in measuring learning + +Habit, defined; + maxims for forming; + advantages of; + disadvantages of; + in reasoning; + of resisting fatigue + +Ideas + in reasoning + how to clarify + in fatigue + stimulus of + +Idea-motor action + law of + +Image + defined + kinds of + +Imagination + made of images + works of + sources + how to develop + visual, auditory, etc. + +Impression + guard avenues of + clearness essential + through various senses + vs. expression + +Indenture + +Intention + in memorizing + +Insomnia + see Sleeplessness + +Inspiration + +Interest + defined + sources + development of + laws of + +Judgment + +Kinaesthetic impressions + +Lecture + method + notes + +Logical associations + in memorizing + in reasoning + +Mediaeval history + +Memory + importance in study + stages of + "unconscious" + "whole" vs. "part" + works according to law + "rote" vs. "logical" + intention + +Mental second wind + see second wind + +Nervous + current + energy + system in expression + +Neurone + +Note-taking + lecture + laboratory + reading + full vs. scanty + form of notebook + a habit + +Obscurity + in meaning + +Outlines + +Overlearning + +Parker, Francis W. + +Philology + +Plateau + remedies for + +Pleasure + in interest + +Practice + of recall + curve of + +Problem solving + +Psalm of life + +Public speaking + overcoming embarrassment + +_Rathausmarkt_ + +Read + how to + +Reason + contrasted with rote learning + as problem solving + stages + purposive thinking + requirements for + and habit + +Recall + +Recognition + +Repetition, + distribution of + +Retention + +Review, from notes + +Romeo and Juliet + +Schedule, daily + +Second wind, physical + mental + sources of + +Sensation, + as impression + bodily + external + in fatigue + +Sleep + +Sleeplessness + +Stream of thought + +Suggestion + +Synapse + +Theme writing + +"Unconscious" learning + see memory + +Will + +Writing + a form of expression + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Use Your Mind, +by Harry D. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: How to Use Your Mind + A Psychology of Study: Being a Manual for the Use of Students + and Teachers in the Administration of Supervised Study + +Author: Harry D. Kitson + +Release Date: January 11, 2004 [EBook #10674] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO USE YOUR MIND *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Daniel Ray and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +HOW TO USE YOUR MIND + +A PSYCHOLOGY OF STUDY + +BEING A MANUAL FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND TEACHERS IN THE +ADMINISTRATION OF SUPERVISED STUDY + +BY + +HARRY D. KITSON, PH.D. + +PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY, INDIANA UNIVERSITY + +1921 + + + + +PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION + + +The kindly reception accorded to the first edition of this book has +confirmed the author in his conviction that such a book was needed, and +has tempted him to bestow additional labor upon it. The chief changes +consist in the addition of two new chapters, "Active Imagination," and +"How to Develop Interest in a Subject"; the division into two parts of +the unwieldy chapter on memory; the addition of readings and exercises +at the end of each chapter; the preparation of an analytical table of +contents; the correction of the bibliography to date; the addition of +an index; and some recasting of phraseology in the interest of +clearness and emphasis. + +The author gratefully acknowledges the constructive suggestions of +reviewers and others who have used the book, and hopes that he has +profited by them in this revision. + +H.D.K. + +April 1, 1921. + + + + +PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION + + +Educational leaders are seeing with increasing clearness the necessity +of teaching students not only the subject-matter of study but also +methods of study. Teachers are beginning to see that students waste a +vast amount of time and form many harmful habits because they do not +know how to use their minds. The recognition of this condition is +taking the form of the movement toward "supervised study," which +attempts to acquaint the student with principles of economy and +directness in using his mind. It is generally agreed that there are +certain "tricks" which make for mental efficiency, consisting of +methods of apperceiving facts, methods of review, devices for arranging +work. Some are the fruits of psychological experimentation; others are +derived from experience. Many of them can be imparted by instruction, +and it is for the purpose of systematizing these and making them +available for students that this book is prepared. + +The evils of unintelligent and unsupervised study are evident to all +who have any connection with modern education. They pervade the entire +educational structure from kindergarten through college. In college +they are especially apparent in the case of freshmen, who, in addition +to the numerous difficulties incident to entrance into the college +world, suffer peculiarly because they do not know how to attack the +difficult subjects of the curriculum. In recognition of these +conditions, special attention is given at The University of Chicago +toward supervision of study. All freshmen in the School of Commerce and +Administration of the University are given a course in Methods of +Study, in which practical discussions and demonstrations are given +regarding the ways of studying the freshman subjects. In addition to +the group-work, cases presenting special features are given individual +attention, for it must be admitted that while certain difficulties are +common to all students, there are individual cases that present +peculiar phases and these can be served only by personal consultations. +These personal consultations are expensive both in time and patience, +for it frequently happens that the mental habits of a student must be +thoroughly reconstructed, and this requires much time and attention, +but the results well repay the effort. A valuable accessory to such +individual supervision over students has been found in the use of +psychological tests which have been described by the author in a +monograph entitled, "The Scientific Study of the College Student."[1] + +[Footnote 1: Princeton University Press.] + +But the college is not the most strategic point at which to administer +guidance in methods of study. Such training is even more acceptably +given in the high school and grades. Here habits of mental application +are largely set, and it is of the utmost importance that they be set +right, for the sake of the welfare of the individuals and of the +institutions of higher education that receive them later. Another +reason for incorporating training in methods of study into secondary +and elementary schools is that more individuals will be helped, +inasmuch as the eliminative process has not yet reached its +culmination. + +In high schools where systematic supervision of study is a feature, +classes are usually conducted in Methods of Study, and it is hoped that +this book will meet the demand for a text-book for such classes, the +material being well within the reach of high school students. In high +schools where instruction in Methods of Study is given as part of a +course in elementary psychology, the book should also prove useful, +inasmuch as it gives a summary of psychological principles relating to +the cognitive processes. + +In the grades the book cannot be put into the hands of the pupils, but +it should be mastered by the teacher and applied in her supervising and +teaching activities. Embodying, as it does, the results of researches +in educational psychology, it should prove especially suitable for use +in teachers' reading circles where a concise presentation of the facts +regarding the psychology of the learning process is desired. + +There is another group of students who need training in methods of +study. Brain workers in business and industry feel deeply the need of +greater mental efficiency and seek eagerly for means to attain it. +Their earnestness in this search is evidenced by the success of various +systems for the training of memory, will, and other mental traits. +Further evidence is found in the efforts of many corporations to +maintain schools and classes for the intellectual improvement of their +employees. To all such the author offers the work with the hope that it +may be useful in directing them toward greater mental efficiency. + +In courses in Methods of Study in which the book is used as a +class-text, the instructor should lay emphasis not upon memorization of +the facts in the book, but upon the application of them in study. He +should expect to see parallel with progress through the book, +improvement in the mental ability of the students. Specific problems +may well be arranged on the basis of the subjects of the curriculum, +and students should be urged to utilize the suggestions immediately. +The subjects treated in the book are those which the author has found +in his experience with college students to constitute the most frequent +sources of difficulty, and under these conditions, the sequence of +topics followed in the book has seemed most favorable for presentation. +With other groups of students, however, another sequence of topics may +be found desirable; if so, the order of topics may be changed. For +example, in case the chapter on brain action is found to presuppose +more physiological knowledge than that possessed by the students, it +may be omitted or may be used merely for reference when enlightenment +is desired upon some of the physiological descriptions in later +chapters. Likewise, the chapter dealing with intellectual difficulties +of college students may be omitted with non-collegiate groups. + +The heavy obligation of the author to a number of writers will be +apparent to one familiar with the literature of theoretical and +educational psychology. No attempt is made to render specific +acknowledgments, but special mention should be made of the large +draughts made upon the two books by Professor Stiles which treat so +helpfully of the bodily relations of the student. These books contain +so much good sense and scientific information that they should receive +a prominent place among the books recommended to students. Thanks are +due to Professor Edgar James Swift and Charles Scribner's Sons for +permission to use a figure from "Mind in the Making"; and to J.B. +Lippincott Company for adaptation of cuts from Villiger's "Brain and +Spinal Cord." + +The author gratefully acknowledges helpful suggestions from Professors +James R. Angell, Charles H. Judd and C. Judson Herrick, who have read +the greater part of the manuscript and have commented upon it to its +betterment. The obligation refers, however, not only to the immediate +preparation of this work but also to the encouragement which, for +several years, the author has received from these scientists, first as +student, later as colleague. + +THE AUTHOR. + +CHICAGO, September 25, 1916. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER + +I. INTELLECTUAL PROBLEMS OF THE COLLEGE FRESHMAN + +Number. Variety. Lecture Method. Note Taking. Amount of Library Work. +High Quality Demanded. Necessity for Making Schedule. A College Course +Consists in the Formation of Habits. Requires Active Effort on Part of +Student. Importance of Good Form. + +II. NOTE TAKING + +Uses of Notes. LECTURE NOTES--Avoid Verbatim Reports. Maintain Attitude +of Mental Activity. Seek Outline Chiefly. Use Notes in Preparing Next +Lesson. READING NOTES--Summarize Rather Than Copy. Read With Questions +in Mind. How to Read. How to Make Bibliographies. LABORATORY +NOTES--Content. Form. Miscellaneous Hints. + +III. BRAIN ACTION DURING STUDY + +The Organ of Mind. Gross Structure. Microscopic Structure. The Neurone. +The Nervous Impulse. The Synapse. Properties of Nervous Tissue +--Impressibility, Conductivity, Modifiability. Pathways Used in +Study--Sensory, Motor, Association. Study is a Process of Making +Pathways in Brain. + +IV. FORMATION OF STUDY-HABITS + +Definition of Habit. Examples. Inevitableness of Habits in Brain and +Nervous System. How to Insure Useful Habits--Choose What Shall Enter; +Choose Mode of Entrance; Choose Mode of Egress; Go Slowly at First; +Observe Four Maxims. Advantages and Disadvantages of Habit. Ethical +Consequences. + +V. ACTIVE IMAGINATION + +Nature of the Image. Its Use in Imagination. Necessity for Number, +Variety, Sharpness. Source of "Imaginative" Productions. Method of +Developing Active Imaginative Powers: Cultivate Images in Great +Number, Variety, Sharpness; Actively Combine the Elements of Past +Experience. + +VI. FIRST AIDS TO MEMORY--IMPRESSION + +Four Phases. Conditions of Impression: Care, Clearness, Choice of +Favorable Sense Avenue, Repetition, Overlearning, Primacy, Distribution +of Repetitions, (Inferences Bearing Upon Theme-writing), "Whole" vs. +"Part" Method, "Rote" vs. "logical" Method, Intention. + +VII. SECOND AIDS TO MEMORY--RETENTION, RECALL AND RECOGNITION + +Retention. Recall. Recall Contrasted With Impression. Practise Recall +in Impression. Recognition. Advantages of Review. Memory Works +According to Law. Possibility of Improvement. Connection With Other +Mental Processes. + +VIII. CONCENTRATION OF ATTENTION + +Importance in Mental Life. Analysis of Concrete Attentive State. +Cross-section of Mental Stream. Focal Object, Clear; Marginal Objects, +Dim. Fluctuation. Ease of Concentration Requires (1) Removal of All +Marginal Distractions Possible, (2) Ignoring Others. Conditions +Favorable for Concentration. Relation to Other Mental Processes. + +IX. HOW WE REASON + +Reasoning Contrasted with Simpler Mental Operations. Illustrated by +Method of Studying Geometry. Analysis of Reasoning Act: Recognition of +Problem, Efforts to Solve It, Solution. Study in Problems. Requirements +for Effective Reasoning: Many Ideas, Accessible, Clear. How to Clarify +Ideas: Define, Classify. Relation Between Habit and Reasoning. Summary. + +X. EXPRESSION AS AN AID IN STUDY + +Expression an Inevitable Accompaniment of Nervous Activity. Extent of +Expressive Movements. Relation Between Ideas and Expressive Acts. +Ethical Considerations. Methods of Expression Chiefly Used in Study: +Speech, Writing, Drawing. Effects of Expression: (1) On Brain, (2) On +Ideas. Hints on Development of Freedom of Expression. + +XI. HOW TO BECOME INTERESTED IN A SUBJECT + +Nature of Interest. Intellectual Interests Gained Through Experience. +Many Possible Fields of Interest. Laws of Interest. + +XII. THE PLATEAU OF DESPOND + +Measurement of Mental Progress. Analysis of the "Learning Curve." +Irregularity. Rapid Progress at Beginning. The Plateau. Causes. +Remedies. + +XIII. MENTAL SECOND-WIND + +Description: (1) Physical, (2) Mental. Hidden Sources of Energy. +Retarding Effect of Fatigue. Analysis of Fatigue. How to Reduce +Fatigue in Study. + +XIV. EXAMINATIONS + +Purposes. Continuous Effort and Cramming. Effective Methods of +Reviewing. Immediate Preparation for an Examination Conduct in +Examination-room. Attitude of Activity. Attitude of Confidence. + +XV. BODILY CONDITIONS FOB EFFECTIVE STUDY + +FOOD: Quantity, Quality, Surroundings. SLEEP: Amount, Conditions, +Avoidance of Insomnia. EXERCISE: Regularity, Emphasis. + +SUGGESTIONS FOB FURTHER READING + +INDEX + + + + +HOW TO USE YOUR MIND + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTELLECTUAL PROBLEMS OF THE COLLEGE FRESHMAN + + +In entering upon a college course you are taking a step that may +completely revolutionize your life. You are facing new situations +vastly different from any you have previously met. They are also of +great variety, such as finding a place to eat and sleep, regulating +your own finances, inaugurating a new social life, forming new +friendships, and developing in body and mind. The problems connected +with mental development will engage your chief attention. You are now +going to use your mind more actively than ever before and should survey +some of the intellectual difficulties before plunging into the fight. + +Perhaps the first difficulty you will encounter is the substitution of +the lecture for the class recitation to which you were accustomed in +high school. This substitution requires that you develop a new technic +of learning, for the mental processes involved in an oral recitation +are different from those used in listening to a lecture. The lecture +system implies that the lecturer has a fund of knowledge about a +certain field and has organized this knowledge in a form that is not +duplicated in the literature of the subject. The manner of +presentation, then, is unique and is the only means of securing the +knowledge in just that form. As soon as the words have left the mouth +of the lecturer they cease to be accessible to you. Such conditions +require a unique mental attitude and unique mental habits. You will be +obliged, in the first place, to maintain sustained attention over long +periods of time. The situation is not like that in reading, in which a +temporary lapse of attention may be remedied by turning back and +rereading. In listening to a lecture, you are obliged to catch the +words "on the fly." Accordingly you must develop new habits of paying +attention. You will also need to develop a new technic for memorizing, +especially for memorizing things heard. As a partial aid in this, and +also for purposes of organizing material received in lectures, you will +need to develop ability to take notes. This is a process with which you +have heretofore had little to do. It is a most important phase of +college life, however, and will repay earnest study. + +Another characteristic of college study is the vast amount of reading +required. Instead of using a single text-book for each course, you may +use several. They may cover great historical periods and represent the +ideas of many men. In view of the amount of reading assigned, you will +also be obliged to learn to read faster. No longer will you have time +to dawdle sleepily through the pages of easy texts; you will have to +cover perhaps fifty or a hundred pages of knotty reading every day. +Accordingly you must learn to handle books expeditiously and to +comprehend quickly. In fact, economy must be your watchword throughout. +A German lesson in high school may cover thirty or forty lines a day, +requiring an hour's preparation. A German assignment in college, +however, may cover four or five or a dozen pages, requiring hard work +for two or three hours. + +You should be warned also that college demands not only a greater +quantity but also a higher quality of work. When you were a high school +student the world expected only a high school student's accomplishments +of you. Now you are a college student, however, and your intellectual +responsibilities have increased. The world regards you now as a person +of considerable scholastic attainment and expects more of you than +before. In academic terms this means that in order to attain a grade of +95 in college you will have to work much harder than you did for that +grade in high school, for here you have not only more difficult +subject-matter, but also keener competition for the first place. In +high school you may have been the brightest student in your class. In +college, however, you encounter the brightest students from many +schools. If your merits are going to stand out prominently, therefore, +you must work much harder. Your work from now on must be of better +quality. + +Not the least of the perplexities of your life as a college student +will arise from the fact that no daily schedule is arranged for you. +The only time definitely assigned for your work is the fifteen hours a +week, more or less, spent in the class-room. The rest of your schedule +must be arranged by yourself. This is a real task and will require care +and thought if your work is to be done with greatest economy of time +and effort. + +This brief survey completes the catalogue of problems of mental +development that will vex you most in adjusting your methods of study +to college conditions. In order to make this adjustment you will be +obliged to form a number of new habits. Indeed, as you become more and +more expert as a student, you will see that the whole process resolves +itself into one of habit-formation, for while a college education has +two phases--the acquisition of facts and the formation of habits--it is +the latter which is the more important. Many of the facts that you +learn will be forgotten; many will be outlawed by time; but the habits +of study you form will be permanent possessions. They will consist of +such things as methods of grasping facts, methods of reasoning about +facts, and of concentrating attention. In acquiring these habits you +must have some material upon which you may concentrate your attention, +and it will be supplied by the subjects of the curriculum. You will be +asked, for instance, to write innumerable themes in courses in English +composition; not for the purpose of enriching the world's literature, +nor for the delectation of your English instructor, but for the sake of +helping you to form habits of forceful expression. You will be asked to +enter the laboratory and perform numerous experiments, not to discover +hitherto unknown facts, but to obtain practice in scientific procedure +and to learn how to seek knowledge by yourself. The curriculum and the +faculty are the means, but you yourself are the agent in the +educational process. No matter how good the curriculum or how renowned +the faculty, you cannot be educated without the most vigorous efforts +on your part. Banish the thought that you are here to have knowledge +"pumped into" you. To acquire an education you must establish and +maintain not a passive attitude but an active attitude. When you go to +the gymnasium to build up a good physique, the physical director does +not tell you to hold yourself limp and passive while he pumps your arms +and legs up and down. Rather he urges you to put forth effort, to exert +yourself until you are tired. Only by so doing can you develop physical +power. This principle holds true of mental development. Learning is not +a process of passive "soaking-in." It is a matter of vigorous effort, +and the harder you work the more powerful you become. In securing a +college education you are your own master. + +In the development of physical prowess you are well aware of the +importance of doing everything in "good form." In such sports as +swimming and hurdling, speed and grace depend primarily upon it. The +same principle holds true in the development of the mind. The most +serviceable mind is that which accomplishes results in the shortest +time and with least waste motion. Take every precaution, therefore, to +rid yourself of all superfluous and impeding methods. + +Strive for the development of good form in study. Especially is this +necessary at the start. Now is the time when you are laying the +foundations for your mental achievements in college. Keep a sharp +lookout, then, at every point, to see that you build into the +foundation only those materials and that workmanship which will support +a masterly structure. + +READINGS AND EXERCISES + +NOTE.--Numbers in parentheses refer to complete citations in +Bibliography at end of book. + +Readings: Fulton (5) Lockwood (11) + +Exercise 1. List concrete problems that have newly come to you since +your arrival upon the campus. + +Exercise 2. List in order the difficulties that confront you in +preparing your daily lessons. + +Exercise 3. Prepare a work schedule similar to that provided by the +form in Chart I. Specify the subject with which you will be occupied at +each period. + +Exercise 4. Try to devise some way of registering the effectiveness +with which you carry out your schedule. Suggestions are contained in +the summary: Disposition of (1) as planned; (2) as spent. To divide the +number of hours wasted by 24 will give a partial "index of efficiency." + + + + +CHAPTER II + +NOTE-TAKING + + +Most educated people find occasion, at some time or other, to take +notes. Although this is especially true of college students, they have +little success, as any college instructor will testify. Students, as a +rule, do not realize that there is any skill involved in taking notes. +Not until examination time arrives and they try vainly to labor through +a maze of scribbling, do they realize that there must be some system in +note-taking. A careful examination of note-taking shows that there are +rules or principles, which, when followed, have much to do with +increasing ability in study. + +One criterion that should guide in the preparation of notes is the use +to which they will be put. If this is kept in mind, many blunders will +be saved. Notes may be used in three ways: as material for directing +each day's study, for cramming, and for permanent, professional use. +Thus a note-book may be a thing of far-reaching value. Notes you take +now as a student may be valuable years hence in professional life. +Recognition of this will help you in the preparation of your notes and +will determine many times how they should be prepared. + +The chief situations in college which require note-taking are lectures, +library reading and laboratory work. Accordingly the subject will be +considered under these three heads. + +LECTURE NOTES.--When taking notes on a lecture, there are two extremes +that present themselves, to take exceedingly full notes or to take +almost no notes. One can err in either direction. True, on first +thought, entire stenographic reports of lectures appear desirable, but +second thought will show that they may be dispensed with, not only +without loss, but with much gain. The most obvious objection is that +too much time would be consumed in transcribing short-hand notes. +Another is that much of the material in a lecture is undesirable for +permanent possession. The instructor repeats much for the sake of +emphasis; he multiplies illustrations, not important in themselves, but +important for the sake of stressing his point. You do not need these +illustrations in written form, however, for once the point is made you +rarely need to depend upon the illustrations for its retention. A still +more cogent objection is that if you occupy your attention with the +task of copying the lecture verbatim, you do not have time to think, +but become merely an automatic recording machine. Experienced +stenographers say that they form the habit of recording so +automatically that they fail utterly to comprehend the meaning of what +is said. You as a student cannot afford to have your attention so +distracted from the meaning of the lecture, therefore reduce your +classroom writing to a minimum. + +Probably the chief reason why students are so eager to secure full +lecture notes is that they fear to trust their memory. Such fears +should be put at rest, for your mind will retain facts if you pay close +attention and make logical associations during the time of impression. +Keep your mind free, then, to work upon the subject-matter of the +lecture. Debate mentally with the speaker. Question his statements, +comparing them with your own experience or with the results of your +study. Ask yourself frequently, "Is that true?" The essential thing is +to maintain an attitude of mental activity, and to avoid anything that +will reduce this and make you passive. Do not think of yourself as a +vat into which the instructor pumps knowledge. Regard yourself rather +as an active force, quick to perceive and to comprehend meaning, +deliberate in acceptance and firm in retention. + +After observing the stress laid, throughout this book, upon the +necessity for logical associations, you will readily see that the +key-note to note-taking is, Let your notes represent the logical +progression of thought in the lecture. Strive above all else to secure +the skeleton--the framework upon which the lecture is hung. A lecture +is a logical structure, and the form in which it is presented is the +outline. This outline, then, is your chief concern. In the case of some +lectures it is an easy matter. The lecturer may place the outline in +your hands beforehand, may present it on the black-board, or may give +it orally. Some lecturers, too, present their material in such +clear-cut divisions that the outline is easily followed. Others, +however, are very difficult to follow in this regard. + +In arranging an outline you will find it wise to adopt some device by +which the parts will stand out prominently, and the progression of +thought will be indicated with proper subordination of titles. Adopt +some system at the beginning of your college course, and use it in all +your notes. The system here given may serve as a model, using first the +Roman numerals, then capitals, then Arabic numerals: + + I. +II. + A. + B. + 1. + 2. + a. + b. + (1) + (2) + (a) + (b) + +In concluding this discussion of lecture notes, you should be urged to +make good use of your notes after they are taken. First, glance over +them as soon as possible after the lecture. Inasmuch as they will then +be fresh in your mind, you will be able to recall almost the entire +lecture; you will also be able to supply missing parts from memory. +Some students make it a rule to reduce all class-notes to typewritten +form soon after the lecture. This is an excellent practice, but is +rather expensive in time. In addition to this after-class review, you +should make a second review of your notes as the first step in the +preparation of the next day's lesson. This will connect up the lessons +with each other and will make the course a unified whole instead of a +series of disconnected parts. Too often a course exists in a student's +mind as a series of separate discussions and he sees only the horizon +of a single day. This condition might be represented by a series of +disconnected links: + + O O O O O + +A summary of each day's lesson, however, preceding the preparation for +the next day, forges new links and welds them all together into an +unbroken chain: + + OOOOOOOOOO + +A method that has been found helpful is to use a double-page system of +notetaking, using the left-hand page for the bare outline, with +largest divisions, and the right-hand page for the details. This device +makes the note-book readily available for hasty review or for more +extended study. + +READING NOTES.--The question of full or scanty notes arises in reading +notes as in lecture notes. In general, your notes should represent a +summary, in your own words, of the author's discussion, not a +duplication of it. Students sometimes acquire the habit of reading +single sentences at a time, then of writing them down, thinking that by +making an exact copy of the book, they are playing safe. This is a +pernicious practice; it spoils continuity of thought and application. +Furthermore, isolated sentences mean little, and fail grossly to +represent the real thought of the author. A better way is to read +through an entire paragraph or section, then close the book and +reproduce in your own words what you have read. Next, take your summary +and compare with the original text to see that you have really grasped +the point. This procedure will be beneficial in several ways. It will +encourage continuous concentration of attention to an entire argument; +it will help you to preserve relative emphasis of parts; it will lead +you to regard thought and not words. (You are undoubtedly familiar with +the state of mind wherein you find yourself reading merely words and +not following the thought.) Lastly, material studied in this way is +remembered longer than material read scrappily. In short, such a method +of reading makes not only for good memory, but for good mental habits +of all kinds. In all your reading, hold to the conception of yourself +as a thinker, not a sponge. Remember, you do not need to accept +unqualifiedly everything you read. A worthy ideal for every student to +follow is expressed in the motto carved on the wall of the great +reading-room of the Harper Memorial Library at The University of +Chicago: "Read not to contradict, nor to believe, but to weigh and +consider." Ibsen bluntly states the same thought: + +"Don't read to swallow; read to choose, for 'Tis but to see what one +has use for." + +Ask yourself, when beginning a printed discussion, What am I looking +for? What is the author going to talk about? Often this will be +indicated in topical headings. Keep it in the background of your mind +while reading, and search for the answer. Then, when you have read the +necessary portion, close the book and summarize, to see if the author +furnished what you sought. In short, always read for a purpose. +Formulate problems and seek their solutions. In this way will there be +direction in your reading and your thought. + +This discussion of reading notes has turned into an essay on "How to +Read," and you must be convinced by this time that there is much to +learn in this respect, so much that we may profitably spend more time +in discussing it. + +Every book you take up should be opened with some preliminary ceremony. +This does not refer to the physical operation of opening a new book, +but to the mental operation. In general, take the following steps: + +1. Observe the title. See exactly what field the book attempts to +cover. + +2. Observe the author's name. If you are to use his book frequently, +discover his position in the field. Remember, you are going to accept +him as authority, and you should know his status. You may be told this +on the title-page, or you may have to consult Who's Who, or the +biographical dictionary. + +3. Glance over the preface. Under some circumstances you should read it +carefully. If you are going to refer to the book very often, make +friends with the author; let him introduce himself to you; this he will +do in the preface. Observe the date of publication, also, in order to +get an idea as to the recency of the material. + +4. Glance over the table of contents. If you are very familiar with the +field, and the table of contents is outlined in detail, you might +advantageously study it and dispense with reading the book. On the +other hand, if you are going to consult the book only briefly, you +might find it necessary to study the table of contents in order to see +the relation of the part you read to the entire work. + +5. Use the index intelligently; it may save you much time. + +You will have much to do throughout your college course with the making +of bibliographies, that is, with the compilation of lists of books +bearing upon special topics. You may have bibliographies given you in +some of your courses, or you may be asked to compile your own. Under +all circumstances, prepare them with the greatest care. Be scrupulous +in giving references. There is a standard form for referring to books +and periodicals, as follows: + +C.R. Henderson, Industrial Insurance (2d ed.; Chicago: The University +of Chicago Press, 1912), p. 321. + +S.I. Curtis, "The Place of Sacrifice," Biblical World, Vol. XXI (1902), +p. 248 _ff_. + +LABORATORY NOTES.--The form for laboratory notes varies with the +science and is usually prescribed by the instructor. Reports of +experiments are usually written up in the order: Object, Apparatus, +Method, Results, Conclusions. When detailed instructions are given by +the instructor, follow them accurately. Pay special attention to +neatness. Instructors say that the greatest fault with laboratory +note-books is lack of neatness. This reacts upon the instructor, +causing him much trouble in correcting the note-book. The resulting +annoyance frequently prejudices him, against his will, against the +student. It is safe to assert that you will materially increase your +chances of a good grade in a laboratory course by the preparation of a +neat note-book. + +The key-note of the twentieth century is economy, the tendency in all +lines being toward the elimination of waste. College students should +adopt this aim in the regulation of their study affairs, and there is +much opportunity for applying it in note-taking. So far, the discussion +has had to do with the _content_ of the note-book, but _its form_ is +equally important. Much may be done by utilization of mechanical +devices to save time and energy. + +First, write in ink. Pencil marks blur badly and become illegible in a +few months. Remember, you may be using the notebook twenty years hence, +therefore make it durable. + +Second, write plainly. This injunction ought to be superfluous, for +common sense tells us that writing which is illegible cannot be read +even by the writer, once it has "grown cold." Third, take care in +forming sentences. Do not make your notes consist simply of separate, +scrappy jottings. True, it is difficult, under stress, to form +complete sentences. The great temptation is to jot down a word here +and there and trust to luck or an indulgent memory to supply the +context at some later time. A little experience, however, will quickly +demonstrate the futility of such hopes; therefore strive to form +sensible phrases, and to make the parts of the outline cohere. Apply +the principles of English composition to the preparation of your +note-book. + +A fourth question concerns size and shape of the note-book. These +features depend partly upon the nature of the course and partly upon +individual taste. It is often convenient and practicable to keep the +notes for all courses in a single note-book. Men find it advantageous +to use a small note-book of a size that can be carried in the coat +pocket and studied at odd moments. + +A fifth question of a mechanical nature is, Which is preferable, bound +or loose-leaf note-books? Generally the latter will be found more +desirable. Leaves are easily inserted and the sections are easily filed +on completion of a course. + +It goes without saying that the manner in which notes, are to be taken +will be determined by many factors, such as the nature of individual +courses, the wishes of instructors, personal tastes and habits. +Nevertheless, there are certain principles and practices which are +adaptable to nearly all conditions, and it is these that we have +discussed. Remember, note-taking is one of the habits you are to form +in college. See that the habit is started rightly. Adopt a good plan at +the start and adhere to it. You may be encouraged, too, with the +thought that facility in note-taking will come with practice. +Note-taking is an art and as you practise you will develop skill. + +We have noted some of the most obvious and immediate benefits derived +from well-prepared notes, consisting of economy of time, ease of +review, ease of permanent retention. There are other benefits, however, +which, though less obvious, are of far greater importance. These are +the permanent effects upon the mind. Habits of correct thinking are the +chief result of correct note-taking. As you develop in this particular +ability, you will find corresponding improvement in your ability to +comprehend and assimilate ideas, to retain and reproduce facts, and to +reason with thoroughness and independence. + +READINGS AND EXERCISES + +Readings: + +Adams (1) Chapter VIII. + +Dearborn (2) Chapter II. + +Kerfoot (10) + +Seward (17) + +Exercise 1. Contrast the taking of notes from reading and from +lectures. + +Exercise 2. Make an outline of this chapter. + +Exercise 3. Make an outline of some lecture. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +BRAIN ACTION DURING STUDY + + +Though most people understand more or less vaguely that the brain acts +in some way during study, exact knowledge of the nature of this action +is not general. As you will be greatly assisted in understanding mental +processes by such knowledge, we shall briefly examine the brain and its +connections. It will be manifestly impossible to inquire into its +nature very minutely, but by means of a description you will be able to +secure some conception of it and thus will be able better to control +the mental processes which it underlies. + +To the naked eye the brain is a large jelly-like mass enclosed in a +bony covering, about one-fourth of an inch thick, called the skull. +Inside the skull it is protected by a thick membrane. At its base +emerges the spinal cord, a long strand of nerve fibers extending down +the spine. For most of its length, the cord is about as large around as +your little finger, but it tapers at the lower end. From it at right +angles throughout its length branch out thirty-one pairs of fibrous +nerves which radiate to all parts of the body. The brain and spinal +cord, with all its ramifications, are known as the nervous system. You +see now that, though we started with the statement that the mind is +intimately connected with the brain, we must now enlarge our statement +and say it is connected with the entire nervous system. It is therefore +to the nervous system that we must turn our attention. + +Although to the naked eye the nervous system is apparently made up of a +number of different kinds of material, still we see, when we turn our +microscopes upon it, that its parts are structurally the same. Reduced +to lowest terms, the nervous system is found to be composed of minute +units of structure called nerve-cells or neurones. Each of these looks +like a string frayed out at both ends, with a bulge somewhere along its +length. The nervous system is made up of millions of these little cells +packed together in various combinations and distributed throughout the +body. Some of the neurones are as long as three feet; others measure +but a fraction of an inch in length. + +We do not know exactly how the mind, that part of us which feels, +reasons and wills, is connected with this mass of cells called the +nervous system. We do know, however, that every time anything occurs in +the mind, there is a change in some part of the nervous system. +Applying this fact to study, it is obvious that when you are performing +any of the operations of study, memorizing foreign vocabularies, making +arithmetical calculations, reasoning out problems in geometry, you are +making changes in your nervous system. The question before us, then, +is, What is the nature of these changes? + +According to present knowledge, the action of the nervous system is +best conceived as a form of chemical change that spreads among the +nerve-cells. We call this commotion the nervous current. It is very +rapid, moving faster than one hundred feet a second, and runs along the +cells in much the same way as a "spark runs along a train of +gunpowder." It is important to note that neurones never act singly; +they always act in groups, the nervous current passing from neurone to +neurone. It is thought that the most important changes in the nervous +system do not occur within the individual neurones, but at the points +where they join with each other. This point of connection is called the +synapse and although we do not understand its exact nature, it may well +be pictured as a valve that governs the passage of the nervous current +from neurone to neurone. At time of birth, most of the valves are +closed. Only a few are open, mainly those connected with the vegetative +processes such as breathing and digestion. But as the individual is +played upon by the objects of the environment, the valves open to the +passage of the nervous current. With increased use they become more and +more permeable, and thus learning is the process of making easier the +passage of the nervous current from one neurone to another. + +We shall secure further light upon the action of the nervous system if +we examine some of the properties belonging to nerve-cells. The first +one is _impressibility_. Nerve-cells are very sensitive to impressions +from the outside. If you have ever had the dentist touch an exposed +nerve, you know how extreme this sensitivity is. Naturally such a +property is very important in education, for had we not the power to +receive impressions from the outside world we should not be able to +acquire knowledge. We should not even be able to perceive danger and +remove ourselves from harm. "If we compare a man's body to a building, +calling the steel frame-work his skeleton and the furnace and power +station his digestive organs and lungs, the nervous system would +include, with other things, the thermometers, heat regulators, electric +buttons, door-bells, valve-openers,--the parts of the building, in +short, which are specifically designed to respond to influences of the +environment." The second property of nerve-cells which is important in +study is _conductivity_. As soon as a neurone is stimulated at one end, +it communicates its excitement, by means of the nervous current, to the +next neurone or to neighboring neurones. Just as an electric current +might pass along one wire, thence to another, and along it to a third, +so the nervous current passes from neurone to neurone. As might be +expected, the two functions of impressibility and conductivity are +aided by such an arrangement of the nerve-cells that the nervous +current may pass over definitely laid pathways. These systems of +pathways will be described in a later paragraph. + +The third property of nerve-cells which is important in study is +_modifiability_. That is, impressions made upon the nerve-cells are +retained. Most living tissue is modifiable to some extent. The features +of the face are modifiable, and if one habitually assumes a peevish +expression, it becomes, after a time, permanently fixed. The nervous +system, however, possesses the power of modifiability to a marked +degree, even a single impression sufficing to make striking +modification. This is very important in study, being the basis for the +retentive powers of the mind. + +Having examined the action of the nervous system in its simplicity, we +have now to examine the ways in which the parts of the nervous system +are combined. We shall be helped if we keep to the conception of it as +an aggregation of systems or groups of pathways. Some of these we shall +attempt to trace out. Beginning with those at the outermost parts of +the body, we find them located in the sense-organs, not only within +the traditional five, but also within the muscles, tendons, joints, +and internal organs of the body such as the heart, and digestive +organs. In all these places we find ends of neurones which converge at +the spinal cord and travel to the brain. They are called sensory +neurones and their function is to carry messages inward to the brain. +Thus, the brain represents, in great part, a central receiving station +for impressions from the outside world. The nerve-cells carrying +messages from the various parts of the body terminate in particular +areas. Thus an area in the back part of the brain receives messages +from the eyes; another area near the top of the brain receives messages +from the skin. These areas are quite clearly marked out and may be +studied in detail by means of the accompanying diagram. + +There is another large group of nerve-cells which, when traced out, are +found to have one terminal in the brain and the other in the muscles +throughout the body. The area in the brain, where these neurones +emerge, is near the top of the brain in the area marked _Motor_ on the +diagram. From here the fibers travel down through the spinal cord and +out to the muscles. The nerve-cells in this group are called motor +neurones and their function is to carry messages from the brain out to +the muscles, for a muscle ordinarily does not act without a nervous +current to set it off. + +So far we have seen that the brain has the two functions of receiving +impressions from the sense-organs and of sending out orders to the +muscles. There is a further mechanism that must now be described. When +messages are received in the sensory areas, it is necessary that there +be some means within the brain of transmitting them over to the motor +area so that they may be acted upon. Such an arrangement is provided by +another group of nerve-cells in the brain, having as their function the +transmission of the nervous current from one area to another. They are +called association neurones and transmit the nervous current from +sensory areas to motor areas or from one sensory area to another. For +example, suppose you see a brick falling from above and you dodge +quickly back. The neural action accompanying this occurrence consists +of an impression upon the nerve-cells in the eye, the conduction of the +nervous current back to the visual area of the brain, the transmission +of the current over association neurones to the motor area, then its +transmission over the motor neurones, down the spinal cord, to the +muscles that enable you to dodge the missile. The association neurones +have the further function of connecting one sensory area in the brain +with another. For example, when you see, smell, taste and touch an +orange, the corresponding areas in the brain act in conjunction and are +associated by means of the association neurones connecting them. The +association neurones play a large part in the securing and organizing +of knowledge. They are very important in study, for all learning +consists in building up associations. + +From the foregoing description we see that the nervous system consists +merely of a mechanism for the reception and transmission of incoming +messages and their transformation into outgoing messages which produce +movement. The brain is the center where such transformations are made, +being a sort of central switchboard which permits the sense-organs to +come into communication with muscles. It is also the instrument by +means of which the impressions from the various senses can be united +and experience can be unified. The brain serves further as the medium +whereby impressions once made can be retained. That is, it is the great +organ of memory. Hence we see that it is to this organ we must look for +the performance of the activities necessary to study. Everything that +enters it produces some modification within it. Education consists in a +process of undergoing a selected group of experiences of such a nature +as to leave beneficial results in the brain. By means of the changes +made there, the individual is able better to adjust himself to new +situations. For when the individual enters the world, he is not +prepared to meet many situations; only a few of the neural connections +are made and he is able to perform only a meagre number of simple acts, +such as breathing, crying, digestion. The pathways for complex acts, +such as speaking English or French, or writing, are not formed at birth +but must be built up within the life-time of the individual. It is the +process of building them up that we call education. This process is a +physical feat involving the production of changes in physical material +in the brain. Study involves the overcoming of resistance in the +nervous system. That is why it is so hard. In your early school-days, +when you set about laboriously learning the multiplication table, your +unwilling protests were wrung because you were being compelled to force +the nervous current through new pathways, and to overcome the inertia +of physical matter. Today, when you begin a train of reasoning, the +task is difficult because you are opening hitherto untravelled +pathways. There is a comforting thought, however, which is derived from +the factor of modifiability, in that with each succeeding repetition, +the task becomes easier, because the path becomes worn smoothly and the +nervous current seeks it of its own accord; in other words, each act +and each thought tends to become habitualized. Education is then a +process of forming habits, and the rest of the book will be devoted to +the description and discussion of habits which a student should form. + +READING AND EXERCISE + +Reading: Herrick (7) + +Exercise 1. Draw a picture of the brain, showing roughly what takes +place there (a) when you read a book, (6) listen to a lecture, (c) take +notes. