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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/12171-0.txt b/12171-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..c9ba9fa --- /dev/null +++ b/12171-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10074 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12171 *** + +WOMEN WORKERS IN SEVEN PROFESSIONS + +A SURVEY OF THEIR ECONOMIC CONDITIONS AND PROSPECTS + +EDITED FOR THE STUDIES COMMITTEE OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP + +BY + +EDITH J. MORLEY + +1914 + + + + +PREFATORY NOTE + + +The task of collecting and editing the various essays of which this +book is comprised, has not been altogether easy. Some literary defects +and absence of unity are, by the nature of the scheme, inevitable: +we hope these are counterbalanced by the collection of first-hand +evidence from those in a position to speak authoritatively of the +professions which they follow. _Experientia docet_, and those who +desire to investigate the conditions of women's public work in various +directions, as well as those who are hesitating in their choice of a +career, may like carefully to weigh these opinions formed as a result +of personal experience. + +For other defects in selection, arrangement, proportion and the like, +I am alone responsible. I have, from the first, been conscious +that many people were better suited to the editorial task than +myself--women with more knowledge of social and economic problems, +and, perhaps, with more leisure. But at the moment no one seemed to +be available, and I was persuaded to do what I could to carry out the +wishes of the Studies Committee of the Fabian Women's Group. If I +have in any measure succeeded, it is owing to the generous help and +unvarying kindness I have received in all directions. In the first +place, I would express my gratitude to the members of the Studies +Committee, and more particularly to Mrs Charlotte Wilson, the fount +and inspiration of the whole scheme, to Mrs Pember Reeves, and to +Mrs Bernard Shaw. My indebtedness to all the contributors for their +promptitude, patience, and courtesy, it is impossible to exaggerate. +I hope it will not be thought invidious if I say that without Dr +Murrell's sub-editorship of the Medical and Nursing Sections, and the +unstinted and continual help of Dr O'Brien Harris, the book could +not have appeared at all. The latter's paper on "Secondary School +Teaching" has had the benefit of criticism and suggestions from one +of the most notable Head-Mistresses of her day--Mrs Woodhouse, whose +experience of work in the schools of the Girls' Public Day School +Trust was kindly placed at the author's disposal. Similarly, some of +the details mentioned in the section on "Acting," were kindly supplied +by Mrs St John Ervine. Lastly--for it is impossible to mention all +who have assisted--I wish to thank Miss Ellen Smith for her unsparing +secretarial labours, and Miss M.G. Spencer and Miss Craig, of the +Central Bureau for the Employment of Women, for the Table which +appears at the end of Section I. This is unique as an exhaustive +summary of a mass of information, hitherto not easily accessible to +the general public. + +EDITH J. MORLEY. + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, READING, _December_ 1913. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +PREFATORY NOTE. By the Editor + +FOREWORDS. ON BEHALF OF THE STUDIES COMMITTEE OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S +GROUP + +I. THE TEACHING PROFESSION + + I. INTRODUCTION. By EDITH J. MORLEY, Oxford Honour + School of English Language and Literature. Professor + of English Language, University College, Reading. + Fellow and Lecturer of University of London + King's College for Women + + II. WOMEN AT THE UNIVERSITIES AND UNIVERSITY + TEACHING AS A PROFESSION. By EDITH J. MORLEY + + III. SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHING. By (Mrs) M. O'BRIEN + HARRIS, D.Sc., London, Hon. Member of Somerville + College, Oxford. Headmistress of the County + Secondary School, South Hackney + + IV. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHING. By (Mrs) KATE + DICE, C.T., Class Teacher in the service of the London + County Council, Hon. Sec. of the Fabian Education + Group + + V. TEACHING IN SCHOOLS FOR THE MENTALLY AND + PHYSICALLY DEFECTIVE. By (Mrs) JESSIE E. + THOMAS, C.T., Class Teacher at the London County + Council School for Physically Defective Children, + Turney Road, Dulwich + + VI. THE TEACHING OF GYMNASTICS. By MARY HANKINSON, + Hon. Sec. of the Ling Association. Diploma of the + Dartford Physical Training College + + VII. THE TEACHING OF DOMESTIC SUBJECTS. By (Mrs) + MARGARET M'KILLOP, M.A. (Dublin). Oxford + Honour Schools of Natural Science and of Mathematics + Fellow and Tutor of University of London King's + College for Women; + and + E. BEATRICE HOGG, first-class Diploma, National + Training School of Cookery. Instructress, London + County Council Probationary and Training Centres, + Examiner in Domestic Subjects to the City and + Guilds of London Institute, the Nautical School + of Cookery, etc. Some time Hon. Sec. London + Branch, Assistant Teachers of Domestic Subjects + + TABLE I. SHOWING THE COST AND DURATION OF + EDUCATION IN ARTS AND SCIENCE, AND THE + SCHOLARSHIPS AVAILABLE FOR WOMEN STUDENTS + AT THE VARIOUS BRITISH UNIVERSITIES. Reprinted + (with additions), by special permission, from the + pamphlet, "Openings for University Women," published + by the Central Bureau for the Employment of + Women for the Students' Careers Association + + TABLE II. SHOWING SOME ADDITIONAL POST-GRADUATE + RESEARCH SCHOLARSHIPS IN ARTS AND SCIENCE + AVAILABLE FOR WOMEN STUDENTS, AWARDED BY + BODIES OTHER THAN UNIVERSITIES OF THE UNITED + KINGDOM. Compiled (with additions) by special permission, + from the "Report on the Opportunities for + Post-Graduate Work open to Women" published by + the Federation of University Women + +II. THE MEDICAL PROFESSION INCLUDING DENTISTRY. Sub-Editor: CHRISTINE +M. MURRELL, M.D., B.S., London, Assistant Medical Officer of Health +(Special Schools) London County Council; Lecturer and Examiner on +Adolescence, Health, First Aid, Infant Care, etc., London County +Council and Battersea Polytechnic, Honorary Medical Officer, +Paddington Creche, and for Infant Consultations, North Marylebone; +late Medical Registrar and Electrician and late Resident House +Physician, Royal Free Hospital + + I. MEDICINE AND SURGERY. By the Sub-Editor + + II. DENTAL SURGERY. By (Mrs) Eva M. HANDLEY + READ, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., L.S.A., L.D.S. Dental + Surgeon to the Royal Free Hospital, the Margaret + M'Donald Baby Clinic, and the Cripple Hostel + Camberwell + +III. THE NURSING PROFESSION TOGETHER WITH MIDWIFERY AND MASSAGE. +Sub-Editor: CHRISTINE M. MURRELL + + PREFACE. By the Sub-Editor + I. GENERAL SURVEY AND INTRODUCTION. By E.M. + Musson. Matron of the General Hospital, Birmingham + + II. NURSING IN GENERAL HOSPITALS. By E.M. + MUSSON + + III. NURSING IN PRIVATE HOMES AND Co--OPERATIONS. + By GERTRUDE TOWNEND, Sister in her own Nursing + Home; late Deputy-Sister, St. Bartholomew's + Hospital; late Matron, Royal Ear Hospital, Dean + Street + + IV. NURSING IN POOR LAW INFIRMARIES. By ELEANOR + C. BARTON, President of the Poor Law Infirmary + Matrons' Association + + V. NURSING IN FEVER HOSPITALS. By S.G. VILLIERS, + Matron of the South-West Fever Hospital + + VI. DISTRICT NURSING. By AMY HUGHES, General Superintendent + of the Queen Victoria Jubilee Institute for + Nurses + + VII. NURSING IN SCHOOLS AND NURSES AS INSPECTORS. + By H.L. PEARSE + + VIII. NURSING IN HOSPITALS FOR THE INSANE. By a + Matron of one of them + + IX. NURSING IN THE COLONIES. By A. FRICKER, Matron + of the Colonial Hospital, Trinidad, under the Colonial + Nursing Association + + X. NURSING IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. By the Sub-Editor + + XI. PRISON NURSING. By the Sub-Editor + + XII. MIDWIFERY AS A PROFESSION FOR WOMEN (OTHER + THAN DOCTORS). By ANNIE M'CALL, M.D., Senior + Medical Officer and Lecturer, Clapham Maternity + Hospital and School of Midwifery; late Lecturer in + and Demonstrator of Operative Midwifery, London + School of Medicine for Women; Examiner, Central + Midwives' Board; Vice-Chairman of the Committee of + the London County Council for the Supervision of + Midwives in the County of London + + XIII. MASSAGE. By EDITH M. TEMPLETON, Secretary of the + Incorporated Society of Trained Masseuses + +IV. WOMEN AS SANITARY INSPECTORS AND HEALTH VISITORS. By (Mrs) F.J. +GREENWOOD, Sanitary Inspector, Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury, late +Chief Woman Inspector, Sheffield; Associate Royal Sanitary Institute; +Certificate, Central Midwives' Board; Diploma, National Health Society + +V. WOMEN IN THE CIVIL SERVICE + + I. THE HIGHER GRADES: PRESENT POSITION AND + PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE. By a Woman Civil + Servant + + II. THE LOWER GRADES AND THE PRESENT POSITION. + By Another Woman Civil Servant + +VI. WOMEN CLERKS AND SECRETARIES. By (Mrs) ELSPETH KEITH ROBERTSON +SCOTT + +VII. ACTING AS A PROFESSION FOR WOMEN. By LENA ASHWELL + +APPENDIX I. SCHEME OF WORK OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP + +APPENDIX II. LATEST CENSUS RETURNS OF WOMEN WORKERS IN THE SEVEN +PROFESSIONS CONSIDERED IN THIS BOOK + + + + +FOREWORDS + +ON BEHALF OF THE STUDIES COMMITTEE OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP + + +The present economic position of women bristles with anomalies. It +is the outcome of long ages of semi-serfdom, when women toiled +continuously to produce wealth, which, if they were married, they +could enjoy only at the good pleasure of their lords,--ages when the +work of most women was conditioned and subordinated by male dominance. +Yet in those days the working housewife commanded the consideration +always conceded to a bread-winner--even when dependent. In modern +times women's economic position has been undermined by the helpless +dependence engendered amongst the well-to-do by "parasitism" resulting +from nineteenth-century luxury--to quote the striking word of Olive +Schreiner. Similarly, dependence has been forced upon large sections +of women-folk amongst the manual workers by the loss of their hold +upon land and by the decay of home industries. Now a new force is at +work: the revolt of the modern woman against parasitism and dependence +in all their forms; her demand for freedom to work and to choose her +sphere of work, as well as for the right to dispose of what she gains. + +Six years ago some women of the Fabian Society, deeply stirred by the +tremendous social import of this movement, banded themselves together +to unravel the tangled skein of women's economic subjection and to +discover how its knots were tied. The first step was to get women to +speak out, to analyse their own difficulties and hindrances as matters +boldly to be faced. Whatever the truth may turn out to be with regard +to natural and inevitable differences of faculty between men and +women, it is at least certain that difference of sex, like any other +persistent condition of individual existence, implies some difference +of outlook. The woman's own standpoint--that is the first essential in +understanding her position, economic or other: the trouble is that +she has but recently begun to realise that she inevitably has a +standpoint, which is not that of her husband, or her brother, or of +the men with whom she works, or even that which these persons imagine +must naturally be hers. Her point of view is her own, and it is +essential to social progress that she shall both recognise this fact +and make it understood. + +The aim of the Fabian Women's Group was to elicit women's own thoughts +and feelings on their economic position, and to this end we invited +women of experience and expert knowledge, from various quarters and +of many types of thought, to discourse of what they best knew to +audiences of women. After the lectures, the questions raised were +discussed in all their bearings by women speaking amongst women +without diffidence or prejudice. In this manner the physical +disabilities of women as workers have been explained clearly by women +doctors, and carefully and frankly weighed and considered; the part +taken by women in producing the wealth of this country in past times +has been set forth by students of economic history, and much scattered +material of great value unearthed, and for the first time brought +together concerning a subject hitherto deemed negligible by the male +historian. Lastly, women employed in or closely connected with +each leading occupation or group of occupations to-day--from the +professions to the sweated industries--are being asked to describe +and to discuss with us the economic conditions they have directly +experienced or observed.[1] + +It is hoped in time to complete and shape for publication all the +material accumulated during these six years. We make a beginning with +this book of essays on the economic position of women in seven of the +leading professions at present open to them. Some of the papers appear +almost in the form in which they were first read to the group and its +women visitors: when the original lectures did not fully cover the +ground, they have been revised, altered, expanded, or re-written, +or essays by new writers have been substituted for those originally +presented. Thus the papers on "Teaching in Secondary Schools" by Dr +O'Brien Harris and that on "Teaching in Elementary Schools" by Mrs +Dice, take the place of an address on "The Life of a Teacher," by +Miss Drummond, President of the Incorporated Association of Assistant +Mistresses. This paper was withdrawn at the writer's request, but many +valuable points from her lecture, which she generously placed at the +disposal of the Editor, have been embodied. The other papers in the +Education Section are all new. Similarly, in the section which +deals with the profession of Nursing, Miss Hughes' paper on +"District-Nursing" is the only one which is based on a lecture given +to the group; the other articles are all supplementary. Together, we +believe they form a unique and almost exhaustive description of the +profession. + +That the volume might be made as useful as possible, the same method +has been followed throughout. The paper and discussion at the group +meeting have formed the nucleus from which a thorough treatment of the +subject has been developed. + +We hope and believe that this book may help to arouse deeper interest +in the vigour and energy with which professional women are now +striving to make good their economic position; that it may serve +to enlist active sympathy with their struggle against the special +difficulties and hindrances which beset them, and make plain the +value to society of the work they can do. We also believe that the +information here brought together may be useful in helping young women +to choose and prepare for their life-work. + +No pains have been spared to make the book as accurate as possible, +and to bring it in every case up to date. + +It should be clearly emphasised that each contributor to this volume +has expressed her own opinions freely and independently, and that the +writers have been selected because they are leading members of their +respective professions, not because they represent a particular school +of thought. We have endeavoured to get our material from the most +authoritative quarters, irrespective of the personal views of those +who have supplied it. All the writers have given generously of +their time and labour in order that they might contribute to an +investigation of profound social and national importance--the clear +presentation of the economic position of women as it appears to women +themselves. Widely different as are the professional interests and +divergent the opinions of the writers of these essays, no one can, as +we think, read consecutively the various sections of the book without +arriving at the conclusion that, on certain fundamental questions, +there is substantial agreement among them. Almost all, as a result of +their professional experience, definitely express the conviction that +women need economic independence and political emancipation: nowhere +is there any hint of opposition to either of these ideals. The writers +are unanimous in their insistence upon the importance--to men as +well as to women--of equal pay for equal work, irrespective of +sex. Wherever the subject of the employment of married women is +mentioned--and it crops up in most of the papers--there is adverse +comment on the economically unsound, unjust, and racially dangerous +tendency in many salaried professions to enforce upon women +resignation on marriage. It is clear that professional women are +beginning to show resentment at the attempt to force celibacy upon +them: they feel themselves insulted and wronged as human beings when, +being physically and mentally fit, they are not permitted to judge for +themselves in this matter. Apart from their righteous indignation, it +may be suggested that, even from the ratepayers' point of view, +the normal disabilities of motherhood, with the consequent leave of +absence, would probably in the long run be less expensive than the +dismissal, at the zenith of their powers, of experienced workers, +who have to be replaced by younger and less efficient women. It +is, moreover, a truism that the best work is produced by the +most contented worker. A fundamentally happy woman, continually +strengthened and refreshed by affectionate companionship, is obviously +better able to endure the strain of professional work than her +unmarried sister, who at best, is deprived of the normal joys +of fully--developed womanhood. The action of Central and Local +Authorities and of other employers who make marriage a disability +for their women employèes, is alluded to by our contributors with an +indignation, the more striking for the studied calm with which it is +expressed.