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +FORMATION OF STUDY-HABITS + + +As already intimated, this book adopts the view that education is a +process of forming habits in the brain. In the formation of habits +there are several principles that must be observed. Accordingly we +shall devote a chapter to the consideration of habits in general before +discussing the specific habits involved in various kinds of study. + +Habit may be defined roughly as the tendency to act time after time in +the same way. Thus defined, you see that the force of habit extends +throughout the entire universe. It is a habit for the earth to revolve +on its axis once every twenty-four hours and to encircle the sun once +every year. When a pencil falls from your hand it has a habit of +dropping to the floor. A piece of paper once folded tends to crease in +the same place. These are examples of the force of habit in nonliving +matter. Living matter shows its power even more clearly. If you assume +a petulant expression for some time, it gets fixed and the expression +becomes habitual. The hair may be trained to lie this way or that. +These are examples of habit in living tissue. But there is one +particular form of living tissue which is most susceptible to habit; +that is nerve tissue. Let us review briefly the facts which underlie +this characteristic. In nerve tissue, impressibility, conductivity and +modifiability are developed to a marked degree. The nerve-cells in the +sense organs are impressed by stimulations from the outside world. The +nervous current thus generated is conducted over long nerve fibers, +through the spinal cord to the brain where it is received and we +experience a sensation. Thence it pushes on, over association neurones +in the brain to motor neurones, over which it passes down the spinal +cord again to muscles, and ends in some movement. In the pathway which +it traverses it leaves its impression, and, thereafter, when the first +neurone is excited, the nervous current tends to take the same pathway +and to end in the same movement. + +It should be emphasized that the nervous current, once started, always +tends to seek outlet in movement. This is an extremely important +feature of neural action, and, as will be shown in another chapter, is +a vital factor in study. Movement may be started by the stimulation of +a sense organ or by an idea. In the latter case it starts from regions +in the brain without the immediately preceding stimulation of a sense +organ. Howsoever it starts you may be sure that it seeks a way out, and +prefers pathways already traversed. Hence you see you are bound to have +habits. They will develop whether you wish them or not. Already you are +"a bundle of habits"; they manifest themselves in two ways--as habits +of action and habits of thought. You illustrate the first every time +you tie your shoes or sign your name. To illustrate the second, I need +only ask you to supply the end of this sentence: Columbus discovered +America in----. Speech reveals many of these habits of thought. Certain +phrases persist in the mind as habits so that when the phrase is once +begun, you proceed habitually with the rest of it. When some one starts +"in spite," your mind goes on to think "of"; "more or" calls up "less." +When I ask you what word is called up by "black," you reply "white" +according to the principles of mental habit. Your mind is arranged in +such habitual patterns, and from these examples you readily see that a +large part of what you do and think during the course of twenty-four +hours is habitual. Twenty years hence you will be even more bound by +this overpowering despot. + +Our acts our angels are, or good, or ill, +Our constant shadows that walk with us still. + +Since you cannot avoid forming habits, how important it is that you +seek to form those that are useful and desirable. In acquiring them, +there are several general principles deducible from the facts of +nervous action. The first is: Guard the pathways leading to the brain. +Nerve tissue is impressible and everything that touches it leaves an +ineradicable trace. You can control your habits to some extent, then, +by observing caution in permitting things to impress you. Many +unfortunate habits of study arise from neglect of this. The habit of +using a "pony," for example, arises when one permits oneself to depend +upon a group of English words in translating from a foreign language. + +Nerve pathways should then be guarded with respect to _what_ enters. +They should also be guarded with respect to the _way_ things enter. +Remember, as the first pathway is cut, subsequent nervous currents will +be directed. Consequently if you make a wrong pathway, you will have +trouble undoing it. + +Another maxim which will obviously prevent undesirable pathways is, go +slowly at first. This is an important principle in all learning. If, +when trying to learn the date 1453, you carelessly impress it first as +1435, you are likely to have trouble ever after in remembering which is +right, 1453 or 1435. As you value your intellectual salvation, then, go +slowly in making the first impression and be sure it is right. The next +rule is: Guard the exits of the nervous currents. That is, watch the +movements you make in response to impressions and ideas. This is +necessary because the nervous current pushes on past obstructions, +through areas in the brain, until it ends in some form of movement, and +in finding the way out, it seeks those pathways that have been most +frequently travelled. In study, it usually takes the form of movements +of speech or writing. You will need to guard this part of the process +just as you did the incoming pathway You must see that the movement is +made which you wish to build into a habit. In learning the +pronunciation of a foreign word, for example, see that your first +pronunciation of it is absolutely right. When learning to typewrite +see that you always hit the right key during the early trials. The +point of exit of a nervous current is the point also where precautions +are to be taken in developing good form. The path should be the +shortest possible, involving only those muscles that are absolutely +necessary. This makes for economy of effort. + +The third general principle to be kept in mind is that habits are most +easily formed in youth, for this is the period when nerve tissue is +most easily impressed and modified. With respect to habit formation, +then, you see that youth is the time when emphasis should be laid upon +the formation of as many useful habits as possible. The world +recognizes this to some extent and society is so organized that the +youth of the race are given leisure and protection so that they may +form useful habits. The world asks nothing of you during the next four +years except that you develop yourself and form useful habits which +will enable you in later life to take your place as a useful and stable +member of society. + +In addition to the principles just discussed, there are a number of +other maxims which have been laid down as guides in the formation of +new habits. The first is, _make an assertion of will_. Vow to yourself +that you will form the habit, and keep that resolve ever before you. + +The second maxim is, _make an emphatic start._ Surround yourself with +every aid possible. Make it easy at first to perform the act and +difficult not to perform it. For example, if you desire to form the +habit of arising at six every morning, surround yourself with a number +of aids. Buy an alarm clock, and tell some one of your decision. Such +efforts at the start "will give your new beginning such a momentum that +the temptation to break down will not occur as soon as it otherwise +might; and every day during which a breakdown is postponed adds to the +chances of its not occurring at all." Man has discovered the value of +such devices during the course of his long history, and has evolved +customs accordingly. When men decide to swear off smoking, they choose +the opening of a new year when many other new things are being started; +they make solemn promises to themselves, to each other, and finally to +their friends. Such customs are precautions which help to bolster up +the determination at the time when extraordinary effort and +determination are required. In forming the habits incidental to college +life, take pains from the start to surround yourself with as many aids +as possible. This will not constitute a confession of weakness. It is +only a wise and natural precaution which the whole experience of the +race has justified. The third maxim is, _never permit an exception to +occur_. Suppose you have a habit of saying "aint" which you wish to +replace with a habit of saying "isn't." If the habit is deeply rooted, +you have worn a pathway in the brain to a considerable depth, +represented in the accompanying diagram by the line _A X B_. + + A + | + X + / \ + B C + +Let us suppose that you have already started the new habit, and have said +the correct word ten times. That means you have worn another pathway +_A X C_ to a considerable depth. During all this time, however, the old +pathway is still open and at the slightest provocation will attract the +nervous current. Your task is to deepen the new path so that the nervous +current will flow into it instead of the old. Now suppose you make an +exception on some occasion and allow the nervous current to travel over +the old path. This unfortunate exception breaks down the bridge which +you had constructed at _X_ from _A_ to _C_. But this is not the only +result. The nervous current, as it revisits the old path, deepens it +more than it was before, so the next time a similar situation arises, +the current seeks the old path with much greater readiness than before, +and vastly more effort is required to overcome it. Some one has likened +the effect of these exceptions to that produced when one drops a ball +of string that is partially wound. By a single slip, more is undone +than can be accomplished in a dozen windings. + +The fourth maxim is, _seize every opportunity to act upon your +resolution_. The reason for this will be understood better if you keep +in mind the fact, stated before, that nervous currents once started, +whether from a sense-organ or from a brain-center, always tend to seek +egress in movement. These outgoing nervous currents leave an imprint +upon the modifiable nerve tissues as inevitably as do incoming +impressions. Therefore, if you wish your resolves to be firmly fixed, +you should act upon them speedily and often. "It is not in the moment +of their forming, but in the moment of their producing _motor effects_, +that resolves and aspirations communicate the new 'set' to the brain." +"No matter how full a reservoir of _maxims_ one may possess, and no +matter how good one's _sentiments_ may be, if one has not taken +advantage of every concrete opportunity to _act_, one's character may +remain entirely unaffected for the better." Particularly at time of +emotional excitement one makes resolves that are very good, and a glow +of fine feeling is present. Beware that these resolves do not evaporate +in mere feeling. They should be crystallized in some form of action as +soon as possible. "Let the expression be the least thing in the +world--speaking genially to one's grandmother, or giving up one's seat +in a ... car, if nothing more heroic offers--but let it not fail to take +place." Strictly speaking you have not really completed a resolve until +you have acted upon it. You may determine to go without lunch, but you +have not consummated that resolve until you have permitted it to +express itself by carrying you past the door of the dining-room. That +is the crucial test which determines the strength of your resolve. Many +repetitions will be required before a pathway is worn deep enough to be +settled. Seize the very earliest opportunity to begin grooving it out, +and seize every other opportunity for deepening it. + +After this view of the place in your life occupied by habit, you +readily see its far-reaching possibilities for welfare of body and +mind. Its most obvious, because most annoying, effects are on the side +of its disadvantages. Bad habits secure a grip upon us that we are +sometimes powerless to shake off. True, this ineradicableness need have +no terrors if we have formed good habits. Indeed, as will be pointed +out in the next paragraph, habit may be a great asset. Nevertheless, it +may work positive harm, or at best, may lead to stagnation. The +fixedness of habit tends to make us move in ruts unless we exert +continuous effort to learn new things. If we permit ourselves to move +in old grooves we cease to progress and become "old fogy." + +But the advantages of habit far outweigh its disadvantages. Habit helps +the individual to be consistent and helps people to know what to expect +from one. It helps society to be stable, to incorporate within itself +modes of action conducive to the common good. For example, the respect +which we all have for the property of others is a habit, and is so +firmly intrenched that we should find ourselves unable to steal if we +wished to. Habit is thus a very desirable asset and is truly called the +"enormous fly-wheel of society." + +A second advantage of habit is that it makes for accuracy. Acts that +have become habitualized are performed more accurately than those not +habitualized. Movements such as those made in typewriting and +piano-playing, when measured in the psychological laboratory, are found +to copy each other with extreme fidelity. The human body is a machine +which may be adjusted to a high degree of nicety, and habit is the +mechanism by which this adjustment is made. + +A third advantage is that a stock of habits makes life easier. "There +is no more miserable human being than one in whom nothing is habitual +but indecision, for whom the lighting of every cigar, the drinking of +every cup, the time of rising and going to bed every day and the +beginning of every bit of work, are subjects of express volitional +deliberation. Full half the time of such a man goes to the deciding or +regretting of matters which ought to be so ingrained in him as +practically not to exist for his consciousness at all." Have you ever +reflected how miserable you would be and what a task living would be if +you had to learn to write anew every morning when you go to class; or +if you had to relearn how to tie your necktie every day? The burden of +living would be intolerable. + +The last advantage to be discerned in habit is economy. Habitual acts +do not have to be actively directed by consciousness. While they are +being performed, consciousness may be otherwise engaged. "The more of +the details of our daily life we can hand over to the effortless +custody of automatism, the more our higher powers of mind will be set +free for their own proper work." While you are brushing your hair or +tying your shoes, your mind may be engaged in memorizing poetry or +calculating arithmetical problems. Habit is thus a great economizer. + +The ethical consequences of habit are so striking that before leaving +the subject we must give them acknowledgment. We can do no better than +to turn to the statement by Professor James, whose wise remarks upon +the subject have not been improved upon: + +"The physiological study of mental conditions is thus the most powerful +ally of hortatory ethics. The hell to be endured hereafter, of which +theology tells, is no worse than the hell we make for ourselves in this +world by habitually fashioning our characters in the wrong way. Could +the young but realize how soon they will become mere walking bundles of +habits, they would give more heed to their conduct while in the plastic +state. We are spinning our own fates, good or evil, and never to be +undone. Every smallest stroke of virtue or of vice leaves its +never-so-little scar. The drunken Rip Van Winkle, in Jefferson's play, +excuses himself for every fresh dereliction by saying, 'I won't count +this time!' Well! he may not count it and a kind heaven may not count +it; but it is being counted none the less. Down among his nerve-cells +and fibers the molecules are counting it, registering it, and storing +it up to be used against him when the next temptation comes. Nothing we +ever do is, in strict scientific literalness, wiped out. Of course this +has its good side as well as its bad one. As we become permanent +drunkards by so many drinks, so we become saints in the moral, and +authorities and experts in the practical and scientific, spheres, by so +many separate acts and hours of work. But let no youth have any anxiety +about the upshot of his education, whatever the line of it may be. If +he keep faithfully busy each hour of the working day, he may safely +leave the final result to itself. He can with perfect certainty count +on waking up some fine morning, to find himself one of the competent +ones of his generation, in whatever pursuit he has singled out. +Silently, between all the details of his business, the _power of +judging_ in all that class of matter will have built itself up within +him as a possession that will never pass away. Young people should know +the truth of this in advance. The ignorance of it has probably +engendered more discouragement and faintheartedness in youths embarking +on arduous careers than all other causes put together." + +EXERCISE + +Exercise 1. Point out an undesirable habit that you are determined to +eradicate. Describe the desirable habit which you will adopt in its +place. Give the concrete steps you will take in forming the new habit. +How long a time do you estimate will be required for the formation of +the new habit? Mark down the date and refer back to it when you have +formed the habit, to see how accurately you estimated. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +ACTIVE IMAGINATION + + +A very large part of the mental life of a student consists in the +manipulation of images. By images we mean the revivals of things that +have been impressed upon the senses. Call to mind for the moment your +house-number as it appears upon the door of your home. In so doing you +mentally reinstate something which has been impressed upon your senses +many times; and you see it almost as clearly as if it were actually +before you. The mental thing thus revived is called an image. + +The word image is somewhat ill-chosen; for it usually signifies +something connected with the eye, and implies that the stuff of mental +images is entirely visual. The true fact of the matter is, we can image +practically anything that we can sense. We may have tactual images of +things touched; auditory images of things heard; gustatory images of +things tasted; olfactory images of things smelled. How these behave in +general and how they interact in study will engage our attention in +this chapter. + +The most highly dramatic use of images is in connection with that +mental process known as Imagination. As we study the writings of Jack +London, Poe, Defoe, Bunyan, we move in a realm almost wholly imaginary. +And as we take a cross-section of our minds when thus engaged, we find +them filled with images. Furthermore, they are of great variety--images +of colors, sounds, tastes, smells, touches, even of sensations from our +own internal organs, such as the palpitations of the heart that +accompany feelings of pride, indignation, remorse, exaltation. A +further characteristic is that they are sharp, clean-cut, vivid. + +Note in the balcony scene from Romeo and Juliet, the number, variety +and vividness of the images: + +"But, soft! What light through yonder window breaks? +It is the east, and Juliet is the sun. +Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, +Who is already sick and pale with grief +That thou, her maid, art far more fair than she. +Be not her maid, since she is envious; +Her vestal livery is but sick and green.... +Two of the fairest stars in all the heaven, +Having some business, do entreat her eyes +To twinkle in their spheres till they return. +What if her eyes were there, they in her head? +The brightness in her cheek would shame those stars, +As daylight doth a lamp; her eyes in heaven +Would through the airy regions stream so bright +That birds would sing and think it were not night. +See, how she leans her cheek upon her hand! +O, that I were a glove upon that hand, +That I might touch that cheek!" + +We may conclude, then, that three of the desirable attributes of great +works of the imagination are _number, variety_ and _vividness_ of +mental images. + +One question that frequently arises concerning works of the imagination +is, What is their source? Superficial thinkers have loosely answered, +"Inspiration," implying, (according to the literal meaning of the word, +"to breathe in"), that some mysterious external force (called by the +ancients, "A Muse") enters into the mind of the author with a special +revelation. + +Psychological analysis of these imaginative works shows that this +explanation is untrue. That the bizarre and apparently novel products +arise from the experiences of the author, revived in imagination and +combined in new ways. The horrendous incidents depicted in Dante's +"Divine Comedy" never occurred within the lifetime experience of the +author as such. Their separate elements did, however, and furnished the +basis for Dante's clever combinations. The oft-heard saying that there +is nothing new under the sun is psychologically true. + +In the light of this brief analysis of products of the imagination we +are ready to develop a program which we may follow in cultivating an +active imagination. + +Recognizing that images have their source in sensory experience, we see +that the first step to take is to seek a multitude of experiences. Make +intimate acquaintance with the objects of your environment. Handle +them, tear them apart, put them together, place them next to other +objects, noting the likenesses and differences. Thus you will acquire +the stuff out of which images are made and will stock your mind with a +number of images. Then when you wish to convey your ideas you will have +a number of terms in which to do it--one of the characteristics of a +free-flowing imagination. + +The second characteristic we found to be variety. To secure this, seek +a variety of sensational experiences. Perceive the objects of your +experience through several senses--touch, smell, sight, hearing, +taste. By means of this variety in sensations you will secure +corresponding variety in your images. + +To revive them easily sometimes requires practice. For it has been +discovered that all people do not naturally call up images related to +the various senses with equal ease. Most people use visual and auditory +images more freely than they do other kinds. In order to develop skill +in evoking the others, practise recalling them. Sit down for an hour of +practice, as you would sit down for an hour of piano practice. Try to +recall the taste of raisins, English walnuts; the smell of hyacinths, +of witch-hazel; the rough touch of an orange-skin. Though you may at +first have difficulty you will develop, with practice, a gratifying +facility in recalling all varieties of images. + +The third characteristic which we observed in works of the imagination +is vividness. To achieve this, pay close attention to the details of +your sensory experiences. Observe sharply the minute but characteristic +items--the accent mark on _après_; the coarse stubby beard of the +typical alley tough. Stock your mind with a wealth of such detailed +impressions. Keep them alive by the kind of practice recommended in the +preceding paragraph. Then describe the objects of your experience in +terms of these significant details. + +We discovered, in discussing the source of imaginative works, that the +men whom we are accustomed to call imaginative geniuses do not have +unique communication with heaven or with any external reservoir of +ideas. Instead, we found their wonder-evoking creations to be merely +new combinations of old images. The true secret of their success is +their industrious utilization of past experiences according to the +program outlined above. They select certain elements from their +experiences and combine them in novel ways. This is the explanation of +their strange, beautiful and bizarre productions. This is what Carlyle +meant when he characterized genius as "the transcendent capacity for +taking trouble" This is what Hogarth meant when he said, "Genius is +nothing but labor and diligence." For concrete exemplification of this +truth we need only turn to the autobiographies of great writers. In +this passage from "John Barleycorn," Jack London describes his methods: + +"Early and late I was at it--writing, typing, studying grammar, +studying writing and all forms of writing, and studying the writers who +succeeded in order to find out how they succeeded. I managed on five +hours' sleep in the twenty-four, and came pretty close to working the +nineteen waking hours left to me." + +By saying that the novel effects of imagination come by way of +industry, we do not mean to imply that one should strain after novelty +and eccentricity. Unusual and happy combinations will come of +themselves and naturally if one only makes a sufficient number. + +There are laws of combination, known as the psychological laws of +association, by which images will unite naturally. The number of +possible combinations is infinite. By industriously making a large +number, you will by the very laws of chance, stumble upon some that are +especially happy and striking. + +In summarizing this discussion, we may conclude that an active fertile +imagination comes from crowding into one's life a large number of +varied and vivid experiences; storing them up in the mind in the form +of images; and industriously recalling and combining them in novel +relationships. Mental images occur in other mental processes besides +Imagination. They bulk importantly in memorizing, as we shall see in +Chapters VI and VII; and in reasoning, as we shall see in Chapter IX. +Throughout the book we shall find that as we develop ability to +manipulate mental images, we shall increase the adaptability of all the +mental processes. + +READING AND EXERCISES + +Reading: Dearborn (2) Chapter III. + +Exercise 1. Call up in imagination the sound of your French +instructor's voice as he says _étudiant_. Call up the appearance on the +page of the conjugation of _être_, present tense. + +Exercise 2. Choose some word which you have had difficulty in learning. +Look at it attentively, securing a perfectly clear impression of it; +then practise calling up the visual image of it, until you secure +perfect reproduction. + +Exercise 3. List the different images called up by the passage from +_Romeo and Juliet_. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +FIRST AIDS TO MEMORY; IMPRESSION + + +Of all the mental operations employed by the student, memory is +probably the one in which the greatest inefficiency is manifested. +Though we often fail to realize it, much of our life is taken up with +memorizing. Every time we make use of past experience, we rely upon +this function of the mind, but in no occupation is it quite so +practically important as in study. We shall begin our investigation of +memory by dividing it into four phases or stages--Impression, +Retention, Recall and Recognition. Any act of memory involves them all. +There is first a stage when the material is being impressed; second, a +stage when it is being retained so that it may be revived in the +future; third, a stage of recall when the retained material is revived +to meet present needs; fourth, a feeling of recognition, through which +the material is recognized as having previously been in the mind. + +Impression is accomplished through the sense organs; and in the +foregoing chapter we laid down the rule: Guard the avenues of +impression and admit only such things as you wish to retain. This +necessitates that you go slowly at first. This is a principle of all +habit formation, but is especially important in habits of memorizing. +Much of the poor memory that people complain about is due to the fact +that they make first impressions carelessly. One reason why people fail +to remember names is that they do not get a clear impression of the +name at the start. They are introduced in a hurry or the introducer +mumbles; consequently no clear impression is secured. Under such +circumstances how could one expect to retain and recall the name? Go +slowly, then, in impressing material for the first time. As you look up +the words of a foreign language in the lexicon, trying to memorize +their English equivalents, take plenty of time. Obtain a clear +impression of the sound and appearance of the words. + +Inasmuch as impressions may be made through any of the sense organs, +one problem in the improvement of memory concerns the choice of sense +avenues. As an infant you used all senses impartially in your eager +search after information. You voraciously put things into your mouth +and discovered that some things were sweet, some sour. You bumped your +head against things and learned that some were hard and some soft. In +your insatiable curiosity you pulled things apart and peered into them; +in short, utilized all the sense organs. In adult life, however, and in +education as it takes place through the agency of books and +instructors, most learning depends upon the eye and ear. Even yet, +however, you learn many things through the sense of touch and through +muscle movement, though you may be unaware of it. You probably have +better success retaining impressions made upon one sense than another. +The majority of people retain better things that are visually +impressed. Such persons think often in terms of visual images. When +thinking of water running from a faucet, they can see the water fall, +see it splash, but have no trace of the sound. The whole event is +noiseless in memory. When they think of their instructor, they can see +him standing at his desk but cannot imagine the sound of his voice. +When striving to think of the causes leading to the Civil War, they +picture them as they are listed on the page of the text-book or +note-book. Other people have not this ability to recall in visual +terms, but depend to greater extent upon sounds. When asked to think +about their instructor, they do it in terms of his voice. When asked to +conjugate a French verb, they hear it pronounced mentally but do not +see it on the page. These are extremes of imagery type, but they +illustrate preferences as they are found in many persons. Some persons +use all senses with ease; others unconsciously work out combinations, +preferring one sense for some kinds of material and another for other +kinds. For example, one might prefer visual impression for remembering +dates in history but auditory impression for conjugating French verbs. +You will find it profitable to examine yourself and discover your +preferences. If you find that you have greater difficulty in +remembering material impressed through the ear than through the eye, +reduce things to visual terms as much as possible. Make your lecture +notes more complete or tabulate things that you wish to remember, thus +securing impression from the written form. The writer has difficulty in +remembering names that are only heard. So he asks that the name be +spelled, then projects the letters on an imaginary background, thus +forming visual stuff which can easily be recalled. If, on the contrary, +you remember best the things that you hear, you may find it a good plan +to read your lessons aloud. Many a student, upon the discovery of such +a preference, has increased his memory ability many fold by adopting +the simple expedient of reading his lessons aloud. It might be pointed +out that while you are reading aloud, you are making more than auditory +impressions. By the use of the vocal organs you are making muscular +impressions, which also aid in learning, as will be pointed out in +Chapter X. + +After this discussion do not jump to the conclusion that just because +you find some difficulty in using one sense avenue for impression, it +is therefore impossible to develop it. Facility in using particular +senses can be gained by practice. To improve ability to form visual +images of things, practise calling up visions of things. Try to picture +a page of your history textbook. Can you see the headlines of the +sections and the paragraphs? To develop auditory imagery, practise +calling up sounds. Try to image your French instructor's voice in +saying _élève_. The development of these sense fields is a slow and +laborious process and one questions whether it is worth while for a +student to undertake the labor involved when another sense is already +very efficient. Probably it is most economical to Arrange impressions +so as to favor the sense that is already well developed and reliable. + +Another important condition of impression is repetition. It is well +known that material which is repeated several times is remembered more +easily than that impressed but once. If two repetitions induce a given +liability to recall, four or eight will secure still greater liability +of recall. Your knowledge of brain action makes this rule intelligible, +because you know the pathway is deepened every time the nervous current +passes over it. + +Experiments in the psychological laboratory have shown that it is best +in making impressions to make more than enough impressions to insure +recall. "If material is to be retained for any length of time, a simple +mastery of it for immediate recall is not sufficient. It should be +learned far beyond the point of immediate reproduction if time and +energy are to be saved." This principle of learning points out the fact +that there are two kinds of memory--immediate and deferred. The first +kind involves recall immediately after impression is made; the second +involves recall at some later time. It is a well-known fact that things +learned a long time before they are to be recalled fade away. If you +are not going to recall material until a long time after the +impression, store up enough impressions so that you can afford to lose +a few and still retain enough until time for recall. Another reason for +"overlearning" is that when the time comes for recall you are likely to +be disturbed. If it is a time of public performance, you may be +embarrassed; or you may be hurried or under distractions. Accordingly +you should have the material exceedingly well memorized so that these +distractions will not prove detrimental. + +The mere statement made above, that repetition is necessary in +impression, is not sufficient. It is important to know how to +distribute the repetitions. Suppose you are memorizing "Psalm of Life" +to be recited a month from to-day, and that you require thirty +repetitions of the poem to learn it. Shall you make these thirty +repetitions at one sitting? Or shall you distribute them among several +sittings? In general, it is better to spread the repetitions over a +period of time. The question then arises, what is the most effective +distribution? Various combinations are possible. You might rehearse the +poem once a day during the month, or twice a day for the first fifteen +days, or the last fifteen days, four times every fourth day, _ad +infinitum_. In the face of these possibilities is there anything that +will guide us in distributing the repetitions? We shall get some light +on the question from an examination of the curve of forgetting--a curve +that has been plotted showing the rate at which the mind tends to +forget. Forgetting proceeds according to law, the curve descending +rapidly at first and then more slowly. "The larger proportion of the +material learned is forgotten the first day or so. After that a +constantly decreasing amount is forgotten on each succeeding day for +perhaps a week, when the amount remains practically stationary." This +gives us some indication that the early repetitions should be closer +together than those at the end of the period. So long as you are +forgetting rapidly you will need more repetitions in order to +counterbalance the tendency to forget. You might well make five +repetitions; then rest. In about an hour, five more; within the next +twenty-four hours, five more. By this time you should have the poem +memorized, and all within two days. You would still have fifteen +repetitions of the thirty, and these might be used in keeping the poem +fresh in the mind by a repetition every other day. + +As intimated above, one important principle in memorizing is to make +the first impressions as early as possible, for older impressions have +many chances of being retained. This is evidenced by the vividness of +childhood scenes in the minds of our grandparents. An old soldier +recalls with great vividness events that happened during the Civil War, +but forgets events of yesterday. There is involved here a principle of +nervous action that you have already encountered; namely, that +impressions are more easily made and retained in youth. It should also +be observed that pathways made early have more chances of being used +than those made recently. Still another peculiarity of nervous action +is revealed in these extended periods of memorizing. It has been +discovered that if a rest is taken between impressions, the impressions +become more firmly fixed. This points to the presence of a surprising +power, by which we are able to learn, as it were, while we sleep. We +shall understand this better if we try to imagine what is happening in +the nervous system. Processes of nutrition are constantly going on. The +blood brings in particles to repair the nerve cells, rebuilding them +according to the pattern left by the last impression. Indeed, the +entrance of this new material makes the impression even more fixed. The +nutritional processes seem to set the impression much as a hypo bath +fixes or sets an impression on a photographic plate. This peculiarity +of memory led Professor James to suggest, paradoxically, that we learn +to skate in summer and to swim in winter. And, indeed, one usually +finds, in beginning the skating season, that after the initial +stiffness of muscles wears off, one glides along with surprising +agility. You see then that if you plan things rightly, Nature will do +much of your learning for you. It might be suggested that perhaps +things impressed just before going to sleep have a better chance to +"set" than things impressed at other times for the reason that sleep is +the time when the reparative processes of the body are most active. + +Since the brain pattern requires time to "set," it is important that +after the first impression you refrain from introducing anything +immediately into the mind that might disturb it. After you have +impressed the poem you are memorizing, do not immediately follow it by +another poem. Let the brain rest for three or four minutes until after +the first impressions have had a chance to "set." + +Now that we have regarded this "unconscious memorizing" from the +neurological standpoint, let us consider it from the psychological +standpoint. How are the ideas being modified during the intervals +between impressions? Modern psychology has discovered that much +memorizing goes on without our knowing it, paradoxical as that may +seem. The processes may be described in terms of the doctrine of +association, which is that whenever two things have once been +associated together in the mind, there is a tendency thereafter "if the +first of them recurs, for the other to come with it." After the poem of +our illustration has once been repeated, there is a tendency for events +in everyday experience that are like it to associate themselves with +it. For example, in the course of a day or week many things might arise +and recall to you the line, "Life is real, life is earnest", and it +would become, by that fact, more firmly fixed in the mind. This +valuable semi-conscious recall requires that you must make the first +impression as early as possible before the time for ultimate recall. +This persistence of ideas in the mind means "that the process of +learning does not cease with the actual work of learning, but that, if +not disturbed, this process runs on of itself for a time, and adds a +little to the result of our labors. It also means that, if it is to our +advantage to stand in readiness with some word or thought, we shall be +able to do so, if only this word or thought recur to us but once, some +time before the critical moment. So we remember to keep a promise to +pay a call, to make a remark at the proper time, even though we turn +our mind to other work or talk for some hours between. We can do this +because, if not vigorously prevented, ideas and words keep on +reappearing in the mind." You may utilize this principle in +theme-writing to good advantage. As soon as the instructor announces +the subject for a theme, begin to think about it. Gather together all +the ideas you have about the subject and start your mind to work upon +it. Suppose you take as a theme-subject The Value of Training in Public +Speaking for a Business Man. The first time this is suggested to you, a +few thoughts, at least, will come to you. Write them down, even though +they are disconnected and heterogeneous. Then as you go about your +other work you will find a number of occasions that will arouse ideas +bearing upon this subject. You may read in a newspaper of a brilliant +speech made before the Chamber of Commerce by a leading business man, +which will serve as an illustration to support your affirmative +position; or you may attend a banquet where a prominent business man +disappoints his audience with a wretched speech. Such experiences, and +many others, bearing more or less directly upon the subject, will come +to you, and will call up the theme-subject, with which they will unite +themselves. Write down these ideas as they occur, and you will find +that when you start to compose the theme formally, it almost writes +itself, requiring for the most part only expansion and arrangement of +ideas. While thus organizing the theme you will reap even more benefits +from your early start, for, as you are composing it, you will find new +ideas crowding in upon you which you did not know you possessed, but +which had been associating themselves in your mind with this topic even +when you were unaware of the fact. + +In writing themes, the principle of distribution of time may also be +profitably employed. After you have once written a theme, lay it aside +for a while--perhaps a week. Then when you take it up, read it in a +detached manner and you will note many places where it may be improved. +These benefits are to be enjoyed only when a theme is planned a long +time ahead. Hence the rule to start as early as possible. + +Before leaving the subject of theme-writing, which was called up by the +discussion of unconscious memory, another suggestion will be given that +may be of service to you. When correcting a theme, employ more than one +sense avenue. Do not simply glance over it with your eye. Read it +aloud, either to yourself or, better still, to someone else. When you +do this you will be amazed to discover how different it sounds and what +a new view you secure of it. When you thus change your method of +composition, you will find a new group of ideas thronging into your +mind. In the auditory rendition of a theme you will discover faults of +syntax which escaped you in silent reading. You will note duplication +of words, split infinitives, mixed tenses, poorly balanced sentences. +Moreover, if your mind has certain peculiarities, you may find even +more advantages accruing from such a practice. The author, for example, +has a slightly different set of ideas at his disposal according to the +medium of expression employed. When writing with a pencil, one set of +ideas comes to mind; with a typewriter slightly different ideas arise; +when talking to an audience, still different ideas. Three sets of ideas +and three vocabularies are thus available for use on any subject. In +adopting this device of composing through several mediums, you should +combine with it the principle of distributing time already discussed in +connection with repetition of impressions. Write a theme one day, +then lay it aside for a few days and go back to it with a fresh mind. +The rests will be found very beneficial in helping you to get a new +viewpoint of the subject. + +Reverting to our discussion of memory, we come upon another question: +In memorizing material like the poem of our example, should one impress +the entire poem at once, or break it up into parts, impressing a stanza +each day? Most people would respond, without thought, the latter, and, +as a matter of fact, most memorizing takes place in this way. +Experimental psychology, however, has discovered that this is +uneconomical. The selection, if of moderate length, should be impressed +as a whole. If too long for this, it should be broken up as little as +possible. In order to see the necessity for this let us examine your +experiences with the memorization of poems in your early school days. +You probably proceeded as follows: After school one day, you learned +the first stanza, then went out to play. The next day you learned the +second one, and so on. You thought at the end of a week that you had +memorized it because, at the end of each day's sitting, you were able +to recite perfectly the stanza learned that day. On "speaking day" you +started out bravely and recited the first stanza without mishap. When +you started to think of the second one, however, it would not come. The +memory balked. Now what was the matter? How can we explain this +distressing blank? In psychological terms, we ascribe the difficulty to +the failure to make proper associations between stanzas. Association +was made effectively between the lines of the single stanzas, but not +between the separate stanzas. After you finished impressing the first +stanza, you went about something else; playing ball, perhaps. When you +approached the poem the next day you started in with the second stanza. +There was then no bridge between the two. There was nothing to link the +last line of the first stanza, + +"And things are not what they seem," + +with the first line of the next stanza, + +"Life is real, life is earnest." + +This makes clear the necessity of impressing the poem as a whole +instead of by parts. + +According to another classification, there are two ways of +memorizing--by rote and by logical associations. Rote memorizing +involves the repetition of material just as it stands, and usually +requires such long and laborious drill that it is seldom economical. +True, some matter must be memorized this way; such as the days of the +week and the names of the months; but there is another and gentler +method which is usually more effective and economical than that of +brutal repetition. That is the method of logical association, by which +one links up a new fact with something already in the mind. If, for +example, you wish to remember the date of the World's Fair in Chicago, +you might proceed as follows: Ask yourself, What did the Fair +commemorate? The discovery of America in 1492, the four hundredth +anniversary occurring in 1892. The Fair could not be made ready in that +year, however, so was postponed a year. Such a process of memorizing +the date is less laborious than the method of rote memory, and is +usually more likely to lead to ready recall. The old fact already in +mind acts as a magnet which at some later time may call up other facts +that had once been associated with it. You can easily see that this new +fact might have been associated with several old facts, thus securing +more chances of being called up. From this it may be inferred that the +more facts you have in your mind about a subject the more chances you +have of retaining new facts. It is sometimes thought that if a person +stores so much in his memory it will soon be so full that he cannot +memorize any more. This is a false notion, involving a conception of +the brain as a hopper into which impressions are poured until it runs +over. On the contrary, it should be regarded as an interlacing of +fibers with infinite possibilities of inter-connection, and no one ever +exhausts the number of associations that can be made. + +The method of logical association may be employed with telling effect +in the study of foreign languages. When you meet a new word scrutinize +it carefully for some trace of a word already familiar to you either in +that language or in another. This independent discovery of meanings is +a very great aid in saving time and in fixing the meaning of new words. +Opportunities for this method are especially frequent in the German +language, since so many German words are formed by compounding other +words. "Rathausmarkt" is a long and apparently difficult German word, +and one's first temptation is to look it up in the lexicon and promptly +forget it. Let us analyze it, however, and we shall see that it is only +a compound of already familiar words. "_Rat_" is already familiar as +the word for counsel ("_raten"_ to give advice); "_haus_" is equally +familiar. So we see that the first part of the word means +council-house; the council-house of a city is called a city hall. +"_Markt_" is equally familiar as market-square, so the significance of +the entire word stands, city-hall-square. By such a method of utilizing +facts already known, you may make yourself much more independent of the +lexicon and may make your memory for foreign words much more tenacious. + +We approach a phase of impression the importance of which is often +unsuspected; namely, the intention with which memorizing is done. The +fidelity of memory is greatly affected by the intention. If, at the +time of impression, you intend to retain only until the time of recall, +the material tends to slip away after that time. If, however, you +impress with the intention to retain permanently the material stays by +you better. Students make a great mistake when they study for the +purpose merely of retaining until after examination time. Intend to +retain facts permanently, and there will be greater likelihood of their +permanence. + +READINGS AND EXERCISES + +Readings: Adams (1) Chapter III. Seashore (16) Chapter II. Swift (20) +Chapter VII. Watt (21). + +Exercise I. Cite examples from your own experience showing the effects +of the following faults in making impressions. _a_. First impression +not clear. _b_. Insufficient number of repetitions. _c_. Use of rote +method instead of method of logical association. _d_. Impressions not +distributed. _e_. Improper use of "part" method. + +Exercise 2. After experimentation, state what is your most effective +sense avenue for the impression of foreign words, facts in history, the +pronunciation of English words. + +Exercise 3. Make a preliminary draft of your next theme; lay it aside +for a day or two; then write another on the same subject; combine the +two, using the best parts of each; lay this aside for a day or two; +then read it aloud, making such changes as are prompted by the auditory +presentation. Can you find elements of worth in this method, which will +warrant you in adopting it, at least, in part? + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +SECOND AIDS TO MEMORY: RETENTION, RECALL AND RECOGNITION + + +Our discussion up to this point has centred around the phase of memory +called impression. We have described some of the conditions favorable +to impression and have seen that certain and accurate memory depends +upon adherence to them. The next phase of memory--Retention--cannot be +described in psychological terms. We know we retain facts after they +are once impressed, but as to their status in the mind we can say +nothing. If you were asked when the Declaration of Independence was +signed, you would reply instantly. When asked, however, where that fact +was five minutes ago, you could not answer. Somewhere in the recesses +of the mind, perhaps, but as to immediate awareness of it, there was +none. We may try to think of retention in terms of nerve cells and say +that at the time when the material was first impressed there was some +modification made in certain nerve cells which persisted. This trait of +nerve modifiability is one factor which accounts for greater retentive +power in some persons than in others. It must not be concluded, +however, that all good memory is due to the inheritance of this trait. +It is due partly to observance of proper conditions of impression, and +much can be done to overcome or offset innate difficulty of +modification by such observance. + +We are now ready to examine the third phase of memory--Recall. This is +the stage at which material that has been impressed and retained is +recalled to serve the purpose for which it was memorized. Recall is +thus the goal of memory, and all the devices so far discussed have it +for their object. Can we facilitate recall by any other means than by +faithful and intelligent impressions? For answer let us examine the +state of mind at time of recall. + +We find that it is a unique mental state. It differs from impression in +being a period of more active search for facts in the mind accompanied +by expression, instead of a concentration upon the external impression. +It is also usually accompanied by motor expressions, either talking or +writing. Since recall is a unique mental state, you ought to prepare +for it by means of a rehearsal. When you are memorizing anything to be +recalled, make part of your memorizing a rehearsal of it, if possible, +under same conditions as final recall. In memorizing from a book, first +make impression, then close the book and practise recall. When +memorizing a selection to be given in a public speaking class, +intersperse the periods of impression with periods of recall. This is +especially necessary in preparation for public speaking, for facing an +audience gives rise to a vastly different psychic attitude from that of +impression. The sight of an audience may be embarrassing or exciting. +Furthermore, unforeseen distractions may arise. Accordingly, create +those conditions as nearly as possible in your preparation. Imagine +yourself facing the audience. Practise aloud so that you will become +accustomed to the sound of your own voice. The importance of the +practice of recall as a part of the memory process can hardly be +overestimated. One psychologist has advised that in memorizing +significant material more than half the time should be spent in +practising recall. + +There still remains a fourth phase of memory--Recognition. Whenever a +remembered fact is recalled, it is accompanied by a characteristic +feeling which we call the feeling of recognition. It has been described +as a feeling of familiarity, a glow of warmth, a sense of ownership, a +feeling of intimacy. As you walk down the street of a great city you +pass hundreds of faces, all of them strange. Suddenly in the crowd you +catch sight of some one you know and are instantly suffused with a glow +of feeling that is markedly different from your feeling toward the +others. That glow represents the feeling of recognition. It is always +present during recall and may be used in great advantage in studying. +It derives its virtue for our purpose from the fact that it is a +feeling, and at the time of feeling the bodily activities in general +are affected. Changes occur in heart beat, breathing; various glandular +secretions are affected, the digestive organs respond. In this general +quickening of bodily activity we have reason to believe that the +nervous system partakes, and things become impressed more readily. Thus +the feeling of recognition that accompanies recall is responsible for +one of the benefits of reviews. At such a time material once memorized +becomes tinged with a feelingful color different from that which +accompanied it when new. Review, then, not merely to produce additional +impressions, but also to take advantage of the feeling of recognition. + +We have now discussed memory in its four phases and have seen clearly +that it operates not in a blind, chaotic manner, but according to law. +Certain conditions are required and when they are met memory is good. +After providing proper conditions for memory, then, trust your memory. +An attitude of confidence is very necessary. If, when you are +memorizing, you continually tremble for fear that you will not recall +at the desired moment, the fixedness of the impression will be greatly +hindered. Therefore, after utilizing all your knowledge about the +conditions of memorizing, rest content and trust to the laws of Nature. +They will not fail you. + +By this time you have seen that memory is not a mysterious mental +faculty with which some people are generously endowed, and of which +others are deprived. All people of normal intelligence can remember and +can improve their ability if they desire. The improvement does not take +the form that some people expect, however. No magic wand can transform +you into a good memorizes You must work the transformation yourself. +Furthermore, it is not an instantaneous process to be accomplished +overnight. It will come about only after you have built up a set of +habits, according to our conception of study as a process of habit +formation. + +A final word of caution should be added. Some people think of memory as +a separate division or compartment of the mind which can be controlled +and improved by exercising it alone. Such a conception is fallacious. +Improvement in memory will involve improvement in other mental +abilities, and you will find that as you improve your ability to +remember, you will develop at the same time better powers to +concentrate attention, to image, to associate facts and to reason. + +READING AND EXERCISE + +Reading: See readings for Chapter VI. + +Exercise I. Compare the mental conditions of impression with those of +recall. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +CONCENTRATION OF ATTENTION + + +Nearly everyone has difficulty in the concentration of attention. Brain +workers in business and industry, students in high school and college, +and even professors in universities, complain of the same difficulty. +Attention seems in some way to be at the very core of mental activity, +for no matter from what aspect we view the mind, its excellence seems +to depend upon the power to concentrate attention. When we examine a +growing infant, one of the first signs by which we judge the awakening +of intelligence is the power to pay attention or to "notice things." +When we examine the intellectual ability of normal adults we do so by +means of tests that require close concentration of attention. In +judging the intelligence of people with whom we associate every day, we +regard one who is able to maintain close attention for long periods of +time as a person of strong mind. We rate Thomas Edison as a powerful +thinker when we read that he becomes so absorbed in work that he +neither eats nor sleeps. Finally, when we examine the insane and the +feeble-minded, we find that one form which their derangements take is +an inability to control the attention. This evidence, added to our own +experience, shows us the importance of concentration of attention in +study and we become even more desirous of investigating attention to +see how we may develop it. + +We shall be better able to discuss attention if we select for analysis +a concrete situation when the mind is in a state of concentrated +attention. Concentrate for a moment upon the letter O. Although you are +ostensibly focussing all your powers of attention upon the letter, +nevertheless you are really aware of a number of things besides: of +other words on the page; of other objects in the field of vision; of +sounds in the room and on the street; of sensations from your clothing; +and of sensations from your bodily organs, such as the heart and lungs. +In addition to these sensations, you will find, if you introspect +carefully enough, that your mind also contains a number of ideas and +imaginings; thoughts about the paragraph you just read or about one of +your lessons. Thus we see that at a time when we apparently focus our +attention upon but one thing, we really have a large number of things +in our mind, and they are of a great variety. The mental field might be +represented by a circle, at the centre of which is the object of +attention. It may be an object in the external world perceived through +one of the senses, or it may be an idea we are thinking about, such, +for example, as the idea of infinity. But whether the thing attended to +is a perception or an idea, we may properly speak of it as the object +of attention or the "focal" object. In addition to this, we must +recognize the presence of a large number of other objects, both sensory +and ideational. These are nearer the margin of the mental field, so we +call them "marginal." + +The distinctive thing about a state of mind such as that just described +is that the focal object is much clearer than the marginal objects. For +example, when you fixated the letter O, it was only in the vaguest sort +of fashion that you were aware of the contact of your clothing or the +lurking ideas of other lessons. As we examine these marginal objects +further, we find that they are continually seeking to crowd into the +centre of attention and to become clear. You may be helped in forming a +vivid picture of conditions if you think of the mind as a stream ever +in motion, and as it flows on, the objects in it continually shift +their positions. A cross-section of the stream at any moment may show +the contents of the mind arranged in a particular pattern, but at the +very next moment they may be arranged in a different pattern, another +object occupying the focus, while the previous tenant is pushed to the +margin. Thus we see that it is a tendency of the mind to be forever +changing. If left to itself, it would be in ceaseless fluctuation, the +whim of every passing fancy. This tendency to fluctuate comes with more +or less regularity, some psychologists say every second or two. True, +we do not always yield to the fluctuating tendency, nevertheless we are +recurrently tempted, and we must exercise continuous effort to keep a +particular object at the focus. The power to exert effort and to +regulate the arrangement of our states of mind is the peculiar gift of +man, and is a prime function of education. Viewed in this light, then, +we see that the voluntary focusing of our attention consists in the +selecting of certain objects to be attended to, and the ignoring of +other objects which act as distractions. We may conveniently classify +the latter as external sensations, bodily sensations and irrelevant +ideas. + +Let us take an actual situation that may arise in study and see how +this applies. Suppose you are in your room studying about Charlemagne, +a page of your history text occupying the centre of your attention. The +marginal distractions in such a case would consist, first, in external +sensations, such as the glare from your study-lamp, the hissing of the +radiator, the practising of a neighboring vocalist, the rattle of +passing street-cars. The bodily distractions might consist of +sensations of weariness referred to the back, the arms and the eyes, +and fainter sensations from the digestive organs, heart and lungs. The +irrelevant ideas might consist of thoughts about a German lesson which +you are going to study, visions of a face, or thoughts about some +social engagement. These marginal objects are in the mind even when you +conscientiously focus your mind upon the history lesson, and, though +vague, they try to force their way into the focus and become clear. The +task of paying attention, then, consists in maintaining the desired +object at the centre of the mental field and keeping the distractions +away. With this definition of attention, we see that in order to +increase the effectiveness of attention during study, we must devise +means for overcoming the distractions peculiar to study. Obviously the +first thing is to eliminate every distraction possible. Such a plan of +elimination may require a radical rearrangement of study conditions, +for students often fail to realize how wretched their conditions of +study are from a psychological standpoint. They attempt to study in +rooms with two or three others who talk and move about continually; +they drop down in any spot in the library and expose themselves +needlessly to a great number of distractions. If you wish to become a +good student, you must prepare conditions as favorable as possible for +study. Choose a quiet room to live in, free from distracting sounds and +sights. Have your room at a temperature neither too hot nor too cold; +68° F. is usually considered favorable for study. When reading in the +library, sit down in a quiet spot, with your back to the door, so you +will not be tempted to look up as people enter the room. Do not sit +near a group of gossipers or near a creaking door. Having made the +external conditions favorable for study, you should next address +yourself to the task of eliminating bodily distractions. The most +disturbing of these in study are sensations of fatigue, for, contrary +to the opinion of many people, study is very fatiguing work and +involves continual strain upon the muscles in holding the body still, +particularly those of the back, neck, arms, hands and, above all, the +eyes. How many movements are made by your eyes in the course of an +hour's study! They sweep back and forth across the page incessantly, +being moved by six muscles which are bound to become fatigued. Still +more fatigue comes from the contractions of delicate muscles within the +eyeball, where adjustments are made for far and near vision and for +varying amounts of light. The eyes, then, give rise to much fatigue, +and, altogether, are the source of a great many bodily distractions in +study. + +Other distractions may consist of sensations from the clothing. We are +always vaguely aware of pressure of our clothing. Usually it is not +sufficiently noticeable to cause much annoyance, but occasionally it +is, as is demonstrated at night when we take off a shoe with such a +sigh of relief that we realize in retrospect it had been vaguely +troubling us all day. + +In trying to create conditions for efficient study, many bodily +distractions can be eliminated. The study chair should be easy to sit +in so as to reduce fatigue of the muscles supporting the body; the +book-rest should be arranged so as to require little effort to hold the +book; the light should come over the left shoulder. This is especially +necessary in writing, so that the writing hand will not cast a shadow +upon the work. The muscles of the eyes will be rested and fatigue will +be retarded if you close the eyes occasionally. Then in order to lessen +the general fatigue of the body, you may find it advantageous to rise +and walk about occasionally. Lastly, the clothing should be loose and +unconfining; especially should there be plenty of room for circulation. + +In the overcoming of distractions, we have seen that much may be done +by way of eliminating distractions, and we have pointed out the way to +accomplish this to a certain extent. But in spite of our most careful +provisions, there will still be distractions that cannot be eliminated. +You cannot, for example, chloroform the vocalist in the neighboring +apartment, nor stop the street-cars while you study; you cannot rule +out fatigue sensations entirely, and you cannot build a fence around +the focus of your mind so as to keep out unwelcome and irrelevant +ideas. The only thing to do then is to accept as inevitable the +presence of some distractions, and to realise that to pay attention, it +is necessary to habituate yourself to the ignoring of distractions. + +In the accomplishment of this end it will be necessary to apply the +principles of habit formation already described. Start out by making a +strong determination to ignore all distractions. Practise ignoring +them, and do not let a slip occur. Try to develop interest in the +object of attention, because we pay attention to those things in which +we are most interested. A final point that may help you is to use the +first lapse of attention as a reminder of the object you desire to +fixate upon. This may be illustrated by the following example: Suppose, +in studying a history lesson, you come upon a reference to the royal +apparel of Charlemagne. The word "royal" might call up purple, a +Northwestern University pennant, the person who gave it to you, and +before you know it you are off in a long day-dream leading far from the +history lesson. Such migrations as these are very likely to occur in +study, and constitute one of the most treacherous pitfalls of student +life. In trying to avoid them, you must form habits of disregarding +irrelevant ideas when they try to obtrude themselves. And the way to do +this is to school yourself so that the first lapse of attention will +remind you of the lesson in hand. It can be done if you keep yourself +sensitive to wanderings of attention, and let the first slip from the +topic with which you are engaged remind you to pull yourself back. Do +this before you have taken the step that will carry you far away, for +with each step in the series of associations it becomes harder to draw +yourself back into the correct channel. + +In reading, one frequent cause for lapses of attention and for the +intrusion of unwelcome ideas is obscurity in the material being read. +If you trace back your lapses of attention, you will often find that +they first occur when the thought becomes difficult to follow, the +sentence ambiguous, or a single word unusual. As a result, the meaning +grows hazy in your mind and you fail to comprehend it. Naturally, then, +you drift into a channel of thought that is easier to follow. This +happens because the mental stream tends to seek channels of least +resistance. If you introspect carefully, you will undoubtedly discover +that many of your annoying lapses of attention can be traced to such +conditions. The obvious remedy is to make sure that you understand +everything as you read. As soon as you feel the thought growing +difficult to follow, begin to exert more effort; consult the dictionary +for the meanings of words you do not understand. Probably the ordinary +freshman in college ought to look up the meaning of as many as twenty +words daily. + +Again, the thought may be difficult to follow because your previous +knowledge is deficient; perhaps the discussion involves some fact which +you never did comprehend clearly, and you will naturally fail to +understand something built upon it. If deficiency of knowledge is the +cause of your lapses of attention, the obvious remedy is to turn back +and study the fundamental facts; to lay a firm foundation in your +subjects of study. + +This discussion shows that the conditions at time of concentrated +attention are very complex; that the mind is full of a number of +things; that your object as a student is to keep some one thing at the +focus of your mind, and that in doing so you must continuously ignore +other mental contents. In our psychological descriptions we have +implied that the mind stands still at times, permitting us to take a +cross-section and examine it minutely. As a matter of fact, the mind +never stands still. It continually moves along, and at no two moments +is it exactly the same. This results in a condition whereby an idea +which is at one moment at the centre cannot remain there unless it +takes on a slightly different appearance from moment to moment. When +you attempted to fix your attention upon the letter O, you found a +constant tendency to shift the attention, perhaps to a variation in the +intensity of the type or to a flaw in the type or in the paper. In view +of the inevitable nature of these changes, you see that in spite of +your best efforts you cannot expect to maintain any object of study +inflexibly at the centre of attention. The way to do is to manipulate +the object so that it will appear from moment to moment in a slightly +different light. If, for example, you are trying to concentrate upon a +rule of English grammar long enough to memorize it, do not read it over +and over again, depending solely upon repetition. A better way, after +thoroughly comprehending it, is to think about it in several relations; +compare it with other rules, noting points of likeness and difference; +apply it to the construction of a sentence. The essential thing is to +do something with it. Only thus can you keep it in the focus of +attention. This is equivalent to the restatement of another fact +stressed in a previous chapter, namely, that the mind is not a passive +thing that stands still, but an active thing. When you give attention, +you actively select from a number of possible objects one to be clearer +than the rest. This selection requires effort under most conditions of +study, but you may be cheered by the thought that as you develop +interest in the fields of study, and as you develop habits of ignoring +distractions, you will be able to fixate your attention with less and +less effort. A further important fact is that as you develop power to +select objects for the consideration of attention, you develop +simultaneously other mental processes--the ability to memorize, to +economize time and effort and to control future thoughts and actions. +In short, power to concentrate attention means power in all the mental +processes. + +EXERCISES + +Exercise I. "Watch a small dot so far away that it can just be seen. +Can you see it all the time? How many times a minute does it come and +go?" Make what inference you can from this regarding the fluctuation of +attention during study. + +Exercise 2. What concrete steps will you take in order to accommodate +your study to the fluctuations of attention? + +Exercise 3. The next time you have a lapse of attention during study, +retrace your steps of thought, write down the ideas from the last one +in your mind to the one which started the digression. Represent the +digression graphically if you can. + +Exercise 4. Make a list of the things that most persistently distract +your attention during study. What specific steps will you take to +eliminate them; to ignore the unavoidable ones? + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +HOW WE REASON + + +If you were asked to describe the most embarrassing of your class-room +experiences, you would probably cite the occasions when the instructor +asks you a series of questions demanding close reasoning. As he pins +you down to statement of facts and forces you to draw valid +conclusions, you feel in a most perplexed frame of mind. Either you +find yourself unable to give reasons, or you entangle yourself in +contradictions. In short, you flounder about helplessly and feel as +though the bottom of your ship of knowledge has dropped out. And when +the ordeal is over and you have made a miserable botch of a recitation +which you thought you had been perfectly prepared for, you complain +that "if the instructor had followed the book," or "if he had asked +straight questions," you would have answered every one perfectly, +having memorized the lesson "word for word." + +This complaint, so often voiced by students, reveals the fundamental +characteristic which distinguishes the mental operation of reasoning +from the others we have studied. In reasoning we face a new kind of +situation presenting difficulties not encountered in the simpler +processes of sensation, memory, and imagery, and when we attempt to +substitute these simple processes for reasoning, we fail miserably, for +the two kinds of processes are essentially different, and cannot be +substituted one for the other. + +Broadly speaking, the mental activities of study may be divided into +two groups, which, for want of better names, we shall call processes of +acquisition and processes of construction. The mental attitude of the +first is that of acquirement. "Sometimes our main business seems to be +to acquire knowledge; certain matters are placed before us in books or +by our teachers, and we are required to master them, to make them part +of our stock of knowledge. At other times we are called upon to use the +knowledge we already possess in order to attain some end that is set +before us." "In geography, for example, so long as we are merely +learning the bare facts of the subject, the size and contours of the +different continents, the political divisions, the natural features, we +are at the acquisitive stage." "But when we go on to try to find out +the reasons why certain facts that we have learned should be as they +are and not otherwise, we pass to the constructive stage. We are +working constructively when we seek to discover why it is that great +cities are so often found on the banks of rivers, why peninsulas more +frequently turn southward than northward." You readily see that this +constructive method of study involves the setting and solving of +problems as its distinguishing feature, and that in the solution of +these problems we make use of reason. + +A little reflection will show that though there is a distinct +difference between processes of acquisition and of construction, +nevertheless the two must not be regarded as entirely separate from +each other. "In acquiring new facts we must always use a little reason, +while in constructive work, we cannot always rely upon having all the +necessary matter ready to hand. We have frequently to stop our +constructive work for a little in order to acquire some new facts that +we find to be necessary. Thus we acquire a certain number of new facts +while we are reasoning about things, and while we are engaged in +acquiring new matter we must use our reason at least to some small +extent." The two overlap, then. But there is a difference between them +from the standpoint of the student, and the terms denote two +fundamentally different attitudes which students take in study. The two +attitudes may be illustrated by contrasting the two methods often used +in studying geometry. Some students memorize the theorem and the steps +in the demonstration, reciting them verbatim at class-hour. Others do +not memorize, but reason out each step to see its relation to the +preceding step, and when they see it must necessarily follow, they pass +on to the next and do the same. These two types of students apparently +arrive at the same conclusions, but the mental operations leading up to +the Q.E.D. of each are vastly different. The one student does his +studying by the rote memory method, the other by the road of reasoning. +The former road is usually considered the easier, and so we find it +most frequently followed. To memorize a table, a definition, or a +series of dates is relatively easy. One knows exactly where one is, and +can keep track of one's progress and test one's success. Some people +are attracted by such a task and are perfectly happy to follow this +plan of study. The kind of mind that contents itself with such +phonographic records, however, must be acknowledged to be a commonplace +sort of affair. We recognize its limitations in ordinary life, +invariably rating it lower than the mind that can reason to new +conclusions and work independently. Accordingly, if we wish to possess +minds of superior quality, we see that we must develop the reasoning +processes. + +When we examine the mental processes by which we think constructively, +or, in other words, reason, we find first of all that there is +recognition of a problem to be solved. When we start to reason, we do +it because we find ourselves in a situation from which we must +extricate ourselves. The situation may be physical, as when our +automobile stops suddenly on a country road; or it may be mental, as +when we are deciding what college to attend. In both cases, we +recognize that we are facing a problem which must be solved. + +After recognition of the problem, our next step is to start vigorous +efforts to solve it. In doing this, we cast about for means; we summon +all the powers at our disposal. In the case of the automobile, we call +to mind other accidents and the causes of them; we remember that once +the spark-plug played out, so we test this hypothesis. At another time +some dust got into the carburetor, so we test this. So we go on, +calling up possible causes and applying appropriate remedies until the +right one is found and the engine is started. In bringing to bear upon +the problem facts from our past experience, we form a series of +judgments. In the case of the problem as to what college to attend, we +might form these judgments: this college is nearer home; that one has a +celebrated faculty; this one has good laboratories; that one is my +father's alma mater. So we might go on, bringing up all the facts +regarding the problem and fitting each one mentally to see how it +works. Note that this utilization of ideas should not consist merely of +fumbling about in a vague hope of hitting upon some solution. It must +be a systematic search, guided by carefully chosen ideas. For example, +"if the clock on the mantle-piece has stopped, and we have no idea how +to make it go again, but mildly shake it in the hope that something +will happen to set it going, we are merely fumbling. But if, on moving +the clock gently so as to set the pendulum in motion, we hear it +wobbling about irregularly, and at the same time observe that there is +no ticking of any kind, we come to the conclusion that the pendulum has +somehow or other escaped the little catch that connects it with the +mechanism, we have been really thinking. From the fact that the +pendulum wobbles irregularly, we infer that it has lost its proper +catch. From the fact that there is no ticking, we infer the same thing, +for even when there is something wrong with the clock that will prevent +it from going permanently, if the pendulum is set in motion by force +from without it will tick for a few seconds before it comes to rest +again. The important point to observe is that there must be inference. +This is always indicated by the word _therefore_ or its equivalent. If +you reach a conclusion without having to use or at any rate to imply a +_therefore_, you may take it for granted that you have not been really +thinking, but only jumping to conclusions." + +This process of putting facts in the form of judgments and drawing +inferences, may be likened to a court-room scene where arguments are +presented to the judge. As each bit of evidence is submitted, it is +subjected to the test of its applicability to the situation or to +similar situations in the past. It is rigidly examined and nothing is +accepted as a candidate for the solution until it is found by trial (of +course, in imagination) to be pertinent to the situation. + +The third stage of the reasoning process comes when some plan which has +been suggested as a possible solution of the difficulty proves +effective, and we make the decision; the arguments support or overthrow +each other, adding to and eliminating various considerations until +finally only one course appears possible. As we said before, the +solution comes inevitably, as represented by the word _therefore_. +Little active work on our part is necessary, for if we have gone +through these other phases properly the decision will make itself. You +cannot make a wrong decision if you have the facts before you and have +given each the proper weight. When the solution comes, it is recognized +as right, for it comes tinged with a feeling that we call belief. + +Now that we have found the reasoning process to be one of +problem-solving, of which the first step is to acknowledge and +recognize the difficulty, the second, to call up various methods of +solution, and the third, to decide on the basis of one of the solutions +that comes tinged with certainty, we are ready to apply this schema to +study in the hope that we may discover the causes and remedies for the +reasoning difficulties of students. In view of the fact that reasoning +starts out with a problem, you see at once that to make your study +effective you must study in problems. Avoid an habitual attitude of +mere acquisition. Do not memorize facts in the same pattern as they are +handed out to you. In history, in general literature, in science, do +not read facts merely as they come in the text, but seek the relations +between them. Voluntarily set before yourself intellectual problems. +Ask yourself, _why_ is this so? In other words, in your study do not +merely acquire, but also _construct_. The former makes use mostly of +memory and though your memorizing be done ever so conscientiously, if +it comprise the main part of your study, you fail to utilize your mind +to its fullest extent. + +Let us now consider the second stage of the reasoning process as found +in study. At this stage the facts in the mind are brought forward for +the purpose of being fitted into the present situation, and the +essential thing is that you have a large number of facts at your +disposal. If you are going to reason effectively about problems in +history, mathematics, geography, it is absolutely indispensable that +you know many facts about the subjects. One reason why you experience +difficulty in reasoning about certain subjects is that you do not know +enough about them. Particularly is this true in such subjects as +political economy, sociology and psychology. The results of such +ignorance are often demonstrated in political and social movements. Why +do the masses so easily fall victims to doubtful reforms in national +and municipal policies? Because they do not know enough about these +matters to reason intelligently. Watch ignorant people listening to a +demagogue and see what unreasonable things they accept. The speaker +propounds a question and then proceeds to answer it in his own way. He +makes it appear plausible, assuring his hearers it is the only way, and +they agree because they do not have enough other facts at their command +to refute it. They are unable, as we say, to see the situation in +several aspects. The mistakes in reasoning which children make have a +similar basis. The child reaches for the moon, reasoning--"Here is +something bright; I can touch most bright things; therefore, I can +touch this." His reasoning is fallacious because he does not have all +the facts. This condition is paralleled in the class-room when students +make what are shamefacedly looked back upon as miserable blunders. When +one of these fiascos occurs the cause can many times be referred to the +fact that the student did not have enough facts at his command. +Speaking broadly, the most effective reasoning in a field can be done +by one who has had the most extensive experiences in that field. If one +had complete acquaintance with all facts, one would have perfect +conditions for reasoning. Thus we see that effectiveness in reasoning +demands an extensive array of facts. Accordingly, in your courses of +study you must read with avidity. When you are given a list of readings +in a course, some of which are required and some optional, read both +sets, and every new fact thus secured will make you better able to +reason in the field. + +But good reasoning demands more than mere quantity of ideas. The ideas +must conform to certain qualitative standards before they may be +effectively employed in reasoning. They must arise with promptness, in +an orderly manner, pertinent to the matter in hand, and they must be +clear. In securing promptness of association on the part of your ideas, +employ the methods described in the chapter on memory. Make many +logical associations with clearness and repetition. In order to insure +the rise of ideas in an orderly manner, pay attention to the manner in +which you acquire them. + +Remember, things will be recalled as they were impressed, so the value +of your ideas in reasoning will depend upon the manner in which you +make original impressions. A further characteristic of serviceable +ideas is clarity. Ideas are sometimes described as "clear" in +opposition to "muddy." You know what is meant by these distinctions, +and you may be assured that one cause for your failures in reasoning is +that your ideas are not clear. This manifests itself in inability to +make clear statements and to comprehend clearly. The latter condition +is easily illustrated. When you began the study of geometry you faced a +multitude of new terms; we call them technical terms, such as +projection, scalene, theory of limits. These had to be clearly +understood before you could reason in the subject. And when, in the +progress of your study, you experienced difficulty in reasoning out +problems, it was very likely due to the fact that you did not master +the technical terms, and as soon as you encountered the difficulties of +the course, you failed because your foundation laying did not involve +the acquisition of clear ideas. Examine your difficulties in reasoning +subjects and if you find them traceable to vagueness of ideas, take +steps to clarify them. + +Ideas may be clarified in two ways: by definition and by +classification. Definition is a familiar device, for you have had much +to do with it in learning. The memorization of definitions is an +excellent practice, not as an end in itself, but as a means to the end +of effective reasoning. Throughout your study, then, pay much attention +to definitions. Some you will find in your texts, but others you will +have to make for yourself. In order to get practice in this, undertake +the manufacture of a few definitions, using terms such as charity, +benevolence, natural selection. This exercise will reveal what an +exacting mental operation definition is and will prove how vague most of +your thinking really is. + +A large stock of definitions will help you to think rapidly. Standing +as they do for a large group of experiences, definitions are a means of +mental economy. For illustration of their service in reasoning, suppose +you were asked to compare the serf, the peon and the American slave. If +you have a clean-cut definition of each of these terms, you can readily +differentiate between them, but if you cannot define them, you will +hardly be able to reason concerning them. + +The second means of clarifying ideas is classification. By this is +meant the process of grouping similar ideas or similar points of ideas. +For example, your ideas of serf, peon and slave have some points in +common. Group the ideas, then, with reference to these points. Then in +reasoning you can quickly place an idea in its proper group. + +The third stage of the reasoning process is decision, based on belief, +and it comes inevitably, provided the other two processes have been +performed rightly. Accordingly, we need say little about its place in +study. One caution should be pointed out in making decisions. Do not +make them hastily on the basis of only one or two facts. Wait until you +have canvassed all the ideas that bear importantly upon the case. The +masses that listen top eagerly to the demagogue do not err merely from +lack of ideas, but partly because they do not utilize all the facts at +their disposal. This fault is frequently discernible in impulsive +people, who notoriously make snap-judgments, which means that they +decide before canvassing all the evidence. This trait marks the +fundamental difference between superficial and profound thinkers. The +former accept surface facts and decide immediately, while the latter +refuse to decide until after canvassing many facts. + +In the improvement of reasoning ability your task is mainly one of +habit formation. It is necessary, first, to form the habit of stating +things in the form of problems; second, to form habits by which ideas +arise promptly and profusely; third, to form habits of reserving +decisions until the important facts are in. These are all specific +habits that must be built up if the reasoning processes of the mind are +to be effective. Already you have formed some habits, if not habits of +careful looking into things, then habits of hasty, heedless, impatient +glancing over the surface. Apply the principles of habit formation +already enunciated, and remember that with every act of reasoning you +perform, you are moulding yourself into a careless reasoner or an +accurate reasoner, into a clear thinker or a muddy thinker. This +chapter shows that reasoning is one of the highest powers of man. It is +a mark of originality and intelligence, and stamps its possessor not a +copier but an originator, not a follower but a leader, not a slave, to +have his thinking foisted upon him by others, but a free and +independent intellect, unshackled by the bonds of ignorance and +convention. The man who employs reason in acquiring knowledge, finds +delights in study that are denied to a rote memorizer. When one looks +at the world through glasses of reason, inquiring into the eternal +_why_, then facts take on a new meaning, knowledge comes with new +power, the facts of experience glow with vitality, and one's own +relations with them appear in a new light. + +READINGS AND EXERCISES + +Readings: + +Adams (1) Chapter IV. + +Dearborn (2) Chapter V. + +Dewey (3) Chapters III and VI. + +Exercise I. Illustrate the steps of the reasoning process, by +describing the way in which you studied this chapter. + +Exercise 2. Try to define the following words without the assistance of +a dictionary: College, university, grammatical, town-meeting. + +Exercise 3. Prepare a set of maxims designed to help a student change +from the "rote memory" method of study to the "reason-why" (or +"problem") method. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +EXPRESSION AS AN AID IN STUDY + + +In our discussion of the nervous basis underlying study we observed +that nerve pathways are affected not only by what enters over the +sensory pathways, but also by what flows out over the motor pathways. +As the nerve currents travel out from the motor centres in the brain to +the muscles, they leave traces which modify future thoughts and +actions. This being so, it is easy to see that what we give out is +fully as important as what we take in; in other words, our +_expressions_ are just as important as our _impressions_. By +expressions we mean the motor consequences of our thoughts, and in +study they usually take the form of speech and writing of a kind to be +specified later. + +The far-reaching effects of motor expressions are too infrequently +emphasized, but psychology forces us to give them prime consideration. +We are first apprised of their importance when we study the nervous +system, and find that every incoming sensory message pushes on and on +until it finds a motor pathway over which it may travel and produce +movement. This is inevitable. The very structure and arrangement of the +neurones is such that we are obliged to make some movement in response +to objects affecting our sense organs. The extent of movement may vary +from the wide-spread tremors that occur when we are frightened by a +thunderstorm to the merest flicker of an eye-lash. But whatever be its +extent, movement invariably occurs when we are stimulated by some +object. This has been demonstrated in startling ways in the +psychological laboratory, where even so simple a thing as a piece of +figured wall-paper has been shown to produce measurable bodily +disturbances. Ordinarily we do not notice these because they are so +slight, sometimes being merely twitches of deep-seated muscles or +slight enlargements or contractions of arteries which are very +responsive to nerve currents. But no matter how large or how small, we +may be sure that movements always occur on the excitation of a sense +organ. This led us to assert in an earlier chapter that the function of +the nervous system is to convert incoming sensory currents into +outgoing motor currents. + +So ingrained is this tendency toward movement that we do not need even +a sensory cue to start it off; an idea will do as well. In other words, +the nervous current need not start at a sense organ, but may start in +the brain and still produce movement. This fact is embodied in the law +of ideo-motor action (distinguished from sensory-motor action), "every +idea in the mind tends to express itself in movement." This motor +character of ideas is manifested in a most thorough-going way and +renders our muscular system a faithful mirror of our thoughts. We have +in the psychological laboratory delicate apparatus which enables us to +measure many of these slight movements. For example, we fasten a +recording device to the top of a person's head, so that his slightest +movements will be recorded, then we ask him while standing perfectly +still to think of an object at his right side. After several moments +the record shows that he involuntarily leans in the direction of the +object about which he is thinking. We find further illustration of this +law when we examine people as they read, for they involuntarily +accompany the reading with movements of speech, measurable in the +muscles of the throat, the tongue and the lips. These facts, and many +others, constitute good evidence for the statement that ideas seek +expression in movement. + +The ethical consequences of this are so momentous that we must remark +upon them in passing. We now see the force of the biblical statement, +"Not that which entereth into the mouth defileth the man; but that +which proceedeth out of the mouth, this defileth the man." Think what +it means to one's character that every thought harbored in the mind is +bound to come out. It may not manifest itself at once in overt action, +but it affects the motor pathways and either weakens or strengthens +connections so that when the opportunity comes, some act will be +furthered or hindered. In view of the proneness to permit base thoughts +to enter the mind, human beings might sometimes fear even to think. A +more optimistic idea, however, is that noble thoughts lead to noble +acts. Therefore, keep in your mind the kind of thoughts that you wish +to see actualized in your character and the appropriate acts will +follow of their own accord. + +But it is with the significance of expressions in study that we are at +present concerned, and here we find them of supreme importance. We +ordinarily regard learning as a process of taking things into the mind, +and regard expression as a thing apart from acquisition of knowledge. +We shall find in this discussion, however, that there is no such sharp +demarcation between acquiring knowledge and expressing knowledge, but +that the two are intimately bound together, expressions being properly +a part of wise and economical learning. + +When we survey the modes of expression that may be used in study, we +find them to be of several kinds. Speech is one. This is the form of +expression for which the class-recitation is provided. If you wish to +grow as a student, utilize the recitation period and welcome every +chance to recite orally, for things about which you recite in class are +more effectively learned. Talking about a subject under all +circumstances will help you learn. When studying subjects like +political economy, sociology or psychology, seize every opportunity to +talk over the questions involved. Hold frequent conferences with your +instructor; voice your difficulties freely, and the very effort to +state them will help to clarify them. It is a good plan for two +students in the same course to come together and talk over the +problems; the debates thus stimulated and the questions aroused by +mental interaction are very helpful in impressing facts more vividly +upon the mind. + +Writing is a form of expression and is one thing that gives value to +note-taking and examinations. Its value is further recognized by the +requirements of themes and term-papers. These are all mediums by which +you may develop yourself, and they merit your earnest cooperation. + +Another medium of expression that students may profitably employ is +drawing. This is especially valuable in such subjects as geology, +physiology and botany. Students in botany are compelled to do much +drawing of the plant-forms which they study, and this is a wise +requirement, for it makes them observe more carefully, report more +faithfully and recall with greater ease. You may secure the same +advantages by employing the graphic method in other studies. For +example, when reading in a geology text-book about the stratification +of the earth in a certain region, draw the parts described and label +them according to the description. You will be surprised to see how +clear the description becomes and how easily it is later recalled. + +Let us examine the effects of the expressive movements of speech, +writing and the like, and see the mechanism by which they facilitate +the study process. We may describe their effects in two ways: +neurologically and psychologically. As may be expected from our +preliminary study of the nervous system, we see their first effects +upon the motor pathways leading out to the muscles. Each passage of the +nerve current from brain to muscle leaves traces so that the resulting +act is performed with greater ease upon each repetition. This fact has +already been emphasized by the warning, Guard the avenues of +expression. + +Especially is it important at the first performance of an act, +because this determines the path of later performances. In such studies +as piano-playing, vocalizing and pronunciation of foreign words, see +that your first performance is absolutely right, then as the expressive +movements are repeated, they will be more firmly ingrained because of +the deepening of the motor pathways. + +The next effect of acts of expression is to be found in the +modifications made in the sensory areas of the brain. You will recall +that every movement of a muscle produces nervous currents which go back +to the brain and register there in the form of kinaesthetic sensations. +To demonstrate kinaesthetic sensations, close your eyes and move your +index finger up and down. You can feel the muscles contracting and the +tendons moving back and forth, even into the back of the hand. These +sensations ordinarily escape our attention, but they occupy a prominent +place in the control of our actions. For example, when ascending +familiar stairs in the dark, they notify us when we have reached the +top. We are still further impressed with their importance when we are +deprived of them; when we try to walk upon a foot or a leg that has +gone "to sleep"; that is, when the kinaesthetic nerves are temporarily +paralyzed we find it difficult to walk. But besides being used to +control muscular actions, they may be used in study, for they may be +made the source of impressions, and impressions, as we learned in the +chapter on memory, are a prime requisite for learning. Each expression +becomes, then, through its kinaesthetic results, the source of new +impressions, when, for example, you pronounce the German word, +_anwenden_, with the English word "to employ," in addition to the +impressions made through the ear, you make impressions through the +muscles of speech (kinaesthetic impressions), and these kinaesthetic +impressions enter into the body of your knowledge and later may serve +as the means by which the word may be revived. When you write the word, +you make kinaesthetic impressions which may later serve as forms of +revival. So the movements of expression produce sensory material that +may serve as tentacles by means of which you can later reach back into +your memory and recall facts. + +We shall now consider another service of expressions which, though +little regarded, nevertheless is of much moment. When we make +expressive movements, much nervous energy is generated; much more than +during passive impression. Energy is sent back to the brain over the +kinaesthetic nerve cells, and the greater the extent of the movement, +the greater is the amount of new energy sent to the brain. It pours +into the brain and diffuses itself especially throughout the +association areas. Here it excites regions which could not be excited +by a more limited amount of energy. This means, in psychical terms, +that new ideas are being aroused. The obvious inference from this fact +is that you may, by starting movements of expression, actually summon +to your assistance added powers of mind. For example, when you are +called upon to recite in class, your mind seems to be a complete +blank--in a state of "deadlock." You may break this "deadlock" and +start brain-action by some kind of movement. It may be only to clear +your throat, to ejaculate "well," or to squirm about in the seat, but +whatever form the movement takes, it will usually be effective in +creating the desired nervous energy, and after the inertia is once +overcome the mental stream will flow freely. The unconscious +application of this device is seen when a man is called on suddenly to +make a speech for which he has not prepared. He usually starts out by +telling a story, thus liberating nervous energy to pour back into the +brain and start thinking processes. With increasing vehemence of +expression, the ideas come more and more freely, and the result is a +speech which surpasses the expectations of the speaker himself. The +gesticulations of many speakers have this same function, being +frequently of great service in arousing more nervous energy, which goes +back to the brain and arouses more ideas. + +The device of stimulating ideas by expressive movements may be utilized +in theme- or letter-writing. It is generally recognized that the +difficult thing in such writing is to get a start, and the too common +practice is to sit listlessly gazing into space waiting for +"inspiration." This is usually a futile procedure. The better way is to +begin to write anything about the topic in hand. What you write may +have little merit, either of substance or form. Nevertheless, if you +persist in keeping up the activity of writing, making more and more +movements, you will find that the ideas will begin to come in greater +profusion until they come so fast you can hardly write them down. + +Having tried to picture the neural effect of expression, we may now +translate them into psychological terms, asking what service the +expressions render to the conscious side of our study. First of all, we +note that the expressions help to make the acts and ideas in study +habitual. We find ourselves, with each expression, better able to +perform such acts as the pronunciation of foreign words. Second, they +furnish new impressions through the kinaesthetic sense, thus being a +source of sense-impression. Third, they give rise to a greater number +of ideas and link them up with the idea dominant at the moment. There +is a further psychological effect of expression in the clarification of +ideas. It is a well-attested fact that when we attempt to explain a +thing to someone else, it becomes clearer in our own minds. You can +demonstrate this for yourself by attempting to explain to someone an +intricate conception such as the nebular hypothesis. The effort +involved in making the explanation makes the fact more vivid to you. +The habit of thus utilizing your knowledge in conversation is an +excellent one to acquire. Indeed, expression is the only objective test +of knowledge and we cannot say that we really know until we can express +our knowledge. Expression is thus the great clarification agency and +the test of knowledge. Before leaving this discussion, it might be well +to remark upon one phase of expression that is sometimes a source of +difficulty. This is the embarrassment incident to some forms of +expression, notably oral. Many people are deterred from utilizing this +form of expression because of shyness and embarrassment in the presence +of others. If you have this difficulty in such excess that it hinders +you from free expression, resolve at once to overcome it. Begin at the +very outset of your academic career to form habits of disregarding your +impulses to act in frightened manner. Take a course in public speaking. +The practice thus secured will be a great aid in developing habits of +fearless and free oral expression. + +This discussion has shown that expression is a powerful aid in +learning, and is a most important feature of mental life. Cultivate +your powers of expression, for your college education should consist +not only in the development of habits of impression, but also in the +development of habits of expression. Grasp eagerly every opportunity +for the development of skill in clear and forceful expression. Devote +assiduous attention to themes and all written work, and make serious +efforts to speak well. Remember you are forming habits that will +persist throughout your life. Emphasize, therefore, at every step, +methods of expression, for it is this phase of learning in which you +will find greatest growth. + +EXERCISE + +Exercise I. Give an example from your own experience, showing how +expression (a) stimulates ideas, (b) clarifies ideas. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +HOW TO BECOME INTERESTED IN A SUBJECT + + +"I can't get interested in Mediaeval History." This illustrates a kind +of complaint frequently made by college students. It is our purpose in +this chapter to show the fallacy of this; to prove that interest may be +developed in an "uninteresting" subject; and to show how. + +In order to lay a firm foundation for our psychologizing, let us +examine into the nature of interest and see what it really is. It has +been defined as: "the recognition of a thing which has been vitally +connected with experience before--a thing recognized as old"; "impulse +to attend"; "interest naturally arouses tendencies to act"; "the root +idea of the term seems to be that of being engaged, engrossed, or +entirely taken up with some activity because of its recognized worth"; +"interest marks the annihilation of the distance between the person and +the materials and results of his action; it is the sign of their +organic union." + +In addition to the characteristics just mentioned should be noted the +pleasurableness that usually attends any activity in which we are +"interested." A growing feeling of pleasure is the sign which notifies +us that we are growing interested in a subject. And it is such an aid +in the performance of work that we should seek earnestly to acquire it +in connection with any work we have to do. + +The persons who make the complaint at the head of this chapter notice +that they take interest easily in certain things: a Jack London story, +a dish of ice cream, a foot-ball game. And they take interest in them +so spontaneously and effortlessly that they think these interests must +be born within them. + +When we examine carefully the interests of man, and trace their +sources, we see that the above view is fallacious. We acquire most of +our interests in the course of our experience. Professor James asserts: +"An adult man's interests are almost every one of them intensely +artificial; they have been slowly built up. The objects of professional +interest are most of them in their original nature, repulsive; but by +their connection with such natively exciting objects as one's personal +fortune, one's social responsibilities and especially by the force of +inveterate habit, they grow to be the only things for which in middle +life a man profoundly cares." + +Since interests are largely products of experience, then, it follows +that if we wish to have an interest in a given subject, we must +consciously and purposefully develop it. There is wide choice open to +us. We may develop interest in early Victorian literature, prize-fight +promoting, social theory, lignitic rocks, history of Siam, the +collection of scarabs, mediaeval history. + +We should not be deceived by the glibness of the above statements into +assuming that the development of interest is an easy matter. It +requires adherence to certain definite psychological laws which we may +call the laws of interest. The first may be stated as follows: _In +order to develop interest in a subject, secure information about it_. +The force of this law will be apparent as soon as we analyze one of our +already-developed interests. Let us take one that is quite common--the +interest which a typical young girl takes in a movie star. Her interest +in him comes largely from what she has been able to learn about him; +the names of the productions in which he has appeared, his age, the +color of his automobile, his favorite novel. Her interest may be said +actually to consist, at least in part, of these facts. The astute press +agent knows the force of this law, and at well-timed intervals he lets +slip through bits of information about the star, which fan the interest +of the fair devotee to a still whiter heat. + +The relation of information to interest is still further illustrated by +the case of the typical university professor or scientist. He is +interested in certain objects of research--infusoria, electrons, plant +ecology,--because he knows so much about them. His interest may be +said to _consist_ partly of the body of knowledge that he possesses. He +was not always interested in the specific, obscure field, but by +saturating himself in facts about it, he has developed an interest in +it amounting to passionate absorption, which manifests itself in +"absent-mindedness" of such profundity as to make him often an object +of wonder and ridicule. + +Let us demonstrate the application of the law again showing how +interest may be developed in a specific college subject. Let us choose +one that is generally regarded as so "difficult" and "abstract" that +not many people are interested in it--philology, the study of language +as a science. Let us imagine that we are trying to interest a student +of law in this. As a first step we shall select some legal term and +show what philology can tell about it. A term frequently encountered in +law is indenture--a certain form of contract. Philological researches +have uncovered an interesting history regarding this word. It seems +that in olden days when two persons made an agreement they wrote it on +two pieces of paper, then notched the edges so that when placed +together, the notches on the edge of one paper would just match those +of the other. This protected both parties against substitution of a +fraudulent contract at time of fulfillment. + +Still earlier in man's development, before he could write, it was +customary to record such agreements by breaking a stick in two pieces +and leaving the jagged ends to be fitted together at time of +fulfillment. Sometimes a bone was used this way. Because its critical +feature was the saw-toothed edge, this kind of contract was called +indenture (derived from the root _dent_--tooth, the same one from which +we derive our word dentist). + +The formal, legal-looking document which we today call an indenture +gives us no hint of its humble origin, but the word when analyzed by +the technique of philology tells the whole story, and throws much light +upon the legal practices of our forbears. Having discovered one such +valuable fact in philology, the student of law may be led to +investigate the science still further and find many more. As a result +still he will become interested in philology. + +By this illustration we have demonstrated the first psychological law +of interest, and also its corollary which is: _State the new in terms +of the old_. For we not only gave our lawyer new information culled +from philological sources; we also introduced our fact in terms of an +old fact which was already "interesting" to the lawyer. This is +recognized as such an important principle in education that it has +become embodied in a maxim: Proceed from the known to the unknown. + +A classic example of good educational practice in this connection is +the way in which Francis W. Parker, a progressive educator of a former +generation, taught geography. When he desired to show how water running +over hard rocky soil produced a Niagara, he took his class down to the +creek behind the school house, built a dam and allowed the water to +flow over it. When he wished to show how water flowing over soft ground +resulted in a deltoid Nile, he took the class to a low, flat portion of +the creek bed and pointed out the effect. The creek bed constituted an +old familiar element in the children's experience. Niagara and the Nile +described in terms of it were intelligible. + +Naturally in modern educational practice it is not always possible to +have miniature waterfalls and river bottoms at hand, still it is +possible to follow this principle. When, in studying Mediaeval History, +you read a description of the guilds, do not regard them as distant, +cold, inert institutions devoid of significance in your life. Rather, +think of them in terms of things you already know: modern Labor Unions, +technical schools, in so far as the comparison holds good. Then trace +their industrial descendants down to the present time. By thus thinking +about the guilds, hitherto distant and uninteresting, you will begin to +see them suffused with meaning, alight with significance, a real part +of yourself. In short, you will have achieved interest. + +There is still another psychological law of interest: _In order to +develop interest in a subject, exert activity toward it_. We see the +force of this law when we observe a man in the process of developing an +interest in golf. At the start he may have no interest in it whatever; +he may even deride it. Yielding to the importunities of his friends, +however, he takes his stick in hand and samples the game. Then he +begins to relent; admits that perhaps there may be something +interesting about the game after all. As he practises with greater +frequency he begins to develop a warmer and still warmer interest until +finally he thinks of little else; neglecting social and professional +obligations and boring his friends _ad nauseum_ with recitals of +golfing incidents. The methods by which the new-fledged golfer develops +an interest in golf will apply with equal effectiveness in the case of +a student. In trying to become interested in Mediaeval History, keep +actively engaged in it. Read book after book dealing with the subject. +Apply it to your studies in Political Economy, English, and American +History. Choose sub-topics in Mediaeval History as the subjects for +themes in English composition courses. Try to help some other student +in the class. Take part in class discussions and talk informally with +the instructor outside of the classroom. Use your ingenuity to devise +methods of keeping active toward the subject. Presently you will +discover that the subject no longer appears cold and forbidding; but +that it glows warm with virility; that it has become interesting. + +It will readily be noticed that the two laws of interest here set forth +are closely interrelated. One can hardly seek information about a +subject without exerting activity toward it; conversely, one cannot +maintain activity on behalf of a subject without at the same time +acquiring information about it. These two easily-remembered and +easily-applied rules of study will go far toward solving some of the +most trying conditions of student life. Memorize them, apply them, and +you will find yourself in possession of a power which will stay with +you long after you quit college walls; one which you may apply with +profit in many different situations of life. + +We have shown in this chapter the fallacy of the assumption that a +student cannot become genuinely interested in a subject which at first +seems uninteresting. + +We have shown that he may develop interest in any subject if he but +employs the proper psychological methods. That he must obey the +two-fold law--secure information about the subject (stating the new in +terms of the old) and exert activity toward it. That when he has thus +lighted the flame of interest, he will find his entire intellectual +life illuminated, glowing with purpose, resplendent with success. + +In concluding this discussion we should note the wide difference +between the quality of study which is done with interest and that done +without it. Under the latter condition the student is a slave, a +drudge; under the former, a god, a creator. Touched by the galvanic +spark he sees new significance in every page, in every line. As his +vision enlarges, he perceives new relations between his study and his +future aims, indeed, between his study and the progress of the +universe. And he goes to his educational tasks not as a prisoner +weighted down by ball and chain, but as an eager prospector infatuated +by the lust for gold. Encouraged by the continual stores of new things +he uncovers, intoxicated by the ozone of mental activity, he delves +continually deeper until finally he emerges rich with knowledge and +full of power--the intellectual power that signifies mastery over a +subject. + +READINGS AND EXERCISES + +Readings: James (8) Chapters X and XI. Dewey (3) + +Exercise I. Show how your interest in some subject, for example, the +game of foot-ball, has grown in proportion to the number of facts you +have discovered about it and the activity you have exerted toward it. + +Exercise 2. Choose some subject in which you are not at present +interested. Make the statement:--"I am determined to develop an +interest in--. I will take the following specific steps toward this +end." + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE PLATEAU OF DESPOND + + +In our investigation of the psychology of study we have so far directed +our attention chiefly toward the subjective side of the question, +seeking to discover the _contents_ of mind during study. We shall now +take an objective view of study, examining not the contents of mind nor +methods of study, but the objective results of study. In doing this, we +choose certain units of measurement, the number of minutes required for +learning a given amount or the amount learned in a stated period of +time. We may do this for the learning of any material, whether it be +Greek verbs or typewriting. All that is necessary is to decide upon +some method by which progress can be noted and expressed in numerical +units. This, you will observe, constitutes a statistical approach to +the processes of study, such as is employed in science; and just as the +statistical method has been useful in science, so it may be of value in +education, and by means of statistical investigations of learning we +may hope to discover some of the factors operative in good learning. + +Progress in learning is best observable when we represent our +measurements graphically, when they take the form of a curve, variously +called "the curve of efficiency," "practice curve," "learning curve." +We shall take a sample curve for the basis of our discussion, showing +the progress of a beginner in the Russian language for sixty-five days +(indicated in the figure by horizontal divisions). The student studied +industriously for thirty minutes each day and then translated as +rapidly as possible for fifteen minutes, the number of words translated +being represented by the vertical spaces on the chart. Thus, on the +tenth day, twenty-five words were translated, on the twentieth day, +forty-five words. + +[Illustration (graph): STUDY OF RUSSIAN] + +In making an analysis of this typical curve, we note immediately an +exceeding irregularity. At one time there is extraordinary +improvement, but a later measurement registers pronounced loss. This +irregularity is very common in learning. Some days we do a great amount +of work and do it well, but perhaps the very next day shows marked +diminution in our work. + +The second characteristic we note is that there is extremely rapid +progress at the beginning, the curve slanting up quite sharply. This is +common in learning, and may be accounted for in several ways. In the +first place, the easiest things come first. For example, when you are +beginning the study of German, you are given mostly monosyllabic words +to learn. These are easily remembered, hence progress is rapid. A +second reason is that at the beginning there are many different +respects in which progress can be made. For example, the beginner in +German must learn nouns, case endings, declension of adjectives, days +of the week; in short, a vast number of new things all at once. At a +later period however, the number of new things to be learned is much +smaller and improvement cannot be so rapid. A third reason why learning +proceeds more rapidly at first is that the interest is greater at this +time. You have doubtless many times experienced this fact, and you know +that when a thing has the interest of novelty you work harder upon it. + +If you will examine the learning curve closely, you will note that +after the initial spurt, there is a slowing up. The curve at this point +resembles a plateau and indicates cessation of progress if not +retrogression. This period of no progress is regarded as a +characteristic of the learning curve and is a time of great +discouragement to the conscientious student, so distressing that we may +designate it "the plateau of despond." Most people describe it as a +time when they feel unable to learn more about a subject; the mind +seems to be sated; new ideas cannot be assimilated, and old ones seem +to be