[2] + +The future as foreshadowed in these papers seems to us bright with +hope. In spite of difficulties, opposition, rebuffs, and prejudice, +professional women workers are slowly but surely advancing in status +and in recognition. They are gaining courage to train themselves +to claim positions of responsibility and command, and to refuse, if +occasion arises, to be subordinated, on the ground of their +womanhood, to men less able than themselves. They are learning by +experience,--many have already learned,--the need for co-operation and +loyalty to one another. While they are thus gaining new and valuable +qualities, they have never lost, in spite of many hardships, the +peculiar joy and lofty idealism in work which are, in part, a reaction +from ages of economic and personal dependence. + + +[Footnote 1: For an analysis of the whole scheme of work of the Fabian +Women's Group, _see_ Appendix I.] + +[Footnote 2: In Western Australia the following Amendment, 340A., +to the Criminal Code has passed the third reading in the Legislative +Assembly, and is expected to pass the Legislative Council before this +book appears:-- + +(1) Any person, who, either as principal or agent--_(a)_ Makes +or enters into or enforces or seeks to enforce any rule, order, +regulation, contract, agreement or arrangement in restraint of or +with intent to restrain, prevent or hinder the marriage of _any person +(N.B._ A woman is a "person" in Western Australia) who is in his +employment or in the employment of his principal, and is of the age of +twenty-one years or upwards; or + +_(b)_ Dismisses or threatens to dismiss any person from his employment +or the employment of his principal, or alters or threatens to alter, +any such person's position to the prejudice of such person by reason +of the fact that such person has married or intends to marry, or +with a view to restrain, prevent, or hinder such person from getting +married; + +is guilty of an offence, and is liable to imprisonment for three +months, or to a fine not exceeding five hundred pounds. + +(2) The provisions of this section shall apply to corporations so far +as they are capable of being applied.] + + + + +WOMEN WORKERS IN SEVEN PROFESSIONS + +SECTION I + +THE TEACHING PROFESSION + + "All stood thus far + Upon equal ground: that we were brothers all + In honour, as in one community." + +I + +INTRODUCTION + + +Until recently, girls who desired to earn their livelihood drifted +naturally into teaching, which was often the last refuge of the +destitute. Even nowadays, it is taken too much for granted that some +form of teaching is the obvious opening for educated women, who +aspire to economic independence. But, thanks to various causes and +developments, it is now almost universally recognised that teaching is +a profession, and one which can be entered only by candidates, who are +properly equipped and trained. In a book such as this, it may then +be assumed that the elderly governess, driven to teach by poverty and +lack of friends, with no qualifications but gentility, good manners, +good principles, and a humble mind, is a figure which is mercifully +becoming less and less common. It is still necessary, however, to +insist on the fact that brains and education and training are not +by themselves sufficient to produce a successful teacher. Quite +literally, teaching is a "calling" as well as a profession: the true +candidate must have a vocation; she must mount her rostrum or enter +her class-room with a full conviction of the importance of her +mission, and of her desire to undertake it. This earnest purpose +should not, however, destroy her sense of humour and of proportion; +it is possible to take oneself and one's daily routine of work too +seriously, a fault which does not tend to impress their importance on +a scoffing world. No girl should become a teacher because she does +not know how else to gain her living. The profession is lamentably +overstocked with mediocrities, lacking enthusiasm and vigour, drifting +more and more hopelessly from one post to another. But there is plenty +of room for keen and competent women, eager to learn and to teach, and +this is true of all branches of the profession. No work can well be +more thankless, more full of drudgery and of disappointment than that +of a teacher who has missed her vocation. Few lives can be more full +of happy work and wide interests than those of teachers who rejoice in +their calling. + +Yet there is need to call attention to certain drawbacks which are +common to all branches of the profession. As a class, teachers are +badly paid, and many are overworked. The physical and mental strain +is inevitably severe: in many cases this is unnecessarily increased +by red-tape regulations that involve loss of time and temper and an +amount of clerical work, which serves no useful purpose. Teachers +need to concentrate their energies on essentials: of these the life +intellectual is the most important, and this, however elementary the +standard of work demanded in class. No one can teach freshly unless +she is at the same time learning, and widening her own mental horizon. +Too many forms to fill up, too many complicated registers to keep, too +many meetings to attend--these things stultify the mind and crush the +spirit. They are not a necessary accompaniment of State or municipal +control, though sometimes under present conditions it is hard to +believe that they are not the inevitable concomitants of official +regulations. Anything which tends to make teachers' lives more narrow, +is opposed to the cause of education. This truth should be instilled +into all official bosoms. Wherever the State or the local authority +intervenes, wherever public money has been granted, there regular +inspection obviously becomes inevitable, but the multiplication of +inspectors, each representing a different authority, is not necessary +or sensible. At present, in all grant-aided institutions, whatever +their status, inspectors do not cease from troubling, and teachers as +well as administrative officers, though weary, find no rest.[1] This +is as detrimental to the pupil as to the teacher, for it lowers the +intellectual standard by substituting form for matter and the letter +for the spirit. Thus the inspector of an art-school who enquires only +about what are officially termed "student-hours," and not at all about +the work therein accomplished, does not make for artistic efficiency +either in teacher or taught. Yet this instance is of very recent +occurrence, and there are countless parallel cases. No wonder the +Universities demand freedom from State control; no wonder Training +Colleges and subsidised secondary as well as elementary schools groan +under its tender mercies. The present forms taken by this control are +mostly obnoxious to all practical educationists. They arise from lack +of trust in the teaching profession on the part of administrators--a +mistrust which it is of primary importance to allay by increased +efficiency, independence, and organisation. Nationalisation of +the schools is necessary, if a real highway of education is to be +established: it must be obtained without irritating conditions which +make freedom, experiment, and progress too often impossible. The task +before the teaching profession is to retain full scope for initiative +and experiment, whilst working loyally under a public body. This +should be specially the work of the socialist teacher, while the +socialist administrator and legislator must see that their side of the +work leaves full room for individuality. + +In the following section it is obviously impossible adequately to +consider all branches of the teaching profession, and it has therefore +been thought the wisest course to select the leading varieties of work +in which women teachers are engaged and to treat them in some detail. +The writers of the various articles express their own points of view, +gained by practical first-hand experience of the work they describe. +Allowance must, perhaps, in some cases be made for personal +enthusiasm, or for the depression that arises from thwarted efforts +and unfulfilled ideals. At any rate no attempt has been made to +co-ordinate the papers or to give them any particular tendency. As +a result, certain deductions may be made with some confidence. Women +teachers of experience are convinced of the manifold attractions of +their profession, and at the same time are alive to its disadvantages +as well as to its possibilities. Alike in University, secondary +school, and elementary school there is the joy of service, and the +power to train, + + "To riper growth the mind and will. + + "And what delights can equal those + That stir the spirit's inner deeps, + When one that loves, but knows not, reaps + A truth from one that loves and knows?" + +Of all teachers, perhaps she who elects to work in an elementary +school is in this respect most fortunate and most rich in +opportunities, since, to many of her children, she is the one bright +spot in their lives, the one person who endeavours to understand and +to stimulate them to the effort which all normal children enjoy. For +her, too, particularly if her work lies in a poor district, there +is the opportunity, if she care to take it, for all kinds of social +interests. There will, of course, be much to sadden her in such +experiences, but at least they will add a sense of reality to her +teaching which will keep her in close touch with life. She will find +that there are compensations for hard work and red-tape regulations, +even for low remuneration and slowness of promotion. Nor must it +be forgotten that, inadequate as is her salary, it contrasts not +unfavourably with that of other occupations for women, _e.g._ +clerkships and the Civil Service, in which the work is in itself less +attractive. As compared with the assistant mistress in a secondary +school, her lot is not altogether unenviable. If she has shorter +holidays, larger classes, and at the worst, but by no means +inevitably, a lower stipend, these facts must be counterbalanced by +remembering that she has comparatively few corrections, much less +homework, and no pressure of external examining bodies, that her +tenure is far less insecure, and that her training and education +have been to a very large extent borne by the State or by local +authorities. + +The following table gives the approximate cost of College education +for elementary teachers-in-training. If it be compared with the +expenses that have to be met by other students from private sources +(_vide_ p. 7, or, in greater detail, pp. 82 _et seq_.), it will be +seen that the elementary teacher begins her career with a substantial +subsidy from the State. + +_Elementary Teachers_. + +The following is a typical table of annual cost at a University +College which provides for two-year and for three-year students. The +training is obtainable at slightly lower cost to students in some +other colleges. + + Grants by Board of Fees payable by students + Education to College. to College. + + Tuition. Maintenance. Tuition. Maintenance. + + Women students £13 £20 £12 From £12 to + in residence £22 according + to accommodation. + (It is to be noted that the Government maintenance grant + for men students in residence is £40, which can be + made practically to cover expenses.) + + Women students £13 £20 £12 ... + living at home (paid to student) + + Men students receive _£25 _maintenance grant. + +Apparently the Government policy, as evidenced by its maintenance +grants, is to discourage women students from entering residential +colleges. Yet it is a well-known fact that the wear and tear involved +in living at home is far greater than at college--especially for +women--and the educational advantages correspondingly fewer than those +resulting from residence. + +County Councils frequently provide "free places" at local colleges, +together, in some cases, with supplementary bursaries for +maintenance. Non-resident students--_e.g._, in London--seldom have +any out-of-pocket expenses for their actual education. Nor must it be +forgotten that education up to college age is free to junior county +scholars and to bursars, who also receive small grants towards +maintenance. + +_College Fees for other than Elementary Teachers-in-Training_[2] + + Oxford and Cambridge Colleges From £90 to £105 a year for a + minimum of 3 years (of 24 weeks). + + Other Residential Universities + and Colleges From £52 to £90 or £110 a + year for a minimum of 3 + years (of 30 to 35 weeks). + + Non-residential Colleges From £20 to £55 a year for a + minimum of 3 years. (The + cost of maintenance must be + reckoned at about £40 a + year, as a minimum.) + +Students who desire to do advanced work will need at least one, and +probably two, additional years at the University, while all women who +intend to teach in schools ought also to spend one year in training. + +A large number of County Councils provide "senior" scholarships to +cover or partially to cover college fees. In some counties only one +or two such scholarships are given annually, and there is severe +competition: in others they are comparatively easy to obtain, though +there are never enough for all candidates who desire a University +education. Most of these scholarships are not renewable for a fourth +year of training--an extremely short-sighted policy on the part of the +authorities. + +At practically every University, entrance or other scholarships and +exhibitions are awarded annually. Competition for these is usually +very severe, and they are extremely difficult to gain. At Oxford +and Cambridge only quite exceptional candidates can hope to secure +scholarships at the women's colleges. Moreover, scholarships seldom +cover the complete cost of maintenance and tuition; at Oxford and +Cambridge they never do so. + +Most secondary teachers, then, must incur liabilities varying from +£60 to £350, apart from school, holiday, and personal expenses, before +they obtain their first degree. On the other hand, a graduate with +good testimonials can very often obtain her professional training at +comparatively small cost by means of a