forgotten. The plateau may extend for a long or a short time, +depending upon the nature of the subject-matter and the length of time +over which the learning extends. In the case of professional training, +it may extend over a year or more. In the case of growing children in +school, it sometimes happens that an entire year elapses during which +the learning of an apparently bright student is retarded. In a course +of study in high school or college, it may come on about the third week +and extend a month or more. Something akin to the plateau may come in +the course of a day, when we realize that our efficiency is greatly +diminished and we seem, for an hour or more, to make no progress. + +Inasmuch as the plateau is such a common occurrence in human activity, +we should analyze it and see what factors operate to influence it. It +is interesting to note that the plateau generally occurs just before an +abrupt rise in efficiency. This is significant, for it may mean that +the plateau is necessary in learning, especially just before reaching +the really advanced stages of proficiency. Accordingly, when you are +experiencing a plateau in the mastery of some accomplishment, you may +perhaps derive some comfort from the prospect of an approaching rise in +efficiency. On the theory that it is a necessary part of learning, it +has been regarded as a resting place. We are so constituted by nature +that we cannot run on indefinitely; nature sometimes must call a halt. +Consequently, the plateau may be a warning that we cannot learn more +for the present and that the proper remedy is to refrain for a little +while from further efforts in that line. We have possible justification +for this interpretation when we reflect that a vacation does us much +good, and though we begin it feeling stale, we end it feeling much +fresher and more efficient. + +But to stop work temporarily is not the only way to meet a plateau, and +fatigue or ennui is probably not the sole or most compelling +explanation. It may be that we should not regard the objective results +as the true measure of learning; perhaps learning is going on even +though the results are not apparent. We discovered something in the +nature of unconscious learning in our discussion of memory, and it may +be that a period of little objective progress marks a period of active +unconscious learning. + +Another meaning which the plateau may have is simply to mark places of +greater difficulty. As already remarked, the early period is a stage of +comparative ease, but as the work becomes more difficult, progress is +slower. It is also quite likely that the plateau may indicate that some +of the factors operative at the start are operative no longer. Thus, +although the learning was rapid at the beginning because the material +learned at that time was easy, the plateau may come because the things +to be learned have become difficult. Or, whereas the beginning was +attacked with considerable interest, the plateau may mean that the +interest is dying down, and that less effort is being exerted. + +If these theories are the true explanation of the plateau, we see that +it is not to be regarded as a time of reduction in learning, to be +contemplated with despair. The appropriate attitude may be one of +resignation, with the determination to make it as slightly disturbing +as possible. But though the reasons just described may have something +to do with the production of the plateau, as yet we have no evidence +that the plateau cannot be dispensed with. It is practically certain +that the plateau is not caused entirely by necessity for rest or +unconscious learning. It frequently is due, we must regretfully admit, +to poor early preparation. If at the beginning of a period of learning +an insecure foundation is laid, it cannot be expected to support the +burden of more difficult subject-matter. + +We have enumerated a number of the explanations that have been advanced +to account for the plateau, and have seen that it may have several +causes, among which are necessity for rest, increased difficulty of +subject-matter, loss of interest and insufficient preparation. In +trying to eliminate the plateau, our remedy should be adapted to the +cause. In recognition of the fact that learning proceeds irregularly, +we see that it is rational to expect the amount of effort to be exerted +throughout a period of learning, to vary. It will vary partly with the +difficulty of subject-matter and partly with fluctuations in bodily and +mental efficiency which are bound to occur from day to day. Since this +irregularity is bound to occur, you may well make your effort vary from +one extreme to the other. At times, perhaps your most profitable move +may be to take a complete vacation. The vacation might cover several +weeks, a week-end, or if the plateau is merely a low period in the +day's work, then ten minutes may suffice for a vacation. As an adjunct +to such rest periods, some form of recreation should usually be +planned, for the essential thing is to permit the mind to rest from the +tiresome activity. + +If your plateau represents greater difficulty of subject-matter and +loss of interest, your duty is plainly to work harder. In exerting more +effort, make some changes in your methods of study. For example, if you +have been accustomed to study a certain subject by silent reading, +begin to read your lessons aloud. Change your method of taking notes, +or change the hour of day in which you prepare your lesson. In short, +try any of the methods described in this book, and use your own +ingenuity, and the change in method may overcome the plateau. + +If a plateau is due to our last-mentioned cause, insufficient +preparation, the remedy must be drastic. To make new resolutions and to +put forth additional effort is not enough; you must go back and relay +the foundation. Make a thorough review of the work which you covered +slightingly, making sure that every step is clear. This process was +described in an earlier chapter as the clarification of ideas and is +absolutely essential in building up a structure of knowledge that will +stand. Indeed, as you take various courses you will find that your +study will be much improved by periodical reviews. The benefits cannot +all be enumerated here, but we may reasonably claim that a review will +be very likely to remove a plateau, and used with the other remedies +herein suggested, will help you to rid yourself of one of the most +discouraging features of student life. + +READING AND EXERCISE + +Reading: Swift (20) Chapter IV. + +Exercise I. Describe one or more plateaus that you have observed in +your own experience. What do you regard as the causes? + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +MENTAL SECOND-WIND + + +Did you ever engage in any exhausting physical work for a long period +of time? If so, you probably remember that as you proceeded, you became +more and more fatigued, finally reaching a point when it seemed that +you could not endure the strain another minute. You had just decided to +give up, when suddenly the fatigue seemed to diminish and new energy +seemed to come from some source. This curious thing, which happens +frequently in athletic activities, is known as second-wind, and is +described, by those who have experienced it, as a time of increased +power, when the work is done with greater ease and effectiveness and +with a freshness and vigor in great contrast to the staleness that +preceded it. It is as though one "tapped a level of new energy," +revealing hidden stores of unexpected power. And it is commonly +reported that with persistence in pushing one's self farther and +farther, a third and fourth wind may be uncovered, each one leading to +greater heights of achievement. + +This phenomenon occurs not alone on the physical plane; it is +discernible in mental exertion as well. True, we seldom experience it +because we are mentally lazy and have the habit of stopping our work at +the first signs of fatigue. Did we persist, however, disregarding +fatigue and ennui, we should find ourselves tapping vast reserves of +mental power and accomplishing mental feats of astonishing brilliancy. + +The occasional occurrence of the phenomenon of second-wind gives ground +for the statement that we possess more energy than we ordinarily use. +There are several lines of evidence for this statement. One is to be +found in the energizing effects of emotional excitement. Under the +impetus of anger, a man shows far greater strength than he ordinarily +uses. Similarly, a mother manifests the strength of a tigress when her +young is endangered. A second line of evidence is furnished by the +effect of stimulants. Alcohol brings to the fore surprising reserves of +physical and psychic energy. Lastly, we have innumerable instances of +accession of strength under the stimulus of an idea. Under the +domination of an all-absorbing idea, one performs feats of +extraordinary strength, utilizing stores of energy otherwise out of +reach. We have only to read of the heroic achievements of little Joan +of Arc for an example of such manifestation of reserve power. + +When we examine this accession of energy we find it to be describable +in several ways--physiologically, neurologically and psychologically. +The physiological effects consist in a heightening of the bodily +functions in general. The muscles become more ready to act, the +circulation is accelerated, the breathing more rapid. Curious things +take place in various glands throughout the body. One, the adrenal +gland, has been the object of special study and has been shown, upon +the arousal of these reserves of energy, to produce a secretion of the +utmost importance in providing for sudden emergencies. This little +gland is located above the kidney, and is aroused to intense activity +at times, pouring out into the blood a fluid that goes all over the +body. Some of its effects are to furnish the blood with chemicals that +act as fuel to the muscles, assisting them to contract more vigorously, +to make the lungs more active in introducing oxygen into the system, to +make the heart more active in distributing the blood throughout the +body. Such glandular activity is an important physiological condition +of these higher levels of energy. In neurological terms, the increase +in energy consists in the flow of more nervous energy into the brain, +particularly into those areas where it is needed for certain kinds of +controlled thought and action. An abundance of nervous energy is very +advantageous, for, as has been intimated in a former chapter, nervous +energy is diffused and spread over all the pathways that are easily +permeable to its distribution. This results in the use of considerable +areas of brain surface, and knits up many associations, so that one +idea calls up many other ideas. This leads us to recognize the +psychological conditions of increased energy, which are, first, the +presence of more ideas, second, the more facile flow of ideas; the +whole accompanied by a state of marked pleasurableness. Pleasure is a +notable effect of increased energy. When work progresses rapidly and +satisfactorily, it is accomplished with great zest and a feeling almost +akin to exaltation. These conditions describe to some degree the +conditions when we are doing efficient work. + +Since we are endowed with the energy requisite for such efficient work, +the obvious question is, why do we not more frequently use it? The +answer is to be found in the fact that we have formed the habit of +giving up before we create conditions of high efficiency. You will note +that the conditions require long-continued exertion and resolute +persistence. This is difficult, and we indulgently succumb to the first +symptoms of fatigue, before we have more than scratched the surface of +our real potentialities. + +Because of the prominent place occupied by fatigue in thus being +responsible for our diminished output, we shall briefly consider its +place in study. Everyone who has studied will agree that fatigue is an +almost invariable attendant of continuous mental exertion. We shall lay +down the proposition at the start, however, that the awareness of +fatigue is not the same as the objective fatigue in the organs of the +body. Fatigue should be regarded as a twofold thing--a state of mind, +designated its subjective aspect, and a condition of various parts of +the body, designated its objective aspect. The former is observable by +introspection, the latter by analysis of bodily secretions and by +measurement of the diminution of work, entirely without reference to +the way the mind regards the work. Fatigue subjectively, or fatigue as +we _feel_ it, is not at all the same as fatigue as manifested in the +body. If we were to make two curves, the one showing the advancement of +the _feeling_ of fatigue, and the other showing the advancement of +impotence on the part of the bodily processes, the two curves would not +at all coincide. Stated another way, fatigue is a complex thing, a +product of ideas, feelings and sensations, and sometimes the ideas +overbalance the sensations and we think we are more tired then we are +objectively. It is this fact that accounts for our too rapid giving up +when we are engaged in hard work. + +A psychological analysis of the subjective side of fatigue will make +its true nature more apparent. Probably the first thing we find in the +mind when fatigued is a large mass of sensations. They are referred to +various parts of the body, mostly the part where muscular activity has +been most violent and prolonged. Not all of the sensations, however, +are intense enough to be localizable, some being so vague that we +merely say we are "tired all over." These vague sensations are often +overlooked; nevertheless, as will be shown later, they may be +exceedingly important. + +But sensations are not the only contents of the mind at time of +fatigue. Feelings are present also, usually of a very unpleasant kind. +They are related partly to the sensations mentioned above, which are +essentially painful, and they are feelings of boredom and ennui. We +have yet to examine the ideas in mind and their behavior at time of +fatigue. They come sluggishly, associations being made slowly and +inaccurately, and we make many mistakes. But constriction of ideas is +not the sole effect of fatigue. At such a time there are usually other +ideas in the mind not relevant to the fatiguing task of the moment, +and exceedingly distracting. Often they are so insistent in forcing +themselves upon our attention that we throw up the work without further +effort. It is practically certain that much of our fatigue is due, not +to real weariness and inability to work, but to the presence of ideas +that appear so attractive in contrast with the work in hand that we say +we are tired of the latter. What we really mean is that we would rather +do something else. These obtruding ideas are often introduced into our +minds by other people who tell us that we have worked long enough and +ought to come and play, and though we may not have felt tired up to +this point, still the suggestion is so strong that we immediately begin +to feel tired. Various social situations can arouse the same +suggestion. For example, as the clock nears quitting time, we feel that +we ought to be tired, so we allow ourselves to think we are. + +Let us now examine the bodily conditions to see what fatigue is +objectively. "Physiologically it has been demonstrated that fatigue is +accompanied by three sorts of changes. First, poisons accumulate in the +blood and affect the action of the nervous system, as has been shown by +direct analysis. Mosso ... selected two dogs as nearly alike as +possible. One he kept tied all day; the other, he exercised until by +night it was thoroughly tired. Then he transfused the blood of the +tired animal into the veins of the rested one and produced in him all +the signs of fatigue that were shown by the other. There can be no +doubt that the waste products of the body accumulate in the blood and +interfere with the action of the nerve cells and muscles. It is +probable that these accumulations come as a result of mental as well as +of physical work. + +"A second change in fatigue has been found in the cell body of the +neurone. Hodge showed that the size of the nucleus of the cell in the +spinal cord of a bee diminished nearly 75 per cent, as a result of the +day's activity, and that the nucleus became much less solid. A third +change that has been demonstrated as a result of muscular work is the +accumulation of waste products in the muscle tissue. Fatigued muscles +contain considerable percentages of these products. That they are +important factors in the fatigue process has been shown by washing them +from a fatigued muscle. As a result the muscle gains new capacity for +work. The experiments are performed on the muscles of a frog that have +been cut from the body and fatigued by electrical stimulation. When +they will no longer respond, their sensitivity may be renewed by +washing them in dilute alcohol or in a weak salt solution that will +dissolve the products of fatigue. It is probable that these products +stimulate the sense-organs in the muscles and thus give some of the +sensations of fatigue. Of these physical effects of fatigue, the +accumulation of waste products in the blood and the effects upon the +nerve cells are probably common both to mental and physical fatigue. +The effect upon the muscles plays a part in mental fatigue only so far +as all mental work involves some muscular activity." + +By this time you must be convinced that the subject of fatigue is +exceedingly complicated; that its effects are manifested differently in +mind and body. In relieving fatigue the first step to be taken is to +rest properly. Man cannot work incessantly; he must rest sometimes, and +it is just as important to know how to rest efficiently as to know how +to work efficiently. By this is not meant that one should rest as soon +as fatigue begins to be felt. Quite the reverse. Keep on working all +the harder if you wish the second-wind to appear. Perhaps two hours +will exhaust your first supply of energy and will leave you greatly +fatigued. Do not give up at this time, however. Push yourself farther +in order to uncover the second layer of energy. Before entering upon +this, however, it will be possible to secure some advantage by resting +for about fifteen minutes. Do not rest longer than this, or you may +lose the momentum already secured and your two hours will have gone for +naught. If one indulges in too long a rest, the energy seems to run +down and more effort is required to work it up again than was +originally expended. It is also important to observe the proper mental +conditions during rest. Do not spend the fifteen minutes in getting +interested in some other object; for that will leave distracting ideas +in the mind which will persist when you resume work. Make the rest a +time of physical and mental relief. Move cramped muscles, rest your +eyes and let your thoughts idly wander; then come back to work in ten +or fifteen minutes and you will be amazed at the refreshed feeling with +which you do your work and at the accession of new energy that will +come to you. Keep on at this new plane and your work will take on all +the attributes of the second-wind level of efficiency. + +Besides planning intelligent rests, you may also adjust yourself to +fatigue by arranging your daily program so as to do your hardest work +when you are fresh, and your easiest when your efficiency is low. In +other words, you are a human dynamo, and should adjust yourself to the +different loads you carry. When carrying a heavy load, employ your best +energies, but when carrying only a light load, exert a proportionate +amount of energy. Every student has tasks of a routine nature which do +not require a high degree of energy, such as copying material. Plan to +perform such work when your stock of energy is lowest. + +One of the best ways to insure the attainment of a higher plane of +mental efficiency is to assume an attitude of interestedness. This is +an emotional state and we have seen that emotion calls forth great +energy. + +A final aid in promoting increase of energy is that gained through +stimulating ideas. Other things being equal, the student who is +animated by a stimulating idea works more diligently and effectively +than one without. The idea may be a lofty professional ideal; it may be +a desire to please one's family, a sense of duty, or a wish to excel. +Whatever it is, an idea may stimulate to extraordinary achievements. +Adopt some compelling aim if you have none. A vocational aim often +serves as a powerful incentive throughout one's student life. An idea +may operate for even more transient purposes; it may make one oblivious +to present discomfort to a remarkable degree. This is accomplished +through the aid of suggestion. When feelings of fatigue approach, you +may ward them off by resolutely suggesting to yourself that you are +feeling fresh. + +Above all, the will is effective in lifting one to higher levels of +efficiency. It is notorious that a single effort of the will, "such as +saying 'no' to some habitual temptation or performing some courageous +act, will launch a man on a higher level of energy for days and weeks, +will give him a new range of power. 'In the act of uncorking the +whiskey bottle which I had brought home to get drunk upon,' said a man +to me, 'I suddenly found myself running out into the garden, where I +smashed it on the ground. I felt so happy and uplifted after this act, +that for two months I wasn't tempted to touch a drop.'" But the results +of exertions of the will are not usually so immediate, and you may +accept it as a fact that in raising yourself to a higher level of +energy you cannot do it by a single effort. Continuous effort is +required until the higher levels of energy have _formed the habit_ of +responding when work is to be done. In laying the burden upon Nature's +mechanism of habit, you see you are again face to face with the +proposition laid down at the beginning of the book--that education +consists in the process of forming habits of mind. The particular habit +most important to cultivate in connection with the production of +second-wind is the habit of resisting fatigue. Form the habit of +persisting in spite of apparent obstacles and limitations. Though they +seem almost unsurmountable, they are really only superficial. Buried +deep within you are stores of energy that you yourself are unaware of. +They will assist you in accomplishing feats far greater than you think +yourself capable of. Draw upon these resources and you will find +yourself gradually living and working upon a higher plane of +efficiency, improving the quality of your work, increasing the quantity +of your work and enhancing your enjoyment in work. + + +READINGS AND EXERCISE + +Readings: James (9) Seashore (14) Chapter III. Swift (20) Chapter V. + +Exercise I. Describe conditions you have observed at time of +second-wind in connection with prolonged (a) physical exertion, (b) +intellectual exertion. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +EXAMINATIONS + + +One of the most vexatious periods of student life is examination time. +This is almost universally a time of great distress, giving rise in +extreme cases to conditions of nervous collapse. The reason for this is +not far to seek, for upon the results of examinations frequently depend +momentous consequences, such as valuable appointments, diplomas, +degrees and other important events in the life of a student. In view of +the importance of examinations, then, it is natural that they be +regarded with considerable fear and trepidation, and it is important +that we devise what rules we can for meeting their exactious demands +with greatest ease and effectiveness. + +Examinations serve several purposes, the foremost of which is to inform +the examiner regarding the amount of knowledge possessed by the +student. In discovering this, two methods may be employed; first, to +test whether or not the student knows certain things, plainly a +reproductive exercise; second, to see how well the student can apply +his knowledge. But this is not the only function of an examination. It +also shows the student how much he knows or does not know. Again the +examination often serves as an incentive to harder work on the part of +the student, for if one knows there will be an examination in a +subject, one usually studies with greater zeal than when an examination +is not expected. Lastly, an examination may help the student to link up +facts in new ways, and to see them in new relationships. In this +aspect, you readily see that examinations constitute a valuable device +in learning. + +But students are not very patient in philosophizing about the purpose +of examinations, declaring that if examinations are a necessary part of +the educational process, they wish some advice that will enable them to +pass examinations easily and with credit to themselves. So we shall +turn our attention to the practical problems of passing examinations. + +Our first duty in giving advice is to call attention to the necessity +for faithful work throughout the course of study. Some students seem to +think that they can slight their work throughout a course, and by +vigorous cramming at the end make up for slighted work and pass the +examination. This is an extremely dangerous attitude to take. It might +work with certain kinds of subject-matter, a certain type of +student-mind and a certain kind of examiner, but as a general practice +it is a most treacherous method of passing a course. The greatest +objection from a psychological standpoint is that we have reason to +believe that learning thus concentrated is not so permanently effective +as that extended over a long period of time. For instance, a German +course extending over a year has much to commend it over a course with +the same number of recitation-hours crowded into two months. We already +discussed the reasons for this in Chapter VI, when we showed the +beneficial results coming from the distribution of impressions over a +period of time. + +Against cramming it may further be urged that the hasty impression of a +mass of new material is not likely to be lasting; particularly is this +true when the cramming is made specifically for a certain examination. +As we saw in the chapter on memory, the intention to remember affects +the firmness of retention, and if the cramming is done merely with +reference to the examination, the facts learned may be forgotten and +never be available for future use. So we may lay it down as a rule that +feverish exertions at the end of a course cannot replace conscientious +work throughout the course. In spite of these objections, however, we +must admit that cramming has some value, if it does not take the form +of new acquisition of facts, but consists more of a manipulation of +facts already learned. As a method of review, it has an eminently +proper place and may well be regarded as indispensable. Some students, +it is true, assert that they derive little benefit from a +pre-examination review, but one is inclined to question their methods. +We have already found that learning is characteristically aided by +reviews, and that recall is facilitated by recency of impression. +Reviewing just before examination serves the memory by providing +repetition and recency, which, as we learned in the chapter on memory, +are conditions for favorable impression. + +A further value of cramming is that by means of such a summarizing +review one is able to see facts in a greater number of relations than +before. It too often happens that when facts are taken up in a course +they come in a more or less detached form, but at the conclusion of the +course a review will show the facts in perspective and will disclose +many new relations between them. + +Another advantage of cramming is that at such a time, one usually works +at a high plane of efficiency; the task of reviewing in a few hours the +work of an entire course is so huge that the attention is closely +concentrated, impressions are made vividly, and the entire mentality is +tuned up so that facts are well impressed, coordinated and retained. +These advantages are not all present in the more leisurely learning of +a course, so we see that cramming may be regarded as a useful device in +learning. + +We must not forget that many of the advantages secured by cramming are +dependent upon the methods pursued. There are good methods and poor +methods of cramming. One of the most reprehensible of the latter is to +get into a flurry and scramble madly through a mass of facts without +regard to their relation to each other. This method is characterized by +breathless haste and an anxious fear lest something be missed or +forgotten. Perhaps its most serious evil is its formlessness and lack +of plan. In other words the facts should not be seized upon singly but +should be regarded in the light of their different relations with each +other. Suppose, for example, you are reviewing for an examination in +mediaeval history. The important events may be studied according to +countries, studying one country at a time, but that is not sufficient; +the events occurring during one period in one country should be +correlated with those occurring in another country at the same time. +Likewise the movements in the field of science and discovery should be +correlated with movements in the fields of literature, religion and +political control. Tabulate the events in chronological order and +compare the different series of events with each other. In this way the +facts will be seen in new relations and will be more firmly impressed +so that you can use them in answering a great variety of questions. + +Having made preparation of the subject-matter of the examination, the +next step is to prepare yourself physically for the trying ordeal, for +it is well known that the mind acts more ably under physically +healthful conditions. Go to the examination-room with your body rested +after a good night's sleep. Eat sparingly before the examination, for +mental processes are likely to be clogged if too heavy food is taken. + +Having reached the examination-room, there are a number of +considerations that are requisite for success. Some of the advice here +given may seem to be superfluous but if you had ever corrected +examination papers you would see the need of it all. Let your first +step consist of a preliminary survey of the examination questions; read +them all over slowly and thoughtfully in order to discover the extent +of the task set before you. A striking thing is accomplished by this +preliminary reading of the questions. It seems as though during the +examination period the knowledge relating to the different questions +assembles itself, and while you are focusing your attention upon the +answer to one question, the answers to the other questions are +formulating themselves in your mind. It is a semi-conscious operation, +akin to the "unconscious learning" discussed in the chapter on memory. +In order to take advantage of it, it is necessary to have the questions +in mind as soon as possible; then it will be found that relevant +associations will form and will come to the surface when you reach the +particular questions. + +During the examination when some of these associations come into +consciousness ahead of time, it is often wise to digress from the +question in hand long enough to jot them down. By all means preserve +them, for if you do not write them down they may leave you and be lost. +Sometimes very brilliant ideas come in flashes, and inasmuch as they +are so fleeting, it is wise to grasp them and fix them while they are +fresh. + +In writing the examination, be sure you read every question carefully. +Each question has a definite point; look for it, and do not start +answering until you are sure you have found it. Discover the +implications of each question; canvass its possible interpretations, +and if it is at all ambiguous seek light from the instructor if he is +willing to make any further comment. + +It is well to have scratch paper handy and make outlines for your +answers to long questions. It is a good plan, also, when dealing with +long questions, to watch the time carefully, for there is danger that +you will spend too much time upon some question to the detriment of +others equally important, though shorter. + +One error which students often commit in taking examinations is to +waste time in dreaming. As they come upon a difficult question they sit +back and wait for the answer to come to them. This is the wrong plan. +The secret of freedom of ideas lies in activity. Therefore, at such +times, keep active, so that the associative processes will operate +freely. Stimulate brain activity by the method suggested in Chapter X, +namely, by means of muscular activity. Instead of idly waiting for +flashes of inspiration, begin to write. You may not be able to write +directly upon the point at issue, but you can write something about it, +and as you begin to explore and to express your meagre fund of +knowledge, one idea will call up another and soon the correct answer +will appear. + +After you have prepared yourself to the extent of your ability, you +should maintain toward the examination an attitude of confidence. +Believe firmly that you will pass the examination. Make strong +suggestions to yourself, affirming positively that you have the +requisite amount of information and the ability to express it +coherently and forcefully. Fortified by the consciousness of faithful +application throughout the work of a course, reinforced by a thorough, +well-planned review, and with a firm conviction in the strength of your +own powers, you may approach your examinations with comparative ease +and with good chances of passing them creditably. + +READINGS AND EXERCISE + +Readings: + +Adams (1) Chapter X. + +Dearborn (2) Chapter II. + +Exercise I. Make a schedule of your examinations for the next +examination week. Show exactly what preparatory steps you will take (a) +before coming to the examination room, (6) after entering it. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +BODILY CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE STUDY + + +It is a truism to say that mental ability is affected by bodily +conditions. A common complaint of students is that they cannot study +because of a headache, or they fail in class because of loss of sleep. +So patent is the interrelation between bodily condition and study that +we cannot consider our discussion of study problems complete without +recognition of the topic. We shall group our discussions about three of +the most important physical activities, eating, sleeping and +exercising. These make up the greater part of our daily activities and +if they are properly regulated our study is likely to be effective. + +FOOD.--It is generally agreed that the main function of food is to +repair the tissues of the body. Other effects are present, such as +pleasure and sociability, but its chief benefit is reparative, so we +may well regard the subject from a strictly utilitarian standpoint and +inquire how we may produce the highest efficiency from our eating. Some +of the important questions about eating are, how much to eat, what kind +of food to eat, when to eat, what are the most favorable conditions for +eating? + +The quantity of food to be taken varies with the demands of the +individual appetite and the individual powers of absorption. In +general, one who is engaged in physical labor needs more, because of +increased appetite and increased waste of tissues. So a farm-hand needs +more food than a college student, whose work is mostly indoors and +sedentary. Much has been said recently about the ills of overeating. +One of the most enthusiastic defenders of a decreased diet is Mr. +Horace Fletcher, who, by the practice of protracted mastication, +"contrives to satisfy the appetite while taking an exceptionally small +amount of food. Salivary digestion is favored and the mechanical +subdivision of the food is carried to an extreme point. Remarkably +complete digestion and absorption follow. By faithfully pursuing this +system Mr. Fletcher has vastly bettered his general health, and is a +rare example of muscular and mental power for a man above sixty years +of age. He is a vigorous pedestrian and mountain-climber and holds +surprising records for endurance tests in the gymnasium. + +"The chief gain observed in his case, as in others which are more or +less parallel, is the acquiring of immunity to fatigue, both muscular +and central. It is not claimed that the sparing diet confers great +strength for momentary efforts--'explosive strength,' as the term +goes--but that moderate muscular contractions may be repeated many +times with far less discomfort than before. The inference appears to be +that the subject who eats more than is best has in his circulation and +his tissues by-products which act like the muscular waste which is +normally responsible for fatigue. According to this conception he is +never really fresh for his task, but is obliged to start with a +handicap. When he reduces his diet the cells and fluids of his body +free themselves of these by-products and he realizes a capacity quite +unguessed in the past. + +"The same assumption explains the fact mentioned by Mr. Fletcher, that +the hours of sleep can be reduced decidedly when the diet is cut down. +It would seem as though a part of our sleep might often be due to +avoidable auto-intoxication. If one can shorten his nightly sleep +without feeling the worse for it this is an important gain." + +But the amount of food is probably not so important as the kind. Foods +containing much starch, as potatoes and rice, may ordinarily be taken +in greater quantities than foods containing much protein, such as meats +and nuts. So our problem is not so much concerned with quantity as with +the choice of kinds of food. Probably the most favorable distribution +of foods for students is a predominance of fruits, coarse cereals, +starch and sugar and less prominence to meats. Do not begin the day's +study on a breakfast of cakes. They are a heavy tax upon the digestive +powers and their nutritive value is low. The mid-day meal is also a +crucial factor in determining the efficiency of afternoon study, and +many students almost completely incapacitate themselves for afternoon +work by a too-heavy noon meal. Frequently an afternoon course is +rendered quite valueless because the student drowses through the +lecture soddened by a heavy lunch. One way of overcoming this +difficulty is by dispensing with the mid-day meal; another way is to +drink a small amount of coffee, which frequently keeps people awake; +but these devices are not to be universally recommended. + +The heavy meal of a student may well come at evening. It should consist +of a varied assortment of foods with some liquids, preferably clear +soup, milk and water. Meat also forms a substantial part of this meal, +though ordinarily it should not be taken more than once a day. Much is +heard nowadays about the dangers of excessive meat-eating and the +objections are well-founded in the case of brain-workers. The +undesirable effects are "an unprofitable spurring of the metabolism-- +more particularly objectionable in warm weather--and the menace of +auto-intoxication." Too much protein, found in meat, lays a burden upon +the liver and kidneys and when the burden is too great, wastes, which +cannot be taken care of, gather and poison the blood, giving rise to +that feeling of being "tired all over" which is so inimical to mental +and physical exertion. When meat is eaten, care should be taken to +choose right kinds. "Some kinds of meat are well known to occasion +indigestion. Pork and veal are particularly feared. While we may not +know the reason why these foods so often disagree with people, it seems +probable that texture is an important consideration. In both these +meats the fibre is fine, and fat is intimately mingled with the lean. A +close blending of fat with nitrogenous matter appears to give a fabric +which is hard to digest. The same principle is illustrated by +fat-soaked fried foods. Under the cover of the fat, thorough-going +bacterial decomposition of the proteins may be accomplished with the +final release of highly poisonous products. Attacks of acute +indigestion resulting from this cause are much like the so-called +ptomaine poisoning." + +Much of the benefit of meat may be secured from other foods. Fat, for +example, may be obtained from milk and butter freed from the +objectionable qualities of the meat-fibre. In this connection it is +important to call attention to the use of fried fat. Avoid fat that is +mixed with starch particles in such foods as fried potatoes and +pie-crust. + +The conditions during meals should always be as pleasant as possible. +This refers both to physical surroundings and mental condition. "The +processes occurring in the alimentary canal are greatly subject to +influences radiating from the brain. It is especially striking that +both the movements of the stomach and the secretion of the gastric +juice may be inhibited as a result of disturbing circumstances. +Intestinal movements may be modified in similar fashion." + +"Cannon has collected various instances of the suspension of digestion +in consequence of disagreeable experiences, and it would be easy for +almost anyone to add to his list. He tells us, for example, of the case +of a woman whose stomach was emptied under the direction of a +specialist in order to ascertain the degree of digestion undergone by a +prescribed breakfast. The dinner of the night before was recovered and +was found almost unaltered. Inquiry led to the fact that the woman had +passed a night of intense agitation as the result of misconduct on the +part of her husband. People who are seasick some hours after a meal +vomit undigested food. Apprehension of being sick has probably +inhibited the gastric activities. + +"Just as a single occasion of painful emotion may lead to a passing +digestive disturbance, so continued mental depression, worry, or grief +may permanently impair the working of the (alimentary) tract and +undermine the vigor and capacity of the sufferer. Homesickness is not +to be regarded lightly as a cause of malnutrition. Companionship is a +powerful promoter of assimilation. The attractive serving of food, a +pleasant room, and good ventilation are of high importance. The lack of +these, so commonly faced by the lonely student or the young man making +a start in a strange city, may be to some extent counteracted by the +cultivation of optimism and the mental discipline which makes it +possible to detach one's self from sordid surroundings." + +Almost as important as eating is drinking, for liquids constitute the +"largest item in the income" of the body. Free drinking is recommended +by physiologists, the beneficial results being, "the avoidance of +constipation, and the promotion of the elimination of dissolved waste +by the kidneys and possibly the liver." In regard to the use of water +with meals, a point upon which emphatic cautions were formerly offered, +recent experiments have failed to show any bad effects from this, and +the advice is now given to drink "all the water that one chooses with +meals." Caution should be observed, however, about introducing hot and +cold liquids into the stomach in quick succession. + +Other liquids have been much discussed by dietitians, especially tea +and coffee. "These beverages owe what limited food value they have to +the cream and sugar usually mixed with them. They give pleasure by +their aroma, but they are given a peculiar position among articles of +diet by the presence in them of the compound caffein, which is +distinctly a drug. It is a stimulant to the heart, the kidneys, and the +central nervous system." + +"Individual susceptibility to the action of caffein varies greatly. +Where one person notices little or no reaction after a cup of coffee, +another is exhilarated to a marked degree and hours later may find +himself lying sleepless with tense or trembling muscles, a dry, burning +skin, and a mind feverishly active. Often it is found that a more +protracted disturbance follows the taking of coffee with cream than is +caused by black coffee. + +"It is too much to claim that the use of tea and coffee is altogether +to be condemned. Many people, nevertheless, are better without them. +For all who find themselves strongly stimulated it is the part of +wisdom to limit the enjoyment of these decoctions to real emergencies +when uncommon demands are made upon the endurance and when for a time +hygienic considerations have to be ignored. If young people will +postpone the formation of the habit they will have one more resource +when the pressure of mature life becomes severe." + +Before concluding this discussion a word might be added concerning the +relation between fasting and mental activity. Prolonged abstinence from +food frequently results in highly sharpened intellectual powers. +Numerous examples of this are found in the literature of history and +biography; many actors, speakers and singers habitually fast before +public performances. There are some disadvantages to fasting, +especially loss of weight and weakness, but when done under the +direction of a physician, fasting has been known to produce very +beneficial effects. It is mentioned here because it has such marked +effects in speeding up the mental processes and clearing the mind; and +the well-nourished student may find the practice a source of mental +strength during times of stress such as examinations. + +SLEEP.--"About one-third of an average human life is passed in the +familiar and yet mysterious state which we call sleep. From one point +of view this seems a large inroad upon the period in which our +consciousness has its exercise; a subtraction of twenty-five years from +the life of one who lives to be seventy-five. Yet we know that the +efficiency and comfort of the individual demand the surrender of all +this precious time. It has often been said that sleep is a more +imperative necessity than food, and the claim seems to be well +founded." It is quite likely that some students indulge in too much +sleep. This may sometimes be due to laziness, but frequently it is due +to actual intoxication, from an excess of food which results in the +presence of poisonous "narcotizing substances absorbed from the +burdened intestine". This theory is rendered tenable by the fact that +when the diet is reduced the hours of sleep may be reduced. If one is +in good health, it seems right to expect that one should be able to +arise gladly and briskly upon awaking. By all means do not indulge +yourself in long periods of lying in bed after a good night's rest. If +we examine the physical and physiological conditions of sleep we shall +better understand its hygiene. Sleep is a state in which the tissues of +the body which have been used up may be restored. Of course some +restoration of broken-down tissue takes place as soon as it begins to +wear out, but so long as the body keeps working, the one process can +never quite compensate for the other, so there must be a periodic +cessation of activity so that the energies of the body may be devoted +to restoration. Viewing sleep as a time when broken-down bodily cells +are restored, we see that we tax the energies of the body less if we go +to sleep each day before the cells are entirely depleted. That is the +significance of the old teaching that sleep before midnight is more +efficacious than sleep after midnight. It is not that there is any +mystic virtue in the hours before twelve, but that in the early part of +the evening the cells are not so nearly exhausted as they are later in +the evening, and it is much easier to repair them in the partially +exhausted stage than it is in the completely exhausted stage. For this +reason, a mid-day nap is often effective, or a short nap after the +evening dinner. By thus catching the cells at an early stage of their +exhaustion, they can be restored with comparative ease, and more energy +will be available for use during the remainder of the working hours. + +A problem that may occasionally trouble a student is sleeplessness and +we may properly consider here some of the ways of avoiding it. One +prime cause of sleeplessness is external disturbance. The disturbance +may be visual. Although it is ordinarily thought that if the eyes are +closed, no visual disturbances can be sensed, nevertheless, as a matter +of fact the eye-lids are not wholly opaque. Sight may be obtained +through them, as you may prove by closing your eyes and moving your +fingers before them. The lids transmit light to the retina and it is +quite likely that you are frequently awakened by a beam of light +falling upon your closed eye-lids. For this reason, one who is inclined +to be wakeful should shut out from the bed-room all avenues whereby +light may enter as a distraction. + +The temperature sense is also a source of distraction in sleep, and it +is a common experience to be awakened by extreme cold. The ears, too, +may be the source of disturbance in sleep; for even though we are +asleep, the tympanic membrane is always exposed to vibrations of air. +In fact, stimuli are continually playing upon the sense-organs and are +arousing nervous currents which try to break over the boundaries of +sleep and impress themselves upon the brain. + +For this reason, one who wishes to have untroubled sleep should remove +all possible distractions. + +But apart from external distractions, wakefulness may still be caused +by distractions from within. Troublesome ideas may be present and +persist in keeping one awake. This means that brain activity has been +started and needs suppression. Various devices have been suggested. One +is to eat something very light, just enough to draw the surplus blood, +which excites the brain, away from the brain to the digestive tract. +This advice should be taken with caution, however, for eating just +before retiring may use up in digestion much of the energy needed in +repairing the body, and may leave one greatly fatigued in the morning. + +One way to relieve the mind of mental distractions is to fill it with +non-worrisome, restful thoughts. Read something light, a restful essay +or a non-exciting story, or poetry. Another device is to bathe the head +in cold water so as to relieve congestion of blood in the brain. A +tepid or warm bath is said to have a similar effect. + +Dreams constitute one source of annoyance to many, and while they are +not necessarily to be avoided, still they may disturb the night's rest. +We may avoid them in some measure by creating conditions free from +sensory distractions, for many of our dreams are direct reflections of +sensations we are experiencing at the moment. A dream with an arctic +setting may be the result of becoming uncovered on a cold night. To use +an illustration from Ellis: "A man dreams that he enlists in the army, +goes to the front, and is shot. He is awakened by the slamming of a +door. It seems probable that the enlistment and the march to the field +are theories to account for the report which really caused the whole +train of thought, though it seemed to be its latest item." Such dreams +may be partially eliminated by care in arranging conditions so that +there will be few distractions. Especially should they be guarded +against in the later hours of the sleep, for we do not sleep so soundly +after the first two hours as we do before, and stimuli can more easily +impress themselves and affect the brain. + +Before leaving the subject of sleep, we should note the benefit to be +derived from regularity in sleep. All Nature seems to move rhythmically +and sleep is no exception. Insomnia may be treated by means of +habituating one's self to get sleepy at a certain time, and there is no +question that the rising process may be made easier if one forms the +habit of arising at the same time every morning. To rhythmize this +important function is a long step towards the efficient life. + +EXERCISE.--Brain workers do not ordinarily get all the exercise they +should. Particularly is this true of some conscientious students who +feel they must not take any time from their study. But this denotes a +false conception of mental action. The human organism needs exercise. +Man is not a disembodied spirit; he must pay attention to the claims of +the body. Indeed it will be found that time spent in exercise will +result in a higher grade of mental work. This is recognized by colleges +and universities by the requirement of gymnasium work, and the +opportunity should be welcomed by the student. Inasmuch as institutions +generally give instruction in this subject, we need not go specifically +into the matter of exercises. Perhaps the only caution that need be +urged is that against the excessive participation in such exhausting +games as foot-ball. It is seriously to be questioned whether the +strenuous grilling that a foot-ball player must undergo does not +actually impair his ability to concentrate upon his studies. + +If you undertake a course of exercise, by all means have it regular. +Little is gained by sporadic exercising. Adopt the principle of +regularity and rhythmize this important phase of bodily activity as +well as all other phases. + +In concluding our discussion of physical hygiene for the student, we +cannot stress too much the value of relaxation. The life of a student +is a trying one. It exercises chiefly the higher brain centres and +keeps the organism keyed up to a high pitch. These centres become +fatigued easily and ought to be rested occasionally. Therefore, the +student should relax at intervals, and engage in something remote from +study. To forget books for an entire week-end is often wisdom; to have +a hobby or an avocation is also wise. A student must not forget that he +is something more than an intellectual being. He is a physical organism +and a social being, and the well-rounded life demands that all phases +receive expression. We grant that it is wrong to exalt the physical and +stunt the mental, but it is also wrong to develop the intellectual and +neglect the physical. We must recognize with Browning that, + + all good things +Are ours, nor soul helps flesh more, now, + than flesh helps soul. + +READINGS AND EXERCISE + +Readings: + +Patrick (14) Chapters I, II and VII. Stiles (18) and (19). + +Swift (20) Chapter X. + +Exercise 1. With the help of a book on dietetics prepare an ideal day's +bill of fare for a student. + +SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING + +Besides the standard texts in general and educational psychology, the +following books bear with especial intimacy upon the topics treated in +this book: + +1. Adams, John, Making the Most of One's Mind, New York: George H. +Doran Co., 1915. + +2. Dearborn, George V., How to Learn Easily, Boston: Little, Brown & +Co., 1918. + +3. Dewey, John, How we Think, Boston: D.C. Heath & Co., 1910. + +4. Dewey, John, Interest and Effort in Education, Boston: Houghton, +Mifflin Co., 1913. + +5. Fulton, Maurice (ed.), College Life, Its Conditions and Problems, +The Macmillan Co., 1915. + +6. Hall-Quest, Alfred L., Supervised Study, New York: The Macmillan +Co., 1916. + +7. Herrick, C. Judson, An Introduction to Neurology, Philadelphia: W.B. +Saunders Co., 1915. + +8. James, William, Talks to Teachers on Psychology, and to Students on +Some of Life's Ideals, New York. 1899. + +9. James, William, The Energies of Men, New York: Moffatt, Yard & Co., +1917. + +10. Kerfoot, John B., How to Read, Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., +1916. + +11. Lockwood, Francis (comp.), The Freshman and His College, Boston: +D.C. Heath & Co., 1913. + +12. Lowe, John Adams, Books and Libraries, Boston: The Boston Book Co., +1917. + +13. McMurry, Frank M., How to Study, Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., +1909. + +14. Patrick, George T. W., The Psychology of Relaxation, Boston: +Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1916. + +15. Sandwick, Richard L., How to Study and What to Study, Boston: D.C. +Heath & Co., 1915. + +16. Seashore, Carl E., Psychology in Daily Life, New York: D. Appleton +& Co., 1918. + +17. Seward, S., Note-taking, Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1910. + +18. Stiles, Percy G., Nutritional Physiology Philadelphia: W. B. +Saunders Co., 1912. + +19. Stiles, Percy G., The Nervous System and Its Conservation, +Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co., 1914. + +20. Swift, Edgar J., Psychology and the Day's Work, New York: C. +Scribner's Sons, 1919. + +21. Watt, Henry J., The Economy and Training of Memory, New York: +Longmans, Green & Co., 1909. + +22. Whipple, Guy M., How to Study Effectively, Bloomington, Ill.: +Public School Publishing Co., 1916. + + + + +INDEX + + +Acquisition, vs. "construction" +Activity, mental +Association, laws of; + in memory; + in reasoning; + in examination +Attention; + fluctuation of; + resistance of distractions; + lapses of + +Bibliographies +Bodily activities, in recognition; + distractions in attention +Brain, description of; + elementary cells; + tissue, properties of; + tracts; + areas + +Charlemagne +Clarification of ideas, through definition and classification; + through expression +Classification of ideas +Class room +College, difficulties; + demands of +Constructive study +Cramming + +Day dreaming +Decision, in reasoning +Definition +Distractions, in attention; + in sleep +Dreams +Drinking + +Ennui +Ethical, consequences, of habit; + of expression +Examinations, importance; + purposes of; + preparation for +Exercise +Expression; + neural basis + +Fasting +Fatigue +Feelings, pleasurable; + unpleasant +Fletcher, Horace +Food + +Geometry + +Golf + +Graphic methods; + in measuring learning + +Habit, defined; + maxims for forming; + advantages of; + disadvantages of; + in reasoning; + of resisting fatigue + +Ideas + in reasoning + how to clarify + in fatigue + stimulus of + +Idea-motor action + law of + +Image + defined + kinds of + +Imagination + made of images + works of + sources + how to develop + visual, auditory, etc. + +Impression + guard avenues of + clearness essential + through various senses + vs. expression + +Indenture + +Intention + in memorizing + +Insomnia + see Sleeplessness + +Inspiration + +Interest + defined + sources + development of + laws of + +Judgment + +Kinaesthetic impressions + +Lecture + method + notes + +Logical associations + in memorizing + in reasoning + +Mediaeval history + +Memory + importance in study + stages of + "unconscious" + "whole" vs. "part" + works according to law + "rote" vs. "logical" + intention + +Mental second wind + see second wind + +Nervous + current + energy + system in expression + +Neurone + +Note-taking + lecture + laboratory + reading + full vs. scanty + form of notebook + a habit + +Obscurity + in meaning + +Outlines + +Overlearning + +Parker, Francis W. + +Philology + +Plateau + remedies for + +Pleasure + in interest + +Practice + of recall + curve of + +Problem solving + +Psalm of life + +Public speaking + overcoming embarrassment + +_Rathausmarkt_ + +Read + how to + +Reason + contrasted with rote learning + as problem solving + stages + purposive thinking + requirements for + and habit + +Recall + +Recognition + +Repetition, + distribution of + +Retention + +Review, from notes + +Romeo and Juliet + +Schedule, daily + +Second wind, physical + mental + sources of + +Sensation, + as impression + bodily + external + in fatigue + +Sleep + +Sleeplessness + +Stream of thought + +Suggestion + +Synapse + +Theme writing + +"Unconscious" learning + see memory + +Will + +Writing + a form of expression + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Use Your Mind, +by Harry D. 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For +example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at: + + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/2/3/10234 + +or filename 24689 would be found at: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/6/8/24689 + +An alternative method of locating eBooks: + https://www.gutenberg.org/GUTINDEX.ALL + + diff --git a/old/10674-8.zip b/old/10674-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..a0421f6 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10674-8.zip diff --git a/old/10674.txt b/old/10674.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..04f5c84 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/10674.txt @@ -0,0 +1,4752 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Use Your Mind, by Harry D. Kitson + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: How to Use Your Mind + A Psychology of Study: Being a Manual for the Use of Students + and Teachers in the Administration of Supervised Study + +Author: Harry D. Kitson + +Release Date: January 11, 2004 [EBook #10674] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOW TO USE YOUR MIND *** + + + + +Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Daniel Ray and PG Distributed Proofreaders + + + + +HOW TO USE YOUR MIND + +A PSYCHOLOGY OF STUDY + +BEING A MANUAL FOR THE USE OF STUDENTS AND TEACHERS IN THE +ADMINISTRATION OF SUPERVISED STUDY + +BY + +HARRY D. KITSON, PH.D. + +PROFESSOR OF PSYCHOLOGY, INDIANA UNIVERSITY + +1921 + + + + +PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION + + +The kindly reception accorded to the first edition of this book has +confirmed the author in his conviction that such a book was needed, and +has tempted him to bestow additional labor upon it. The chief changes +consist in the addition of two new chapters, "Active Imagination," and +"How to Develop Interest in a Subject"; the division into two parts of +the unwieldy chapter on memory; the addition of readings and exercises +at the end of each chapter; the preparation of an analytical table of +contents; the correction of the bibliography to date; the addition of +an index; and some recasting of phraseology in the interest of +clearness and emphasis. + +The author gratefully acknowledges the constructive suggestions of +reviewers and others who have used the book, and hopes that he has +profited by them in this revision. + +H.D.K. + +April 1, 1921. + + + + +PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION + + +Educational leaders are seeing with increasing clearness the necessity +of teaching students not only the subject-matter of study but also +methods of study. Teachers are beginning to see that students waste a +vast amount of time and form many harmful habits because they do not +know how to use their minds. The recognition of this condition is +taking the form of the movement toward "supervised study," which +attempts to acquaint the student with principles of economy and +directness in using his mind. It is generally agreed that there are +certain "tricks" which make for mental efficiency, consisting of +methods of apperceiving facts, methods of review, devices for arranging +work. Some are the fruits of psychological experimentation; others are +derived from experience. Many of them can be imparted by instruction, +and it is for the purpose of systematizing these and making them +available for students that this book is prepared. + +The evils of unintelligent and unsupervised study are evident to all +who have any connection with modern education. They pervade the entire +educational structure from kindergarten through college. In college +they are especially apparent in the case of freshmen, who, in addition +to the numerous difficulties incident to entrance into the college +world, suffer peculiarly because they do not know how to attack the +difficult subjects of the curriculum. In recognition of these +conditions, special attention is given at The University of Chicago +toward supervision of study. All freshmen in the School of Commerce and +Administration of the University are given a course in Methods of +Study, in which practical discussions and demonstrations are given +regarding the ways of studying the freshman subjects. In addition to +the group-work, cases presenting special features are given individual +attention, for it must be admitted that while certain difficulties are +common to all students, there are individual cases that present +peculiar phases and these can be served only by personal consultations. +These personal consultations are expensive both in time and patience, +for it frequently happens that the mental habits of a student must be +thoroughly reconstructed, and this requires much time and attention, +but the results well repay the effort. A valuable accessory to such +individual supervision over students has been found in the use of +psychological tests which have been described by the author in a +monograph entitled, "The Scientific Study of the College Student."[1] + +[Footnote 1: Princeton University Press.] + +But the college is not the most strategic point at which to administer +guidance in methods of study. Such training is even more acceptably +given in the high school and grades. Here habits of mental application +are largely set, and it is of the utmost importance that they be set +right, for the sake of the welfare of the individuals and of the +institutions of higher education that receive them later. Another +reason for incorporating training in methods of study into secondary +and elementary schools is that more individuals will be helped, +inasmuch as the eliminative process has not yet reached its +culmination. + +In high schools where systematic supervision of study is a feature, +classes are usually conducted in Methods of Study, and it is hoped that +this book will meet the demand for a text-book for such classes, the +material being well within the reach of high school students. In high +schools where instruction in Methods of Study is given as part of a +course in elementary psychology, the book should also prove useful, +inasmuch as it gives a summary of psychological principles relating to +the cognitive processes. + +In the grades the book cannot be put into the hands of the pupils, but +it should be mastered by the teacher and applied in her supervising and +teaching activities. Embodying, as it does, the results of researches +in educational psychology, it should prove especially suitable for use +in teachers' reading circles where a concise presentation of the facts +regarding the psychology of the learning process is desired. + +There is another group of students who need training in methods of +study. Brain workers in business and industry feel deeply the need of +greater mental efficiency and seek eagerly for means to attain it. +Their earnestness in this search is evidenced by the success of various +systems for the training of memory, will, and other mental traits. +Further evidence is found in the efforts of many corporations to +maintain schools and classes for the intellectual improvement of their +employees. To all such the author offers the work with the hope that it +may be useful in directing them toward greater mental efficiency. + +In courses in Methods of Study in which the book is used as a +class-text, the instructor should lay emphasis not upon memorization of +the facts in the book, but upon the application of them in study. He +should expect to see parallel with progress through the book, +improvement in the mental ability of the students. Specific problems +may well be arranged on the basis of the subjects of the curriculum, +and students should be urged to utilize the suggestions immediately. +The subjects treated in the book are those which the author has found +in his experience with college students to constitute the most frequent +sources of difficulty, and under these conditions, the sequence of +topics followed in the book has seemed most favorable for presentation. +With other groups of students, however, another sequence of topics may +be found desirable; if so, the order of topics may be changed. For +example, in case the chapter on brain action is found to presuppose +more physiological knowledge than that possessed by the students, it +may be omitted or may be used merely for reference when enlightenment +is desired upon some of the physiological descriptions in later +chapters. Likewise, the chapter dealing with intellectual difficulties +of college students may be omitted with non-collegiate groups. + +The heavy obligation of the author to a number of writers will be +apparent to one familiar with the literature of theoretical and +educational psychology. No attempt is made to render specific +acknowledgments, but special mention should be made of the large +draughts made upon the two books by Professor Stiles which treat so +helpfully of the bodily relations of the student. These books contain +so much good sense and scientific information that they should receive +a prominent place among the books recommended to students. Thanks are +due to Professor Edgar James Swift and Charles Scribner's Sons for +permission to use a figure from "Mind in the Making"; and to J.B. +Lippincott Company for adaptation of cuts from Villiger's "Brain and +Spinal Cord." + +The author gratefully acknowledges helpful suggestions from Professors +James R. Angell, Charles H. Judd and C. Judson Herrick, who have read +the greater part of the manuscript and have commented upon it to its +betterment. The obligation refers, however, not only to the immediate +preparation of this work but also to the encouragement which, for +several years, the author has received from these scientists, first as +student, later as colleague. + +THE AUTHOR. + +CHICAGO, September 25, 1916. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +CHAPTER + +I. INTELLECTUAL PROBLEMS OF THE COLLEGE FRESHMAN + +Number. Variety. Lecture Method. Note Taking. Amount of Library Work. +High Quality Demanded. Necessity for Making Schedule. A College Course +Consists in the Formation of Habits. Requires Active Effort on Part of +Student. Importance of Good Form. + +II. NOTE TAKING + +Uses of Notes. LECTURE NOTES--Avoid Verbatim Reports. Maintain Attitude +of Mental Activity. Seek Outline Chiefly. Use Notes in Preparing Next +Lesson. READING NOTES--Summarize Rather Than Copy. Read With Questions +in Mind. How to Read. How to Make Bibliographies. LABORATORY +NOTES--Content. Form. Miscellaneous Hints. + +III. BRAIN ACTION DURING STUDY + +The Organ of Mind. Gross Structure. Microscopic Structure. The Neurone. +The Nervous Impulse. The Synapse. Properties of Nervous Tissue +--Impressibility, Conductivity, Modifiability. Pathways Used in +Study--Sensory, Motor, Association. Study is a Process of Making +Pathways in Brain. + +IV. FORMATION OF STUDY-HABITS + +Definition of Habit. Examples. Inevitableness of Habits in Brain and +Nervous System. How to Insure Useful Habits--Choose What Shall Enter; +Choose Mode of Entrance; Choose Mode of Egress; Go Slowly at First; +Observe Four Maxims. Advantages and Disadvantages of Habit. Ethical +Consequences. + +V. ACTIVE IMAGINATION + +Nature of the Image. Its Use in Imagination. Necessity for Number, +Variety, Sharpness. Source of "Imaginative" Productions. Method of +Developing Active Imaginative Powers: Cultivate Images in Great +Number, Variety, Sharpness; Actively Combine the Elements of Past +Experience. + +VI. FIRST AIDS TO MEMORY--IMPRESSION + +Four Phases. Conditions of Impression: Care, Clearness, Choice of +Favorable Sense Avenue, Repetition, Overlearning, Primacy, Distribution +of Repetitions, (Inferences Bearing Upon Theme-writing), "Whole" vs. +"Part" Method, "Rote" vs. "logical" Method, Intention. + +VII. SECOND AIDS TO MEMORY--RETENTION, RECALL AND RECOGNITION + +Retention. Recall. Recall Contrasted With Impression. Practise Recall +in Impression. Recognition. Advantages of Review. Memory Works +According to Law. Possibility of Improvement. Connection With Other +Mental Processes. + +VIII. CONCENTRATION OF ATTENTION + +Importance in Mental Life. Analysis of Concrete Attentive State. +Cross-section of Mental Stream. Focal Object, Clear; Marginal Objects, +Dim. Fluctuation. Ease of Concentration Requires (1) Removal of All +Marginal Distractions Possible, (2) Ignoring Others. Conditions +Favorable for Concentration. Relation to Other Mental Processes. + +IX. HOW WE REASON + +Reasoning Contrasted with Simpler Mental Operations. Illustrated by +Method of Studying Geometry. Analysis of Reasoning Act: Recognition of +Problem, Efforts to Solve It, Solution. Study in Problems. Requirements +for Effective Reasoning: Many Ideas, Accessible, Clear. How to Clarify +Ideas: Define, Classify. Relation Between Habit and Reasoning. Summary. + +X. EXPRESSION AS AN AID IN STUDY + +Expression an Inevitable Accompaniment of Nervous Activity. Extent of +Expressive Movements. Relation Between Ideas and Expressive Acts. +Ethical Considerations. Methods of Expression Chiefly Used in Study: +Speech, Writing, Drawing. Effects of Expression: (1) On Brain, (2) On +Ideas. Hints on Development of Freedom of Expression. + +XI. HOW TO BECOME INTERESTED IN A SUBJECT + +Nature of Interest. Intellectual Interests Gained Through Experience. +Many Possible Fields of Interest. Laws of Interest. + +XII. THE PLATEAU OF DESPOND + +Measurement of Mental Progress. Analysis of the "Learning Curve." +Irregularity. Rapid Progress at Beginning. The Plateau. Causes. +Remedies. + +XIII. MENTAL SECOND-WIND + +Description: (1) Physical, (2) Mental. Hidden Sources of Energy. +Retarding Effect of Fatigue. Analysis of Fatigue. How to Reduce +Fatigue in Study. + +XIV. EXAMINATIONS + +Purposes. Continuous Effort and Cramming. Effective Methods of +Reviewing. Immediate Preparation for an Examination Conduct in +Examination-room. Attitude of Activity. Attitude of Confidence. + +XV. BODILY CONDITIONS FOB EFFECTIVE STUDY + +FOOD: Quantity, Quality, Surroundings. SLEEP: Amount, Conditions, +Avoidance of Insomnia. EXERCISE: Regularity, Emphasis. + +SUGGESTIONS FOB FURTHER READING + +INDEX + + + + +HOW TO USE YOUR MIND + + + + +CHAPTER I + +INTELLECTUAL PROBLEMS OF THE COLLEGE FRESHMAN + + +In entering upon a college course you are taking a step that may +completely revolutionize your life. You are facing new situations +vastly different from any you have previously met. They are also of +great variety, such as finding a place to eat and sleep, regulating +your own finances, inaugurating a new social life, forming new +friendships, and developing in body and mind. The problems connected +with mental development will engage your chief attention. You are now +going to use your mind more actively than ever before and should survey +some of the intellectual difficulties before plunging into the fight. + +Perhaps the first difficulty you will encounter is the substitution of +the lecture for the class recitation to which you were accustomed in +high school. This substitution requires that you develop a new technic +of learning, for the mental processes involved in an oral recitation +are different from those used in listening to a lecture. The lecture +system implies that the lecturer has a fund of knowledge about a +certain field and has organized this knowledge in a form that is not +duplicated in the literature of the subject. The manner of +presentation, then, is unique and is the only means of securing the +knowledge in just that form. As soon as the words have left the mouth +of the lecturer they cease to be accessible to you. Such conditions +require a unique mental attitude and unique mental habits. You will be +obliged, in the first place, to maintain sustained attention over long +periods of time. The situation is not like that in reading, in which a +temporary lapse of attention may be remedied by turning back and +rereading. In listening to a lecture, you are obliged to catch the +words "on the fly." Accordingly you must develop new habits of paying +attention. You will also need to develop a new technic for memorizing, +especially for memorizing things heard. As a partial aid in this, and +also for purposes of organizing material received in lectures, you will +need to develop ability to take notes. This is a process with which you +have heretofore had little to do. It is a most important phase of +college life, however, and will repay earnest study. + +Another characteristic of college study is the vast amount of reading +required. Instead of using a single text-book for each course, you may +use several. They may cover great historical periods and represent the +ideas of many men. In view of the amount of reading assigned, you will +also be obliged to learn to read faster. No longer will you have time +to dawdle sleepily through the pages of easy texts; you will have to +cover perhaps fifty or a hundred pages of knotty reading every day. +Accordingly you must learn to handle books expeditiously and to +comprehend quickly. In fact, economy must be your watchword throughout. +A German lesson in high school may cover thirty or forty lines a day, +requiring an hour's preparation. A German assignment in college, +however, may cover four or five or a dozen pages, requiring hard work +for two or three hours. + +You should be warned also that college demands not only a greater +quantity but also a higher quality of work. When you were a high school +student the world expected only a high school student's accomplishments +of you. Now you are a college student, however, and your intellectual +responsibilities have increased. The world regards you now as a person +of considerable scholastic attainment and expects more of you than +before. In academic terms this means that in order to attain a grade of +95 in college you will have to work much harder than you did for that +grade in high school, for here you have not only more difficult +subject-matter, but also keener competition for the first place. In +high school you may have been the brightest student in your class. In +college, however, you encounter the brightest students from many +schools. If your merits are going to stand out prominently, therefore, +you must work much harder. Your work from now on must be of better +quality. + +Not the least of the perplexities of your life as a college student +will arise from the fact that no daily schedule is arranged for you. +The only time definitely assigned for your work is the fifteen hours a +week, more or less, spent in the class-room. The rest of your schedule +must be arranged by yourself. This is a real task and will require care +and thought if your work is to be done with greatest economy of time +and effort. + +This brief survey completes the catalogue of problems of mental +development that will vex you most in adjusting your methods of study +to college conditions. In order to make this adjustment you will be +obliged to form a number of new habits. Indeed, as you become more and +more expert as a student, you will see that the whole process resolves +itself into one of habit-formation, for while a college education has +two phases--the acquisition of facts and the formation of habits--it is +the latter which is the more important. Many of the facts that you +learn will be forgotten; many will be outlawed by time; but the habits +of study you form will be permanent possessions. They will consist of +such things as methods of grasping facts, methods of reasoning about +facts, and of concentrating attention. In acquiring these habits you +must have some material upon which you may concentrate your attention, +and it will be supplied by the subjects of the curriculum. You will be +asked, for instance, to write innumerable themes in courses in English +composition; not for the purpose of enriching the world's literature, +nor for the delectation of your English instructor, but for the sake of +helping you to form habits of forceful expression. You will be asked to +enter the laboratory and perform numerous experiments, not to discover +hitherto unknown facts, but to obtain practice in scientific procedure +and to learn how to seek knowledge by yourself. The curriculum and the +faculty are the means, but you yourself are the agent in the +educational process. No matter how good the curriculum or how renowned +the faculty, you cannot be educated without the most vigorous efforts +on your part. Banish the thought that you are here to have knowledge +"pumped into" you. To acquire an education you must establish and +maintain not a passive attitude but an active attitude. When you go to +the gymnasium to build up a good physique, the physical director does +not tell you to hold yourself limp and passive while he pumps your arms +and legs up and down. Rather he urges you to put forth effort, to exert +yourself until you are tired. Only by so doing can you develop physical +power. This principle holds true of mental development. Learning is not +a process of passive "soaking-in." It is a matter of vigorous effort, +and the harder you work the more powerful you become. In securing a +college education you are your own master. + +In the development of physical prowess you are well aware of the +importance of doing everything in "good form." In such sports as +swimming and hurdling, speed and grace depend primarily upon it. The +same principle holds true in the development of the mind. The most +serviceable mind is that which accomplishes results in the shortest +time and with least waste motion. Take every precaution, therefore, to +rid yourself of all superfluous and impeding methods. + +Strive for the development of good form in study. Especially is this +necessary at the start. Now is the time when you are laying the +foundations for your mental achievements in college. Keep a sharp +lookout, then, at every point, to see that you build into the +foundation only those materials and that workmanship which will support +a masterly structure. + +READINGS AND EXERCISES + +NOTE.--Numbers in parentheses refer to complete citations in +Bibliography at end of book. + +Readings: Fulton (5) Lockwood (11) + +Exercise 1. List concrete problems that have newly come to you since +your arrival upon the campus. + +Exercise 2. List in order the difficulties that confront you in +preparing your daily lessons. + +Exercise 3. Prepare a work schedule similar to that provided by the +form in Chart I. Specify the subject with which you will be occupied at +each period. + +Exercise 4. Try to devise some way of registering the effectiveness +with which you carry out your schedule. Suggestions are contained in +the summary: Disposition of (1) as planned; (2) as spent. To divide the +number of hours wasted by 24 will give a partial "index of efficiency." + + + + +CHAPTER II + +NOTE-TAKING + + +Most educated people find occasion, at some time or other, to take +notes. Although this is especially true of college students, they have +little success, as any college instructor will testify. Students, as a +rule, do not realize that there is any skill involved in taking notes. +Not until examination time arrives and they try vainly to labor through +a maze of scribbling, do they realize that there must be some system in +note-taking. A careful examination of note-taking shows that there are +rules or principles, which, when followed, have much to do with +increasing ability in study. + +One criterion that should guide in the preparation of notes is the use +to which they will be put. If this is kept in mind, many blunders will +be saved. Notes may be used in three ways: as material for directing +each day's study, for cramming, and for permanent, professional use. +Thus a note-book may be a thing of far-reaching value. Notes you take +now as a student may be valuable years hence in professional life. +Recognition of this will help you in the preparation of your notes and +will determine many times how they should be prepared. + +The chief situations in college which require note-taking are lectures, +library reading and laboratory work. Accordingly the subject will be +considered under these three heads. + +LECTURE NOTES.--When taking notes on a lecture, there are two extremes +that present themselves, to take exceedingly full notes or to take +almost no notes. One can err in either direction. True, on first +thought, entire stenographic reports of lectures appear desirable, but +second thought will show that they may be dispensed with, not only +without loss, but with much gain. The most obvious objection is that +too much time would be consumed in transcribing short-hand notes. +Another is that much of the material in a lecture is undesirable for +permanent possession. The instructor repeats much for the sake of +emphasis; he multiplies illustrations, not important in themselves, but +important for the sake of stressing his point. You do not need these +illustrations in written form, however, for once the point is made you +rarely need to depend upon the illustrations for its retention. A still +more cogent objection is that if you occupy your attention with the +task of copying the lecture verbatim, you do not have time to think, +but become merely an automatic recording machine. Experienced +stenographers say that they form the habit of recording so +automatically that they fail utterly to comprehend the meaning of what +is said. You as a student cannot afford to have your attention so +distracted from the meaning of the lecture, therefore reduce your +classroom writing to a minimum. + +Probably the chief reason why students are so eager to secure full +lecture notes is that they fear to trust their memory. Such fears +should be put at rest, for your mind will retain facts if you pay close +attention and make logical associations during the time of impression. +Keep your mind free, then, to work upon the subject-matter of the +lecture. Debate mentally with the speaker. Question his statements, +comparing them with your own experience or with the results of your +study. Ask yourself frequently, "Is that true?" The essential thing is +to maintain an attitude of mental activity, and to avoid anything that +will reduce this and make you passive. Do not think of yourself as a +vat into which the instructor pumps knowledge. Regard yourself rather +as an active force, quick to perceive and to comprehend meaning, +deliberate in acceptance and firm in retention. + +After observing the stress laid, throughout this book, upon the +necessity for logical associations, you will readily see that the +key-note to note-taking is, Let your notes represent the logical +progression of thought in the lecture. Strive above all else to secure +the skeleton--the framework upon which the lecture is hung. A lecture +is a logical structure, and the form in which it is presented is the +outline. This outline, then, is your chief concern. In the case of some +lectures it is an easy matter. The lecturer may place the outline in +your hands beforehand, may present it on the black-board, or may give +it orally. Some lecturers, too, present their material in such +clear-cut divisions that the outline is easily followed. Others, +however, are very difficult to follow in this regard. + +In arranging an outline you will find it wise to adopt some device by +which the parts will stand out prominently, and the progression of +thought will be indicated with proper subordination of titles. Adopt +some system at the beginning of your college course, and use it in all +your notes. The system here given may serve as a model, using first the +Roman numerals, then capitals, then Arabic numerals: + + I. +II. + A. + B. + 1. + 2. + a. + b. + (1) + (2) + (a) + (b) + +In concluding this discussion of lecture notes, you should be urged to +make good use of your notes after they are taken. First, glance over +them as soon as possible after the lecture. Inasmuch as they will then +be fresh in your mind, you will be able to recall almost the entire +lecture; you will also be able to supply missing parts from memory. +Some students make it a rule to reduce all class-notes to typewritten +form soon after the lecture. This is an excellent practice, but is +rather expensive in time. In addition to this after-class review, you +should make a second review of your notes as the first step in the +preparation of the next day's lesson. This will connect up the lessons +with each other and will make the course a unified whole instead of a +series of disconnected parts. Too often a course exists in a student's +mind as a series of separate discussions and he sees only the horizon +of a single day. This condition might be represented by a series of +disconnected links: + + O O O O O + +A summary of each day's lesson, however, preceding the preparation for +the next day, forges new links and welds them all together into an +unbroken chain: + + OOOOOOOOOO + +A method that has been found helpful is to use a double-page system of +notetaking, using the left-hand page for the bare outline, with +largest divisions, and the right-hand page for the details. This device +makes the note-book readily available for hasty review or for more +extended study. + +READING NOTES.--The question of full or scanty notes arises in reading +notes as in lecture notes. In general, your notes should represent a +summary, in your own words, of the author's discussion, not a +duplication of it. Students sometimes acquire the habit of reading +single sentences at a time, then of writing them down, thinking that by +making an exact copy of the book, they are playing safe. This is a +pernicious practice; it spoils continuity of thought and application. +Furthermore, isolated sentences mean little, and fail grossly to +represent the real thought of the author. A better way is to read +through an entire paragraph or section, then close the book and +reproduce in your own words what you have read. Next, take your summary +and compare with the original text to see that you have really grasped +the point. This procedure will be beneficial in several ways. It will +encourage continuous concentration of attention to an entire argument; +it will help you to preserve relative emphasis of parts; it will lead +you to regard thought and not words. (You are undoubtedly familiar with +the state of mind wherein you find yourself reading merely words and +not following the thought.) Lastly, material studied in this way is +remembered longer than material read scrappily. In short, such a method +of reading makes not only for good memory, but for good mental habits +of all kinds. In all your reading, hold to the conception of yourself +as a thinker, not a sponge. Remember, you do not need to accept +unqualifiedly everything you read. A worthy ideal for every student to +follow is expressed in the motto carved on the wall of the great +reading-room of the Harper Memorial Library at The University of +Chicago: "Read not to contradict, nor to believe, but to weigh and +consider." Ibsen bluntly states the same thought: + +"Don't read to swallow; read to choose, for 'Tis but to see what one +has use for." + +Ask yourself, when beginning a printed discussion, What am I looking +for? What is the author going to talk about? Often this will be +indicated in topical headings. Keep it in the background of your mind +while reading, and search for the answer. Then, when you have read the +necessary portion, close the book and summarize, to see if the author +furnished what you sought. In short, always read for a purpose. +Formulate problems and seek their solutions. In this way will there be +direction in your reading and your thought. + +This discussion of reading notes has turned into an essay on "How to +Read," and you must be convinced by this time that there is much to +learn in this respect, so much that we may profitably spend more time +in discussing it. + +Every book you take up should be opened with some preliminary ceremony. +This does not refer to the physical operation of opening a new book, +but to the mental operation. In general, take the following steps: + +1. Observe the title. See exactly what field the book attempts to +cover. + +2. Observe the author's name. If you are to use his book frequently, +discover his position in the field. Remember, you are going to accept +him as authority, and you should know his status. You may be told this +on the title-page, or you may have to consult Who's Who, or the +biographical dictionary. + +3. Glance over the preface. Under some circumstances you should read it +carefully. If you are going to refer to the book very often, make +friends with the author; let him introduce himself to you; this he will +do in the preface. Observe the date of publication, also, in order to +get an idea as to the recency of the material. + +4. Glance over the table of contents. If you are very familiar with the +field, and the table of contents is outlined in detail, you might +advantageously study it and dispense with reading the book. On the +other hand, if you are going to consult the book only briefly, you +might find it necessary to study the table of contents in order to see +the relation of the part you read to the entire work. + +5. Use the index intelligently; it may save you much time. + +You will have much to do throughout your college course with the making +of bibliographies, that is, with the compilation of lists of books +bearing upon special topics. You may have bibliographies given you in +some of your courses, or you may be asked to compile your own. Under +all circumstances, prepare them with the greatest care. Be scrupulous +in giving references. There is a standard form for referring to books +and periodicals, as follows: + +C.R. Henderson, Industrial Insurance (2d ed.; Chicago: The University +of Chicago Press, 1912), p. 321. + +S.I. Curtis, "The Place of Sacrifice," Biblical World, Vol. XXI (1902), +p. 248 _ff_. + +LABORATORY NOTES.--The form for laboratory notes varies with the +science and is usually prescribed by the instructor. Reports of +experiments are usually written up in the order: Object, Apparatus, +Method, Results, Conclusions. When detailed instructions are given by +the instructor, follow them accurately. Pay special attention to +neatness. Instructors say that the greatest fault with laboratory +note-books is lack of neatness. This reacts upon the instructor, +causing him much trouble in correcting the note-book. The resulting +annoyance frequently prejudices him, against his will, against the +student. It is safe to assert that you will materially increase your +chances of a good grade in a laboratory course by the preparation of a +neat note-book. + +The key-note of the twentieth century is economy, the tendency in all +lines being toward the elimination of waste. College students should +adopt this aim in the regulation of their study affairs, and there is +much opportunity for applying it in note-taking. So far, the discussion +has had to do with the _content_ of the note-book, but _its form_ is +equally important. Much may be done by utilization of mechanical +devices to save time and energy. + +First, write in ink. Pencil marks blur badly and become illegible in a +few months. Remember, you may be using the notebook twenty years hence, +therefore make it durable. + +Second, write plainly. This injunction ought to be superfluous, for +common sense tells us that writing which is illegible cannot be read +even by the writer, once it has "grown cold." Third, take care in +forming sentences. Do not make your notes consist simply of separate, +scrappy jottings. True, it is difficult, under stress, to form +complete sentences. The great temptation is to jot down a word here +and there and trust to luck or an indulgent memory to supply the +context at some later time. A little experience, however, will quickly +demonstrate the futility of such hopes; therefore strive to form +sensible phrases, and to make the parts of the outline cohere. Apply +the principles of English composition to the preparation of your +note-book. + +A fourth question concerns size and shape of the note-book. These +features depend partly upon the nature of the course and partly upon +individual taste. It is often convenient and practicable to keep the +notes for all courses in a single note-book. Men find it advantageous +to use a small note-book of a size that can be carried in the coat +pocket and studied at odd moments. + +A fifth question of a mechanical nature is, Which is preferable, bound +or loose-leaf note-books? Generally the latter will be found more +desirable. Leaves are easily inserted and the sections are easily filed +on completion of a course. + +It goes without saying that the manner in which notes, are to be taken +will be determined by many factors, such as the nature of individual +courses, the wishes of instructors, personal tastes and habits. +Nevertheless, there are certain principles and practices which are +adaptable to nearly all conditions, and it is these that we have +discussed. Remember, note-taking is one of the habits you are to form +in college. See that the habit is started rightly. Adopt a good plan at +the start and adhere to it. You may be encouraged, too, with the +thought that facility in note-taking will come with practice. +Note-taking is an art and as you practise you will develop skill. + +We have noted some of the most obvious and immediate benefits derived +from well-prepared notes, consisting of economy of time, ease of +review, ease of permanent retention. There are other benefits, however, +which, though less obvious, are of far greater importance. These are +the permanent effects upon the mind. Habits of correct thinking are the +chief result of correct note-taking. As you develop in this particular +ability, you will find corresponding improvement in your ability to +comprehend and assimilate ideas, to retain and reproduce facts, and to +reason with thoroughness and independence. + +READINGS AND EXERCISES + +Readings: + +Adams (1) Chapter VIII. + +Dearborn (2) Chapter II. + +Kerfoot (10) + +Seward (17) + +Exercise 1. Contrast the taking of notes from reading and from +lectures. + +Exercise 2. Make an outline of this chapter. + +Exercise 3. Make an outline of some lecture. + + + + +CHAPTER III + +BRAIN ACTION DURING STUDY + + +Though most people understand more or less vaguely that the brain acts +in some way during study, exact knowledge of the nature of this action +is not general. As you will be greatly assisted in understanding mental +processes by such knowledge, we shall briefly examine the brain and its +connections. It will be manifestly impossible to inquire into its +nature very minutely, but by means of a description you will be able to +secure some conception of it and thus will be able better to control +the mental processes which it underlies. + +To the naked eye the brain is a large jelly-like mass enclosed in a +bony covering, about one-fourth of an inch thick, called the skull. +Inside the skull it is protected by a thick membrane. At its base +emerges the spinal cord, a long strand of nerve fibers extending down +the spine. For most of its length, the cord is about as large around as +your little finger, but it tapers at the lower end. From it at right +angles throughout its length branch out thirty-one pairs of fibrous +nerves which radiate to all parts of the body. The brain and spinal +cord, with all its ramifications, are known as the nervous system. You +see now that, though we started with the statement that the mind is +intimately connected with the brain, we must now enlarge our statement +and say it is connected with the entire nervous system. It is therefore +to the nervous system that we must turn our attention. + +Although to the naked eye the nervous system is apparently made up of a +number of different kinds of material, still we see, when we turn our +microscopes upon it, that its parts are structurally the same. Reduced +to lowest terms, the nervous system is found to be composed of minute +units of structure called nerve-cells or neurones. Each of these looks +like a string frayed out at both ends, with a bulge somewhere along its +length. The nervous system is made up of millions of these little cells +packed together in various combinations and distributed throughout the +body. Some of the neurones are as long as three feet; others measure +but a fraction of an inch in length. + +We do not know exactly how the mind, that part of us which feels, +reasons and wills, is connected with this mass of cells called the +nervous system. We do know, however, that every time anything occurs in +the mind, there is a change in some part of the nervous system. +Applying this fact to study, it is obvious that when you are performing +any of the operations of study, memorizing foreign vocabularies, making +arithmetical calculations, reasoning out problems in geometry, you are +making changes in your nervous system. The question before us, then, +is, What is the nature of these changes? + +According to present knowledge, the action of the nervous system is +best conceived as a form of chemical change that spreads among the +nerve-cells. We call this commotion the nervous current. It is very +rapid, moving faster than one hundred feet a second, and runs along the +cells in much the same way as a "spark runs along a train of +gunpowder." It is important to note that neurones never act singly; +they always act in groups, the nervous current passing from neurone to +neurone. It is thought that the most important changes in the nervous +system do not occur within the individual neurones, but at the points +where they join with each other. This point of connection is called the +synapse and although we do not understand its exact nature, it may well +be pictured as a valve that governs the passage of the nervous current +from neurone to neurone. At time of birth, most of the valves are +closed. Only a few are open, mainly those connected with the vegetative +processes such as breathing and digestion. But as the individual is +played upon by the objects of the environment, the valves open to the +passage of the nervous current. With increased use they become more and +more permeable, and thus learning is the process of making easier the +passage of the nervous current from one neurone to another. + +We shall secure further light upon the action of the nervous system if +we examine some of the properties belonging to nerve-cells. The first +one is _impressibility_. Nerve-cells are very sensitive to impressions +from the outside. If you have ever had the dentist touch an exposed +nerve, you know how extreme this sensitivity is. Naturally such a +property is very important in education, for had we not the power to +receive impressions from the outside world we should not be able to +acquire knowledge. We should not even be able to perceive danger and +remove ourselves from harm. "If we compare a man's body to a building, +calling the steel frame-work his skeleton and the furnace and power +station his digestive organs and lungs, the nervous system would +include, with other things, the thermometers, heat regulators, electric +buttons, door-bells, valve-openers,--the parts of the building, in +short, which are specifically designed to respond to influences of the +environment." The second property of nerve-cells which is important in +study is _conductivity_. As soon as a neurone is stimulated at one end, +it communicates its excitement, by means of the nervous current, to the +next neurone or to neighboring neurones. Just as an electric current +might pass along one wire, thence to another, and along it to a third, +so the nervous current passes from neurone to neurone. As might be +expected, the two functions of impressibility and conductivity are +aided by such an arrangement of the nerve-cells that the nervous +current may pass over definitely laid pathways. These systems of +pathways will be described in a later paragraph. + +The third property of nerve-cells which is important in study is +_modifiability_. That is, impressions made upon the nerve-cells are +retained. Most living tissue is modifiable to some extent. The features +of the face are modifiable, and if one habitually assumes a peevish +expression, it becomes, after a time, permanently fixed. The nervous +system, however, possesses the power of modifiability to a marked +degree, even a single impression sufficing to make striking +modification. This is very important in study, being the basis for the +retentive powers of the mind. + +Having examined the action of the nervous system in its simplicity, we +have now to examine the ways in which the parts of the nervous system +are combined. We shall be helped if we keep to the conception of it as +an aggregation of systems or groups of pathways. Some of these we shall +attempt to trace out. Beginning with those at the outermost parts of +the body, we find them located in the sense-organs, not only within +the traditional five, but also within the muscles, tendons, joints, +and internal organs of the body such as the heart, and digestive +organs. In all these places we find ends of neurones which converge at +the spinal cord and travel to the brain. They are called sensory +neurones and their function is to carry messages inward to the brain. +Thus, the brain represents, in great part, a central receiving station +for impressions from the outside world. The nerve-cells carrying +messages from the various parts of the body terminate in particular +areas. Thus an area in the back part of the brain receives messages +from the eyes; another area near the top of the brain receives messages +from the skin. These areas are quite clearly marked out and may be +studied in detail by means of the accompanying diagram. + +There is another large group of nerve-cells which, when traced out, are +found to have one terminal in the brain and the other in the muscles +throughout the body. The area in the brain, where these neurones +emerge, is near the top of the brain in the area marked _Motor_ on the +diagram. From here the fibers travel down through the spinal cord and +out to the muscles. The nerve-cells in this group are called motor +neurones and their function is to carry messages from the brain out to +the muscles, for a muscle ordinarily does not act without a nervous +current to set it off. + +So far we have seen that the brain has the two functions of receiving +impressions from the sense-organs and of sending out orders to the +muscles. There is a further mechanism that must now be described. When +messages are received in the sensory areas, it is necessary that there +be some means within the brain of transmitting them over to the motor +area so that they may be acted upon. Such an arrangement is provided by +another group of nerve-cells in the brain, having as their function the +transmission of the nervous current from one area to another. They are +called association neurones and transmit the nervous current from +sensory areas to motor areas or from one sensory area to another. For +example, suppose you see a brick falling from above and you dodge +quickly back. The neural action accompanying this occurrence consists +of an impression upon the nerve-cells in the eye, the conduction of the +nervous current back to the visual area of the brain, the transmission +of the current over association neurones to the motor area, then its +transmission over the motor neurones, down the spinal cord, to the +muscles that enable you to dodge the missile. The association neurones +have the further function of connecting one sensory area in the brain +with another. For example, when you see, smell, taste and touch an +orange, the corresponding areas in the brain act in conjunction and are +associated by means of the association neurones connecting them. The +association neurones play a large part in the securing and organizing +of knowledge. They are very important in study, for all learning +consists in building up associations. + +From the foregoing description we see that the nervous system consists +merely of a mechanism for the reception and transmission of incoming +messages and their transformation into outgoing messages which produce +movement. The brain is the center where such transformations are made, +being a sort of central switchboard which permits the sense-organs to +come into communication with muscles. It is also the instrument by +means of which the impressions from the various senses can be united +and experience can be unified. The brain serves further as the medium +whereby impressions once made can be retained. That is, it is the great +organ of memory. Hence we see that it is to this organ we must look for +the performance of the activities necessary to study. Everything that +enters it produces some modification within it. Education consists in a +process of undergoing a selected group of experiences of such a nature +as to leave beneficial results in the brain. By means of the changes +made there, the individual is able better to adjust himself to new +situations. For when the individual enters the world, he is not +prepared to meet many situations; only a few of the neural connections +are made and he is able to perform only a meagre number of simple acts, +such as breathing, crying, digestion. The pathways for complex acts, +such as speaking English or French, or writing, are not formed at birth +but must be built up within the life-time of the individual. It is the +process of building them up that we call education. This process is a +physical feat involving the production of changes in physical material +in the brain. Study involves the overcoming of resistance in the +nervous system. That is why it is so hard. In your early school-days, +when you set about laboriously learning the multiplication table, your +unwilling protests were wrung because you were being compelled to force +the nervous current through new pathways, and to overcome the inertia +of physical matter. Today, when you begin a train of reasoning, the +task is difficult because you are opening hitherto untravelled +pathways. There is a comforting thought, however, which is derived from +the factor of modifiability, in that with each succeeding repetition, +the task becomes easier, because the path becomes worn smoothly and the +nervous current seeks it of its own accord; in other words, each act +and each thought tends to become habitualized. Education is then a +process of forming habits, and the rest of the book will be devoted to +the description and discussion of habits which a student should form. + +READING AND EXERCISE + +Reading: Herrick (7) + +Exercise 1. Draw a picture of the brain, showing roughly what takes +place there (a) when you read a book, (6) listen to a lecture, (c) take +notes. + + + + +CHAPTER IV + +FORMATION OF STUDY-HABITS + + +As already intimated, this book adopts the view that education is a +process of forming habits in the brain. In the formation of habits +there are several principles that must be observed. Accordingly we +shall devote a chapter to the consideration of habits in general before +discussing the specific habits involved in various kinds of study. + +Habit may be defined roughly as the tendency to act time after time in +the same way. Thus defined, you see that the force of habit extends +throughout the entire universe. It is a habit for the earth to revolve +on its axis once every twenty-four hours and to encircle the sun once +every year. When a pencil falls from your hand it has a habit of +dropping to the floor. A piece of paper once folded tends to crease in +the same place. These are examples of the force of habit in nonliving +matter. Living matter shows its power even more clearly. If you assume +a petulant expression for some time, it gets fixed and the expression +becomes habitual. The hair may be trained to lie this way or that. +These are examples of habit in living tissue. But there is one +particular form of living tissue which is most susceptible to habit; +that is nerve tissue. Let us review briefly the facts which underlie +this characteristic. In nerve tissue, impressibility, conductivity and +modifiability are developed to a marked degree. The nerve-cells in the +sense organs are impressed by stimulations from the outside world. The +nervous current thus generated is conducted over long nerve fibers, +through the spinal cord to the brain where it is received and we +experience a sensation. Thence it pushes on, over association neurones +in the brain to motor neurones, over which it passes down the spinal +cord again to muscles, and ends in some movement. In the pathway which +it traverses it leaves its impression, and, thereafter, when the first +neurone is excited, the nervous current tends to take the same pathway +and to end in the same movement. + +It should be emphasized that the nervous current, once started, always +tends to seek outlet in movement. This is an extremely important +feature of neural action, and, as will be shown in another chapter, is +a vital factor in study. Movement may be started by the stimulation of +a sense organ or by an idea. In the latter case it starts from regions +in the brain without the immediately preceding stimulation of a sense +organ. Howsoever it starts you may be sure that it seeks a way out, and +prefers pathways already traversed. Hence you see you are bound to have +habits. They will develop whether you wish them or not. Already you are +"a bundle of habits"; they manifest themselves in two ways--as habits +of action and habits of thought. You illustrate the first every time +you tie your shoes or sign your name. To illustrate the second, I need +only ask you to supply the end of this sentence: Columbus discovered +America in----. Speech reveals many of these habits of thought. Certain +phrases persist in the mind as habits so that when the phrase is once +begun, you proceed habitually with the rest of it. When some one starts +"in spite," your mind goes on to think "of"; "more or" calls up "less." +When I ask you what word is called up by "black," you reply "white" +according to the principles of mental habit. Your mind is arranged in +such habitual patterns, and from these examples you readily see that a +large part of what you do and think during the course of twenty-four +hours is habitual. Twenty years hence you will be even more bound by +this overpowering despot. + +Our acts our angels are, or good, or ill, +Our constant shadows that walk with us still. + +Since you cannot avoid forming habits, how important it is that you +seek to form those that are useful and desirable. In acquiring them, +there are several general principles deducible from the facts of +nervous action. The first is: Guard the pathways leading to the brain. +Nerve tissue is impressible and everything that touches it leaves an +ineradicable trace. You can control your habits to some extent, then, +by observing caution in permitting things to impress you. Many +unfortunate habits of study arise from neglect of this. The habit of +using a "pony," for example, arises when one permits oneself to depend +upon a group of English words in translating from a foreign language. + +Nerve pathways should then be guarded with respect to _what_ enters. +They should also be guarded with respect to the _way_ things enter. +Remember, as the first pathway is cut, subsequent nervous currents will +be directed. Consequently if you make a wrong pathway, you will have +trouble undoing it. + +Another maxim which will obviously prevent undesirable pathways is, go +slowly at first. This is an important principle in all learning. If, +when trying to learn the date 1453, you carelessly impress it first as +1435, you are likely to have trouble ever after in remembering which is +right, 1453 or 1435. As you value your intellectual salvation, then, go +slowly in making the first impression and be sure it is right. The next +rule is: Guard the exits of the nervous currents. That is, watch the +movements you make in response to impressions and ideas. This is +necessary because the nervous current pushes on past obstructions, +through areas in the brain, until it ends in some form of movement, and +in finding the way out, it seeks those pathways that have been most +frequently travelled. In study, it usually takes the form of movements +of speech or writing. You will need to guard this part of the process +just as you did the incoming pathway You must see that the movement is +made which you wish to build into a habit. In learning the +pronunciation of a foreign word, for example, see that your first +pronunciation of it is absolutely right. When learning to typewrite +see that you always hit the right key during the early trials. The +point of exit of a nervous current is the point also where precautions +are to be taken in developing good form. The path should be the +shortest possible, involving only those muscles that are absolutely +necessary. This makes for economy of effort. + +The third general principle to be kept in mind is that habits are most +easily formed in youth, for this is the period when nerve tissue is +most easily impressed and modified. With respect to habit formation, +then, you see that youth is the time when emphasis should be laid upon +the formation of as many useful habits as possible. The world +recognizes this to some extent and society is so organized that the +youth of the race are given leisure and protection so that they may +form useful habits. The world asks nothing of you during the next four +years except that you develop yourself and form useful habits which +will enable you in later life to take your place as a useful and stable +member of society. + +In addition to the principles just discussed, there are a number of +other maxims which have been laid down as guides in the formation of +new habits. The first is, _make an assertion of will_. Vow to yourself +that you will form the habit, and keep that resolve ever before you. + +The second maxim is, _make an emphatic start._ Surround yourself with +every aid possible. Make it easy at first to perform the act and +difficult not to perform it. For example, if you desire to form the +habit of arising at six every morning, surround yourself with a number +of aids. Buy an alarm clock, and tell some one of your decision. Such +efforts at the start "will give your new beginning such a momentum that +the temptation to break down will not occur as soon as it otherwise +might; and every day during which a