bursary: with luck, she may get +maintenance as well as free tuition. Every year, however, as training +is more widely recognised as essential, the proportion of scholarships +available becomes smaller. With the advent of the new Teachers' +Register, which makes training indispensable after 1918, girls will +more and more often be obliged to find means to pay for their own +training. At present it is often possible to borrow for this purpose +from loan societies specially formed to meet the needs of women +preparing to enter professions. + +The training for kindergarten and lower-form mistresses is less +expensive, arduous, and lengthy. Students are required to give +evidence of having received a good secondary education; they can then +take their First Froebel Certificate after one year, and their Higher +Froebel Certificate after about two years' training. The cost of such +training varies from £30 to £58 non-resident; £120 to £150 resident. +If they elect to go to the House of Education at Ambleside, the +training is for two years, and is specially suited to those who +wish to teach in private families. The cost amounts to £90 a year, +including residence, which is obligatory. + +Kindergarten assistant-mistresses usually obtain from £90 to £100 +salary for part-day work, while for whole-day work the rate is the +same as that of their colleagues. Mistresses in charge of a large +kindergarten department often receive additions to their stipend if +they are willing to train student-mistresses for Froebel examinations. + +The Ambleside students usually teach small private classes, or accept +posts as resident governesses in families. Their remuneration varies +in accordance with the work done, but it is usually about the same as +that received by kindergarten and lower-form mistresses. + +The stipends of other secondary teachers are considered in the article +by Dr O'Brien Harris (see p. 32). It should be noted that in good +private schools where the standard of teaching is equally high, the +salaries are approximately on the same scale as in public schools. But +private schools vary enormously in standing. When they are inferior, +the teachers are paid miserable pittances, and are often worth no more +than they receive. Such schools, however, are rapidly decreasing in +number, since they cannot survive competition with public State-aided +schools. The best private schools, on the other hand, supply a real +need, and, as a large proportion of their pupils do not enter +for public examinations, it is possible in them, to make valuable +experiments which could not easily be tried in larger subsidised +institutions. + +In boarding-schools, the conditions do not markedly differ from those +obtaining in day-schools. The chief danger is lest the teachers should +suffer from the strain of supervision-duties in addition to their +work in school. But in the better schools this is avoided by the +appointment of house-mistresses, the teaching staff living apart from +the girls, either in lodgings or in a hostel of their own. When they +"live in," the value of their board for the school terms is usually +reckoned at about £40 a year, which is deducted from the ordinary +salary of an assistant. The cost of living in a mistresses' house is +usually higher, but there are many counterbalancing advantages, the +chief of which is complete freedom when school duties are over. + +It would not be surprising if all women who have incurred the heavy +expenses of preparation for a teaching career, were dissatisfied with +the very small return they may expect by way of salary. Certainly if +we judged by the standard of payment, the profession might well appear +unimportant. Men and women alike receive inadequate remuneration in +all its branches, but, as in other callings, women are worse paid than +men. One might imagine that the training of girls was less arduous +or less important than that of boys, since no one suggests that women +teachers are less conscientious or less competent than their male +colleagues. Now that at every stage co-education of the sexes is +becoming less unusual, it is wise policy in the interests of men as +well as of women, to make the standard of remuneration depend, not on +the sex of the worker, but on the quality of the work. Otherwise +men will gradually be driven from the profession, as is already the +tendency in the United States of America and, to some extent, in +elementary teaching in this country. Needless to say, the women's +salaries need levelling up: it would be hopeless policy to reduce the +men's maxima to those of the women. In many secondary schools and in +at any rate some elementary ones, there is too great a discrepancy +between the salary of the head and that of the assistants. Here +again, teachers might endeavour to arrive at some united expression +of opinion. All would probably agree that the profession should be +entered for the sake of the work itself, and not on the remote chance +of becoming a head-mistress. But while the difference in salary is +very great, it is inevitable that ambitious teachers must aspire to +headships, even though they be better suited to class work. + +Finally, it may be repeated, that with all its drawbacks, the teaching +profession has much to recommend it to those who desire to make +it their life-work. It is not suited to all comers: it makes heavy +demands on mind and body and heart; it gives little material return. +But it gives other returns in generous measure. For teachers it is +less difficult than for most people to preserve their faith in human +nature, less impossible, even in the midst of daily routine, to +believe in the dignity of labour, and to illuminate it with the light +of enthusiasm and aspiration. + + "... whether we be young or old + Our destiny, our being's heart and home, + Is with infinitude, and only there; + With hope it is, hope that can never die, + Effort, and expectation and desire, + And something evermore about to be." + + +[Footnote 1: The ideal inspector is, of course, a help and not a +hindrance to the teacher, acting as a propagator of new ideas +and bringing into touch with one another, workers who are widely +separated. But the reach of most inspectors far exceeds their grasp.] + +[Footnote 2: See table at end of section, p. 82.] + + + + +II + +WOMEN AT THE UNIVERSITIES AND UNIVERSITY TEACHING AS A PROFESSION + + +When a girl is about to leave school at the age of seventeen or +eighteen, she is often as little able to determine what profession +she wishes to adopt, as is her brother in similar case. If she is +intelligent, well-trained and eager to study, her natural impulse is +to go to college, and to get there, it is still usually the line of +least resistance to say that she wishes to become a teacher. When +there are pecuniary difficulties in the way, the decision must be +taken still earlier. The unfortunate child in the elementary school +used to be compelled to make her choice at the age of twelve +or thirteen, often to find later on, when the first barriers of +pupil-teaching and King's Scholarship were surmounted, that she +was not really suited to her profession or that continued study +was uncongenial. Even now, when the system is different and better, +children are bound too early by a contract they find it hard to break. +It cannot be too often insisted that every intelligent child who +is worthy of a junior or senior scholarship, is not therefore of +necessity predestined to the profession of teaching--a profession so +arduous, so full of drudgery and of disappointment that it should be +entered by those only who are sure of their mission, and full of the +spirit that makes learning and teaching a lasting joy. + +There should be other paths from elementary and secondary school to +the University than that which leads to the teacher's platform. + +Moreover, granted that the desire to teach is a real one, and that +the girl has aptitude, it ought still to be unnecessary to choose +a particular branch of the profession before she has become an +under-graduate. A University career means, among other things, the +discovery of new powers, new interests, and opportunities; sometimes +it brings with it the painful conviction that aspiration has +outstripped capacity. The bright girl who has excelled at school, +may find that she is unfitted for independent honour work: she is not +necessarily worse on that account, but she must substitute some other +plan for her ambition to become a "specialist." The slow plodder who +could never trust her memory at school, may, at College, discover +unsuspected powers of investigation and co-ordination which mark her +out for some branch of higher study. The University, the first contact +with a more independent and larger life, is the "testing-place for +young souls": students should enter its portals as free women, the +world all before them where to choose. In many cases not until the +first degree is taken, has the proper time come to determine finally +the profession which is to be adopted. This is the ideal--for most +people admittedly a far away one at present. But even now, the +would-be teacher should not be asked to decide earlier than this on +the particular branch of the profession which she is to enter. The +average pass graduate will do best to fit herself as an all-round +form mistress: there should be no reason to determine in what type of +school, elementary or secondary. The training required should be the +same if the classes were, as they ought to be, of manageable size, and +the equipment in both types of institution equally good. Teachers +in both kinds of school would benefit if the present absurd division +between them ceased to exist. Children under fourteen require similar +discipline whatever their social status: even if the subjects taught +are to differ somewhat--a matter which is controversial and need not +be discussed here--the teachers need similar training and the same +kind and amount of academic education. Until these are secured, there +can be no real equality of opportunity for the elementary school +child: only the very best intellects in the class of 60 can hope to +compete with the average individually educated child in the form of +20 or 30--and this is true whatever the merits and enthusiasm of the +teacher. + +Some girls will welcome the larger opportunities for social service +which are open to the elementary school-teacher: others will prefer +and be better suited to the conditions of the secondary school. +Clearly, the student, whose expenses have been defrayed by the +Government on condition that she enters its service, must fulfil her +undertaking: but that should not in itself limit her to one type of +school in these days of grant-aided institutions.[1] The new four-year +course makes it possible for her, as for independent students, to +train in the year subsequent to taking a degree--an essential reform +if the old over-strain and rush are to be avoided. It is generally +accepted, and in girls' secondary schools commonly acted upon, that +professional training for one year after graduation, is indispensable. +The teacher is born, not made, but she needs help if she is to avoid +mistakes equally disastrous to herself and her pupils: she requires +some knowledge of child-character, some acquaintance with the history +and theory of education, some leisure to formulate, some opportunity +to consider the aims as well as the methods of her teaching. We have, +perhaps, passed beyond the stage when it is necessary further to +discuss the value and effect of training. It is still desirable +to emphasise the fact that the untrained woman teacher finds it +increasingly difficult to obtain satisfactory and well-paid school +posts.[2] Girls should endeavour by every means in their power to +secure this fourth year at college, which is essential to their +competency and to security of employment. It would also be well to +impress on county councils that their work is but half done if they +continue to refuse a renewal of scholarships for training to those who +have taken a degree. + +Students who have graduated with honours will have to decide before +they begin to train, whether they wish to become specialist teachers +and whether they have sufficient intellectual capacity to do so. +Generally speaking, a student who has obtained third-class honours +will do better to prepare herself for ordinary form work; she is +not likely to obtain control of the teaching of her own subject in a +first-rate school, though doubtless she will often get the opportunity +to take some classes under the direction of the specialists. Graduates +in high honours will usually desire to devote themselves mainly to the +subject in which they have proved their ability, and their training +must be adapted to their end. Modern language or English specialists +will need practical training in phonetics, for example: mathematicians +require to study modern methods of teaching their subject, and so +forth. The best training colleges, of course, provide for such cases; +in this respect, University training-departments have the advantage +over others, since they can secure the services of experts for the +discussion of their own subjects. + +There remains, lastly, the case of the student who, while definitely +desiring to teach, wishes at the same time to go on with her own work, +to undertake research or advanced or independent study. Such an +one will aim at a University or College appointment, in the hope +of pursuing her own work under congenial conditions. At Oxford and +Cambridge a woman is, at this stage and always, definitely at a +disadvantage by reason of her sex. For her there are scarcely any +fellowships or post-graduate scholarships, and too often the promising +scholar is caught up in the whirl of teaching for her daily bread at +the very moment when it is most necessary for her to have leisure and +ease of mind. Few things are more required in women's education at +the moment than liberal endowments for post-graduate study. The +comparatively new Federation of University Women Graduates has done +good work by making a list[3] of the opportunities available for women +graduates, either by open competition or otherwise, at the various +Universities and elsewhere: it has also founded, and twice awarded, +an annual fellowship for a woman who has already published a +distinguished contribution to learning. But much more is needed in +this direction if women are to have the same chances as men to qualify +themselves for the higher university appointments. At almost all the +new Universities men and women are nominally alike eligible for every +teaching post. In practice, women are rarely if ever selected for the +higher positions. Sex prejudice undoubtedly counts for something in +this result. It may be assumed that, with two candidates of equal +merit, preference will certainly be given to the man: indeed, it is +certain that a woman must be exceptionally qualified and far more +distinguished than her male competitors to stand a chance of a +professorial appointment even in the most liberal of co-education +universities--Manchester, for example, where the conditions are +exceptionally good. This fact should not deter _fully qualified_ women +from applying for professorial chairs. The power of suggestion is +very great, and it is well to accustom appointment committees to the +consideration of women's claims: in time it may appear less strange to +choose a strong woman candidate than to reject her in favour of a less +qualified male applicant. + +It must be confessed, however, that the case does not at present often +arise. The girl who has had a brilliant undergraduate career, and who +has real capacity for advanced study, exists in her hundreds. But in +almost every case when she is not financially independent, at best +after an interval of preparation for her M.A., she accepts a junior +lectureship or demonstratorship, and from that time onwards is +swallowed up in the vortex of teaching and routine work. Often she +makes heroic efforts and succeeds in producing independent results, +but, so far, to nothing like the extent that would be commensurate +with the promise of her undergraduate achievement. Generally she +is too conscientious about detail, too interested in her students +individually and collectively, to secure sufficient time for her own +studies. + +If a lecturer be known to teach between twenty and thirty hours a +week, it is tolerably, though not entirely, safe to assume that it is +a woman who is so foolish. In so doing, she is destroying her chances +of advancement--intellectual and professional--and is laying her whole +sex open to the charge of being unsuited to university work except in +its lower branches. + +It is certain that the number of University appointments open to women +is on the increase, and that there is no present likelihood that the +demand for qualified women will remain stationary. On the other hand, +the necessary qualifications, personal as well as intellectual, are +high; the work is hard, though attractive, and it is in every respect +undesirable that those whose talents can better be exerted in other +branches of the profession should endeavour to obtain College posts. +Roughly speaking such openings are of four kinds :-- + +(1) Administrative posts. These are usually the reward of long and +successful service in junior appointments. The heads of the various +women's University Colleges are often, but by no means invariably, +well paid, and may look forward to a salary ranging from £400 to +£1,000. Such posts are obviously few in number and entail hard work +and grave responsibility. They necessarily preclude much time for +research, or even for teaching. The corresponding, but much less +responsible, influential, and well-paid position in a co-educational +University is that of Dean or Tutor of Women Students. This post +is usually, and should always be held by a woman of senior academic +standing, whose position in the class-room or laboratory commands +as much respect as her authority outside. The Dean or Tutor is +responsible for the welfare and discipline of all women students, and +is nowadays usually a member of the Senate or academic governing +body. Sometimes she is also Warden of a Women's Hostel, but this is +obviously undesirable if there be more than one Hall of Residence, +lest she may appear to favour her own students at the expense of the +others. + +(2) Professorial posts and Staff Lectureships.[4] These are almost +entirely confined to Women's Colleges, though there are a very few +exceptions to this rule. The University of London has established +University Professorships and Readerships at the various constituent +Women's Colleges.[5] One of the former and several of the latter +are held by women who have been appointed after open competition. In +addition, a woman, Mrs Knowles, holds a University Readership at the +co-educational London School of Economics. There are also one or two +women professors at the newer Universities, but these as a rule retain +their positions by right of past service in a struggling institution, +not as a result of open competition, when University status had been +attained and reasonable stipends were offered to new-comers. The +National University of Ireland has, however, appointed several women +professors at its various constituent Colleges. + +Salaries probably range from £300 to £700, the better paid posts as +yet very seldom falling to women. + +(3) Lectureships, assistant lectureships, and demonstratorships. These +are usually open to women in practice as well as in theory, though +much depends on the personal idiosyncrasy of the head of the +department, and on the importance of the post and the salary offered. +But since it is, unhappily, often easy to secure an able woman for the +same stipend as that which must be offered to an inexperienced man, +fresh from college, difficulties are not, as a rule, placed in the +way of such appointments. The salary begins at about £150 (sometimes +less), and rises normally to about £200 or £250. A few senior and +independent lectureships are better remunerated. + +(4) Closely allied with University work is the work of training +teachers. In Training-Colleges, and in University training-departments +there is a constant demand for lecturers and mistresses of method. +These posts, which are remunerated on about the same scale as other +University lectureships, are well suited to those whose interest lies +mainly in purely educational matters. Girls who have obtained +good degrees, but who do not wish to devote themselves entirely to +scholarship, will find here an attractive and ever-extending sphere of +influence. Lecturers in Training-Colleges must, of course, themselves +hold a University teaching-diploma: they should have school experience +of various kinds, and they must be enthusiastic in the cause of +training and of teaching. For competent and broad-minded women there +are many openings in this branch of the profession, and there is +much scope for independent and original work in many directions. The +training of teachers, as well as actual teaching, is of the nature +of scientific, experimental, and observational work. Lecturers in +Training-Colleges most of all, but to a large extent teachers of every +degree, must be students of psychology and of human nature. Mistresses +of Method are well aware that the ideal type of training has not yet +been evolved: they are seeking new ways of carrying on their work and +experimenting with new methods at the same time as they are guiding +others along paths already familiar to themselves. This absence of +finality, characteristic of the teaching profession as a whole, and +constituting one of its chief attractions, is especially noticeable in +all work connected with the training of teachers. + +Senior appointments at all properly constituted Universities are of +life tenure--nominally until the age of sixty-five, though probably +earlier retirement will be made possible. They are made by the +Council, which usually entrusts the election either to the Senate or +to a committee, on which are representatives of both the Council and +the Senate. Unfortunately this procedure is not universal, and the +teachers are not invariably consulted in their official capacity. +Junior appointments, while subject to ratification by the Council, +are usually made in the first instance by the head of the department +concerned, usually, but not invariably, after consultation with the +Dean of the Faculty or the Vice-Chancellor. They are sometimes of +three years' tenure with or without possible extension, sometimes +subject merely to terminal notice on either side. + +In the last four or five years contributory pension schemes for +the professorial body and for permanent assistants in receipt of +a specified income (usually £250 or £200 and upwards) have been +compulsorily established at all British Universities in receipt of +a Government grant. In June 1913, the Advisory Committee on the +Distribution of Exchequer Grants to Universities and University +Colleges laid on the table of the House of Commons a scheme which came +into force on 29th September, and is compulsory on every member of +the staff entering a University after that date at a salary of £300 or +upwards. Members appointed at salaries of between £200 and £300 have +the option of joining the scheme, while those appointed at salaries +of between £160 and £200 may join with the consent of the institution. +Members of existing schemes are entitled to join under similar +conditions. Special facilities are given for the transference of +policies from one University to another, since the view is taken +that the teachers in all the Universities constitute a profession +comparable with the Civil Service, and that transference from one +University to another should not be accompanied by a financial penalty +any more than is transference from one Government office to another. + +A competent girl who can bide her time can usually get a footing in +some University. Her future advancement will depend on her value to +the institution, on her original writing and research even more than +on her teaching, work on committees and influence with the students. +Largely, too, it will depend on her tact and popularity with her +colleagues: to a very considerable extent it still rests also on +conditions over which she has no control, and which are part and +parcel of the slow recognition of a woman's right to compete on equal +terms with men. + +It seems, as far as can be judged, that future opportunities are +likely to occur when the right candidates for posts are there in +sufficient numbers to make their exclusion on the ground of sex, +already seldom explicitly stated, impossible or inexpedient. Meanwhile +it is probable that individual women will continue, in some cases, to +suffer injustice, while in others, by virtue of their unquestionable +attainments and strength of personality, they may attain the positions +they desire. Slow progress is not altogether bad for the ultimate +cause of women at the Universities: nothing could injure that cause so +much as mistakes at the initial stage. An important appointment +given to the wrong woman, or to one in any respect inferior to her +colleagues, would be used as an argument against further experiment +for many years. + +University women teachers can best help to secure equality of +opportunity by rendering themselves indispensable members of the body +corporate. In their case much is required of those to whom little is +given. Above all they must avoid the temptation to live entirely in +the absorbing interests of the present: they must remember that it is +the business of a University to make contributions to learning as well +as to teach. Secondly, they must insist on equality of payment and +status when there is any disposition, overt or acknowledged, to +differentiate on the score of sex. It is not right to yield on these +points, for an important principle is at stake. On the other hand the +time and place for insistence must be wisely selected, and any +claim made must be incontrovertible on the score of justice and +practicability. Lastly, women on committees and elsewhere are +not justified in keeping unduly in the background. When they have +something worth contributing to the discussion, it is not modesty but +lack of business capacity, which makes them silent. "Mauvaise honte" +is as much out of place as undue pertinacity. Women who are unwilling +or unable to assert themselves when necessary, are not in place at +a co-educational University. Most women, however, will derive +intellectual stimulus from the free interchange of opinion, possible +only when both sexes are working happily together, with common +interests and common aims. + +If relatively too much space in this article has been given to women's +work at mixed Universities, the excuse lies ready to hand. In Women's +Colleges there is, of course, no sex bar, and the way lies clear +from the bottom to the top of the ladder. Conditions of appointment, +tenure, and work do not greatly differ from those described, except +in so far as the stipends tend to be lower, especially for more +responsible posts, when these are ordinarily occupied by women. It is +a sign of the times that in at least one Women's College in a mixed +University, it has been recently necessary to rule that posts are +open to men as well as to women, unless it is specially stated to the +contrary. Thus, when the power is theirs, women also may be unwisely +tempted to erect a new form of sex barrier. To do so would be to +play into the hands of those enemies who are always raising the voice +against equal pay for equal work. The most suitable candidate for a +post is the one who should be selected, irrespective of sex. It is +this principle that women are endeavouring to establish. They must +do so by scrupulous fairness when the power is theirs: by making +themselves indisputably most fitted, when they are knocking at the +closed door. + +One further topic needs discussion in this section--the continued +employment of married women in University posts. At present there +is no universal rule, and every case has to be judged on its merits. +Every lecturer who marries, can and ought to help to form the +precedent that continuance of professional work is a matter for her +own decision and is not one that concerns governing bodies. Already a +good many women, mothers as well as wives, have set the good example +and have established their own position, sometimes without question, +sometimes as the result of a difficult struggle. It is clear that +Universities, with their long vacations, and with their established +recognition of long absences for specified purposes, have less ground +than most employers to raise difficulties for married women. Thus the +holder of an A.K. scholarship may travel for a year, in order, by the +wise provision of the founder, to enlarge his or her mind and +bring back new experience to University organisation, research, +and teaching. The woman who fulfils the claims of sex, and to do so +journeys into the realm where life and death struggle for victory, +cannot thereby be unfitted for the profession for which she has +qualified. Enlargement of mind and new experience will help her too, +in the daily routine. It is for her alone to decide whether new claims +and old can be reconciled. If in practice in an individual case they +cannot, then and only then has the University or College a right to +interfere, and on no other ground than that the work suffers. Since +women workers are as a rule only too conscientious, this contingency +is unlikely often to arise. + + +[Footnote 1: Her local authority may, however, have claims upon her, +if she has promised to teach in an elementary school.] + +[Footnote 2: Trained teachers only, men and women, will be admitted to +the new Register.] + +[Footnote 3: See tables at the end of this section, pp. 82 to 136.] + +[Footnote 4: On the Continent even in Germany, and in the U.S.A. +several women have been elected to University chairs.] + +[Footnote 5: Dr Benson, Staff Lecturer at Royal Holloway College, was +raised to the status of University Professor of Botany in 1912 without +open competition; Dr Spurgeon was appointed to the new University +Chair of English Literature, tenable at Bedford College as from 1st +September 1913, after open competition. These professorships are +the only two held by women at the University of London but there are +several women Readers.] + + + + + +III + +SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHING + + +The girls' secondary day schools of this country, largely built up in +the first place by the individual pioneer work of broad-minded women +during the last thirty years of the nineteenth century, are now in +most cases coming, if not under State control, at least into the +sphere of State influence. These women educationists in some cases +worked on old foundations, in others obtained from guilds or governors +a share for girls' education of funds previously allocated to various +benefactions or to the education of boys only. Private enterprise, +individual or, as in the case of the Girls' Public Day School Company, +collective, added schools in most important towns. + +Thus by the beginning of the twentieth century there was provision for +a large number of girls of the middle class up to eighteen years of +age, in schools which as High Schools were analogous to the Grammar +Schools for boys dating to a corresponding burst of educational +activity rather more than three centuries earlier. Dependent on the +fees of their pupils or on special funds or endowments, these schools +could not, for the classes unable to pay a fee, adequately supplement +the elementary schools of the country, which provide for such +children education at most up to fourteen or fifteen years of age. The +Education Act of 1902, therefore, placed education beyond this age in +the hands of local authorities, the Board of Education supplementing +the rates by grants for secondary education--so that publicly owned +schools have been started by municipalities and County Councils, while +other institutions receive grants on certain conditions. + +Schools of all the types mentioned and a few others, providing +education at least from ten to sixteen (or eighteen) years of age, +are known as secondary schools, and it is to work in them that this +article refers.