breakdown is postponed adds to the +chances of its not occurring at all." Man has discovered the value of +such devices during the course of his long history, and has evolved +customs accordingly. When men decide to swear off smoking, they choose +the opening of a new year when many other new things are being started; +they make solemn promises to themselves, to each other, and finally to +their friends. Such customs are precautions which help to bolster up +the determination at the time when extraordinary effort and +determination are required. In forming the habits incidental to college +life, take pains from the start to surround yourself with as many aids +as possible. This will not constitute a confession of weakness. It is +only a wise and natural precaution which the whole experience of the +race has justified. The third maxim is, _never permit an exception to +occur_. Suppose you have a habit of saying "aint" which you wish to +replace with a habit of saying "isn't." If the habit is deeply rooted, +you have worn a pathway in the brain to a considerable depth, +represented in the accompanying diagram by the line _A X B_. + + A + | + X + / \ + B C + +Let us suppose that you have already started the new habit, and have said +the correct word ten times. That means you have worn another pathway +_A X C_ to a considerable depth. During all this time, however, the old +pathway is still open and at the slightest provocation will attract the +nervous current. Your task is to deepen the new path so that the nervous +current will flow into it instead of the old. Now suppose you make an +exception on some occasion and allow the nervous current to travel over +the old path. This unfortunate exception breaks down the bridge which +you had constructed at _X_ from _A_ to _C_. But this is not the only +result. The nervous current, as it revisits the old path, deepens it +more than it was before, so the next time a similar situation arises, +the current seeks the old path with much greater readiness than before, +and vastly more effort is required to overcome it. Some one has likened +the effect of these exceptions to that produced when one drops a ball +of string that is partially wound. By a single slip, more is undone +than can be accomplished in a dozen windings. + +The fourth maxim is, _seize every opportunity to act upon your +resolution_. The reason for this will be understood better if you keep +in mind the fact, stated before, that nervous currents once started, +whether from a sense-organ or from a brain-center, always tend to seek +egress in movement. These outgoing nervous currents leave an imprint +upon the modifiable nerve tissues as inevitably as do incoming +impressions. Therefore, if you wish your resolves to be firmly fixed, +you should act upon them speedily and often. "It is not in the moment +of their forming, but in the moment of their producing _motor effects_, +that resolves and aspirations communicate the new 'set' to the brain." +"No matter how full a reservoir of _maxims_ one may possess, and no +matter how good one's _sentiments_ may be, if one has not taken +advantage of every concrete opportunity to _act_, one's character may +remain entirely unaffected for the better." Particularly at time of +emotional excitement one makes resolves that are very good, and a glow +of fine feeling is present. Beware that these resolves do not evaporate +in mere feeling. They should be crystallized in some form of action as +soon as possible. "Let the expression be the least thing in the +world--speaking genially to one's grandmother, or giving up one's seat +in a ... car, if nothing more heroic offers--but let it not fail to take +place." Strictly speaking you have not really completed a resolve until +you have acted upon it. You may determine to go without lunch, but you +have not consummated that resolve until you have permitted it to +express itself by carrying you past the door of the dining-room. That +is the crucial test which determines the strength of your resolve. Many +repetitions will be required before a pathway is worn deep enough to be +settled. Seize the very earliest opportunity to begin grooving it out, +and seize every other opportunity for deepening it. + +After this view of the place in your life occupied by habit, you +readily see its far-reaching possibilities for welfare of body and +mind. Its most obvious, because most annoying, effects are on the side +of its disadvantages. Bad habits secure a grip upon us that we are +sometimes powerless to shake off. True, this ineradicableness need have +no terrors if we have formed good habits. Indeed, as will be pointed +out in the next paragraph, habit may be a great asset. Nevertheless, it +may work positive harm, or at best, may lead to stagnation. The +fixedness of habit tends to make us move in ruts unless we exert +continuous effort to learn new things. If we permit ourselves to move +in old grooves we cease to progress and become "old fogy." + +But the advantages of habit far outweigh its disadvantages. Habit helps +the individual to be consistent and helps people to know what to expect +from one. It helps society to be stable, to incorporate within itself +modes of action conducive to the common good. For example, the respect +which we all have for the property of others is a habit, and is so +firmly intrenched that we should find ourselves unable to steal if we +wished to. Habit is thus a very desirable asset and is truly called the +"enormous fly-wheel of society." + +A second advantage of habit is that it makes for accuracy. Acts that +have become habitualized are performed more accurately than those not +habitualized. Movements such as those made in typewriting and +piano-playing, when measured in the psychological laboratory, are found +to copy each other with extreme fidelity. The human body is a machine +which may be adjusted to a high degree of nicety, and habit is the +mechanism by which this adjustment is made. + +A third advantage is that a stock of habits makes life easier. "There +is no more miserable human being than one in whom nothing is habitual +but indecision, for whom the lighting of every cigar, the drinking of +every cup, the time of rising and going to bed every day and the +beginning of every bit of work, are subjects of express volitional +deliberation. Full half the time of such a man goes to the deciding or +regretting of matters which ought to be so ingrained in him as +practically not to exist for his consciousness at all." Have you ever +reflected how miserable you would be and what a task living would be if +you had to learn to write anew every morning when you go to class; or +if you had to relearn how to tie your necktie every day? The burden of +living would be intolerable. + +The last advantage to be discerned in habit is economy. Habitual acts +do not have to be actively directed by consciousness. While they are +being performed, consciousness may be otherwise engaged. "The more of +the details of our daily life we can hand over to the effortless +custody of automatism, the more our higher powers of mind will be set +free for their own proper work." While you are brushing your hair or +tying your shoes, your mind may be engaged in memorizing poetry or +calculating arithmetical problems. Habit is thus a great economizer. + +The ethical consequences of habit are so striking that before leaving +the subject we must give them acknowledgment. We can do no better than +to turn to the statement by Professor James, whose wise remarks upon +the subject have not been improved upon: + +"The physiological study of mental conditions is thus the most powerful +ally of hortatory ethics. The hell to be endured hereafter, of which +theology tells, is no worse than the hell we make for ourselves in this +world by habitually fashioning our characters in the wrong way. Could +the young but realize how soon they will become mere walking bundles of +habits, they would give more heed to their conduct while in the plastic +state. We are spinning our own fates, good or evil, and never to be +undone. Every smallest stroke of virtue or of vice leaves its +never-so-little scar. The drunken Rip Van Winkle, in Jefferson's play, +excuses himself for every fresh dereliction by saying, 'I won't count +this time!' Well! he may not count it and a kind heaven may not count +it; but it is being counted none the less. Down among his nerve-cells +and fibers the molecules are counting it, registering it, and storing +it up to be used against him when the next temptation comes. Nothing we +ever do is, in strict scientific literalness, wiped out. Of course this +has its good side as well as its bad one. As we become permanent +drunkards by so many drinks, so we become saints in the moral, and +authorities and experts in the practical and scientific, spheres, by so +many separate acts and hours of work. But let no youth have any anxiety +about the upshot of his education, whatever the line of it may be. If +he keep faithfully busy each hour of the working day, he may safely +leave the final result to itself. He can with perfect certainty count +on waking up some fine morning, to find himself one of the competent +ones of his generation, in whatever pursuit he has singled out. +Silently, between all the details of his business, the _power of +judging_ in all that class of matter will have built itself up within +him as a possession that will never pass away. Young people should know +the truth of this in advance. The ignorance of it has probably +engendered more discouragement and faintheartedness in youths embarking +on arduous careers than all other causes put together." + +EXERCISE + +Exercise 1. Point out an undesirable habit that you are determined to +eradicate. Describe the desirable habit which you will adopt in its +place. Give the concrete steps you will take in forming the new habit. +How long a time do you estimate will be required for the formation of +the new habit? Mark down the date and refer back to it when you have +formed the habit, to see how accurately you estimated. + + + + +CHAPTER V + +ACTIVE IMAGINATION + + +A very large part of the mental life of a student consists in the +manipulation of images. By images we mean the revivals of things that +have been impressed upon the senses. Call to mind for the moment your +house-number as it appears upon the door of your home. In so doing you +mentally reinstate something which has been impressed upon your senses +many times; and you see it almost as clearly as if it were actually +before you. The mental thing thus revived is called an image. + +The word image is somewhat ill-chosen; for it usually signifies +something connected with the eye, and implies that the stuff of mental +images is entirely visual. The true fact of the matter is, we can image +practically anything that we can sense. We may have tactual images of +things touched; auditory images of things heard; gustatory images of +things tasted; olfactory images of things smelled. How these behave in +general and how they interact in study will engage our attention in +this chapter. + +The most highly dramatic use of images is in connection with that +mental process known as Imagination. As we study the writings of Jack +London, Poe, Defoe, Bunyan, we move in a realm almost wholly imaginary. +And as we take a cross-section of our minds when thus engaged, we find +them filled with images. Furthermore, they are of great variety--images +of colors, sounds, tastes, smells, touches, even of sensations from our +own internal organs, such as the palpitations of the heart that +accompany feelings of pride, indignation, remorse, exaltation. A +further characteristic is that they are sharp, clean-cut, vivid. + +Note in the balcony scene from Romeo and Juliet, the number, variety +and vividness of the images: + +"But, soft! What light through yonder window breaks? +It is the east, and Juliet is the sun. +Arise, fair sun, and kill the envious moon, +Who is already sick and pale with grief +That thou, her maid, art far more fair than she. +Be not her maid, since she is envious; +Her vestal livery is but sick and green.... +Two of the fairest stars in all the heaven, +Having some business, do entreat her eyes +To twinkle in their spheres till they return. +What if her eyes were there, they in her head? +The brightness in her cheek would shame those stars, +As daylight doth a lamp; her eyes in heaven +Would through the airy regions stream so bright +That birds would sing and think it were not night. +See, how she leans her cheek upon her hand! +O, that I were a glove upon that hand, +That I might touch that cheek!" + +We may conclude, then, that three of the desirable attributes of great +works of the imagination are _number, variety_ and _vividness_ of +mental images. + +One question that frequently arises concerning works of the imagination +is, What is their source? Superficial thinkers have loosely answered, +"Inspiration," implying, (according to the literal meaning of the word, +"to breathe in"), that some mysterious external force (called by the +ancients, "A Muse") enters into the mind of the author with a special +revelation. + +Psychological analysis of these imaginative works shows that this +explanation is untrue. That the bizarre and apparently novel products +arise from the experiences of the author, revived in imagination and +combined in new ways. The horrendous incidents depicted in Dante's +"Divine Comedy" never occurred within the lifetime experience of the +author as such. Their separate elements did, however, and furnished the +basis for Dante's clever combinations. The oft-heard saying that there +is nothing new under the sun is psychologically true. + +In the light of this brief analysis of products of the imagination we +are ready to develop a program which we may follow in cultivating an +active imagination. + +Recognizing that images have their source in sensory experience, we see +that the first step to take is to seek a multitude of experiences. Make +intimate acquaintance with the objects of your environment. Handle +them, tear them apart, put them together, place them next to other +objects, noting the likenesses and differences. Thus you will acquire +the stuff out of which images are made and will stock your mind with a +number of images. Then when you wish to convey your ideas you will have +a number of terms in which to do it--one of the characteristics of a +free-flowing imagination. + +The second characteristic we found to be variety. To secure this, seek +a variety of sensational experiences. Perceive the objects of your +experience through several senses--touch, smell, sight, hearing, +taste. By means of this variety in sensations you will secure +corresponding variety in your images. + +To revive them easily sometimes requires practice. For it has been +discovered that all people do not naturally call up images related to +the various senses with equal ease. Most people use visual and auditory +images more freely than they do other kinds. In order to develop skill +in evoking the others, practise recalling them. Sit down for an hour of +practice, as you would sit down for an hour of piano practice. Try to +recall the taste of raisins, English walnuts; the smell of hyacinths, +of witch-hazel; the rough touch of an orange-skin. Though you may at +first have difficulty you will develop, with practice, a gratifying +facility in recalling all varieties of images. + +The third characteristic which we observed in works of the imagination +is vividness. To achieve this, pay close attention to the details of +your sensory experiences. Observe sharply the minute but characteristic +items--the accent mark on _apres_; the coarse stubby beard of the +typical alley tough. Stock your mind with a wealth of such detailed +impressions. Keep them alive by the kind of practice recommended in the +preceding paragraph. Then describe the objects of your experience in +terms of these significant details. + +We discovered, in discussing the source of imaginative works, that the +men whom we are accustomed to call imaginative geniuses do not have +unique communication with heaven or with any external reservoir of +ideas. Instead, we found their wonder-evoking creations to be merely +new combinations of old images. The true secret of their success is +their industrious utilization of past experiences according to the +program outlined above. They select certain elements from their +experiences and combine them in novel ways. This is the explanation of +their strange, beautiful and bizarre productions. This is what Carlyle +meant when he characterized genius as "the transcendent capacity for +taking trouble" This is what Hogarth meant when he said, "Genius is +nothing but labor and diligence." For concrete exemplification of this +truth we need only turn to the autobiographies of great writers. In +this passage from "John Barleycorn," Jack London describes his methods: + +"Early and late I was at it--writing, typing, studying grammar, +studying writing and all forms of writing, and studying the writers who +succeeded in order to find out how they succeeded. I managed on five +hours' sleep in the twenty-four, and came pretty close to working the +nineteen waking hours left to me." + +By saying that the novel effects of imagination come by way of +industry, we do not mean to imply that one should strain after novelty +and eccentricity. Unusual and happy combinations will come of +themselves and naturally if one only makes a sufficient number. + +There are laws of combination, known as the psychological laws of +association, by which images will unite naturally. The number of +possible combinations is infinite. By industriously making a large +number, you will by the very laws of chance, stumble upon some that are +especially happy and striking. + +In summarizing this discussion, we may conclude that an active fertile +imagination comes from crowding into one's life a large number of +varied and vivid experiences; storing them up in the mind in the form +of images; and industriously recalling and combining them in novel +relationships. Mental images occur in other mental processes besides +Imagination. They bulk importantly in memorizing, as we shall see in +Chapters VI and VII; and in reasoning, as we shall see in Chapter IX. +Throughout the book we shall find that as we develop ability to +manipulate mental images, we shall increase the adaptability of all the +mental processes. + +READING AND EXERCISES + +Reading: Dearborn (2) Chapter III. + +Exercise 1. Call up in imagination the sound of your French +instructor's voice as he says _etudiant_. Call up the appearance on the +page of the conjugation of _etre_, present tense. + +Exercise 2. Choose some word which you have had difficulty in learning. +Look at it attentively, securing a perfectly clear impression of it; +then practise calling up the visual image of it, until you secure +perfect reproduction. + +Exercise 3. List the different images called up by the passage from +_Romeo and Juliet_. + + + + +CHAPTER VI + +FIRST AIDS TO MEMORY; IMPRESSION + + +Of all the mental operations employed by the student, memory is +probably the one in which the greatest inefficiency is manifested. +Though we often fail to realize it, much of our life is taken up with +memorizing. Every time we make use of past experience, we rely upon +this function of the mind, but in no occupation is it quite so +practically important as in study. We shall begin our investigation of +memory by dividing it into four phases or stages--Impression, +Retention, Recall and Recognition. Any act of memory involves them all. +There is first a stage when the material is being impressed; second, a +stage when it is being retained so that it may be revived in the +future; third, a stage of recall when the retained material is revived +to meet present needs; fourth, a feeling of recognition, through which +the material is recognized as having previously been in the mind. + +Impression is accomplished through the sense organs; and in the +foregoing chapter we laid down the rule: Guard the avenues of +impression and admit only such things as you wish to retain. This +necessitates that you go slowly at first. This is a principle of all +habit formation, but is especially important in habits of memorizing. +Much of the poor memory that people complain about is due to the fact +that they make first impressions carelessly. One reason why people fail +to remember names is that they do not get a clear impression of the +name at the start. They are introduced in a hurry or the introducer +mumbles; consequently no clear impression is secured. Under such +circumstances how could one expect to retain and recall the name? Go +slowly, then, in impressing material for the first time. As you look up +the words of a foreign language in the lexicon, trying to memorize +their English equivalents, take plenty of time. Obtain a clear +impression of the sound and appearance of the words. + +Inasmuch as impressions may be made through any of the sense organs, +one problem in the improvement of memory concerns the choice of sense +avenues. As an infant you used all senses impartially in your eager +search after information. You voraciously put things into your mouth +and discovered that some things were sweet, some sour. You bumped your +head against things and learned that some were hard and some soft. In +your insatiable curiosity you pulled things apart and peered into them; +in short, utilized all the sense organs. In adult life, however, and in +education as it takes place through the agency of books and +instructors, most learning depends upon the eye and ear. Even yet, +however, you learn many things through the sense of touch and through +muscle movement, though you may be unaware of it. You probably have +better success retaining impressions made upon one sense than another. +The majority of people retain better things that are visually +impressed. Such persons think often in terms of visual images. When +thinking of water running from a faucet, they can see the water fall, +see it splash, but have no trace of the sound. The whole event is +noiseless in memory. When they think of their instructor, they can see +him standing at his desk but cannot imagine the sound of his voice. +When striving to think of the causes leading to the Civil War, they +picture them as they are listed on the page of the text-book or +note-book. Other people have not this ability to recall in visual +terms, but depend to greater extent upon sounds. When asked to think +about their instructor, they do it in terms of his voice. When asked to +conjugate a French verb, they hear it pronounced mentally but do not +see it on the page. These are extremes of imagery type, but they +illustrate preferences as they are found in many persons. Some persons +use all senses with ease; others unconsciously work out combinations, +preferring one sense for some kinds of material and another for other +kinds. For example, one might prefer visual impression for remembering +dates in history but auditory impression for conjugating French verbs. +You will find it profitable to examine yourself and discover your +preferences. If you find that you have greater difficulty in +remembering material impressed through the ear than through the eye, +reduce things to visual terms as much as possible. Make your lecture +notes more complete or tabulate things that you wish to remember, thus +securing impression from the written form. The writer has difficulty in +remembering names that are only heard. So he asks that the name be +spelled, then projects the letters on an imaginary background, thus +forming visual stuff which can easily be recalled. If, on the contrary, +you remember best the things that you hear, you may find it a good plan +to read your lessons aloud. Many a student, upon the discovery of such +a preference, has increased his memory ability many fold by adopting +the simple expedient of reading his lessons aloud. It might be pointed +out that while you are reading aloud, you are making more than auditory +impressions. By the use of the vocal organs you are making muscular +impressions, which also aid in learning, as will be pointed out in +Chapter X. + +After this discussion do not jump to the conclusion that just because +you find some difficulty in using one sense avenue for impression, it +is therefore impossible to develop it. Facility in using particular +senses can be gained by practice. To improve ability to form visual +images of things, practise calling up visions of things. Try to picture +a page of your history textbook. Can you see the headlines of the +sections and the paragraphs? To develop auditory imagery, practise +calling up sounds. Try to image your French instructor's voice in +saying _eleve_. The development of these sense fields is a slow and +laborious process and one questions whether it is worth while for a +student to undertake the labor involved when another sense is already +very efficient. Probably it is most economical to Arrange impressions +so as to favor the sense that is already well developed and reliable. + +Another important condition of impression is repetition. It is well +known that material which is repeated several times is remembered more +easily than that impressed but once. If two repetitions induce a given +liability to recall, four or eight will secure still greater liability +of recall. Your knowledge of brain action makes this rule intelligible, +because you know the pathway is deepened every time the nervous current +passes over it. + +Experiments in the psychological laboratory have shown that it is best +in making impressions to make more than enough impressions to insure +recall. "If material is to be retained for any length of time, a simple +mastery of it for immediate recall is not sufficient. It should be +learned far beyond the point of immediate reproduction if time and +energy are to be saved." This principle of learning points out the fact +that there are two kinds of memory--immediate and deferred. The first +kind involves recall immediately after impression is made; the second +involves recall at some later time. It is a well-known fact that things +learned a long time before they are to be recalled fade away. If you +are not going to recall material until a long time after the +impression, store up enough impressions so that you can afford to lose +a few and still retain enough until time for recall. Another reason for +"overlearning" is that when the time comes for recall you are likely to +be disturbed. If it is a time of public performance, you may be +embarrassed; or you may be hurried or under distractions. Accordingly +you should have the material exceedingly well memorized so that these +distractions will not prove detrimental. + +The mere statement made above, that repetition is necessary in +impression, is not sufficient. It is important to know how to +distribute the repetitions. Suppose you are memorizing "Psalm of Life" +to be recited a month from to-day, and that you require thirty +repetitions of the poem to learn it. Shall you make these thirty +repetitions at one sitting? Or shall you distribute them among several +sittings? In general, it is better to spread the repetitions over a +period of time. The question then arises, what is the most effective +distribution? Various combinations are possible. You might rehearse the +poem once a day during the month, or twice a day for the first fifteen +days, or the last fifteen days, four times every fourth day, _ad +infinitum_. In the face of these possibilities is there anything that +will guide us in distributing the repetitions? We shall get some light +on the question from an examination of the curve of forgetting--a curve +that has been plotted showing the rate at which the mind tends to +forget. Forgetting proceeds according to law, the curve descending +rapidly at first and then more slowly. "The larger proportion of the +material learned is forgotten the first day or so. After that a +constantly decreasing amount is forgotten on each succeeding day for +perhaps a week, when the amount remains practically stationary." This +gives us some indication that the early repetitions should be closer +together than those at the end of the period. So long as you are +forgetting rapidly you will need more repetitions in order to +counterbalance the tendency to forget. You might well make five +repetitions; then rest. In about an hour, five more; within the next +twenty-four hours, five more. By this time you should have the poem +memorized, and all within two days. You would still have fifteen +repetitions of the thirty, and these might be used in keeping the poem +fresh in the mind by a repetition every other day. + +As intimated above, one important principle in memorizing is to make +the first impressions as early as possible, for older impressions have +many chances of being retained. This is evidenced by the vividness of +childhood scenes in the minds of our grandparents. An old soldier +recalls with great vividness events that happened during the Civil War, +but forgets events of yesterday. There is involved here a principle of +nervous action that you have already encountered; namely, that +impressions are more easily made and retained in youth. It should also +be observed that pathways made early have more chances of being used +than those made recently. Still another peculiarity of nervous action +is revealed in these extended periods of memorizing. It has been +discovered that if a rest is taken between impressions, the impressions +become more firmly fixed. This points to the presence of a surprising +power, by which we are able to learn, as it were, while we sleep. We +shall understand this better if we try to imagine what is happening in +the nervous system. Processes of nutrition are constantly going on. The +blood brings in particles to repair the nerve cells, rebuilding them +according to the pattern left by the last impression. Indeed, the +entrance of this new material makes the impression even more fixed. The +nutritional processes seem to set the impression much as a hypo bath +fixes or sets an impression on a photographic plate. This peculiarity +of memory led Professor James to suggest, paradoxically, that we learn +to skate in summer and to swim in winter. And, indeed, one usually +finds, in beginning the skating season, that after the initial +stiffness of muscles wears off, one glides along with surprising +agility. You see then that if you plan things rightly, Nature will do +much of your learning for you. It might be suggested that perhaps +things impressed just before going to sleep have a better chance to +"set" than things impressed at other times for the reason that sleep is +the time when the reparative processes of the body are most active. + +Since the brain pattern requires time to "set," it is important that +after the first impression you refrain from introducing anything +immediately into the mind that might disturb it. After you have +impressed the poem you are memorizing, do not immediately follow it by +another poem. Let the brain rest for three or four minutes until after +the first impressions have had a chance to "set." + +Now that we have regarded this "unconscious memorizing" from the +neurological standpoint, let us consider it from the psychological +standpoint. How are the ideas being modified during the intervals +between impressions? Modern psychology has discovered that much +memorizing goes on without our knowing it, paradoxical as that may +seem. The processes may be described in terms of the doctrine of +association, which is that whenever two things have once been +associated together in the mind, there is a tendency thereafter "if the +first of them recurs, for the other to come with it." After the poem of +our illustration has once been repeated, there is a tendency for events +in everyday experience that are like it to associate themselves with +it. For example, in the course of a day or week many things might arise +and recall to you the line, "Life is real, life is earnest", and it +would become, by that fact, more firmly fixed in the mind. This +valuable semi-conscious recall requires that you must make the first +impression as early as possible before the time for ultimate recall. +This persistence of ideas in the mind means "that the process of +learning does not cease with the actual work of learning, but that, if +not disturbed, this process runs on of itself for a time, and adds a +little to the result of our labors. It also means that, if it is to our +advantage to stand in readiness with some word or thought, we shall be +able to do so, if only this word or thought recur to us but once, some +time before the critical moment. So we remember to keep a promise to +pay a call, to make a remark at the proper time, even though we turn +our mind to other work or talk for some hours between. We can do this +because, if not vigorously prevented, ideas and words keep on +reappearing in the mind." You may utilize this principle in +theme-writing to good advantage. As soon as the instructor announces +the subject for a theme, begin to think about it. Gather together all +the ideas you have about the subject and start your mind to work upon +it. Suppose you take as a theme-subject The Value of Training in Public +Speaking for a Business Man. The first time this is suggested to you, a +few thoughts, at least, will come to you. Write them down, even though +they are disconnected and heterogeneous. Then as you go about your +other work you will find a number of occasions that will arouse ideas +bearing upon this subject. You may read in a newspaper of a brilliant +speech made before the Chamber of Commerce by a leading business man, +which will serve as an illustration to support your affirmative +position; or you may attend a banquet where a prominent business man +disappoints his audience with a wretched speech. Such experiences, and +many others, bearing more or less directly upon the subject, will come +to you, and will call up the theme-subject, with which they will unite +themselves. Write down these ideas as they occur, and you will find +that when you start to compose the theme formally, it almost writes +itself, requiring for the most part only expansion and arrangement of +ideas. While thus organizing the theme you will reap even more benefits +from your early start, for, as you are composing it, you will find new +ideas crowding in upon you which you did not know you possessed, but +which had been associating themselves in your mind with this topic even +when you were unaware of the fact. + +In writing themes, the principle of distribution of time may also be +profitably employed. After you have once written a theme, lay it aside +for a while--perhaps a week. Then when you take it up, read it in a +detached manner and you will note many places where it may be improved. +These benefits are to be enjoyed only when a theme is planned a long +time ahead. Hence the rule to start as early as possible. + +Before leaving the subject of theme-writing, which was called up by the +discussion of unconscious memory, another suggestion will be given that +may be of service to you. When correcting a theme, employ more than one +sense avenue. Do not simply glance over it with your eye. Read it +aloud, either to yourself or, better still, to someone else. When you +do this you will be amazed to discover how different it sounds and what +a new view you secure of it. When you thus change your method of +composition, you will find a new group of ideas thronging into your +mind. In the auditory rendition of a theme you will discover faults of +syntax which escaped you in silent reading. You will note duplication +of words, split infinitives, mixed tenses, poorly balanced sentences. +Moreover, if your mind has certain peculiarities, you may find even +more advantages accruing from such a practice. The author, for example, +has a slightly different set of ideas at his disposal according to the +medium of expression employed. When writing with a pencil, one set of +ideas comes to mind; with a typewriter slightly different ideas arise; +when talking to an audience, still different ideas. Three sets of ideas +and three vocabularies are thus available for use on any subject. In +adopting this device of composing through several mediums, you should +combine with it the principle of distributing time already discussed in +connection with repetition of impressions. Write a theme one day, +then lay it aside for a few days and go back to it with a fresh mind. +The rests will be found very beneficial in helping you to get a new +viewpoint of the subject. + +Reverting to our discussion of memory, we come upon another question: +In memorizing material like the poem of our example, should one impress +the entire poem at once, or break it up into parts, impressing a stanza +each day? Most people would respond, without thought, the latter, and, +as a matter of fact, most memorizing takes place in this way. +Experimental psychology, however, has discovered that this is +uneconomical. The selection, if of moderate length, should be impressed +as a whole. If too long for this, it should be broken up as little as +possible. In order to see the necessity for this let us examine your +experiences with the memorization of poems in your early school days. +You probably proceeded as follows: After school one day, you learned +the first stanza, then went out to play. The next day you learned the +second one, and so on. You thought at the end of a week that you had +memorized it because, at the end of each day's sitting, you were able +to recite perfectly the stanza learned that day. On "speaking day" you +started out bravely and recited the first stanza without mishap. When +you started to think of the second one, however, it would not come. The +memory balked. Now what was the matter? How can we explain this +distressing blank? In psychological terms, we ascribe the difficulty to +the failure to make proper associations between stanzas. Association +was made effectively between the lines of the single stanzas, but not +between the separate stanzas. After you finished impressing the first +stanza, you went about something else; playing ball, perhaps. When you +approached the poem the next day you started in with the second stanza. +There was then no bridge between the two. There was nothing to link the +last line of the first stanza, + +"And things are not what they seem," + +with the first line of the next stanza, + +"Life is real, life is earnest." + +This makes clear the necessity of impressing the poem as a whole +instead of by parts. + +According to another classification, there are two ways of +memorizing--by rote and by logical associations. Rote memorizing +involves the repetition of material just as it stands, and usually +requires such long and laborious drill that it is seldom economical. +True, some matter must be memorized this way; such as the days of the +week and the names of the months; but there is another and gentler +method which is usually more effective and economical than that of +brutal repetition. That is the method of logical association, by which +one links up a new fact with something already in the mind. If, for +example, you wish to remember the date of the World's Fair in Chicago, +you might proceed as follows: Ask yourself, What did the Fair +commemorate? The discovery of America in 1492, the four hundredth +anniversary occurring in 1892. The Fair could not be made ready in that +year, however, so was postponed a year. Such a process of memorizing +the date is less laborious than the method of rote memory, and is +usually more likely to lead to ready recall. The old fact already in +mind acts as a magnet which at some later time may call up other facts +that had once been associated with it. You can easily see that this new +fact might have been associated with several old facts, thus securing +more chances of being called up. From this it may be inferred that the +more facts you have in your mind about a subject the more chances you +have of retaining new facts. It is sometimes thought that if a person +stores so much in his memory it will soon be so full that he cannot +memorize any more. This is a false notion, involving a conception of +the brain as a hopper into which impressions are poured until it runs +over. On the contrary, it should be regarded as an interlacing of +fibers with infinite possibilities of inter-connection, and no one ever +exhausts the number of associations that can be made. + +The method of logical association may be employed with telling effect +in the study of foreign languages. When you meet a new word scrutinize +it carefully for some trace of a word already familiar to you either in +that language or in another. This independent discovery of meanings is +a very great aid in saving time and in fixing the meaning of new words. +Opportunities for this method are especially frequent in the German +language, since so many German words are formed by compounding other +words. "Rathausmarkt" is a long and apparently difficult German word, +and one's first temptation is to look it up in the lexicon and promptly +forget it. Let us analyze it, however, and we shall see that it is only +a compound of already familiar words. "_Rat_" is already familiar as +the word for counsel ("_raten"_ to give advice); "_haus_" is equally +familiar. So we see that the first part of the word means +council-house; the council-house of a city is called a city hall. +"_Markt_" is equally familiar as market-square, so the significance of +the entire word stands, city-hall-square. By such a method of utilizing +facts already known, you may make yourself much more independent of the +lexicon and may make your memory for foreign words much more tenacious. + +We approach a phase of impression the importance of which is often +unsuspected; namely, the intention with which memorizing is done. The +fidelity of memory is greatly affected by the intention. If, at the +time of impression, you intend to retain only until the time of recall, +the material tends to slip away after that time. If, however, you +impress with the intention to retain permanently the material stays by +you better. Students make a great mistake when they study for the +purpose merely of retaining until after examination time. Intend to +retain facts permanently, and there will be greater likelihood of their +permanence. + +READINGS AND EXERCISES + +Readings: Adams (1) Chapter III. Seashore (16) Chapter II. Swift (20) +Chapter VII. Watt (21). + +Exercise I. Cite examples from your own experience showing the effects +of the following faults in making impressions. _a_. First impression +not clear. _b_. Insufficient number of repetitions. _c_. Use of rote +method instead of method of logical association. _d_. Impressions not +distributed. _e_. Improper use of "part" method. + +Exercise 2. After experimentation, state what is your most effective +sense avenue for the impression of foreign words, facts in history, the +pronunciation of English words. + +Exercise 3. Make a preliminary draft of your next theme; lay it aside +for a day or two; then write another on the same subject; combine the +two, using the best parts of each; lay this aside for a day or two; +then read it aloud, making such changes as are prompted by the auditory +presentation. Can you find elements of worth in this method, which will +warrant you in adopting it, at least, in part? + + + + +CHAPTER VII + +SECOND AIDS TO MEMORY: RETENTION, RECALL AND RECOGNITION + + +Our discussion up to this point has centred around the phase of memory +called impression. We have described some of the conditions favorable +to impression and have seen that certain and accurate memory depends +upon adherence to them. The next phase of memory--Retention--cannot be +described in psychological terms. We know we retain facts after they +are once impressed, but as to their status in the mind we can say +nothing. If you were asked when the Declaration of Independence was +signed, you would reply instantly. When asked, however, where that fact +was five minutes ago, you could not answer. Somewhere in the recesses +of the mind, perhaps, but as to immediate awareness of it, there was +none. We may try to think of retention in terms of nerve cells and say +that at the time when the material was first impressed there was some +modification made in certain nerve cells which persisted. This trait of +nerve modifiability is one factor which accounts for greater retentive +power in some persons than in others. It must not be concluded, +however, that all good memory is due to the inheritance of this trait. +It is due partly to observance of proper conditions of impression, and +much can be done to overcome or offset innate difficulty of +modification by such observance. + +We are now ready to examine the third phase of memory--Recall. This is +the stage at which material that has been impressed and retained is +recalled to serve the purpose for which it was memorized. Recall is +thus the goal of memory, and all the devices so far discussed have it +for their object. Can we facilitate recall by any other means than by +faithful and intelligent impressions? For answer let us examine the +state of mind at time of recall. + +We find that it is a unique mental state. It differs from impression in +being a period of more active search for facts in the mind accompanied +by expression, instead of a concentration upon the external impression. +It is also usually accompanied by motor expressions, either talking or +writing. Since recall is a unique mental state, you ought to prepare +for it by means of a rehearsal. When you are memorizing anything to be +recalled, make part of your memorizing a rehearsal of it, if possible, +under same conditions as final recall. In memorizing from a book, first +make impression, then close the book and practise recall. When +memorizing a selection to be given in a public speaking class, +intersperse the periods of impression with periods of recall. This is +especially necessary in preparation for public speaking, for facing an +audience gives rise to a vastly different psychic attitude from that of +impression. The sight of an audience may be embarrassing or exciting. +Furthermore, unforeseen distractions may arise. Accordingly, create +those conditions as nearly as possible in your preparation. Imagine +yourself facing the audience. Practise aloud so that you will become +accustomed to the sound of your own voice. The importance of the +practice of recall as a part of the memory process can hardly be +overestimated. One psychologist has advised that in memorizing +significant material more than half the time should be spent in +practising recall. + +There still remains a fourth phase of memory--Recognition. Whenever a +remembered fact is recalled, it is accompanied by a characteristic +feeling which we call the feeling of recognition. It has been described +as a feeling of familiarity, a glow of warmth, a sense of ownership, a +feeling of intimacy. As you walk down the street of a great city you +pass hundreds of faces, all of them strange. Suddenly in the crowd you +catch sight of some one you know and are instantly suffused with a glow +of feeling that is markedly different from your feeling toward the +others. That glow represents the feeling of recognition. It is always +present during recall and may be used in great advantage in studying. +It derives its virtue for our purpose from the fact that it is a +feeling, and at the time of feeling the bodily activities in general +are affected. Changes occur in heart beat, breathing; various glandular +secretions are affected, the digestive organs respond. In this general +quickening of bodily activity we have reason to believe that the +nervous system partakes, and things become impressed more readily. Thus +the feeling of recognition that accompanies recall is responsible for +one of the benefits of reviews. At such a time material once memorized +becomes tinged with a feelingful color different from that which +accompanied it when new. Review, then, not merely to produce additional +impressions, but also to take advantage of the feeling of recognition. + +We have now discussed memory in its four phases and have seen clearly +that it operates not in a blind, chaotic manner, but according to law. +Certain conditions are required and when they are met memory is good. +After providing proper conditions for memory, then, trust your memory. +An attitude of confidence is very necessary. If, when you are +memorizing, you continually tremble for fear that you will not recall +at the desired moment, the fixedness of the impression will be greatly +hindered. Therefore, after utilizing all your knowledge about the +conditions of memorizing, rest content and trust to the laws of Nature. +They will not fail you. + +By this time you have seen that memory is not a mysterious mental +faculty with which some people are generously endowed, and of which +others are deprived. All people of normal intelligence can remember and +can improve their ability if they desire. The improvement does not take +the form that some people expect, however. No magic wand can transform +you into a good memorizes You must work the transformation yourself. +Furthermore, it is not an instantaneous process to be accomplished +overnight. It will come about only after you have built up a set of +habits, according to our conception of study as a process of habit +formation. + +A final word of caution should be added. Some people think of memory as +a separate division or compartment of the mind which can be controlled +and improved by exercising it alone. Such a conception is fallacious. +Improvement in memory will involve improvement in other mental +abilities, and you will find that as you improve your ability to +remember, you will develop at the same time better powers to +concentrate attention, to image, to associate facts and to reason. + +READING AND EXERCISE + +Reading: See readings for Chapter VI. + +Exercise I. Compare the mental conditions of impression with those of +recall. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +CONCENTRATION OF ATTENTION + + +Nearly everyone has difficulty in the concentration of attention. Brain +workers in business and industry, students in high school and college, +and even professors in universities, complain of the same difficulty. +Attention seems in some way to be at the very core of mental activity, +for no matter from what aspect we view the mind, its excellence seems +to depend upon the power to concentrate attention. When we examine a +growing infant, one of the first signs by which we judge the awakening +of intelligence is the power to pay attention or to "notice things." +When we examine the intellectual ability of normal adults we do so by +means of tests that require close concentration of attention. In +judging the intelligence of people with whom we associate every day, we +regard one who is able to maintain close attention for long periods of +time as a person of strong mind. We rate Thomas Edison as a powerful +thinker when we read that he becomes so absorbed in work that he +neither eats nor sleeps. Finally, when we examine the insane and the +feeble-minded, we find that one form which their derangements take is +an inability to control the attention. This evidence, added to our own +experience, shows us the importance of concentration of attention in +study and we become even more desirous of investigating attention to +see how we may develop it. + +We shall be better able to discuss attention if we select for analysis +a concrete situation when the mind is in a state of concentrated +attention. Concentrate for a moment upon the letter O. Although you are +ostensibly focussing all your powers of attention upon the letter, +nevertheless you are really aware of a number of things besides: of +other words on the page; of other objects in the field of vision; of +sounds in the room and on the street; of sensations from your clothing; +and of sensations from your bodily organs, such as the heart and lungs. +In addition to these sensations, you will find, if you introspect +carefully enough, that your mind also contains a number of ideas and +imaginings; thoughts about the paragraph you just read or about one of +your lessons. Thus we see that at a time when we apparently focus our +attention upon but one thing, we really have a large number of things +in our mind, and they are of a great variety. The mental field might be +represented by a circle, at the centre of which is the object of +attention. It may be an object in the external world perceived through +one of the senses, or it may be an idea we are thinking about, such, +for example, as the idea of infinity. But whether the thing attended to +is a perception or an idea, we may properly speak of it as the object +of attention or the "focal" object. In addition to this, we must +recognize the presence of a large number of other objects, both sensory +and ideational. These are nearer the margin of the mental field, so we +call them "marginal." + +The distinctive thing about a state of mind such as that just described +is that the focal object is much clearer than the marginal objects. For +example, when you fixated the letter O, it was only in the vaguest sort +of fashion that you were aware of the contact of your clothing or the +lurking ideas of other lessons. As we examine these marginal objects +further, we find that they are continually seeking to crowd into the +centre of attention and to become clear. You may be helped in forming a +vivid picture of conditions if you think of the mind as a stream ever +in motion, and as it flows on, the objects in it continually shift +their positions. A cross-section of the stream at any moment may show +the contents of the mind arranged in a particular pattern, but at the +very next moment they may be arranged in a different pattern, another +object occupying the focus, while the previous tenant is pushed to the +margin. Thus we see that it is a tendency of the mind to be forever +changing. If left to itself, it would be in ceaseless fluctuation, the +whim of every passing fancy. This tendency to fluctuate comes with more +or less regularity, some psychologists say every second or two. True, +we do not always yield to the fluctuating tendency, nevertheless we are +recurrently tempted, and we must exercise continuous effort to keep a +particular object at the focus. The power to exert effort and to +regulate the arrangement of our states of mind is the peculiar gift of +man, and is a prime function of education. Viewed in this light, then, +we see that the voluntary focusing of our attention consists in the +selecting of certain objects to be attended to, and the ignoring of +other objects which act as distractions. We may conveniently classify +the latter as external sensations, bodily sensations and irrelevant +ideas. + +Let us take an actual situation that may arise in study and see how +this applies. Suppose you are in your room studying about Charlemagne, +a page of your history text occupying the centre of your attention. The +marginal distractions in such a case would consist, first, in external +sensations, such as the glare from your study-lamp, the hissing of the +radiator, the practising of a neighboring vocalist, the rattle of +passing street-cars. The bodily distractions might consist of +sensations of weariness referred to the back, the arms and the eyes, +and fainter sensations from the digestive organs, heart and lungs. The +irrelevant ideas might consist of thoughts about a German lesson which +you are going to study, visions of a face, or thoughts about some +social engagement. These marginal objects are in the mind even when you +conscientiously focus your mind upon the history lesson, and, though +vague, they try to force their way into the focus and become clear. The +task of paying attention, then, consists in maintaining the desired +object at the centre of the mental field and keeping the distractions +away. With this definition of attention, we see that in order to +increase the effectiveness of attention during study, we must devise +means for overcoming the distractions peculiar to study. Obviously the +first thing is to eliminate every distraction possible. Such a plan of +elimination may require a radical rearrangement of study conditions, +for students often fail to realize how wretched their conditions of +study are from a psychological standpoint. They attempt to study in +rooms with two or three others who talk and move about continually; +they drop down in any spot in the library and expose themselves +needlessly to a great number of distractions. If you wish to become a +good student, you must prepare conditions as favorable as possible for +study. Choose a quiet room to live in, free from distracting sounds and +sights. Have your room at a temperature neither too hot nor too cold; +68 deg. F. is usually considered favorable for study. When reading in the +library, sit down in a quiet spot, with your back to the door, so you +will not be tempted to look up as people enter the room. Do not sit +near a group of gossipers or near a creaking door. Having made the +external conditions favorable for study, you should next address +yourself to the task of eliminating bodily distractions. The most +disturbing of these in study are sensations of fatigue, for, contrary +to the opinion of many people, study is very fatiguing work and +involves continual strain upon the muscles in holding the body still, +particularly those of the back, neck, arms, hands and, above all, the +eyes. How many movements are made by your eyes in the course of an +hour's study! They sweep back and forth across the page incessantly, +being moved by six muscles which are bound to become fatigued. Still +more fatigue comes from the contractions of delicate muscles within the +eyeball, where adjustments are made for far and near vision and for +varying amounts of light. The eyes, then, give rise to much fatigue, +and, altogether, are the source of a great many bodily distractions in +study. + +Other distractions may consist of sensations from the clothing. We are +always vaguely aware of pressure of our clothing. Usually it is not +sufficiently noticeable to cause much annoyance, but occasionally it +is, as is demonstrated at night when we take off a shoe with such a +sigh of relief that we realize in retrospect it had been vaguely +troubling us all day. + +In trying to create conditions for efficient study, many bodily +distractions can be eliminated. The study chair should be easy to sit +in so as to reduce fatigue of the muscles supporting the body; the +book-rest should be arranged so as to require little effort to hold the +book; the light should come over the left shoulder. This is especially +necessary in writing, so that the writing hand will not cast a shadow +upon the work. The muscles of the eyes will be rested and fatigue will +be retarded if you close the eyes occasionally. Then in order to lessen +the general fatigue of the