[1] Various as may be their origins, and different +their aims, the teachers in them form a fairly homogeneous group, +with definite points in common, resulting from the requirements of the +Board of Education for the earning of the grant now paid to most of +these schools, or for the register in force for a short time--as +well as from the co-ordinating influence of membership of the +Headmistresses' or the Assistant Mistresses' Associations and other +professional and educational bodies, and of educational literature +from the publications of the Board of Education downwards. + +It would be well if for this, as for other parts of educational work, +people of middle age, or in fact all whose school days lie in the +past, would dismiss their ideas gained from schools of even the end +of the nineteenth century, and realise that the daily life of a school +to-day is, in most cases, very different from that which they have +in their minds. The time-table and the class-room work may not +appear dissimilar to the casual observer, but a difference there +is, nevertheless. The chief alteration, however, is that a girl's +education is increasingly carried on by many agencies other than +these. In the school society rather than in the class-room lesson, +at net-ball and hockey rather than in the drill lesson, on the school +stage or in the school choir she learns, rather than is taught, her +most valuable lessons. Examinations still exist, it is true; but these +come later in a girl's school life, and are more frequently based on +the school curriculum and held in the school than used to be the case. + +What does all this new life mean in the work of the teacher and her +preparation for it? + +Miss Drummond, President of the Incorporated Association of Assistant +Mistresses, spoke thus on the subject[2]:-- + + "In a lesson in a good school there is most often a + happy give and take between the teacher and the class. + The teacher guides, but every girl is called on to take her + part and put forward individual effort. The homework is + no longer mere memorizing from some dry little manual, + but requires thought and gives scope for originality. The + whole results in a rigorous mental discipline, real stimulus + to power of original thought, eager enthusiasm in learning.... It + means an enormously increased demand upon the teacher." Again, "it + must not be thought, however, that the work of the school is limited + to lesson hours. We aim not only at giving a definite intellectual + equipment but at producing independence and self-reliance together with + that public spirit which enables a girl quite simply and without + self-consciousness to take her part in the life of a community." + +Besides games, which may be organised by a special mistress (see p. +59) or by ordinary members of the school staff, + + "there are nearly always several societies, run again by + the girls as far as possible, but almost always with the + inspiration and sympathy of some mistress at the back of + them. Thus there are social guilds of various kinds. + These vary from mere working parties for philanthropic + purposes to large organisations which embrace a number + of activities.... Of something the same kind are the + archaeological and scientific, the literary and debating + societies.... These societies are among the most interesting + and important parts of the work of a teacher, as they are + also among the most exacting. Games and societies together + tend to lengthen the hours of a school day, but even on + leaving school, her work is not finished. There are always + corrections to be done.... Still this is not all if lessons + are to be kept as alive and stimulating as they should be. + First and foremost, it is absolutely essential that the + teacher should not be jaded. She must get relaxation, + she must mix with other people and exchange ideas, she + must go about and keep in touch with all kinds of + activities. But at the same time she has to read in her + own subject, she has to keep up with modern methods of + teaching, she has to think out her various lessons."[3] + +Just as the headmaster of a public school often seeks for a cricketer +rather than a classical scholar for his staff, so the headmistress +thinks not only of academic attainments but seeks for an assistant who +can keep going a school society or a magazine (while leaving it in the +hands of the girls), who enjoys acting and stage management, who can +take responsibility for a dozen girls on a week's school journey (the +nearest approach to camping out--and experience of this would perhaps +be a recommendation!). She wants some one not merely to teach or +manage or discipline girls, but a woman who can share the life of the +girls, or at least understand it well enough to let them live it. + +Not that the intellectual side is unimportant. A University degree is +normally required in an assistant and this involves a three or four +years' course of considerable expense (see p. 7). An honours degree +is often essential--always, nowadays, in the case of a headmistress. +Whilst well-trained foreigners hold an important place in some +schools, modern languages are more frequently taught by an +Englishwoman who has lived abroad rather than by a foreign governess; +even English, happily, is no longer entrusted to any one not specially +qualified. As will be seen from the article on domestic work, the +graduate in chemistry has in this a promising field, while the +botanist or zoologist and the geologist have the basis on which to +specialise in nature-study or geography. This, however, usually comes +after the preliminary general academic training. It is well to keep up +a many-sided interest apart from bread-and-butter subjects, not +only in view of demands that may be made on one, but because the +intellectual woman will best qualify by developing her own powers as +far as possible. If of the right calibre, she can afterwards readily +take up even a new subject and make it her own. A good secondary +school needs that some of its mistresses should have the habits and +tastes of the scholar who loves work for its own sake, or rather for +the sake of truth. A woman with strong well-trained intellectual power +need not fear the competition of even the capable woman of action +indicated in the preceding paragraph. Both qualifications may, in +fact, exist in the same person. + +The woman with brains is indeed needed in the schools. The work of +women's education was but begun by the illustrious pioneers to whom +reference has already been made. There are to-day many new problems +to solve, new difficulties caused by the very success of the older +generation. On the one hand it was necessary that women should at +first, by following the same lines as men, prove their powers on +common ground; now they must find whether there are special fields for +them, and how, if these exist, they may best be occupied. They need +no longer be afraid to emphasise what was good in the old-fashioned +education of girls. Might not, for example, elocution and caligraphy +with advantage re-appear as good reading aloud and beautiful +penmanship? just as physical training carries on the lessons of +deportment and the Domestic Science course revives the lessons of the +still-room, the kitchen, and the store. On the other hand, under the +existing pressure to relieve the burden of childhood, women must see +to it that the mothers of the coming generation are not sacrificed to +the earliest stages of the lives of their children that are to be. +The motherhood of women and their home-making powers are indeed to +be developed, but not at the expense of their own lives and their +citizenship. Women educators, then, must take what is good in boys' +education, what has been good in girls', and must utilise both. This +work is great, and it is specially difficult because legislation and +administration are almost entirely in the hands of men. Now men are +apt to take for granted either that girls should be treated just like +boys, or that they are entirely different and are to be brought up on +different lines; and women who see the truth there is in both of these +propositions are hindered alike by the men who hold the one and those +who hold the other. + +The pioneer girls' schools of the nineteenth century did much +experimental work and established the right of individual initiative +and a distinct line of work for each school. Perhaps special gratitude +is due in respect of this to the governing body of the Girls' Public +Day School Trust, since its schools were numerous enough soon to +create a tradition requiring for their Headmistresses great initiatory +power and considerable freedom. + + "This freedom," writes a recently retired Headmistress + of thirty-six years' standing (Mrs Woodhouse, late of + Clapham High School), "was of the greatest value as leading + to differentiation of type and character of school. It + ensured a spirit of joy in work for the whole staff; for the + Headmistress and her band of like-minded colleagues were + co-workers in experiments towards development and + sharers in the realisation of ideals. The vitality thus + secured has been appreciated at its true value by His + Majesty's Inspectors when in recent years they have + come into touch with these schools, and as far as my + experience goes, they have left such initiative untouched." + +The danger resulting from the progress made in education during the +twentieth century is that secondary schools, coming as nearly all now +do under the cognizance if not the control of the Board of Education, +may become too much office-managed and State-regulated, thus losing +life in routine. The task of resisting this, of working loyally with +local and central government departments, and yet of keeping the +school a living organism and not merely a moving machine is one +requiring by no means ordinary ability. Is there not here a call to +women of the highest power and academic standing? + +It is true that the direct facing of these wider problems does not +fall to the lot of the assistant mistress in her earlier years. But +the ambitious aspirant to a profession looks to the possibility of a +judgeship or bishopric in choosing his life-work. The capable woman +then will look at all the possibilities in the teaching profession. +Long before she is Headmistress she will have made her mark in her +school--for not only the numerous activities mentioned but also +the organisation of ordinary school work require initiative and +self-reliance. The head of a large school is only too glad to hand +over to a competent assistant the organisation of her own department +and its co-ordination with other school activities. + +Just because there are now openings in other branches of work for +women of the highest power, those of this type should give teaching +some consideration. Since it has ceased to be the only avenue for +trained and educated women, it is no longer so crowded with them, and +as in other callings, there is plenty of room at the top. + +In addition to a degree, the qualification of training is a strong +recommendation.[4] It involves, as a rule, a year after graduation, in +special colleges such as exist in Oxford, Cambridge, or London, or +in the Secondary Training Department of one or other of the local +Universities. The expense varies, usually meaning a fee of about £10 +to £30 in addition to cost of living; so that a fairly expensive +year intervenes between graduation and the commencement of a salary. +Alternatives to a training-college course have been recently suggested +by the Board of Education, and may shortly be available. During the +training period the intending teacher must, if this is not already +determined, decide on the special branch for which she wishes to +prepare, according to her qualifications and the needs of schools. +If actual teaching experience can first be obtained for two or three +years, it enables earning to begin at once and greatly increases the +value of the training taken subsequently. + +The secondary teacher thus spends from three to five years in academic +and professional training; and in accordance with current economic +ideas should receive a salary proportionate to the outlay involved. +The scheme of salaries approved by the Assistant Mistresses' +Association in January 1912 suggests £120 as the initial minimum +salary (non-residential) for a mistress with degree and training, +rising in ten years to £220 in ordinary cases, to £250 where +"positions of special responsibility" are occupied. £100 to £180 is +suggested for non-graduates. "These salaries are higher than those +provided by the Girls' Public Day School Trust, and other governing +bodies outside the London County Council. In most cases £120 to £130 +a year may be taken as a fair average for an assistant mistress."[5] +Headmistresses' salaries vary from £200 to, at least in one +exceptional case, £1,500. They often depend in part on capitation +fees. The Headmistresses' Association considers that the minimum +should be £300. + +In secondary schools as in other grades of educational work the +salaries of women are lower than those of men, as may be illustrated +by the London County Council scale of salaries. + + Men: Assistants . . £150-£300 (or £350) + Heads . . £400-£600 (or £800) + + Women: Assistants . . £120-£220 (or £250) + Heads . . £300-£450 (or £600) + +The difference between the salaries of heads and assistants is in many +cases greater than is desirable. Things being as they are, it is +well that there should be some prizes to attract ability into the +profession. On the other hand, a woman, whose best work is that of +an assistant, should not be tempted to give it up for the salary of +a headmistress. The assistant has the opportunity for closer and more +personal touch with her girls, being intimately responsible for a +smaller number; she has also better opportunities for working out the +teaching of her subject and improving its technique. Education would +gain if more of the ablest teachers, specially successful in one or +other of these directions, were left in a position to continue this +work, instead of feeling obliged to substitute for it the perhaps +uncongenial task of organisation on a large scale, and that contact +with visitors, organisers, inspectors, committees, and the public, +which occupies the time of the heads of schools. The truth of this is, +I am told, better appreciated in Germany than in this country. + +Since local authorities took over the work, secondary teachers have +gained considerably both as regards salaries and tenure. They are now, +as a rule, better paid than elementary teachers, which was not always +the case before 1902. + +The tenure of the teacher varies in different schools. It is now less +common than formerly for the appointment and dismissal of the staff to +be entirely in the hands of the Headmistress; and assistants are +thus safe-guarded against possible unfair and arbitrary action. The +Headmistress,[6] however, has almost invariably a preponderating voice +in the selection of her staff--as is right if the school is to be +a living organism, not merely one of a series of machines with +interchangeable parts; but the power of dismissal, if in her hands, +is usually safe-guarded by the right of appeal to the appointing +body--local authority or board of governors as the case may be. This +right of appeal should be universal, and formal agreements should in +all cases be made. (A model form of agreement has been drawn up by the +Association of Assistant Mistresses.) + +Pensions are not generally provided for secondary teachers; but a +national pension scheme for them is under consideration, and there is +hope that it will not be long delayed. + +The poorer