body, you may find it advantageous to rise +and walk about occasionally. Lastly, the clothing should be loose and +unconfining; especially should there be plenty of room for circulation. + +In the overcoming of distractions, we have seen that much may be done +by way of eliminating distractions, and we have pointed out the way to +accomplish this to a certain extent. But in spite of our most careful +provisions, there will still be distractions that cannot be eliminated. +You cannot, for example, chloroform the vocalist in the neighboring +apartment, nor stop the street-cars while you study; you cannot rule +out fatigue sensations entirely, and you cannot build a fence around +the focus of your mind so as to keep out unwelcome and irrelevant +ideas. The only thing to do then is to accept as inevitable the +presence of some distractions, and to realise that to pay attention, it +is necessary to habituate yourself to the ignoring of distractions. + +In the accomplishment of this end it will be necessary to apply the +principles of habit formation already described. Start out by making a +strong determination to ignore all distractions. Practise ignoring +them, and do not let a slip occur. Try to develop interest in the +object of attention, because we pay attention to those things in which +we are most interested. A final point that may help you is to use the +first lapse of attention as a reminder of the object you desire to +fixate upon. This may be illustrated by the following example: Suppose, +in studying a history lesson, you come upon a reference to the royal +apparel of Charlemagne. The word "royal" might call up purple, a +Northwestern University pennant, the person who gave it to you, and +before you know it you are off in a long day-dream leading far from the +history lesson. Such migrations as these are very likely to occur in +study, and constitute one of the most treacherous pitfalls of student +life. In trying to avoid them, you must form habits of disregarding +irrelevant ideas when they try to obtrude themselves. And the way to do +this is to school yourself so that the first lapse of attention will +remind you of the lesson in hand. It can be done if you keep yourself +sensitive to wanderings of attention, and let the first slip from the +topic with which you are engaged remind you to pull yourself back. Do +this before you have taken the step that will carry you far away, for +with each step in the series of associations it becomes harder to draw +yourself back into the correct channel. + +In reading, one frequent cause for lapses of attention and for the +intrusion of unwelcome ideas is obscurity in the material being read. +If you trace back your lapses of attention, you will often find that +they first occur when the thought becomes difficult to follow, the +sentence ambiguous, or a single word unusual. As a result, the meaning +grows hazy in your mind and you fail to comprehend it. Naturally, then, +you drift into a channel of thought that is easier to follow. This +happens because the mental stream tends to seek channels of least +resistance. If you introspect carefully, you will undoubtedly discover +that many of your annoying lapses of attention can be traced to such +conditions. The obvious remedy is to make sure that you understand +everything as you read. As soon as you feel the thought growing +difficult to follow, begin to exert more effort; consult the dictionary +for the meanings of words you do not understand. Probably the ordinary +freshman in college ought to look up the meaning of as many as twenty +words daily. + +Again, the thought may be difficult to follow because your previous +knowledge is deficient; perhaps the discussion involves some fact which +you never did comprehend clearly, and you will naturally fail to +understand something built upon it. If deficiency of knowledge is the +cause of your lapses of attention, the obvious remedy is to turn back +and study the fundamental facts; to lay a firm foundation in your +subjects of study. + +This discussion shows that the conditions at time of concentrated +attention are very complex; that the mind is full of a number of +things; that your object as a student is to keep some one thing at the +focus of your mind, and that in doing so you must continuously ignore +other mental contents. In our psychological descriptions we have +implied that the mind stands still at times, permitting us to take a +cross-section and examine it minutely. As a matter of fact, the mind +never stands still. It continually moves along, and at no two moments +is it exactly the same. This results in a condition whereby an idea +which is at one moment at the centre cannot remain there unless it +takes on a slightly different appearance from moment to moment. When +you attempted to fix your attention upon the letter O, you found a +constant tendency to shift the attention, perhaps to a variation in the +intensity of the type or to a flaw in the type or in the paper. In view +of the inevitable nature of these changes, you see that in spite of +your best efforts you cannot expect to maintain any object of study +inflexibly at the centre of attention. The way to do is to manipulate +the object so that it will appear from moment to moment in a slightly +different light. If, for example, you are trying to concentrate upon a +rule of English grammar long enough to memorize it, do not read it over +and over again, depending solely upon repetition. A better way, after +thoroughly comprehending it, is to think about it in several relations; +compare it with other rules, noting points of likeness and difference; +apply it to the construction of a sentence. The essential thing is to +do something with it. Only thus can you keep it in the focus of +attention. This is equivalent to the restatement of another fact +stressed in a previous chapter, namely, that the mind is not a passive +thing that stands still, but an active thing. When you give attention, +you actively select from a number of possible objects one to be clearer +than the rest. This selection requires effort under most conditions of +study, but you may be cheered by the thought that as you develop +interest in the fields of study, and as you develop habits of ignoring +distractions, you will be able to fixate your attention with less and +less effort. A further important fact is that as you develop power to +select objects for the consideration of attention, you develop +simultaneously other mental processes--the ability to memorize, to +economize time and effort and to control future thoughts and actions. +In short, power to concentrate attention means power in all the mental +processes. + +EXERCISES + +Exercise I. "Watch a small dot so far away that it can just be seen. +Can you see it all the time? How many times a minute does it come and +go?" Make what inference you can from this regarding the fluctuation of +attention during study. + +Exercise 2. What concrete steps will you take in order to accommodate +your study to the fluctuations of attention? + +Exercise 3. The next time you have a lapse of attention during study, +retrace your steps of thought, write down the ideas from the last one +in your mind to the one which started the digression. Represent the +digression graphically if you can. + +Exercise 4. Make a list of the things that most persistently distract +your attention during study. What specific steps will you take to +eliminate them; to ignore the unavoidable ones? + + + + +CHAPTER IX + +HOW WE REASON + + +If you were asked to describe the most embarrassing of your class-room +experiences, you would probably cite the occasions when the instructor +asks you a series of questions demanding close reasoning. As he pins +you down to statement of facts and forces you to draw valid +conclusions, you feel in a most perplexed frame of mind. Either you +find yourself unable to give reasons, or you entangle yourself in +contradictions. In short, you flounder about helplessly and feel as +though the bottom of your ship of knowledge has dropped out. And when +the ordeal is over and you have made a miserable botch of a recitation +which you thought you had been perfectly prepared for, you complain +that "if the instructor had followed the book," or "if he had asked +straight questions," you would have answered every one perfectly, +having memorized the lesson "word for word." + +This complaint, so often voiced by students, reveals the fundamental +characteristic which distinguishes the mental operation of reasoning +from the others we have studied. In reasoning we face a new kind of +situation presenting difficulties not encountered in the simpler +processes of sensation, memory, and imagery, and when we attempt to +substitute these simple processes for reasoning, we fail miserably, for +the two kinds of processes are essentially different, and cannot be +substituted one for the other. + +Broadly speaking, the mental activities of study may be divided into +two groups, which, for want of better names, we shall call processes of +acquisition and processes of construction. The mental attitude of the +first is that of acquirement. "Sometimes our main business seems to be +to acquire knowledge; certain matters are placed before us in books or +by our teachers, and we are required to master them, to make them part +of our stock of knowledge. At other times we are called upon to use the +knowledge we already possess in order to attain some end that is set +before us." "In geography, for example, so long as we are merely +learning the bare facts of the subject, the size and contours of the +different continents, the political divisions, the natural features, we +are at the acquisitive stage." "But when we go on to try to find out +the reasons why certain facts that we have learned should be as they +are and not otherwise, we pass to the constructive stage. We are +working constructively when we seek to discover why it is that great +cities are so often found on the banks of rivers, why peninsulas more +frequently turn southward than northward." You readily see that this +constructive method of study involves the setting and solving of +problems as its distinguishing feature, and that in the solution of +these problems we make use of reason. + +A little reflection will show that though there is a distinct +difference between processes of acquisition and of construction, +nevertheless the two must not be regarded as entirely separate from +each other. "In acquiring new facts we must always use a little reason, +while in constructive work, we cannot always rely upon having all the +necessary matter ready to hand. We have frequently to stop our +constructive work for a little in order to acquire some new facts that +we find to be necessary. Thus we acquire a certain number of new facts +while we are reasoning about things, and while we are engaged in +acquiring new matter we must use our reason at least to some small +extent." The two overlap, then. But there is a difference between them +from the standpoint of the student, and the terms denote two +fundamentally different attitudes which students take in study. The two +attitudes may be illustrated by contrasting the two methods often used +in studying geometry. Some students memorize the theorem and the steps +in the demonstration, reciting them verbatim at class-hour. Others do +not memorize, but reason out each step to see its relation to the +preceding step, and when they see it must necessarily follow, they pass +on to the next and do the same. These two types of students apparently +arrive at the same conclusions, but the mental operations leading up to +the Q.E.D. of each are vastly different. The one student does his +studying by the rote memory method, the other by the road of reasoning. +The former road is usually considered the easier, and so we find it +most frequently followed. To memorize a table, a definition, or a +series of dates is relatively easy. One knows exactly where one is, and +can keep track of one's progress and test one's success. Some people +are attracted by such a task and are perfectly happy to follow this +plan of study. The kind of mind that contents itself with such +phonographic records, however, must be acknowledged to be a commonplace +sort of affair. We recognize its limitations in ordinary life, +invariably rating it lower than the mind that can reason to new +conclusions and work independently. Accordingly, if we wish to possess +minds of superior quality, we see that we must develop the reasoning +processes. + +When we examine the mental processes by which we think constructively, +or, in other words, reason, we find first of all that there is +recognition of a problem to be solved. When we start to reason, we do +it because we find ourselves in a situation from which we must +extricate ourselves. The situation may be physical, as when our +automobile stops suddenly on a country road; or it may be mental, as +when we are deciding what college to attend. In both cases, we +recognize that we are facing a problem which must be solved. + +After recognition of the problem, our next step is to start vigorous +efforts to solve it. In doing this, we cast about for means; we summon +all the powers at our disposal. In the case of the automobile, we call +to mind other accidents and the causes of them; we remember that once +the spark-plug played out, so we test this hypothesis. At another time +some dust got into the carburetor, so we test this. So we go on, +calling up possible causes and applying appropriate remedies until the +right one is found and the engine is started. In bringing to bear upon +the problem facts from our past experience, we form a series of +judgments. In the case of the problem as to what college to attend, we +might form these judgments: this college is nearer home; that one has a +celebrated faculty; this one has good laboratories; that one is my +father's alma mater. So we might go on, bringing up all the facts +regarding the problem and fitting each one mentally to see how it +works. Note that this utilization of ideas should not consist merely of +fumbling about in a vague hope of hitting upon some solution. It must +be a systematic search, guided by carefully chosen ideas. For example, +"if the clock on the mantle-piece has stopped, and we have no idea how +to make it go again, but mildly shake it in the hope that something +will happen to set it going, we are merely fumbling. But if, on moving +the clock gently so as to set the pendulum in motion, we hear it +wobbling about irregularly, and at the same time observe that there is +no ticking of any kind, we come to the conclusion that the pendulum has +somehow or other escaped the little catch that connects it with the +mechanism, we have been really thinking. From the fact that the +pendulum wobbles irregularly, we infer that it has lost its proper +catch. From the fact that there is no ticking, we infer the same thing, +for even when there is something wrong with the clock that will prevent +it from going permanently, if the pendulum is set in motion by force +from without it will tick for a few seconds before it comes to rest +again. The important point to observe is that there must be inference. +This is always indicated by the word _therefore_ or its equivalent. If +you reach a conclusion without having to use or at any rate to imply a +_therefore_, you may take it for granted that you have not been really +thinking, but only jumping to conclusions." + +This process of putting facts in the form of judgments and drawing +inferences, may be likened to a court-room scene where arguments are +presented to the judge. As each bit of evidence is submitted, it is +subjected to the test of its applicability to the situation or to +similar situations in the past. It is rigidly examined and nothing is +accepted as a candidate for the solution until it is found by trial (of +course, in imagination) to be pertinent to the situation. + +The third stage of the reasoning process comes when some plan which has +been suggested as a possible solution of the difficulty proves +effective, and we make the decision; the arguments support or overthrow +each other, adding to and eliminating various considerations until +finally only one course appears possible. As we said before, the +solution comes inevitably, as represented by the word _therefore_. +Little active work on our part is necessary, for if we have gone +through these other phases properly the decision will make itself. You +cannot make a wrong decision if you have the facts before you and have +given each the proper weight. When the solution comes, it is recognized +as right, for it comes tinged with a feeling that we call belief. + +Now that we have found the reasoning process to be one of +problem-solving, of which the first step is to acknowledge and +recognize the difficulty, the second, to call up various methods of +solution, and the third, to decide on the basis of one of the solutions +that comes tinged with certainty, we are ready to apply this schema to +study in the hope that we may discover the causes and remedies for the +reasoning difficulties of students. In view of the fact that reasoning +starts out with a problem, you see at once that to make your study +effective you must study in problems. Avoid an habitual attitude of +mere acquisition. Do not memorize facts in the same pattern as they are +handed out to you. In history, in general literature, in science, do +not read facts merely as they come in the text, but seek the relations +between them. Voluntarily set before yourself intellectual problems. +Ask yourself, _why_ is this so? In other words, in your study do not +merely acquire, but also _construct_. The former makes use mostly of +memory and though your memorizing be done ever so conscientiously, if +it comprise the main part of your study, you fail to utilize your mind +to its fullest extent. + +Let us now consider the second stage of the reasoning process as found +in study. At this stage the facts in the mind are brought forward for +the purpose of being fitted into the present situation, and the +essential thing is that you have a large number of facts at your +disposal. If you are going to reason effectively about problems in +history, mathematics, geography, it is absolutely indispensable that +you know many facts about the subjects. One reason why you experience +difficulty in reasoning about certain subjects is that you do not know +enough about them. Particularly is this true in such subjects as +political economy, sociology and psychology. The results of such +ignorance are often demonstrated in political and social movements. Why +do the masses so easily fall victims to doubtful reforms in national +and municipal policies? Because they do not know enough about these +matters to reason intelligently. Watch ignorant people listening to a +demagogue and see what unreasonable things they accept. The speaker +propounds a question and then proceeds to answer it in his own way. He +makes it appear plausible, assuring his hearers it is the only way, and +they agree because they do not have enough other facts at their command +to refute it. They are unable, as we say, to see the situation in +several aspects. The mistakes in reasoning which children make have a +similar basis. The child reaches for the moon, reasoning--"Here is +something bright; I can touch most bright things; therefore, I can +touch this." His reasoning is fallacious because he does not have all +the facts. This condition is paralleled in the class-room when students +make what are shamefacedly looked back upon as miserable blunders. When +one of these fiascos occurs the cause can many times be referred to the +fact that the student did not have enough facts at his command. +Speaking broadly, the most effective reasoning in a field can be done +by one who has had the most extensive experiences in that field. If one +had complete acquaintance with all facts, one would have perfect +conditions for reasoning. Thus we see that effectiveness in reasoning +demands an extensive array of facts. Accordingly, in your courses of +study you must read with avidity. When you are given a list of readings +in a course, some of which are required and some optional, read both +sets, and every new fact thus secured will make you better able to +reason in the field. + +But good reasoning demands more than mere quantity of ideas. The ideas +must conform to certain qualitative standards before they may be +effectively employed in reasoning. They must arise with promptness, in +an orderly manner, pertinent to the matter in hand, and they must be +clear. In securing promptness of association on the part of your ideas, +employ the methods described in the chapter on memory. Make many +logical associations with clearness and repetition. In order to insure +the rise of ideas in an orderly manner, pay attention to the manner in +which you acquire them. + +Remember, things will be recalled as they were impressed, so the value +of your ideas in reasoning will depend upon the manner in which you +make original impressions. A further characteristic of serviceable +ideas is clarity. Ideas are sometimes described as "clear" in +opposition to "muddy." You know what is meant by these distinctions, +and you may be assured that one cause for your failures in reasoning is +that your ideas are not clear. This manifests itself in inability to +make clear statements and to comprehend clearly. The latter condition +is easily illustrated. When you began the study of geometry you faced a +multitude of new terms; we call them technical terms, such as +projection, scalene, theory of limits. These had to be clearly +understood before you could reason in the subject. And when, in the +progress of your study, you experienced difficulty in reasoning out +problems, it was very likely due to the fact that you did not master +the technical terms, and as soon as you encountered the difficulties of +the course, you failed because your foundation laying did not involve +the acquisition of clear ideas. Examine your difficulties in reasoning +subjects and if you find them traceable to vagueness of ideas, take +steps to clarify them. + +Ideas may be clarified in two ways: by definition and by +classification. Definition is a familiar device, for you have had much +to do with it in learning. The memorization of definitions is an +excellent practice, not as an end in itself, but as a means to the end +of effective reasoning. Throughout your study, then, pay much attention +to definitions. Some you will find in your texts, but others you will +have to make for yourself. In order to get practice in this, undertake +the manufacture of a few definitions, using terms such as charity, +benevolence, natural selection. This exercise will reveal what an +exacting mental operation definition is and will prove how vague most of +your thinking really is. + +A large stock of definitions will help you to think rapidly. Standing +as they do for a large group of experiences, definitions are a means of +mental economy. For illustration of their service in reasoning, suppose +you were asked to compare the serf, the peon and the American slave. If +you have a clean-cut definition of each of these terms, you can readily +differentiate between them, but if you cannot define them, you will +hardly be able to reason concerning them. + +The second means of clarifying ideas is classification. By this is +meant the process of grouping similar ideas or similar points of ideas. +For example, your ideas of serf, peon and slave have some points in +common. Group the ideas, then, with reference to these points. Then in +reasoning you can quickly place an idea in its proper group. + +The third stage of the reasoning process is decision, based on belief, +and it comes inevitably, provided the other two processes have been +performed rightly. Accordingly, we need say little about its place in +study. One caution should be pointed out in making decisions. Do not +make them hastily on the basis of only one or two facts. Wait until you +have canvassed all the ideas that bear importantly upon the case. The +masses that listen top eagerly to the demagogue do not err merely from +lack of ideas, but partly because they do not utilize all the facts at +their disposal. This fault is frequently discernible in impulsive +people, who notoriously make snap-judgments, which means that they +decide before canvassing all the evidence. This trait marks the +fundamental difference between superficial and profound thinkers. The +former accept surface facts and decide immediately, while the latter +refuse to decide until after canvassing many facts. + +In the improvement of reasoning ability your task is mainly one of +habit formation. It is necessary, first, to form the habit of stating +things in the form of problems; second, to form habits by which ideas +arise promptly and profusely; third, to form habits of reserving +decisions until the important facts are in. These are all specific +habits that must be built up if the reasoning processes of the mind are +to be effective. Already you have formed some habits, if not habits of +careful looking into things, then habits of hasty, heedless, impatient +glancing over the surface. Apply the principles of habit formation +already enunciated, and remember that with every act of reasoning you +perform, you are moulding yourself into a careless reasoner or an +accurate reasoner, into a clear thinker or a muddy thinker. This +chapter shows that reasoning is one of the highest powers of man. It is +a mark of originality and intelligence, and stamps its possessor not a +copier but an originator, not a follower but a leader, not a slave, to +have his thinking foisted upon him by others, but a free and +independent intellect, unshackled by the bonds of ignorance and +convention. The man who employs reason in acquiring knowledge, finds +delights in study that are denied to a rote memorizer. When one looks +at the world through glasses of reason, inquiring into the eternal +_why_, then facts take on a new meaning, knowledge comes with new +power, the facts of experience glow with vitality, and one's own +relations with them appear in a new light. + +READINGS AND EXERCISES + +Readings: + +Adams (1) Chapter IV. + +Dearborn (2) Chapter V. + +Dewey (3) Chapters III and VI. + +Exercise I. Illustrate the steps of the reasoning process, by +describing the way in which you studied this chapter. + +Exercise 2. Try to define the following words without the assistance of +a dictionary: College, university, grammatical, town-meeting. + +Exercise 3. Prepare a set of maxims designed to help a student change +from the "rote memory" method of study to the "reason-why" (or +"problem") method. + + + + +CHAPTER X + +EXPRESSION AS AN AID IN STUDY + + +In our discussion of the nervous basis underlying study we observed +that nerve pathways are affected not only by what enters over the +sensory pathways, but also by what flows out over the motor pathways. +As the nerve currents travel out from the motor centres in the brain to +the muscles, they leave traces which modify future thoughts and +actions. This being so, it is easy to see that what we give out is +fully as important as what we take in; in other words, our +_expressions_ are just as important as our _impressions_. By +expressions we mean the motor consequences of our thoughts, and in +study they usually take the form of speech and writing of a kind to be +specified later. + +The far-reaching effects of motor expressions are too infrequently +emphasized, but psychology forces us to give them prime consideration. +We are first apprised of their importance when we study the nervous +system, and find that every incoming sensory message pushes on and on +until it finds a motor pathway over which it may travel and produce +movement. This is inevitable. The very structure and arrangement of the +neurones is such that we are obliged to make some movement in response +to objects affecting our sense organs. The extent of movement may vary +from the wide-spread tremors that occur when we are frightened by a +thunderstorm to the merest flicker of an eye-lash. But whatever be its +extent, movement invariably occurs when we are stimulated by some +object. This has been demonstrated in startling ways in the +psychological laboratory, where even so simple a thing as a piece of +figured wall-paper has been shown to produce measurable bodily +disturbances. Ordinarily we do not notice these because they are so +slight, sometimes being merely twitches of deep-seated muscles or +slight enlargements or contractions of arteries which are very +responsive to nerve currents. But no matter how large or how small, we +may be sure that movements always occur on the excitation of a sense +organ. This led us to assert in an earlier chapter that the function of +the nervous system is to convert incoming sensory currents into +outgoing motor currents. + +So ingrained is this tendency toward movement that we do not need even +a sensory cue to start it off; an idea will do as well. In other words, +the nervous current need not start at a sense organ, but may start in +the brain and still produce movement. This fact is embodied in the law +of ideo-motor action (distinguished from sensory-motor action), "every +idea in the mind tends to express itself in movement." This motor +character of ideas is manifested in a most thorough-going way and +renders our muscular system a faithful mirror of our thoughts. We have +in the psychological laboratory delicate apparatus which enables us to +measure many of these slight movements. For example, we fasten a +recording device to the top of a person's head, so that his slightest +movements will be recorded, then we ask him while standing perfectly +still to think of an object at his right side. After several moments +the record shows that he involuntarily leans in the direction of the +object about which he is thinking. We find further illustration of this +law when we examine people as they read, for they involuntarily +accompany the reading with movements of speech, measurable in the +muscles of the throat, the tongue and the lips. These facts, and many +others, constitute good evidence for the statement that ideas seek +expression in movement. + +The ethical consequences of this are so momentous that we must remark +upon them in passing. We now see the force of the biblical statement, +"Not that which entereth into the mouth defileth the man; but that +which proceedeth out of the mouth, this defileth the man." Think what +it means to one's character that every thought harbored in the mind is +bound to come out. It may not manifest itself at once in overt action, +but it affects the motor pathways and either weakens or strengthens +connections so that when the opportunity comes, some act will be +furthered or hindered. In view of the proneness to permit base thoughts +to enter the mind, human beings might sometimes fear even to think. A +more optimistic idea, however, is that noble thoughts lead to noble +acts. Therefore, keep in your mind the kind of thoughts that you wish +to see actualized in your character and the appropriate acts will +follow of their own accord. + +But it is with the significance of expressions in study that we are at +present concerned, and here we find them of supreme importance. We +ordinarily regard learning as a process of taking things into the mind, +and regard expression as a thing apart from acquisition of knowledge. +We shall find in this discussion, however, that there is no such sharp +demarcation between acquiring knowledge and expressing knowledge, but +that the two are intimately bound together, expressions being properly +a part of wise and economical learning. + +When we survey the modes of expression that may be used in study, we +find them to be of several kinds. Speech is one. This is the form of +expression for which the class-recitation is provided. If you wish to +grow as a student, utilize the recitation period and welcome every +chance to recite orally, for things about which you recite in class are +more effectively learned. Talking about a subject under all +circumstances will help you learn. When studying subjects like +political economy, sociology or psychology, seize every opportunity to +talk over the questions involved. Hold frequent conferences with your +instructor; voice your difficulties freely, and the very effort to +state them will help to clarify them. It is a good plan for two +students in the same course to come together and talk over the +problems; the debates thus stimulated and the questions aroused by +mental interaction are very helpful in impressing facts more vividly +upon the mind. + +Writing is a form of expression and is one thing that gives value to +note-taking and examinations. Its value is further recognized by the +requirements of themes and term-papers. These are all mediums by which +you may develop yourself, and they merit your earnest cooperation. + +Another medium of expression that students may profitably employ is +drawing. This is especially valuable in such subjects as geology, +physiology and botany. Students in botany are compelled to do much +drawing of the plant-forms which they study, and this is a wise +requirement, for it makes them observe more carefully, report more +faithfully and recall with greater ease. You may secure the same +advantages by employing the graphic method in other studies. For +example, when reading in a geology text-book about the stratification +of the earth in a certain region, draw the parts described and label +them according to the description. You will be surprised to see how +clear the description becomes and how easily it is later recalled. + +Let us examine the effects of the expressive movements of speech, +writing and the like, and see the mechanism by which they facilitate +the study process. We may describe their effects in two ways: +neurologically and psychologically. As may be expected from our +preliminary study of the nervous system, we see their first effects +upon the motor pathways leading out to the muscles. Each passage of the +nerve current from brain to muscle leaves traces so that the resulting +act is performed with greater ease upon each repetition. This fact has +already been emphasized by the warning, Guard the avenues of +expression. + +Especially is it important at the first performance of an act, +because this determines the path of later performances. In such studies +as piano-playing, vocalizing and pronunciation of foreign words, see +that your first performance is absolutely right, then as the expressive +movements are repeated, they will be more firmly ingrained because of +the deepening of the motor pathways. + +The next effect of acts of expression is to be found in the +modifications made in the sensory areas of the brain. You will recall +that every movement of a muscle produces nervous currents which go back +to the brain and register there in the form of kinaesthetic sensations. +To demonstrate kinaesthetic sensations, close your eyes and move your +index finger up and down. You can feel the muscles contracting and the +tendons moving back and forth, even into the back of the hand. These +sensations ordinarily escape our attention, but they occupy a prominent +place in the control of our actions. For example, when ascending +familiar stairs in the dark, they notify us when we have reached the +top. We are still further impressed with their importance when we are +deprived of them; when we try to walk upon a foot or a leg that has +gone "to sleep"; that is, when the kinaesthetic nerves are temporarily +paralyzed we find it difficult to walk. But besides being used to +control muscular actions, they may be used in study, for they may be +made the source of impressions, and impressions, as we learned in the +chapter on memory, are a prime requisite for learning. Each expression +becomes, then, through its kinaesthetic results, the source of new +impressions, when, for example, you pronounce the German word, +_anwenden_, with the English word "to employ," in addition to the +impressions made through the ear, you make impressions through the +muscles of speech (kinaesthetic impressions), and these kinaesthetic +impressions enter into the body of your knowledge and later may serve +as the means by which the word may be revived. When you write the word, +you make kinaesthetic impressions which may later serve as forms of +revival. So the movements of expression produce sensory material that +may serve as tentacles by means of which you can later reach back into +your memory and recall facts. + +We shall now consider another service of expressions which, though +little regarded, nevertheless is of much moment. When we make +expressive movements, much nervous energy is generated; much more than +during passive impression. Energy is sent back to the brain over the +kinaesthetic nerve cells, and the greater the extent of the movement, +the greater is the amount of new energy sent to the brain. It pours +into the brain and diffuses itself especially throughout the +association areas. Here it excites regions which could not be excited +by a more limited amount of energy. This means, in psychical terms, +that new ideas are being aroused. The obvious inference from this fact +is that you may, by starting movements of expression, actually summon +to your assistance added powers of mind. For example, when you are +called upon to recite in class, your mind seems to be a complete +blank--in a state of "deadlock." You may break this "deadlock" and +start brain-action by some kind of movement. It may be only to clear +your throat, to ejaculate "well," or to squirm about in the seat, but +whatever form the movement takes, it will usually be effective in +creating the desired nervous energy, and after the inertia is once +overcome the mental stream will flow freely. The unconscious +application of this device is seen when a man is called on suddenly to +make a speech for which he has not prepared. He usually starts out by +telling a story, thus liberating nervous energy to pour back into the +brain and start thinking processes. With increasing vehemence of +expression, the ideas come more and more freely, and the result is a +speech which surpasses the expectations of the speaker himself. The +gesticulations of many speakers have this same function, being +frequently of great service in arousing more nervous energy, which goes +back to the brain and arouses more ideas. + +The device of stimulating ideas by expressive movements may be utilized +in theme- or letter-writing. It is generally recognized that the +difficult thing in such writing is to get a start, and the too common +practice is to sit listlessly gazing into space waiting for +"inspiration." This is usually a futile procedure. The better way is to +begin to write anything about the topic in hand. What you write may +have little merit, either of substance or form. Nevertheless, if you +persist in keeping up the activity of writing, making more and more +movements, you will find that the ideas will begin to come in greater +profusion until they come so fast you can hardly write them down. + +Having tried to picture the neural effect of expression, we may now +translate them into psychological terms, asking what service the +expressions render to the conscious side of our study. First of all, we +note that the expressions help to make the acts and ideas in study +habitual. We find ourselves, with each expression, better able to +perform such acts as the pronunciation of foreign words. Second, they +furnish new impressions through the kinaesthetic sense, thus being a +source of sense-impression. Third, they give rise to a greater number +of ideas and link them up with the idea dominant at the moment. There +is a further psychological effect of expression in the clarification of +ideas. It is a well-attested fact that when we attempt to explain a +thing to someone else, it becomes clearer in our own minds. You can +demonstrate this for yourself by attempting to explain to someone an +intricate conception such as the nebular hypothesis. The effort +involved in making the explanation makes the fact more vivid to you. +The habit of thus utilizing your knowledge in conversation is an +excellent one to acquire. Indeed, expression is the only objective test +of knowledge and we cannot say that we really know until we can express +our knowledge. Expression is thus the great clarification agency and +the test of knowledge. Before leaving this discussion, it might be well +to remark upon one phase of expression that is sometimes a source of +difficulty. This is the embarrassment incident to some forms of +expression, notably oral. Many people are deterred from utilizing this +form of expression because of shyness and embarrassment in the presence +of others. If you have this difficulty in such excess that it hinders +you from free expression, resolve at once to overcome it. Begin at the +very outset of your academic career to form habits of disregarding your +impulses to act in frightened manner. Take a course in public speaking. +The practice thus secured will be a great aid in developing habits of +fearless and free oral expression. + +This discussion has shown that expression is a powerful aid in +learning, and is a most important feature of mental life. Cultivate +your powers of expression, for your college education should consist +not only in the development of habits of impression, but also in the +development of habits of expression. Grasp eagerly every opportunity +for the development of skill in clear and forceful expression. Devote +assiduous attention to themes and all written work, and make serious +efforts to speak well. Remember you are forming habits that will +persist throughout your life. Emphasize, therefore, at every step, +methods of expression, for it is this phase of learning in which you +will find greatest growth. + +EXERCISE + +Exercise I. Give an example from your own experience, showing how +expression (a) stimulates ideas, (b) clarifies ideas. + + + + +CHAPTER XI + +HOW TO BECOME INTERESTED IN A SUBJECT + + +"I can't get interested in Mediaeval History." This illustrates a kind +of complaint frequently made by college students. It is our purpose in +this chapter to show the fallacy of this; to prove that interest may be +developed in an "uninteresting" subject; and to show how. + +In order to lay a firm foundation for our psychologizing, let us +examine into the nature of interest and see what it really is. It has +been defined as: "the recognition of a thing which has been vitally +connected with experience before--a thing recognized as old"; "impulse +to attend"; "interest naturally arouses tendencies to act"; "the root +idea of the term seems to be that of being engaged, engrossed, or +entirely taken up with some activity because of its recognized worth"; +"interest marks the annihilation of the distance between the person and +the materials and results of his action; it is the sign of their +organic union." + +In addition to the characteristics just mentioned should be noted the +pleasurableness that usually attends any activity in which we are +"interested." A growing feeling of pleasure is the sign which notifies +us that we are growing interested in a subject. And it is such an aid +in the performance of work that we should seek earnestly to acquire it +in connection with any work we have to do. + +The persons who make the complaint at the head of this chapter notice +that they take interest easily in certain things: a Jack London story, +a dish of ice cream, a foot-ball game. And they take interest in them +so spontaneously and effortlessly that they think these interests must +be born within them. + +When we examine carefully the interests of man, and trace their +sources, we see that the above view is fallacious. We acquire most of +our interests in the course of our experience. Professor James asserts: +"An adult man's interests are almost every one of them intensely +artificial; they have been slowly built up. The objects of professional +interest are most of them in their original nature, repulsive; but by +their connection with such natively exciting objects as one's personal +fortune, one's social responsibilities and especially by the force of +inveterate habit, they grow to be the only things for which in middle +life a man profoundly cares." + +Since interests are largely products of experience, then, it follows +that if we wish to have an interest in a given subject, we must +consciously and purposefully develop it. There is wide choice open to +us. We may develop interest in early Victorian literature, prize-fight +promoting, social theory, lignitic rocks, history of Siam, the +collection of scarabs, mediaeval history. + +We should not be deceived by the glibness of the above statements into +assuming that the development of interest is an easy matter. It +requires adherence to certain definite psychological laws which we may +call the laws of interest. The first may be stated as follows: _In +order to develop interest in a subject, secure information about it_. +The force of this law will be apparent as soon as we analyze one of our +already-developed interests. Let us take one that is quite common--the +interest which a typical young girl takes in a movie star. Her interest +in him comes largely from what she has been able to learn about him; +the names of the productions in which he has appeared, his age, the +color of his automobile, his favorite novel. Her interest may be said +actually to consist, at least in part, of these facts. The astute press +agent knows the force of this law, and at well-timed intervals he lets +slip through bits of information about the star, which fan the interest +of the fair devotee to a still whiter heat. + +The relation of information to interest is still further illustrated by +the case of the typical university professor or scientist. He is +interested in certain objects of research--infusoria, electrons, plant +ecology,--because he knows so much about them. His interest may be +said to _consist_ partly of the body of knowledge that he possesses. He +was not always interested in the specific, obscure field, but by +saturating himself in facts about it, he has developed an interest in +it amounting to passionate absorption, which manifests itself in +"absent-mindedness" of such profundity as to make him often an object +of wonder and ridicule. + +Let us demonstrate the application of the law again showing how +interest may be developed in a specific college subject. Let us choose +one that is generally regarded as so "difficult" and "abstract" that +not many people are interested in it--philology, the study of language +as a science. Let us imagine that we are trying to interest a student +of law in this. As a first step we shall select some legal term and +show what philology can tell about it. A term frequently encountered in +law is indenture--a certain form of contract. Philological researches +have uncovered an interesting history regarding this word. It seems +that in olden days when two persons made an agreement they wrote it on +two pieces of paper, then notched the edges so that when placed +together, the notches on the edge of one paper would just match those +of the other. This protected both parties against substitution of a +fraudulent contract at time of fulfillment. + +Still earlier in man's development, before he could write, it was +customary to record such agreements by breaking a stick in two pieces +and leaving the jagged ends to be fitted together at time of +fulfillment. Sometimes a bone was used this way. Because its critical +feature was the saw-toothed edge, this kind of contract was called +indenture (derived from the root _dent_--tooth, the same one from which +we derive our word dentist). + +The formal, legal-looking document which we today call an indenture +gives us no hint of its humble origin, but the word when analyzed by +the technique of philology tells the whole story, and throws much light +upon the legal practices of our forbears. Having discovered one such +valuable fact in philology, the student of law may be led to +investigate the science still further and find many more. As a result +still he will become interested in philology. + +By this illustration we have demonstrated the first psychological law +of interest, and also its corollary which is: _State the new in terms +of the old_. For we not only gave our lawyer new information culled +from philological sources; we also introduced our fact in terms of an +old fact which was already "interesting" to the lawyer. This is +recognized as such an important principle in education that it has +become embodied in a maxim: Proceed from the known to the unknown. + +A classic example of good educational practice in this connection is +the way in which Francis W. Parker, a progressive educator of a former +generation, taught geography. When he desired to show how water running +over hard rocky soil produced a Niagara, he took his class down to the +creek behind the school house, built a dam and allowed the water to +flow over it. When he wished to show how water flowing over soft ground +resulted in a deltoid Nile, he took the class to a low, flat portion of +the creek bed and pointed out the effect. The creek bed constituted an +old familiar element in the children's experience. Niagara and the Nile +described in terms of it were intelligible. + +Naturally in modern educational practice it is not always possible to +have miniature waterfalls and river bottoms at hand, still it is +possible to follow this principle. When, in studying Mediaeval History, +you read a description of the guilds, do not regard them as distant, +cold, inert institutions devoid of significance in your life. Rather, +think of them in terms of things you already know: modern Labor Unions, +technical schools, in so far as the comparison holds good. Then trace +their industrial descendants down to the present time. By thus thinking +about the guilds, hitherto distant and uninteresting, you will begin to +see them suffused with meaning, alight with significance, a real part +of yourself. In short, you will have achieved interest. + +There is still another psychological law of interest: _In order to +develop interest in a subject, exert activity toward it_. We see the +force of this law when we observe a man in the process of developing an +interest in golf. At the start he may have no interest in it whatever; +he may even deride it. Yielding to the importunities of his friends, +however, he takes his stick in hand and samples the game. Then he +begins to relent; admits that perhaps there may be something +interesting about the game after all. As he practises with greater +frequency he begins to develop a warmer and still warmer interest until +finally he thinks of little else; neglecting social and professional +obligations and boring his friends _ad nauseum_ with recitals of +golfing incidents. The methods by which the new-fledged golfer develops +an interest in golf will apply with equal effectiveness in the case of +a student. In trying to become interested in Mediaeval History, keep +actively engaged in it. Read book after book dealing with the subject. +Apply it to your studies in Political Economy, English, and American +History. Choose sub-topics in Mediaeval History as the subjects for +themes in English composition courses. Try to help some other student +in the class. Take part in class discussions and talk informally with +the instructor outside of the classroom. Use your ingenuity to devise +methods of keeping active toward the subject. Presently you will +discover that the subject no longer appears cold and forbidding; but +that it glows warm with virility; that it has become interesting. + +It will readily be noticed that the two laws of interest here set forth +are closely interrelated. One can hardly seek information about a +subject without exerting activity toward it; conversely, one cannot +maintain activity on behalf of a subject without at the same time +acquiring information about it. These two easily-remembered and +easily-applied rules of study will go far toward solving some of the +most trying conditions of student life. Memorize them, apply them, and +you will find yourself in possession of a power which will stay with +you long after you quit college walls; one which you may apply with +profit in many different situations of life. + +We have shown in this chapter the fallacy of the assumption that a +student cannot become genuinely interested in a subject which at first +seems uninteresting. + +We have shown that he may develop interest in any subject if he but +employs the proper psychological methods. That he must obey the +two-fold law--secure information about the subject (stating the new in +terms of the old) and exert activity toward it. That when he has thus +lighted the flame of interest, he will find his entire intellectual +life illuminated, glowing with purpose, resplendent with success. + +In concluding this discussion we should note the wide difference +between the quality of study which is done with interest and that done +without it. Under the latter condition the student is a slave, a +drudge; under the former, a god, a creator. Touched by the galvanic +spark he sees new significance in every page, in every line. As his +vision enlarges, he perceives new relations between his study and his +future aims, indeed, between his study and the progress of the +universe. And he goes to his educational tasks not as a prisoner +weighted down by ball and chain, but as an eager prospector infatuated +by the lust for gold. Encouraged by the continual stores of new things +he uncovers, intoxicated by the ozone of mental activity, he delves +continually deeper until finally he emerges rich with knowledge and +full of power--the intellectual power that signifies mastery over a +subject. + +READINGS AND EXERCISES + +Readings: James (8) Chapters X and XI. Dewey (3) + +Exercise I. Show how your interest in some subject, for example, the +game of foot-ball, has grown in proportion to the number of facts you +have discovered about it and the activity you have exerted toward it. + +Exercise 2. Choose some subject in which you are not at present +interested. Make the statement:--"I am determined to develop an +interest in--. I will take the following specific steps toward this +end." + + + + +CHAPTER XII + +THE PLATEAU OF DESPOND + + +In our investigation of the psychology of study we have so far directed +our attention chiefly toward the subjective side of the question, +seeking to discover the _contents_ of mind during study. We shall now +take an objective view of study, examining not the contents of mind nor +methods of study, but the objective results of study. In doing this, we +choose certain units of measurement, the number of minutes required for +learning a given amount or the amount learned in a stated period of +time. We may do this for the learning of any material, whether it be +Greek verbs or typewriting. All that is necessary is to decide upon +some method by which progress can be noted and expressed in numerical +units. This, you will observe, constitutes a statistical approach to +the processes of study, such as is employed in science; and just as the +statistical method has been useful in science, so it may be of value in +education, and by means of statistical investigations of learning we +may hope to discover some of the factors operative in good learning. + +Progress in learning is best observable when we represent our +measurements graphically, when they take the form of a curve, variously +called "the curve of efficiency," "practice curve," "learning curve." +We shall take a sample curve for the basis of our discussion, showing +the progress of a beginner in the Russian language for sixty-five days +(indicated in the figure by horizontal divisions). The student studied +industriously for thirty minutes each day and then translated as +rapidly as possible for fifteen minutes, the number of words translated +being represented by the vertical spaces on the chart. Thus, on the +tenth day, twenty-five words were translated, on the twentieth day, +forty-five words. + +[Illustration (graph): STUDY OF RUSSIAN] + +In making an analysis of this typical curve, we note immediately an +exceeding irregularity. At one time there is extraordinary +improvement, but a later measurement registers pronounced loss. This +irregularity is very common in learning. Some days we do a great amount +of work and do it well, but perhaps the very next day shows marked +diminution in our work. + +The second characteristic we note is that there is extremely rapid +progress at the beginning, the curve slanting up quite sharply. This is +common in learning, and may be accounted for in several ways. In the +first place, the easiest things come first. For example, when you are +beginning the study of German, you are given mostly monosyllabic words +to learn. These are easily remembered, hence progress is rapid. A +second reason is that at the beginning there are many different +respects in which progress can be made. For example, the beginner in +German must learn nouns, case endings, declension of adjectives, days +of the week; in short, a vast number of new things all at once. At a +later period however, the number of new things to be learned is much +smaller and improvement cannot be so rapid. A third reason why learning +proceeds more rapidly at first is that the interest is greater at this +time. You have doubtless many times experienced this fact, and you know +that when a thing has the interest of novelty you work harder upon it. + +If you will examine the learning curve closely, you will note that +after the initial spurt, there is a slowing up. The curve at this point +resembles a plateau and indicates cessation of progress if not +retrogression. This period of no progress is regarded as a +characteristic of the learning curve and is a time of great +discouragement to the conscientious student, so distressing that we may +designate it "the plateau of despond." Most people describe it as a +time when they feel unable to learn more about a subject; the mind +seems to be sated; new ideas cannot be assimilated, and old ones seem +to be forgotten. The plateau may extend for a long or a short time, +depending upon the nature of the subject-matter and the length of time +over which the learning extends. In the case of professional training, +it may extend over a year or more. In the case of growing children in +school, it sometimes happens that an entire year elapses during which +the learning of an apparently bright student is retarded. In a course +of study in high school or college, it may come on about the third week +and extend a month or more. Something akin to the plateau may come in +the course of a day, when we realize that our efficiency is greatly +diminished and we seem, for an hour or more, to make no progress. + +Inasmuch as the plateau is such a common occurrence in human activity, +we should analyze it and see what factors operate to influence it. It +is interesting to note that the plateau generally occurs just before an +abrupt rise in efficiency. This is significant, for it may mean that +the plateau is necessary in learning, especially just before reaching +the really advanced stages of proficiency. Accordingly, when you are +experiencing a plateau in the mastery of some accomplishment, you may +perhaps derive some comfort from the prospect of an approaching rise in +efficiency. On the theory that it is a necessary part of learning, it +has been regarded as a resting place. We are so constituted by nature +that we cannot run on indefinitely; nature sometimes must call a halt. +Consequently, the plateau may be a warning that we cannot learn more +for the present and that the proper remedy is to refrain for a little +while from further efforts in that line. We have possible justification +for this interpretation when we reflect that a vacation does us much +good, and though we begin it feeling stale, we end it feeling much +fresher and more efficient. + +But to stop work temporarily is not the only way to meet a plateau, and +fatigue or ennui is probably not the sole or most compelling +explanation. It may be that we should not regard the objective results +as the true measure of learning; perhaps learning is going on even +though the results are not apparent. We discovered something in the +nature of unconscious learning in our discussion of memory, and it may +be that a period of little objective progress marks a period of active +unconscious learning. + +Another meaning which the plateau may have is simply to mark places of +greater difficulty. As already remarked, the early period is a stage of +comparative ease, but as the work becomes more difficult, progress is +slower. It is also quite likely that the plateau may indicate that some +of the factors operative at the start are operative no longer. Thus, +although the learning was rapid at the beginning because the material +learned at that time was easy, the plateau may come because the things +to be learned have become difficult. Or, whereas the beginning was +attacked with considerable interest, the plateau may mean that the +interest is dying down, and that less effort is being exerted. + +If these theories are the true explanation of the plateau, we see that +it is not to be regarded as a time of reduction in learning, to be +contemplated with despair. The appropriate attitude may be one of +resignation, with the determination to make it as slightly disturbing +as possible. But though the reasons just described may have something +to do with the production of the plateau, as yet we have no evidence +that the plateau cannot be dispensed with. It is practically certain +that the plateau is not caused entirely by necessity for rest or +unconscious learning. It frequently is due, we must regretfully admit, +to poor early preparation. If at the beginning of a period of learning +an insecure foundation is laid, it cannot be expected to support the +burden of more difficult subject-matter. + +We have enumerated a number of the explanations that have been advanced +to account for the plateau, and have seen that it may have several +causes, among which are necessity for rest, increased difficulty of +subject-matter, loss of interest and insufficient preparation. In +trying to eliminate the plateau, our remedy should be adapted to the +cause. In recognition of the fact that learning proceeds irregularly, +we see that it is rational to expect the amount of effort to be exerted +throughout a period of learning, to vary. It will vary partly with the +difficulty of subject-matter and partly with fluctuations in bodily and +mental efficiency which are bound to occur from day to day. Since this +irregularity is bound to occur, you may well make your effort vary from +one extreme to the other. At times, perhaps your most profitable move +may be to take a complete vacation. The vacation might cover several +weeks, a week-end, or if the plateau is merely a low period in the +day's work, then ten minutes may suffice for a vacation. As an adjunct +to such rest periods, some form of recreation should usually be +planned, for the essential thing is to permit the mind to rest from the +tiresome activity. + +If your plateau represents greater difficulty of subject-matter and +loss of interest, your duty is plainly to work harder. In exerting more +effort, make some changes in your methods of study. For example, if you +have been accustomed to study a certain subject by silent reading, +begin to read your lessons aloud. Change your method of taking notes, +or change the hour of day in which you prepare your lesson. In short, +try any of the methods described in this book, and use your own +ingenuity, and the change in method may overcome the plateau. + +If a plateau is due to our last-mentioned cause, insufficient +preparation, the remedy must be drastic. To make new resolutions and to +put forth additional effort is not enough; you must go back and relay +the foundation. Make a thorough review of the work which you covered +slightingly, making sure that every step is clear. This process was +described in an earlier chapter as the clarification of ideas and is +absolutely essential in building up a structure of knowledge that will +stand. Indeed, as you take various courses you will find that your +study will be much improved by periodical reviews. The benefits cannot +all be enumerated here, but we may reasonably claim that a review will +be very likely to remove a plateau, and used with the other remedies +herein suggested, will help you to rid yourself of one of the most +discouraging features of student life. + +READING AND EXERCISE + +Reading: Swift (20) Chapter IV. + +Exercise I. Describe one or more plateaus that you have observed in +your own experience. What do you regard as the causes? + + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +MENTAL SECOND-WIND + + +Did you ever engage in any exhausting physical work for a long period +of time? If so, you probably remember that as you proceeded, you became +more and more fatigued, finally reaching a point when it seemed that +you could not endure the strain another minute. You had just decided to +give up, when suddenly the fatigue seemed to diminish and new energy +seemed to come from some source. This curious thing, which happens +frequently in athletic activities, is known as second-wind, and is +described, by those who have experienced it, as a time of increased +power, when the work is done with greater ease and effectiveness and +with a freshness and vigor in great contrast to the staleness that +preceded it. It is as though one "tapped a level of new energy," +revealing hidden stores of unexpected power. And it is commonly +reported that with persistence in pushing one's self farther and +farther, a third and fourth wind may be uncovered, each one leading to +greater heights of achievement. + +This phenomenon occurs not alone on the physical plane; it is +discernible in mental exertion as well. True, we seldom experience it +because we are mentally lazy and have the habit of stopping our work at +the first signs of fatigue. Did we persist, however, disregarding +fatigue and ennui, we should find ourselves tapping vast reserves of +mental power and accomplishing mental feats of astonishing brilliancy. + +The occasional occurrence of the phenomenon of second-wind gives ground +for the statement that we possess more energy than we ordinarily use. +There are several lines of evidence for this statement. One is to be +found in the energizing effects of emotional excitement. Under the +impetus of anger, a man shows far greater strength than he ordinarily +uses. Similarly, a mother manifests the strength of a tigress when her +young is endangered. A second line of evidence is furnished by the +effect of stimulants. Alcohol brings to the fore surprising reserves of +physical and psychic energy. Lastly, we have innumerable instances of +accession of strength under the stimulus of an idea. Under the +domination of an all-absorbing idea, one performs feats of +extraordinary strength, utilizing stores of energy otherwise out of +reach. We have only to read of the heroic achievements of little Joan +of Arc for an example of such manifestation of reserve power. + +When we examine this accession of energy we find it to be describable +in several ways--physiologically, neurologically and psychologically. +The physiological effects consist in a heightening of the bodily +functions in general. The muscles become more ready to act, the +circulation is accelerated, the breathing more rapid. Curious things +take place in various glands throughout the body. One, the adrenal +gland, has been the object of special study and has been shown, upon +the arousal of these reserves of energy, to produce a secretion of the +utmost importance in providing for sudden emergencies. This little +gland is located above the kidney, and is aroused to intense activity +at times, pouring out into the blood a fluid that goes all over the +body. Some of its effects are to furnish the blood with chemicals that +act as fuel to the muscles, assisting them to contract more vigorously, +to make the lungs more active in introducing oxygen into the system, to +make the heart more active in distributing the blood throughout the +body. Such glandular activity is an important physiological condition +of these higher levels of energy. In neurological terms, the increase +in energy consists in the flow of more nervous energy into the brain, +particularly into those areas where it is needed for certain kinds of +controlled thought and action. An abundance of nervous energy is very +advantageous, for, as has been intimated in a former chapter, nervous +energy is diffused and spread over all the pathways that are easily +permeable to its distribution. This results in the use of considerable +areas of brain surface, and knits up many associations, so that one +idea calls up many other ideas. This leads us to recognize the +psychological conditions of increased energy, which are, first, the +presence of more ideas, second, the more facile flow of ideas; the +whole accompanied by a state of marked pleasurableness. Pleasure is a +notable effect of increased energy. When work progresses rapidly and +satisfactorily, it is accomplished with great zest and a feeling almost +akin to exaltation. These conditions describe to some degree the +conditions when we are doing efficient work. + +Since we are endowed with the energy requisite for such efficient work, +the obvious question is, why do we not more frequently use it? The +answer is to be found in the fact that we have formed the habit of +giving up before we create conditions of high efficiency. You will note +that the conditions require long-continued exertion and resolute +persistence. This is difficult, and we indulgently succumb to the first +symptoms of fatigue, before we have more than scratched the surface of +our real potentialities. + +Because of the prominent place occupied by fatigue in thus being +responsible for our diminished output, we shall briefly consider its +place in study. Everyone who has studied will agree that fatigue is an +almost invariable attendant of continuous mental exertion. We shall lay +down the proposition at the start, however, that the awareness of +fatigue is not the same as the objective fatigue in the organs of the +body. Fatigue should be regarded as a twofold thing--a state of mind, +designated its subjective aspect, and a condition of various parts of +the body, designated its objective aspect. The former is observable by +introspection, the latter by analysis of bodily secretions and by +measurement of the diminution of work, entirely without reference to +the way the mind regards the work. Fatigue subjectively, or fatigue as +we _feel_ it, is not at all the same as fatigue as manifested in the +body. If we were to make two curves, the one showing the advancement of +the _feeling_ of fatigue, and the other showing the advancement of +impotence on the part of the bodily processes, the two curves would not +at all coincide. Stated another way, fatigue is a complex thing, a +product of ideas, feelings and sensations, and sometimes the ideas +overbalance the sensations and we think we are more tired then we are +objectively. It is this fact that accounts for our too rapid giving up +when we are engaged in hard work. + +A psychological analysis of the subjective side of fatigue will make +its true nature more apparent. Probably the first thing we find in the +mind when fatigued is a large mass of sensations. They are referred to +various parts of the body, mostly the part where muscular activity has +been most violent and prolonged. Not all of the sensations, however, +are intense enough to be localizable, some being so vague that we +merely say we are "tired all over." These vague sensations are often +overlooked; nevertheless, as will be shown later, they may be +exceedingly important. + +But sensations are not the only contents of the mind at time of +fatigue. Feelings are present also, usually of a very unpleasant kind. +They are related partly to the sensations mentioned above, which are +essentially painful, and they are feelings of boredom and ennui. We +have yet to examine the ideas in mind and their behavior at time of +fatigue. They come sluggishly, associations being made slowly and +inaccurately, and we make many mistakes. But constriction of ideas is +not the sole effect of fatigue. At such a time there are usually other +ideas in the mind not relevant to the fatiguing task of the moment, +and exceedingly distracting. Often they are so insistent in forcing +themselves upon our attention that we throw up the work without further +effort. It is practically certain that much of our fatigue is due, not +to real weariness and inability to work, but to the presence of ideas +that appear so attractive in contrast with the work in hand that we say +we are tired of the latter. What we really mean is that we would rather +do something else. These obtruding ideas are often introduced into our +minds by other people who tell us that we have worked long enough and +ought to come and play, and though we may not have felt tired up to +this point, still the suggestion is so strong that we immediately begin +to feel tired. Various social situations can arouse the same +suggestion. For example, as the clock nears quitting time, we feel that +we ought to be tired, so we allow ourselves to think we are. + +Let us now examine the bodily conditions to see what fatigue is +objectively. "Physiologically it has been demonstrated that fatigue is +accompanied by three sorts of changes. First, poisons accumulate in the +blood and affect the action of the nervous system, as has been shown by +direct analysis. Mosso ... selected two dogs as nearly alike as +possible. One he kept tied all day; the other, he exercised until by +night it was thoroughly tired. Then he transfused the blood of the +tired animal into the veins of the rested one and produced in him all +the signs of fatigue that were shown by the other. There can be no +doubt that the waste products of the body accumulate in the blood and +interfere with the action of the nerve cells and muscles. It is +probable that these accumulations come as a result of mental as well as +of physical work. + +"A second change in fatigue has been found in the cell body of the +neurone. Hodge showed that the size of the nucleus of the cell in the +spinal cord of a bee diminished nearly 75 per cent, as a result of the +day's activity, and that the nucleus became much less solid. A third +change that has been demonstrated as a result of muscular work is the +accumulation of waste products in the muscle tissue. Fatigued muscles +contain considerable percentages of these products. That they are +important factors in the fatigue process has been shown by washing them +from a fatigued muscle. As a result the muscle gains new capacity for +work. The experiments are performed on the muscles of a frog that have +been cut from the body and fatigued by electrical stimulation. When +they will no longer respond, their sensitivity may be renewed by +washing them in dilute alcohol or in a weak salt solution that will +dissolve the products of fatigue. It is probable that these products +stimulate the sense-organs in the muscles and thus give some of the +sensations of fatigue. Of these physical effects of fatigue, the +accumulation of waste products in the blood and the effects upon the +nerve cells are probably common both to mental and physical fatigue. +The effect upon the muscles plays a part in mental fatigue only so far +as all mental work involves some muscular activity." + +By this time you must be convinced that the subject of fatigue is +exceedingly complicated; that its effects are manifested differently in +mind and body. In relieving fatigue the first step to be taken is to +rest properly. Man cannot work incessantly; he must rest sometimes, and +it is just as important to know how to rest efficiently as to know how +to work efficiently. By this is not meant that one should rest as soon +as fatigue begins to be felt. Quite the reverse. Keep on working all +the harder if you wish the second-wind to appear. Perhaps two hours +will exhaust your first supply of energy and will leave you greatly +fatigued. Do not give up at this time, however. Push yourself farther +in order to uncover the second layer of energy. Before entering upon +this, however, it will be possible to secure some advantage by resting +for about fifteen minutes. Do not rest longer than this, or you may +lose the momentum already secured and your two hours will have gone for +naught. If one indulges in too long a rest, the energy seems to run +down and more effort is required to work it up again than was +originally expended. It is also important to observe the proper mental +conditions during rest. Do not spend the fifteen minutes in getting +interested in some other object; for that will leave distracting ideas +in the mind which will persist when you resume work. Make the rest a +time of physical and mental relief. Move cramped muscles, rest your +eyes and let your thoughts idly wander; then come back to work in ten +or fifteen minutes and you will be amazed at the refreshed feeling with +which you do your work and at the accession of new energy that will +come to you. Keep on at this new plane and your work will take on all +the attributes of the second-wind level of efficiency. + +Besides planning intelligent rests, you may also adjust yourself to +fatigue by arranging your daily program so as to do your hardest work +when you are fresh, and your easiest when your efficiency is low. In +other words, you are a human dynamo, and should adjust yourself to the +different loads you carry. When carrying a heavy load, employ your best +energies, but when carrying only a light load, exert a proportionate +amount of energy. Every student has tasks of a routine nature which do +not require a high degree of energy, such as copying material. Plan to +perform such work when your stock of energy is lowest. + +One of the best ways to insure the attainment of a higher plane of +mental efficiency is to assume an attitude of interestedness. This is +an emotional state and we have seen that emotion calls forth great +energy. + +A final aid in promoting increase of energy is that gained through +stimulating ideas. Other things being equal, the student who is +animated by a stimulating idea works more diligently and effectively +than one without. The idea may be a lofty professional ideal; it may be +a desire to please one's family, a sense of duty, or a wish to excel. +Whatever it is, an idea may stimulate to extraordinary achievements. +Adopt some compelling aim if you have none. A vocational aim often +serves as a powerful incentive throughout one's student life. An idea +may operate for even more transient purposes; it may make one oblivious +to present discomfort to a remarkable degree. This is accomplished +through the aid of suggestion. When feelings of fatigue approach, you +may ward them off by resolutely suggesting to yourself that you are +feeling fresh. + +Above all, the will is effective in lifting one to higher levels of +efficiency. It is notorious that a single effort of the will, "such as +saying 'no' to some habitual temptation or performing some courageous +act, will launch a man on a higher level of energy for days and weeks, +will give him a new range of power. 'In the act of uncorking the +whiskey bottle which I had brought home to get drunk upon,' said a man +to me, 'I suddenly found myself running out into the garden, where I +smashed it on the ground. I felt so happy and uplifted after this act, +that for two months I wasn't tempted to touch a drop.'" But the results +of exertions of the will are not usually so immediate, and you may +accept it as a fact that in raising yourself to a higher level of +energy you cannot do it by a single effort. Continuous effort is +required until the higher levels of energy have _formed the habit_ of +responding when work is to be done. In laying the burden upon Nature's +mechanism of habit, you see you are again face to face with the +proposition laid down at the beginning of the book--that education +consists in the process of forming habits of mind. The particular habit +most important to cultivate in connection with the production of +second-wind is the habit of resisting fatigue. Form the habit of +persisting in spite of apparent obstacles and limitations. Though they +seem almost unsurmountable, they are really only superficial. Buried +deep within you are stores of energy that you yourself are unaware of. +They will assist you in accomplishing feats far greater than you think +yourself capable of. Draw upon these resources and you will find +yourself gradually living and working upon a higher plane of +efficiency, improving the quality of your work, increasing the quantity +of your work and enhancing your enjoyment in work. + + +READINGS AND EXERCISE + +Readings: James (9) Seashore (14) Chapter III. Swift (20) Chapter V. + +Exercise I. Describe conditions you have observed at time of +second-wind in connection with prolonged (a) physical exertion, (b) +intellectual exertion. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV + +EXAMINATIONS + + +One of the most vexatious periods of student life is examination time. +This is almost universally a time of great distress, giving rise in +extreme cases to conditions of nervous collapse. The reason for this is +not far to seek, for upon the results of examinations frequently depend +momentous consequences, such as valuable appointments, diplomas, +degrees and other important events in the life of a student. In view of +the importance of examinations, then, it is natural that they be +regarded with considerable fear and trepidation, and it is important +that we devise what rules we can for meeting their exactious demands +with greatest ease and effectiveness. + +Examinations serve several purposes, the foremost of which is to inform +the examiner regarding the amount of knowledge possessed by the +student. In discovering this, two methods may be employed; first, to +test whether or not the student knows certain things, plainly a +reproductive exercise; second, to see how well the student can apply +his knowledge. But this is not the only function of an examination. It +also shows the student how much he knows or does not know. Again the +examination often serves as an incentive to harder work on the part of +the student, for if one knows there will be an examination in a +subject, one usually studies with greater zeal than when an examination +is not expected. Lastly, an examination may help the student to link up +facts in new ways, and to see them in new relationships. In this +aspect, you readily see that examinations constitute a valuable device +in learning. + +But students are not very patient in philosophizing about the purpose +of examinations, declaring that if examinations are a necessary part of +the educational process, they wish some advice that will enable them to +pass examinations easily and with credit to themselves. So we shall +turn our attention to the practical problems of passing examinations. + +Our first duty in giving advice is to call attention to the necessity +for faithful work throughout the course of study. Some students seem to +think that they can slight their work throughout a course, and by +vigorous cramming at the end make up for slighted work and pass the +examination. This is an extremely dangerous attitude to take. It might +work with certain kinds of subject-matter, a certain type of +student-mind and a certain kind of examiner, but as a general practice +it is a most treacherous method of passing a course. The greatest +objection from a psychological standpoint is that we have reason to +believe that learning thus concentrated is not so permanently effective +as that extended over a long period of time. For instance, a German +course extending over a year has much to commend it over a course with +the same number of recitation-hours crowded into two months. We already +discussed the reasons for this in Chapter VI, when we showed the +beneficial results coming from the distribution of impressions over a +period of time. + +Against cramming it may further be urged that the hasty impression of a +mass of new material is not likely to be lasting; particularly is this +true when the cramming is made specifically for a certain examination. +As we saw in the chapter on memory, the intention to remember affects +the firmness of retention, and if the cramming is done merely with +reference to the examination, the facts learned may be forgotten and +never be available for future use. So we may lay it down as a rule that +feverish exertions at the end of a course cannot replace conscientious +work throughout the course. In spite of these objections, however, we +must admit that cramming has some value, if it does not take the form +of new acquisition of facts, but consists more of a manipulation of +facts already learned. As a method of review, it has an eminently +proper place and may well be regarded as indispensable. Some students, +it is true, assert that they derive little benefit from a +pre-examination review, but one is inclined to question their methods. +We have already found that learning is characteristically aided by +reviews, and that recall is facilitated by recency of impression. +Reviewing just before examination serves the memory by providing +repetition and recency, which, as we learned in the chapter on memory, +are conditions for favorable impression. + +A further value of cramming is that by means of such a summarizing +review one is able to see facts in a greater number of relations than +before. It too often happens that when facts are taken up in a course +they come in a more or less detached form, but at the conclusion of the +course a review will show the facts in perspective and will disclose +many new relations between them. + +Another advantage of cramming is that at such a time, one usually works +at a high plane of efficiency; the task of reviewing in a few hours the +work of an entire course is so huge that the attention is closely +concentrated, impressions are made vividly, and the entire mentality is +tuned up so that facts are well impressed, coordinated and retained. +These advantages are not all present in the more leisurely learning of +a course, so we see that cramming may be regarded as a useful device in +learning. + +We must not forget that many of the advantages secured by cramming are +dependent upon the methods pursued. There are good methods and poor +methods of cramming. One of the most reprehensible of the latter is to +get into a flurry and scramble madly through a mass of facts without +regard to their relation to each other. This method is characterized by +breathless haste and an anxious fear lest something be missed or +forgotten. Perhaps its most serious evil is its formlessness and lack +of plan. In other words the facts should not be seized upon singly but +should be regarded in the light of their different relations with each +other. Suppose, for example, you are reviewing for an examination in +mediaeval history. The important events may be studied according to +countries, studying one country at a time, but that is not sufficient; +the events occurring during one period in one country should be +correlated with those occurring in another country at the same time. +Likewise the movements in the field of science and discovery should be +correlated with movements in the fields of literature, religion and +political control. Tabulate the events in chronological order and +compare the different series of events with each other. In this way the +facts will be seen in new relations and will be more firmly impressed +so that you can use them in answering a great variety of questions. + +Having made preparation of the subject-matter of the examination, the +next step is to prepare yourself physically for the trying ordeal, for +it is well known that the mind acts more ably under physically +healthful conditions. Go to the examination-room with your body rested +after a good night's sleep. Eat sparingly before the examination, for +mental processes are likely to be clogged if too heavy food is taken. + +Having reached the examination-room, there are a number of +considerations that are requisite for success. Some of the advice here +given may seem to be superfluous but if you had ever corrected +examination papers you would see the need of it all. Let your first +step consist of a preliminary survey of the examination questions; read +them all over slowly and thoughtfully in order to discover the extent +of the task set before you. A striking thing is accomplished by this +preliminary reading of the questions. It seems as though during the +examination period the knowledge relating to the different questions +assembles itself, and while you are focusing your attention upon the +answer to one question, the answers to the other questions are +formulating themselves in your mind. It is a semi-conscious operation, +akin to the "unconscious learning" discussed in the chapter on memory. +In order to take advantage of it, it is necessary to have the questions +in mind as soon as possible; then it will be found that relevant +associations will form and will come to the surface when you reach the +particular questions. + +During the examination when some of these associations come into +consciousness ahead of time, it is often wise to digress from the +question in hand long enough to jot them down. By all means preserve +them, for if you do not write them down they may leave you and be lost. +Sometimes very brilliant ideas come in flashes, and inasmuch as they +are so fleeting, it is wise to grasp them and fix them while they are +fresh. + +In writing the examination, be sure you read every question carefully. +Each question has a definite point; look for it, and do not start +answering until you are sure you have found it. Discover the +implications of each question; canvass its possible interpretations, +and if it is at all ambiguous seek light from the instructor if he is +willing to make any further comment. + +It is well to have scratch paper handy and make outlines for your +answers to long questions. It is a good plan, also, when dealing with +long questions, to watch the time carefully, for there is danger that +you will spend too much time upon some question to the detriment of +others equally important, though shorter. + +One error which students often commit in taking examinations is to +waste time in dreaming. As they come upon a difficult question they sit +back and wait for the answer to come to them. This is the wrong plan. +The secret of freedom of ideas lies in activity. Therefore, at such +times, keep active, so that the associative processes will operate +freely. Stimulate brain activity by the method suggested in Chapter X, +namely, by means of muscular activity. Instead of idly waiting for +flashes of inspiration, begin to write. You may not be able to write +directly upon the point at issue, but you can write something about it, +and as you begin to explore and to express your meagre fund of +knowledge, one idea will call up another and soon the correct answer +will appear. + +After you have prepared yourself to the extent of your ability, you +should maintain toward the examination an attitude of confidence. +Believe firmly that you will pass the examination. Make strong +suggestions to yourself, affirming positively that you have the +requisite amount of information and the ability to express it +coherently and forcefully. Fortified by the consciousness of faithful +application throughout the work of a course, reinforced by a thorough, +well-planned review, and with a firm conviction in the strength of your +own powers, you may approach your examinations with comparative ease +and with good chances of passing them creditably. + +READINGS AND EXERCISE + +Readings: + +Adams (1) Chapter X. + +Dearborn (2) Chapter II. + +Exercise I. Make a schedule of your examinations for the next +examination week. Show exactly what preparatory steps you will take (a) +before coming to the examination room, (6) after entering it. + + + + +CHAPTER XV + +BODILY CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE STUDY + + +It is a truism to say that mental ability is affected by bodily +conditions. A common complaint of students is that they cannot study +because of a headache, or they fail in class because of loss of sleep. +So patent is the interrelation between bodily condition and study that +we cannot consider our discussion of study problems complete without +recognition of the topic. We shall group our discussions about three of +the most important physical activities, eating, sleeping and +exercising. These make up the greater part of our daily activities and +if they are properly regulated our study is likely to be effective. + +FOOD.--It is generally agreed that the main function of food is to +repair the tissues of the body. Other effects are present, such as +pleasure and sociability, but its chief benefit is reparative, so we +may well regard the subject from a strictly utilitarian standpoint and +inquire how we may produce the highest efficiency from our eating. Some +of the important questions about eating are, how much to eat, what kind +of food to eat, when to eat, what are the most favorable conditions for +eating? + +The quantity of food to be taken varies with the demands of the +individual appetite and the individual powers of absorption. In +general, one who is engaged in physical labor needs more, because of +increased appetite and increased waste of tissues. So a farm-hand needs +more food than a college student, whose work is mostly indoors and +sedentary. Much has been said recently about the ills of overeating. +One of the most enthusiastic defenders of a decreased diet is Mr. +Horace Fletcher, who, by the practice of protracted mastication, +"contrives to satisfy the appetite while taking an exceptionally small +amount of food. Salivary digestion is favored and the mechanical +subdivision of the food is carried to an extreme point. Remarkably +complete digestion and absorption follow. By faithfully pursuing this +system Mr. Fletcher has vastly bettered his general health, and is a +rare example of muscular and mental power for a man above sixty years +of age. He is a vigorous pedestrian and mountain-climber and holds +surprising records for endurance tests in the gymnasium. + +"The chief gain observed in his case, as in others which are more or +less parallel, is the acquiring of immunity to fatigue, both muscular +and central. It is not claimed that the sparing diet confers great +strength for momentary efforts--'explosive strength,' as the term +goes--but that moderate muscular contractions may be repeated many +times with far less discomfort than before. The inference appears to be +that the subject who eats more than is best has in his circulation and +his tissues by-products which act like the muscular waste which is +normally responsible for fatigue. According to this conception he is +never really fresh for his task, but is obliged to start with a +handicap. When he reduces his diet the cells and fluids of his body +free themselves of these by-products and he realizes a capacity quite +unguessed in the past. + +"The same assumption explains the fact mentioned by Mr. Fletcher, that +the hours of sleep can be reduced decidedly when the diet is cut down. +It would seem as though a part of our sleep might often be due to +avoidable auto-intoxication. If one can shorten his nightly sleep +without feeling the worse for it this is an important gain." + +But the amount of food is probably not so important as the kind. Foods +containing much starch, as potatoes and rice, may ordinarily be taken +in greater quantities than foods containing much protein, such as meats +and nuts. So our problem is not so much concerned with quantity as with +the choice of kinds of food. Probably the most favorable distribution +of foods for students is a predominance of fruits, coarse cereals, +starch and sugar and less prominence to meats. Do not begin the day's +study on a breakfast of cakes. They are a heavy tax upon the digestive +powers and their nutritive value is low. The mid-day meal is also a +crucial factor in determining the efficiency of afternoon study, and +many students almost completely incapacitate themselves for afternoon +work by a too-heavy noon meal. Frequently an afternoon course is +rendered quite valueless because the student drowses through the +lecture soddened by a heavy lunch. One way of overcoming this +difficulty is by dispensing with the mid-day meal; another way is to +drink a small amount of coffee, which frequently keeps people awake; +but these devices are not to be universally recommended. + +The heavy meal of a student may well come at evening. It should consist +of a varied assortment of foods with some liquids, preferably clear +soup, milk and water. Meat also forms a substantial part of this meal, +though ordinarily it should not be taken more than once a day. Much is +heard nowadays about the dangers of excessive meat-eating and the +objections are well-founded in the case of brain-workers. The +undesirable effects are "an unprofitable spurring of the metabolism-- +more particularly objectionable in warm weather--and the menace of +auto-intoxication." Too much protein, found in meat, lays a burden upon +the liver and kidneys and when the burden is too great, wastes, which +cannot be taken care of, gather and poison the blood, giving rise to +that feeling of being "tired all over" which is so inimical to mental +and physical exertion. When meat is eaten, care should be taken to +choose right kinds. "Some kinds of meat are well known to occasion +indigestion. Pork and veal are particularly feared. While we may not +know the reason why these foods so often disagree with people, it seems +probable that texture is an important consideration. In both these +meats the fibre is fine, and fat is intimately mingled with the lean. A +close blending of fat with nitrogenous matter appears to give a fabric +which is hard to digest. The same principle is illustrated by +fat-soaked fried foods. Under the cover of the fat, thorough-going +bacterial decomposition of the proteins may be accomplished with the +final release of highly poisonous products. Attacks of acute +indigestion resulting from this cause are much like the so-called +ptomaine poisoning." + +Much of the benefit of meat may be secured from other foods. Fat, for +example, may be obtained from milk and butter freed from the +objectionable qualities of the meat-fibre. In this connection it is +important to call attention to the use of fried fat. Avoid fat that is +mixed with starch particles in such foods as fried potatoes and +pie-crust. + +The conditions during meals should always be as pleasant as possible. +This refers both to physical surroundings and mental condition. "The +processes occurring in the alimentary canal are greatly subject to +influences radiating from the brain. It is especially striking that +both the movements of the stomach and the secretion of the gastric +juice may be inhibited as a result of disturbing circumstances. +Intestinal movements may be modified in similar fashion." + +"Cannon has collected various instances of the suspension of digestion +in consequence of disagreeable experiences, and it would be easy for +almost anyone to add to his list. He tells us, for example, of the case +of a woman whose stomach was emptied under the direction of a +specialist in order to ascertain the degree of digestion undergone by a +prescribed breakfast. The dinner of the night before was recovered and +was found almost unaltered. Inquiry led to the fact that the woman had +passed a night of intense agitation as the result of misconduct on the +part of her husband. People who are seasick some hours after a meal +vomit undigested food. Apprehension of being sick has probably +inhibited the gastric activities. + +"Just as a single occasion of painful emotion may lead to a passing +digestive disturbance, so continued mental depression, worry, or grief +may permanently impair the working of the (alimentary) tract and +undermine the vigor and capacity of the sufferer. Homesickness is not +to be regarded lightly as a cause of malnutrition. Companionship is a +powerful promoter of assimilation. The attractive serving of food, a +pleasant room, and good ventilation are of high importance. The lack of +these, so commonly faced by the lonely student or the young man making +a start in a strange city, may be to some extent counteracted by the +cultivation of optimism and the mental discipline which makes it +possible to detach one's self from sordid surroundings." + +Almost as important as eating is drinking, for liquids constitute the +"largest item in the income" of the body. Free drinking is recommended +by physiologists, the beneficial results being, "the avoidance of +constipation, and the promotion of the elimination of dissolved waste +by the kidneys and possibly the liver." In regard to the use of water +with meals, a point upon which emphatic cautions were formerly offered, +recent experiments have failed to show any bad effects from this, and +the advice is now given to drink "all the water that one chooses with +meals." Caution should be observed, however, about introducing hot and +cold liquids into the stomach in quick succession. + +Other liquids have been much discussed by dietitians, especially tea +and coffee. "These beverages owe what limited food value they have to +the cream and sugar usually mixed with them. They give pleasure by +their aroma, but they are given a peculiar position among articles of +diet by the presence in them of the compound caffein, which is +distinctly a drug. It is a stimulant to the heart, the kidneys, and the +central nervous system." + +"Individual susceptibility to the action of caffein varies greatly. +Where one person notices little or no reaction after a cup of coffee, +another is exhilarated to a marked degree and hours later may find +himself lying sleepless with tense or trembling muscles, a dry, burning +skin, and a mind feverishly active. Often it is found that a more +protracted disturbance follows the taking of coffee with cream than is +caused by black coffee. + +"It is too much to claim that the use of tea and coffee is altogether +to be condemned. Many people, nevertheless, are better without them. +For all who find themselves strongly stimulated it is the part of +wisdom to limit the enjoyment of these decoctions to real emergencies +when uncommon demands are made upon the endurance and when for a time +hygienic considerations have to be ignored. If young people will +postpone the formation of the habit they will have one more resource +when the pressure of mature life becomes severe." + +Before concluding this discussion a word might be added concerning the +relation between fasting and mental activity. Prolonged abstinence from +food frequently results in highly sharpened intellectual powers. +Numerous examples of this are found in the literature of history and +biography; many actors, speakers and singers habitually fast before +public performances. There are some disadvantages to fasting, +especially loss of weight and weakness, but when done under the +direction of a physician, fasting has been known to produce very +beneficial effects. It is mentioned here because it has such marked +effects in speeding up the mental processes and clearing the mind; and +the well-nourished student may find the practice a source of mental +strength during times of stress such as examinations. + +SLEEP.--"About one-third of an average human life is passed in the +familiar and yet mysterious state which we call sleep. From one point +of view this seems a large inroad upon the period in which our +consciousness has its exercise; a subtraction of twenty-five years from +the life of one who lives to be seventy-five. Yet we know that the +efficiency and comfort of the individual demand the surrender of all +this precious time. It has often been said that sleep is a more +imperative necessity than food, and the claim seems to be well +founded." It is quite likely that some students indulge in too much +sleep. This may sometimes be due to laziness, but frequently it is due +to actual intoxication, from an excess of food which results in the +presence of poisonous "narcotizing substances absorbed from the +burdened intestine". This theory is rendered tenable by the fact that +when the diet is reduced the hours of sleep may be reduced. If one is +in good health, it seems right to expect that one should be able to +arise gladly and briskly upon awaking. By all means do not indulge +yourself in long periods of lying in bed after a good night's rest. If +we examine the physical and physiological conditions of sleep we shall +better understand its hygiene. Sleep is a state in which the tissues of +the body which have been used up may be restored. Of course some +restoration of broken-down tissue takes place as soon as it begins to +wear out, but so long as the body keeps working, the one process can +never quite compensate for the other, so there must be a periodic +cessation of activity so that the energies of the body may be devoted +to restoration. Viewing sleep as a time when broken-down bodily cells +are restored, we see that we tax the energies of the body less if we go +to sleep each day before the cells are entirely depleted. That is the +significance of the old teaching that sleep before midnight is more +efficacious than sleep after midnight. It is not that there is any +mystic virtue in the hours before twelve, but that in the early part of +the evening the cells are not so nearly exhausted as they are later in +the evening, and it is much easier to repair them in the partially +exhausted stage than it is in the completely exhausted stage. For this +reason, a mid-day nap is often effective, or a short nap after the +evening dinner. By thus catching the cells at an early stage of their +exhaustion, they can be restored with comparative ease, and more energy +will be available for use during the remainder of the working hours. + +A problem that may occasionally trouble a student is sleeplessness and +we may properly consider here some of the ways of avoiding it. One +prime cause of sleeplessness is external disturbance. The disturbance +may be visual. Although it is ordinarily thought that if the eyes are +closed, no visual disturbances can be sensed, nevertheless, as a matter +of fact the eye-lids are not wholly opaque. Sight may be obtained +through them, as you may prove by closing your eyes and moving your +fingers before them. The lids transmit light to the retina and it is +quite likely that you are frequently awakened by a beam of light +falling upon your closed eye-lids. For this reason, one who is inclined +to be wakeful should shut out from the bed-room all avenues whereby +light may enter as a distraction. + +The temperature sense is also a source of distraction in sleep, and it +is a common experience to be awakened by extreme cold. The ears, too, +may be the source of disturbance in sleep; for even though we are +asleep, the tympanic membrane is always exposed to vibrations of air. +In fact, stimuli are continually playing upon the sense-organs and are +arousing nervous currents which try to break over the boundaries of +sleep and impress themselves upon the brain. + +For this reason, one who wishes to have untroubled sleep should remove +all possible distractions. + +But apart from external distractions, wakefulness may still be caused +by distractions from within. Troublesome ideas may be present and +persist in keeping one awake. This means that brain activity has been +started and needs suppression. Various devices have been suggested. One +is to eat something very light, just enough to draw the surplus blood, +which excites the brain, away from the brain to the digestive tract. +This advice should be taken with caution, however, for eating just +before retiring may use up in digestion much of the energy needed in +repairing the body, and may leave one greatly fatigued in the morning. + +One way to relieve the mind of mental distractions is to fill it with +non-worrisome, restful thoughts. Read something light, a restful essay +or a non-exciting story, or poetry. Another device is to bathe the head +in cold water so as to relieve congestion of blood in the brain. A +tepid or warm bath is said to have a similar effect. + +Dreams constitute one source of annoyance to many, and while they are +not necessarily to be avoided, still they may disturb the night's rest. +We may avoid them in some measure by creating conditions free from +sensory distractions, for many of our dreams are direct reflections of +sensations we are experiencing at the moment. A dream with an arctic +setting may be the result of becoming uncovered on a cold night. To use +an illustration from Ellis: "A man dreams that he enlists in the army, +goes to the front, and is shot. He is awakened by the slamming of a +door. It seems probable that the enlistment and the march to the field +are theories to account for the report which really caused the whole +train of thought, though it seemed to be its latest item." Such dreams +may be partially eliminated by care in arranging conditions so that +there will be few distractions. Especially should they be guarded +against in the later hours of the sleep, for we do not sleep so soundly +after the first two hours as we do before, and stimuli can more easily +impress themselves and affect the brain. + +Before leaving the subject of sleep, we should note the benefit to be +derived from regularity in sleep. All Nature seems to move rhythmically +and sleep is no exception. Insomnia may be treated by means of +habituating one's self to get sleepy at a certain time, and there is no +question that the rising process may be made easier if one forms the +habit of arising at the same time every morning. To rhythmize this +important function is a long step towards the efficient life. + +EXERCISE.--Brain workers do not ordinarily get all the exercise they +should. Particularly is this true of some conscientious students who +feel they must not take any time from their study. But this denotes a +false conception of mental action. The human organism needs exercise. +Man is not a disembodied spirit; he must pay attention to the claims of +the body. Indeed it will be found that time spent in exercise will +result in a higher grade of mental work. This is recognized by colleges +and universities by the requirement of gymnasium work, and the +opportunity should be welcomed by the student. Inasmuch as institutions +generally give instruction in this subject, we need not go specifically +into the matter of exercises. Perhaps the only caution that need be +urged is that against the excessive participation in such exhausting +games as foot-ball. It is seriously to be questioned whether the +strenuous grilling that a foot-ball player must undergo does not +actually impair his ability to concentrate upon his studies. + +If you undertake a course of exercise, by all means have it regular. +Little is gained by sporadic exercising. Adopt the principle of +regularity and rhythmize this important phase of bodily activity as +well as all other phases. + +In concluding our discussion of physical hygiene for the student, we +cannot stress too much the value of relaxation. The life of a student +is a trying one. It exercises chiefly the higher brain centres and +keeps the organism keyed up to a high pitch. These centres become +fatigued easily and ought to be rested occasionally. Therefore, the +student should relax at intervals, and engage in something remote from +study. To forget books for an entire week-end is often wisdom; to have +a hobby or an avocation is also wise. A student must not forget that he +is something more than an intellectual being. He is a physical organism +and a social being, and the well-rounded life demands that all phases +receive expression. We grant that it is wrong to exalt the physical and +stunt the mental, but it is also wrong to develop the intellectual and +neglect the physical. We must recognize with Browning that, + + all good things +Are ours, nor soul helps flesh more, now, + than flesh helps soul. + +READINGS AND EXERCISE + +Readings: + +Patrick (14) Chapters I, II and VII. Stiles (18) and (19). + +Swift (20) Chapter X. + +Exercise 1. With the help of a book on dietetics prepare an ideal day's +bill of fare for a student. + +SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING + +Besides the standard texts in general and educational psychology, the +following books bear with especial intimacy upon the topics treated in +this book: + +1. Adams, John, Making the Most of One's Mind, New York: George H. +Doran Co., 1915. + +2. Dearborn, George V., How to Learn Easily, Boston: Little, Brown & +Co., 1918. + +3. Dewey, John, How we Think, Boston: D.C. Heath & Co., 1910. + +4. Dewey, John, Interest and Effort in Education, Boston: Houghton, +Mifflin Co., 1913. + +5. Fulton, Maurice (ed.), College Life, Its Conditions and Problems, +The Macmillan Co., 1915. + +6. Hall-Quest, Alfred L., Supervised Study, New York: The Macmillan +Co., 1916. + +7. Herrick, C. Judson, An Introduction to Neurology, Philadelphia: W.B. +Saunders Co., 1915. + +8. James, William, Talks to Teachers on Psychology, and to Students on +Some of Life's Ideals, New York. 1899. + +9. James, William, The Energies of Men, New York: Moffatt, Yard & Co., +1917. + +10. Kerfoot, John B., How to Read, Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., +1916. + +11. Lockwood, Francis (comp.), The Freshman and His College, Boston: +D.C. Heath & Co., 1913. + +12. Lowe, John Adams, Books and Libraries, Boston: The Boston Book Co., +1917. + +13. McMurry, Frank M., How to Study, Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co., +1909. + +14. Patrick, George T. W., The Psychology of Relaxation, Boston: +Houghton, Mifflin & Co., 1916. + +15. Sandwick, Richard L., How to Study and What to Study, Boston: D.C. +Heath & Co., 1915. + +16. Seashore, Carl E., Psychology in Daily Life, New York: D. Appleton +& Co., 1918. + +17. Seward, S., Note-taking, Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1910. + +18. Stiles, Percy G., Nutritional Physiology Philadelphia: W. B. +Saunders Co., 1912. + +19. Stiles, Percy G., The Nervous System and Its Conservation, +Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co., 1914. + +20. Swift, Edgar J., Psychology and the Day's Work, New York: C. +Scribner's Sons, 1919. + +21. Watt, Henry J., The Economy and Training of Memory, New York: +Longmans, Green & Co., 1909. + +22. Whipple, Guy M., How to Study Effectively, Bloomington, Ill.: +Public School Publishing Co., 1916. + + + + +INDEX + + +Acquisition, vs. "construction" +Activity, mental +Association, laws of; + in memory; + in reasoning; + in examination +Attention; + fluctuation of; + resistance of distractions; + lapses of + +Bibliographies +Bodily activities, in recognition; + distractions in attention +Brain, description of; + elementary cells; + tissue, properties of; + tracts; + areas + +Charlemagne +Clarification of ideas, through definition and classification; + through expression +Classification of ideas +Class room +College, difficulties; + demands of +Constructive study +Cramming + +Day dreaming +Decision, in reasoning +Definition +Distractions, in attention; + in sleep +Dreams +Drinking + +Ennui +Ethical, consequences, of habit; + of expression +Examinations, importance; + purposes of; + preparation for +Exercise +Expression; + neural basis + +Fasting +Fatigue +Feelings, pleasurable; + unpleasant +Fletcher, Horace +Food + +Geometry + +Golf + +Graphic methods; + in measuring learning + +Habit, defined; + maxims for forming; + advantages of; + disadvantages of; + in reasoning; + of resisting fatigue + +Ideas + in reasoning + how to clarify + in fatigue + stimulus of + +Idea-motor action + law of + +Image + defined + kinds of + +Imagination + made of images + works of + sources + how to develop + visual, auditory, etc. + +Impression + guard avenues of + clearness essential + through various senses + vs. expression + +Indenture + +Intention + in memorizing + +Insomnia + see Sleeplessness + +Inspiration + +Interest + defined + sources + development of + laws of + +Judgment + +Kinaesthetic impressions + +Lecture + method + notes + +Logical associations + in memorizing + in reasoning + +Mediaeval history + +Memory + importance in study + stages of + "unconscious" + "whole" vs. "part" + works according to law + "rote" vs. "logical" + intention + +Mental second wind + see second wind + +Nervous + current + energy + system in expression + +Neurone + +Note-taking + lecture + laboratory + reading + full vs. scanty + form of notebook + a habit + +Obscurity + in meaning + +Outlines + +Overlearning + +Parker, Francis W. + +Philology + +Plateau + remedies for + +Pleasure + in interest + +Practice + of recall + curve of + +Problem solving + +Psalm of life + +Public speaking + overcoming embarrassment + +_Rathausmarkt_ + +Read + how to + +Reason + contrasted with rote learning + as problem solving + stages + purposive thinking + requirements for + and habit + +Recall + +Recognition + +Repetition, + distribution of + +Retention + +Review, from notes + +Romeo and Juliet + +Schedule, daily + +Second wind, physical + mental + sources of + +Sensation, + as impression + bodily + external + in fatigue + +Sleep + +Sleeplessness + +Stream of thought + +Suggestion + +Synapse + +Theme writing + +"Unconscious" learning + see memory + +Will + +Writing + a form of expression + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of How to Use Your Mind, +by Harry D. 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