members of the teaching profession come under the National +Health Insurance Act and are provided for by the University, Secondary +and Technical Teachers' Insurance Society which already numbers eleven +thousand members. This society also offers, in its Dividend Section, +to those not compulsorily insured the opportunity for voluntary +insurance against sickness. Association among secondary teachers has +been considerably furthered by the desire to qualify for membership in +the Insurance Society. + +The distinctive associations for secondary mistresses are the +Headmistresses' Association and the Association of Assistant +Mistresses in Public Secondary Schools. These are concerned with +general educational as well as professional problems, and their +opinion is sought at times by the Board of Education with regard to +proposed regulations. Each of them is represented on the recently +established Registration Council, which has just reported (November +1913). + +Membership of the Teachers' Guild of Great Britain and Ireland, of the +College of Preceptors, and of the National Union of Teachers is also +open to secondary teachers. In the last-named they may join hands with +the great body of elementary teachers; in the first two organisations +with private teachers also. There are also associations for teachers +of certain subjects, the Ling Association and the Association of +Teachers of Domestic Subjects. Membership of such bodies as the +Historical, Geographical and various Scientific Associations is +valuable because not confined to teachers. + +Though the President of the Association of Assistant Mistresses +has said that "there would be a strong feeling against definite +organisation for the purpose of forcing up rates of remuneration,"[7] +yet that body has investigated the scales of pay offered by local +authorities, and writes in protest when posts are advertised at low +rates. + +Under present conditions the principle of general equality of income, +not yet being considered as a serious proposition, it is surely +economically right for the teaching profession to claim remuneration +sufficient to give it a status corresponding to the worth and +dignity of its work. Above all, women not entirely dependent on their +earnings, and therefore in a position to resist under-payment, should +not act as blacklegs and keep down the rate for others dependent for a +livelihood on their occupation. + +Under-payment for teachers means a narrower, more anxious life than +should be theirs who are to live in the strongly electric atmosphere +of a body of girls and young women and yet keep a calm serenity of +spirit--a life less full than is essential for those who have to give +at all times freely of their best. + +Similarly, in order that the fullest possible life may be open to the +woman teacher, it seems desirable that continuance in the profession +after marriage should be more usual than it is. Again, from the point +of view of the pupils this is desirable. Mrs Humphrey Ward is not +the only opponent of women's suffrage to state that the atmosphere +of girls' schools suffers from the preponderating spinster element. +Suffragists may for once join hands with her and urge that the +married woman is in some ways better suited for young people than her +unmarried colleague.[8] Often the most valuable years of a woman's +life are lost to the school by her enforced retirement at marriage. +She gives to it her younger, less experienced years, when she knows +less of the world, less of the problems of the household, less of the +outlook of the parents. It must be remembered that the parents' point +of view is important if there is to be right co-operation between home +and school. To the teacher-mother there will come an altogether new +power of understanding, which should ultimately compensate the school +for broken time during the earlier years of the life of her children. +Provision for absence in these cases might well render more possible +provision for a "rest-term" or a _Wanderjahr_, such as should be +possible to all mistresses at intervals in their teaching career. +Mistresses are not as a rule aware that under most existing agreements +they may claim to continue their work after marriage. They would in +a large number of cases be rendering a service to girls' education by +doing so. Many secondary teachers will welcome the idea that they +need not abandon either the career they have chosen or the prospect of +their fullest development as women. The teaching profession would thus +retain many valuable members now lost to it on marriage, and the ranks +of married women be recruited by many well suited to be the mothers of +citizens. + +The career of teaching adolescent girls gives to those following +it, in the daily routine, many experiences which others seek for in +leisure hours. The woman among girls has the privilege of handing on +to them the keys to the intellectual treasuries where she has enriched +herself, of setting their feet in the paths which have led her to +fruitful fields. She may watch over the birth and growth of the +reasoning powers of her pupils and guide them to their intellectual +victories, initiating them into the great fellowship of workers for +truth. It is interesting but it is not easy work. We have seen that +the material recompense of the teacher is not great, and if she looks +for other return she will too often be disappointed. And yet there is +compensation. Here as elsewhere he that saveth his life shall lose it; +but he that loseth his life shall indeed find it. + + +[Footnote 1: "A secondary school ... is a school which provides a +progressive course of general education suitable for pupils of an +age-range at least as wide as from twelve to seventeen" (Board of +Education, Circular 826).] + +[Footnote 2: Lecture on "The Life of a Teacher" given to the Fabian, +Women's Group, 1912.] + +[Footnote 3: Miss I.M. Drummond, _loc, cit._] + +[Footnote 4: By the Conditions of Registration issued November 1913, +one year's training will be required for all entering the profession +after the end of 1918.] + +[Footnote 5: Miss I.M. Drummond _loc. cit._ For example, a science +graduate with special qualifications in geography, three years' +experience, and a training diploma has recently been appointed to a +leading London High School at a salary of £110, with no agreement for +yearly or other augmentation. [EDITOR].] + +[Footnote 6: The practice of the Girl's Public Day School Trust, +largely followed by other governing bodies, is to give the Head the +right of nomination, and of dismissal during the probationary period +subject to the veto, rarely exercised, of the Committee.] + +[Footnote 7: Miss I.M. Drummond _loc. cit._] + +[Footnote 8: This is surely a better solution than that proposed +in the November 1913, Educational Supplement to the _Times_. The +suggestion is there made that the "conventual system" prevailing in +some girls' boarding-schools should be changed by having Headmasters +instead of Headmistresses. The writer apparently fails to realise +that one of the greatest difficulties in co-educational schools is to +attract the right sort of mistress, because there is no prospect that +she may ultimately attain a headship. The same danger will inevitably +arise in any schools which introduce Headmasters. If the masculine +element is desirable, and we agree that this may well be so, the +obvious course is either to have some male assistants, or to have +married house-mistresses, on the analogy of the married house-master +at boys' schools. A still better solution, in our opinion, is +co-education, with pupils of both sexes, a mixed staff, and a joint +Headmaster and Headmistress. In many of the new County and Municipal +Secondary Schools this innovation has been successfully adopted, +though the Senior Mistress is unfortunately in all cases definitely +subordinate to the Headmaster. [EDITOR.]] + + + + +IV + +ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHING + + +Progressive women to-day resent the social system which requires them +to be economically dependent upon others. They realise that social +service needs labour of a highly skilled variety, and they therefore +demand, on the one hand, training for their work as a guarantee of +their efficiency in its performance, and, on the other hand, monetary +payment and security of tenure as guarantees to them of economic +independence. As a natural corollary to woman's lack of political +power, there are no spheres of professional work in which prevailing +conditions are in these respects completely satisfactory. Perhaps the +teaching service in the State schools comes nearest to complying with +progressive demands: at any rate Government recognises the need for +training, and, to a large extent, meets its cost; a salary, more or +less adequate, is paid in return for the teaching given, and security +of tenure is, with few exceptions, assured. Again, the work done +in the State schools is now generally and rightly regarded as of +first-rate importance to the community, and therefore as meriting +national gratitude in the form of Government superannuation. Popular +prejudice against compulsory education, once so strong, may now be +said to have disappeared, and the work of the pioneers who endeavoured +to create a public opinion in its favour, has borne fruit. To-day +the parents' attitude towards the teacher is normally one of friendly +co-operation and respect, with the result that the latter is fast +becoming a powerful factor in shaping and influencing the democracy. +The school is extending its influence in every sphere which touches +on the social, physical, intellectual, and spiritual well-being of the +people. Activities which, until recently,[1] were associated only +with institutions distinctly religious in character, are now regularly +connected with the work of primary schools. Thus the teacher has +every opportunity for the exercise of public spirit, within school +and without. He is daily confronted with the problem of evolving and +developing an educated democracy, which will demand and obtain proper +conditions of life. + +The nature of the work asked of the teachers in primary schools, has +led to insistence by the State on the necessity for their professional +training, as well as for their academic proficiency. These +requirements have met with the counter-demand on the part of +the teachers in State schools, for State registration. When this +Register,[2] now in process of creation, has become an accomplished +fact, one of the chief remaining obstacles to the progress of the +teaching service will be removed. + +It is now time to turn to the conditions of training, service, and +remuneration prevailing in English and Welsh elementary schools. The +Scotch service differs in some respects, while the state of primary +education and the position of elementary teachers in Ireland[3] are +altogether worse than in Great Britain. + +The Board of Education recognises the following grades of men and +women teachers in public elementary schools: pupil teachers, bursars +and student teachers, uncertificated teachers, and certificated +teachers. Women, over eighteen years of age, who have been vaccinated, +may, without any other qualifications, be engaged as supplementary +teachers, although the Board cannot entertain any application for the +recognition of men in this capacity. A supplementary teacher may teach +(I) infants' classes, that is to say, classes in which the majority of +the scholars are under eight years of age, or (2) the lowest class +of older scholars in a school or department in a rural parish, if the +average attendance in the school does not exceed 100. + +The number of supplementary teachers employed in the schools of +England and Wales in the year 1910-11 was 14,454. + +If we turn to uncertificated teachers, we find that during the year +1909-10 there were 45,549 employed in the schools of England and +Wales, and that this number was increased by 182 during the year +1910-11. Of the uncertificated teachers of England in the year +1910-11, 5,106 were men and 35,222 were women. + +The vast majority of rural schools have only one certificated teacher +on the staff, and in hundreds of rural schools the head teacher is not +certificated. + +The following statistics with regard to certificated teachers have +been taken from the published return of the Board of Education, + 1910-11:[4]-- + England. Wales. + Men. Women. Men. Women. + + Trained 22,134 30,410 2,260 1810 + Untrained 9,060 33,121 539 1598 + +These figures show that of men teachers, 70 per cent. in England and +81 per cent. in Wales are trained, while of women teachers only 46 per +cent. in England and 51 per cent. in Wales are trained. + +These statistics are indicative of the urgent need for total abolition +of uncertificated and supplementary teachers, since the recognition +of these grades offers a direct incentive to girls just to bridge +over the period between leaving school and getting married, without +qualifying even for what ought to be regarded as the lowest ranks of +the profession. This fact is at once realised, when one contrasts the +percentage of women teachers who are untrained, viz., 54 per cent, in +England, 49 per cent, in Wales, with the corresponding figures for men +teachers, viz., 30 per cent, in England and 29 per cent, in Wales. + +Every candidate for teachership, who has passed through a Training +College, is required by the Board of Education to serve in a +recognised school--a woman for five out of the first eight years after +leaving College; a man for seven out of the first ten years after +leaving College--or pay the whole or part of the Government grant +in respect of College training. But, notwithstanding this agreement, +enforceable under Act of Parliament,[5] the Board of Education neither +takes steps to find employment for such candidates in the State +schools of the country, nor admits any responsibility on its part for +the conditions under which teachers are employed. By the Education Act +of 1902, local authorities, of which there are 318, were made +chiefly responsible for the work of education, and it is these local +authorities who lay down the conditions of appointment. + +This refusal by the Board of Education of responsibility for +appointments and conditions of appointment to teaching posts, leaves +it for local authorities to fix scales of salaries, and to decide such +questions as, for example, whether married women teachers shall be +employed. The grave effect of this state of things on the economic +interests of the teachers of the country cannot be too much +emphasised, having regard to the fact that local authorities are +bodies composed mainly of men elected on a rate-saving principle. + +The salaries paid to bursars and student teachers are insufficient +to cover charges for maintenance, clothes, books, etc. Speaking +generally, a quite substantial sum must also be found during each +year of the collegiate course, for college expenses and for board +and lodging during vacations, so that a candidate's parents must hold +themselves financially responsible for her during the various +stages of her training, except in so far as the cost is covered by +scholarship and maintenance grants. Women candidates are in this +respect far worse off than their male colleagues, as, at every stage +of their training, they receive a smaller maintenance grant. At a +residential college, while men receive £40, women receive £20; at a +non-residential college the grant for men is £25, for women £20. +As the whole supply of teachers for each year leaves the Training +Colleges in July,[6] it follows that many of these must wait for +varying periods before finding employment: during these periods the +burden of maintenance must again be borne by the parents. The need for +legislation in the economic interests of teachers is borne out by the +fact that highly trained students of good character are unable to +find employment, even at low salaries. Of 4,384 teachers who left +the training colleges in July 1908, at least 1,226 were, three months +later, without employment, and 259 were known to be without employment +even twelve months later; whilst of the 4,386 students who left the +Training Colleges in July 1909, 1,528 were still without employment in +October 1909. These figures are for both sexes, but by far the larger +number of teachers are women. + +These facts explain why it is that local authorities, bent on +keeping down the rates, have been enabled to obtain the services of +certificated teachers at the scale of salaries which they advertise +for uncertificated teachers: in fact many fully qualified certificated +teachers have been forced to work for a rate of payment lower than +that received by an unskilled labourer; a natural corollary to this +condition of things is that many would-be teachers refuse to expend +time and money on training. + +This state of affairs has had one other effect which is of vital +importance when the economic position of women teachers is being +considered, namely, that local authorities, in order to appease the +popular outcry against this apparently overstocked market, have been +led to sanction regulations for the compulsory retirement of women +teachers on marriage. Happily the London County Council has not +succumbed to this temptation, and there are other equally enlightened +authorities. But constant watchfulness is needed in order to prevent +retrogression in this matter. Young teachers, anxiously awaiting +promotion, sometimes foolishly resist the appointment or retention of +married women. This is a suicidal policy, to be resisted at all costs, +both in the interests of the teachers and of the children. Salaries +are bound to remain low, while women are forced to consider their +profession in the light of a stop-gap until marriage, and not as +a life-work. Moreover, there are real dangers in entrusting girls' +education entirely to unmarried women. The salaries of assistant +teachers vary very considerably. In no single instance is a woman +teacher paid the same rate of salary as a man of the same professional +status. This is true even when the work is identical in character, as +is the case in mixed schools and pupil teachers' centres. One of the +results of this inequality of payment is that women teachers are often +employed to teach the lower classes in boys' schools, and some rural +schools are staffed entirely by women, not because the woman teacher +is deemed more suitable for the work, but because her labour is +cheaper; hence the need, in the teaching profession, for recognition +of the principle of "equal pay for equal work." Without it, the +status of the woman becomes lower than that of the man, inferior +or unqualified women are appointed, and men are driven from the +profession. Only when there is equality of pay can there be security +that the best candidate will be appointed, irrespective of sex. + +The following table taken from the latest returns of the Board of +Education contrasts the number of women and men employed in the +elementary schools of England, and the number of women and men +employed in the better paid higher elementary schools of the country, +for the year 1910-11. + + Higher + Elementary Elementary + Schools Schools. + + No. of Head Teachers (certificated) Men : 12,477 : 36 + " " " " Women : 16,648 : 4 + " Assistant " " Men : 18,659 : 161 + " " " Women : 46,881 : 117 + " " (uncertificated) Men : 5,091 : 4 + " " " Women : 34,910 : 2 + +An examination of statistics with regard to the salaries of teachers +in England, taken from the same returns, year 1910-11, shows that-- + + I. Average salaries (Elementary Schools) were:-- + £ s. d. + Head Teachers (Certificated) Men 176 3 11 + " " " Women 122 18 1 + " " (uncertificated) Men 94 8 0 + " " " Women 68 3 5 + Assistant Teachers (certificated) Men 127 9 11 + " " " Women 92 8 6 + " " (uncertificated) Men 65 2 11 + " " " Women 54 14 1 + +II. (1) 67.93 per cent. of the certificated head masters receive less +than £200 per annum. + +(2) 93.9 per cent. of the certificated head mistresses receive less +than £200 per annum. + +(3) 93.38 per cent. of the certificated assistant masters receive less +than £200 per annum. + +(4) 97.73 per cent. of the certificated assistant mistresses receive +less than £150 per annum. + +III. The salaries of certificated teachers (England) were:-- + + Head Teachers. Assistant Teachers. + Men. Women. Men. Women. + Under £50 1 2 2 352 + Totals £50 and under £100 394 4,967 3,838 29,915 + " 100 " " 150 4,506 8,032 9,933 15,548 + " 150 " " 200 3,575 2,631 3,651 1,065 + " 200 " " 250 2,395 742 1,235 1 + " 250 " " 300 963 209 ---- ---- + " 300 " " 350 422 65 ---- ---- + " 350 " " 400 125 ---- ---- ---- + " 400 " " 450 93 ---- ---- ---- + " 450 " " 500 2 ---- ---- ---- + " 560 1 ---- ---- ---- + +IV. The salaries of uncertificated teachers are usually lower than the +wage of a skilled artisan--the average for men _head_ teachers being +below £100, and for women _head_ teachers below £70, whilst 7,855 +assistant teachers receive less than £50. + +V. Supplementary teachers usually receive, of course without board +or lodging, a salary equal to the money-wage of an average domestic +servant. They are commonly less well qualified than is she, for the +work undertaken. + +The chances of promotion to a headship are obviously so few, that the +certificated teacher will probably remain an assistant all her life. +Chances of head-teacherships are being still further reduced by the +amalgamation of departments under a head _master_. + +In the schools of many large urban education authorities, less than 1 +per cent. of the assistant teachers obtain promotion in twelve months. +The total number applying for the 163 places to be filled in the last +promotion list that was formed by the London Education Authority, was +2,337, so that, as a direct result of the publication of that list, +2,174 teachers resumed their work after the summer vacation of +1911 with feelings of less hopefulness with regard to their future +prospects. The issue of a promotion list is in itself a fact to be +deplored, seeing that it acts as a check to mental alertness. For the +2,174 unsuccessful candidates for inclusion, their application has now +either destroyed hope, or suspended any chances of its realisation +for at least two years. There is a consciousness in the unsuccessful +applicant of somehow being worth less than she was before, since +she is now an assistant mistress without potentiality for head +teachership. This feeling does not promote good work. The issue of a +promotion list is from every point of view bad policy, and although +its direct action is confined to London, its sphere of indirect +influence is very far-reaching, since London County Council applicants +for country posts are often asked whether they have been included in +it. + +The essential qualification in a mistress of an elementary school is +ability to teach a great variety of subjects: she must be qualified +for and prepared to teach all the subjects which make up the +curriculum of her school. The diversity of these will be seen from the +subjects taught in an average typical elementary school:-- + + _Girls' Department_.--Reading, writing, + arithmetic, English grammar, literature, history, + geography, nature study, hygiene, physical + training, drawing (including brush-work), + needlework (including cutting-out), knitting, + scripture. + + _Infants' Department_.--Reading, writing, + number, kindergarten and other varied + occupations, physical exercises (dancing + and games), needlework and knitting, + singing, drawing, painting, modelling, + recitation, oral composition, dramatising + stories, scripture. + +The ordinary day is divided into two sessions: the morning session +lasting from 9 A.M. to 12 noon, and the afternoon session from 2 P.M. +to 4 P.M. (infants), 4.30 P.M. (girls). + +The strain of a teacher's life in an elementary school, and the +deadening influence of routine work will be realised when it is stated +that, besides teaching all the subjects above-mentioned, she is +in front of her class of sixty pupils during the whole of the two +sessions each day, from Monday morning to Friday afternoon. + +In addition to the purely teaching work the mistress has to take +her share in the various activities which are now centring in the +school--Care Committees, After-Care Committees, the feeding of +necessitous children, the cleansing of children, medical inspection, +and so forth. There are also such social activities as old girls' +clubs, school journeys and school parties, in which she has to +co-operate; finally, the strain is not lessened by the fact that she +has to satisfy two sets of inspectors, viz., those of the Board of +Education and those of the local authority who require her to keep +special report books, varying in character and in the amount of detail +required, according to the idiosyncrasies of the particular inspectors +who may happen to be allocated to her district. + +In spite of the building regulations of the Board of Education, many +school premises are far from satisfactory with regard to lighting, +ventilation, construction, and often even cleanliness; these defects +naturally have their effect on the health of the teachers, so that +notwithstanding medical inspection during training and the rejection +of the unfit, an alarming number of cases of consumption has been +reported to the Benevolent Fund of the National Union of Teachers. +In addition to this, the strain (already referred to) under which +teachers in the Metropolitan and larger urban districts work, is +resulting in an increasing number of nervous breaksdown. + +The conditions under which a teacher works in a school in a rural +district are so unsatisfactory that they deserve special mention. +There are 245 schools in Wales and 2,199 in England with an average +attendance of less than 40; such schools are staffed by a head +teacher, assisted, in all probability, only by a supplementary +teacher. Education suffers in these circumstances as a result of the +number and the manysidedness of the responsibilities which devolve +upon the head teacher; while the consciousness of her inability to +realise her ideals will re-act unfavourably upon her health. Another +factor that must be borne in mind is that these rural schools, being +small, should, to secure efficiency, be proportionately expensive for +up-keep. In order to keep the cost of maintenance as low as possible, +however, the remuneration offered to teachers in rural schools is so +small as to be a national disgrace. To this must be further added the +fact that many rural teachers are compelled to live 5, 10, and even 15 +miles away from a railway station, so that the cost of living is much +more than it would be in town. Thus it is that rural schools which +should cost more for up-keep than large urban schools, work out at a +smaller figure per scholar.[7] + +Not only is her salary low, but a mistress in a rural school often +has to live in a state of semi-isolation from social and intellectual +activities. It should excite no surprise, therefore, that mistresses +are reluctant to apply for such posts. This difficulty of shortage +of supply is having a sinister and subtle effect on the economic +interests of married women teachers, for, owing to the difficulty in +obtaining assistant teachers in rural districts, it frequently happens +that where the head teacher is a master, his wife, who may be a +fully qualified certificated teacher, has to act as his assistant and +receive the pay of a supplementary teacher. + +During her years of service, each mistress in an elementary school +is required to contribute £2, 8s. per annum to the Government +Superannuation Fund. These contributions purchase a small annuity to +which the Government add a pension at the rate of 10s. for each year +of service. When she becomes qualified for a pension, the mistress +must surrender her certificate and cease to practise as a teacher, +so that, if we assume she has begun work at the age of twenty and +has continued teaching to the age of sixty-five, she will, after +forty-five years of recorded service, receive a pension of £22, +10s. per annum, plus the annuity which her contributions will have +purchased. It should, however, be mentioned that London and a few +other towns have established complementary schemes whereby teachers, +though contributing more, obtain pensions more commensurate with their +salaries. Under the Government scheme, the superannuation allowance +cannot become payable until the teacher has attained the age of +sixty-five years, and, even then, it can be obtained only by a teacher +whose years of recorded service are not less than half the number of +years which have elapsed since she became certificated; thus, if the +mistress, being certificated at the age of twenty, marries and, by the +regulations of the local authority, is forced to resign, she forfeits +all claim to the Government contribution, unless she has completed +twenty-two years of recorded service: nor are her contributions +returned to her. + +Teachers in elementary schools are well organised for the purpose of +self-protection. The National Union of Teachers is a powerful body, +having a membership of 78,000 men and women teachers. It is directly +represented in Parliament, both on the Liberal and Labour sides, and +owes its influence largely to the voting power of its members.[8] + +When the National Insurance Act of 1912 came into force, there were +85,000 elementary teachers to whom its clauses applied, and who +therefore found it advisable to join an approved society. For this +purpose the Teachers' Provident Society of the National Union of +Teachers was re-organised as an approved society under the Act. In +addition to providing protection for its members, the National Union +of Teachers, by means of its Benevolent and Orphan Fund, helps those, +who, through ill-health or other causes are in need of assistance. +It also maintains two orphanages--one for boys in London, and one for +girls in Sheffield. + +At the present time there is a strong probability of a dearth of +qualified teachers for elementary schools in the near future. There +are several factors which have been influential in bringing about this +state of affairs--one is, the uncertainty of employment, even after a +long and comparatively costly training. This defect will be remedied +only when a rational method of regulating the supply of teachers +is established, so that each candidate may be certain that, if she +qualifies, she will be guaranteed employment. + +Many desirable persons are debarred from entering the teaching +profession, because the rate of remuneration is low, considering +the responsibility of the work; and this drawback is still further +emphasised by the very inadequate pension which is offered at the +close of the teacher's career. This difficulty can be overcome only +when the main burden of the cost of education is removed from local +taxation and placed on the national exchequer. + +Another factor which tends to make the teaching profession +unattractive, is the very strenuous life which it entails under +modern conditions. Again, so far as women are concerned, there is not +complete security of tenure, though apart from the regulation that +obtains under some local authorities, requiring women to resign on +marriage, teachers in elementary schools, owing to the efforts of +their various organisations, possess far greater security of tenure +than teachers in any other branch of the profession. Another point in +favour of the teachers in elementary schools, is their freedom from +the burden of extraneous duties, and from the nightmare of external +examinations. + +When schools can be more generously staffed, so that, for example, +the number of assistant teachers exceeds the number of classes to be +taught, a good deal will have been done to relieve the strain under +which teachers are at present working. + +Finally, when education authorities and the public generally, become +sufficiently enlightened to realise that it is uneconomical to dismiss +a teacher when she marries _i.e._, when by her experience she is +most capable of preparing her pupils for life--then women will be +encouraged to enter the teaching profession, and to realise that they +must equip themselves as well as possible for what is to be their +life-work. + + +[Footnote 1: In this connection, the work of the Care-Committees, now +an integral feature of the elementary education system, must not +be forgotten. It will be fully considered in a later volume of this +series. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 2: The conditions for registration were issued on 22nd +November 1913, after this book had gone to press. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 3: _Vide_ Article on Education in Ireland, by May Starkie +in _The New Statesman Supplement_ on "The Awakening of Ireland," 12th +July 1913. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 4: Since this paper was written, a fresh report (Code 6707) +has been published by the Board of Education. The statistical tables +do not materially differ from those given above.] + +[Footnote 5: On the other hand, the Board seldom proceeds against +teachers who have broken their bond. [Editor.]] + +[Footnote 6: The experiment of ending the College course for certain +students at Easter, is now being made. But the movement is too young, +and the Colleges experimenting are too few, to make it possible +to draw deductions. At any rate it looks like a move in the right +direction.] + +[Footnote 7: This is a matter, the investigation of which should +be included in Mr Lloyd George's Land Campaign. There is an obvious +connection between the status of the agricultural labourer and the +inefficiency of rural schools. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 8: The women members are in a large majority, but, being +women, do not, as yet, possess the vote. Their peculiar interests, of +course, do not obtain representation.] + + + + + +V + +TEACHING IN SCHOOLS FOR THE MENTALLY AND PHYSICALLY DEFECTIVE + + +The particular branch of teaching which forms the subject of this +paper--namely, that carried on in schools for mentally or physically +defective children--affords scope for a lifetime of very happy work to +women who are really fitted for it. + +The qualifications required by teachers in these schools are the +ordinary certificates accepted by the Board of Education, but, in +practice, a preference is given to women who have taken up studies +which bear on their particular work. For instance, it is obvious that +a good grounding in psychology, physiology, and hygiene is especially +valuable in schools of this description, and proofs of the successful +study of these subjects undoubtedly carry weight in deciding +appointments to these schools. Also, it is unusual to appoint young +teachers, coming straight from Training Colleges, with very little +practical experience in dealing with children, though under special +circumstances such appointments are occasionally made. The large +majority of women appointed to the London mentally defective or +physically defective schools are, however, teachers of several years' +standing, who are also under the age limit of thirty-five. + +The salary of assistant teachers in the London special schools is £10 +a year more than the salary such assistants would be getting in the +ordinary Council schools. This extra pay only obtains until the normal +maximum salary of assistant mistresses is reached, _i.e._, £150, so +that the monetary advantage is confined to reaching the maximum a +little earlier than would otherwise be the case. With regard to head +teachers, the extra salary varies with the size of the school, £10 +being allowed for a one-class centre, £20 for a two-, three-, or +four-class centre, and £30 for a five- or six-class centre. Schools of +six classes are unusual; the majority of schools contain three or +four classes. Elder mentally defective boys from several neighbouring +schools are frequently grouped together in a special centre under +masters, and there are a few schools specially for elder mentally +defective girls, naturally under mistresses. For elder physically +defective girls there are centres in London where they may be +specially trained in blousemaking and fine needlework. These centres +have, in addition to an ordinary teacher, a trade mistress duly +qualified in the particular branch of work undertaken. The age of +compulsory retirement from teaching in special schools is sixty-five, +as in the case of ordinary schools. For both branches of the service +married women are eligible. The hours of work in mentally defective +schools are from 9.30 to 12 and from 2 to 4. In physically defective +schools the hours are nominally from 9.30 to 12, and 1.30 to 3, but in +practice they are longer, as the children begin to arrive at school +in their ambulances by 8.45, and in the afternoon the last children +rarely leave till an hour after the time of stopping actual lessons. +It is usual to arrange things so that the teacher who comes "early" +one week, is free to come "late" the next, and it is also usually +taken in turns to stay late in the afternoons. The short dinner recess +is due to the fact that most of the children necessarily have their +dinner at school, so there is no reason to allow the usual two hours +for going home and coming back. During the dinner-hour the children +are in charge of the school nurse and the ambulance attendants. + +Work in both sorts of special school has its own particular +difficulties. One great drawback is the impossibility of adequate +classification. In a small three-class centre, there will be +children from five years old up to sixteen years. That, of course, in +physically defective schools means that the work usually divided +among all the classes of an ordinary infant school must be done in the +lowest class, the second class must take the work of standards I. to +III., while the highest class must take that of standards IV. to +VII. It is true that the special schools have a great advantage +over ordinary schools in that the classes never contain more than +twenty-five children, but even granted the small numbers, the need for +taking several groups in a class makes the work very exhausting. The +more successful the teacher, that is to say, the more truly she draws +out the individual powers of each child, the harder does her work +become, for she tends more and more to have a class of children +working at varying stages. In the mentally defective schools it is not +possible to reach the work of the higher standards, so that there +is not the _same_ difficulty, but there is the even greater one of +dealing with different standards of defect, instead of different +standards of attainment. + +Another difficulty encountered in the physically defective schools +is the interrupted school-life. Children will frequently drop out for +three months, six months, or a year at a time in order to have some +operation performed in hospital, or to go to a convalescent home, or +because of an attack of illness. Both branches of the special schools +are faced with the peculiar difficulty of the "spoilt" child--the lame +girl who, by reason of her helplessness, has been indulged and waited +on by the healthy members of her family; the ill-balanced boy whose +brain-storms have been so disturbing that any opposition to his will +has been shirked. It must not be thought that these children are in +the majority at special schools, but they do form a certain proportion +of the children there; they give much trouble, and they call for a +great deal of tact and patience. Patience is so continually needed in +special-school work that women who are not particularly patient would +find themselves definitely unfit for it. Indeed, although patience +and the hopeful spirit do not figure on the list of qualifications +demanded of candidates, they might well head it, for most certainly +an irritable or despondent woman could not find any work for which she +was more unsuited, or in which she was more likely to be miserable and +unsuccessful. + +A further difficulty of the special-school teacher lies in the +"all-round" demands made on her. The children she must teach, are +defective in mind or body, or both. Some will respond to one subject, +some to another; some will make poor progress with headwork, but will +do excellent handwork. The teacher must be able to help each child +along its own path, and must be familiar with the various forms +of simple handwork as well as with the more usual school subjects. +Basket-weaving, clay-modelling, raffia-work, fretwork, bent-ironwork, +strip-woodwork, rug-making, painting, and brush-work, as well as +different forms of needlework and embroidery, are all branches +of handwork helpful in different degrees to these children. +The importance of handwork to them is felt so keenly, that the +special-schools time-tables usually show a morning devoted to headwork +followed by an afternoon occupied by handwork. + +But as well as the difficulties attendant on teaching in +special-schools, there are some very real advantages. Foremost, +perhaps, is the opportunity it affords of knowing and understanding +each child in a way that is not possible when the class consists of +sixty children. Very closely allied with this, is the great advantage +of freedom in the preparation of syllabuses, in the choice of subject +matter and the manner of teaching it. Time-tables must be approved by +the proper authorities, and the superintendents and inspectors must +be satisfied as to the character of a teacher's work, but, when those +conditions are fulfilled, originality on the part of teachers is +welcomed, and completely happy relations between teacher and children +are possible. It can be readily understood that with a class numbering +twenty-five, each child can take a much larger and much more active +share in the work, can be free to express his own views, ask his own +questions and work out his own ideas in a way impossible with a class +of sixty. When, in addition, it is remembered that the teacher is +free to frame her plans of work according to the actual needs of +the children, as shown to her through discussions and questions, +the reason why the work attracts women in spite of its obvious +difficulties is apparent. + +The real thought and care spent by the education authorities on these +schools must have struck every one who has worked in them. If we +compare what is now done for these deficient children with what was +done some fifteen years ago, the stage of progress at which we have +arrived is nothing short of wonderful. Yet every one must also be +convinced that things are not well, so long as the supply of children +for these special schools continues to grow; those who work in them +can see two ways in which that supply might be checked. Teachers in +mentally defective schools continually mourn the sad fact that the +children under their care have been guarded from wrong, and guided to +right along happy paths of busy interest until they are sixteen, only +to be turned adrift into the world at an age when, more than ever +before in their lives, they need a kindly and wise influence "to +strengthen or control." For want of some further plan of continued +supervision, the patient work of years is too often rendered nugatory, +and the child slips back into the very slough from which the school +had hoped to save it. It must be remembered that the defect in many +children in these mentally defective schools shows itself as a lack +of self-control, a want of mental balance, a missing sense of moral +values, an incapacity for concentration--the very characteristics +which render their unhappy possessors the easiest prey to the +evil-minded. Teachers who know both the good to which the child can +attain when properly safe-guarded, and also the evil into which it +will too probably fall when left alone, are very anxious to see some +step taken which will ensure that every child who needs continued +control shall have it.[1] + +Teachers in physically defective schools can also see the need for +prevention of defect rather than its mere alleviation. The more usual +forms of defect are missing limbs, tuberculous troubles (notably in +joints), heart cases, paralysis, cases of chorea, and cases of general +debility. The list must not be taken as complete, for there are, of +course, various unusual forms of defect too. It sometimes happens that +after a stay of some time in a physically defective school, a child +becomes so much better that it is able to return to the greater strain +of an ordinary school; on the other hand, it is often apparent, +that if certain children had been admitted earlier to the physically +defective school, their particular trouble might have been greatly +minimised, if not altogether avoided. What then appears to be needed +is an intermediary type of school to which children might be drafted +who are not as yet absolutely defective, but who are liable to become +so. Children of tubercular tendencies, who should be guarded +against falls or blows more carefully than normal children; those +highly-strung nervous children who, if exposed to the strain of +ordinary school life run the risk of chorea; children suffering from +the after-effects of diseases such as rheumatic or scarlet fever, +who need particularly to avoid over-exertion or too violent exercise; +children of such marked general debility that their power of resisting +disease is abnormally low--all these, if neglected, tend to become +qualified candidates for the physically defective schools. If they +could attend a school designed to suit their needs, they would in many +cases be quite able to return, after varying periods, to their places +in the ordinary schools. The open-air schools are an attempt to meet +this need on the very best lines, but there are far too many of these +border-line children for the available accommodation. If the great +expense entailed by new schools of this description be considered, it +seems not unreasonable, while waiting for them, to allow the admission +of these children to the invalid schools already working, by simply +making the term "physically defective" elastic enough to include a +latent as well as a developed defect. Whatever the apparent expense +of such measures may be, any extension of the preventive side of this +work cannot but be a real economy.[2] + +There is just one other point for the consideration of women who think +of taking up work in special schools. They should be thoroughly strong +and healthy, or they will prove unequal to a strain which tells at +times even on the strongest. But to women of good health who possess +the right temperament, these schools offer a field of useful and +congenial work. + + +[Footnote 1: Something in this direction will be achieved by the new +Act, to which, however, there are counterbalancing grave objections +which cannot be considered here. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 2: Open-air schools, and school sleeping camps such as those +established experimentally in various urban slum-districts, are other +efforts to meet the needs of physically defective children. Teachers +in open-air schools in provincial towns, work under approximately +similar conditions to those described by Mrs Thomas. [Editor.]] + + + + + +VI + +THE TEACHING OF GYMNASTICS + + +No school of any importance is considered properly equipped unless +the staff includes a gymnastic and games mistress. Several systems +of gymnastics are practised in England, but the Swedish system is +steadily proving its superiority; so much is this felt that a number +of teachers who have previously taken a two years' course of training +in some other system, are at the present time taking, or have just +completed, a second two years' course in the Swedish system. As long +ago as 1878 the London School Board introduced the Swedish system into +its schools, but it was not till 1885 that the first physical training +college was opened in this country, and this was for women only. In +1903 this system was adopted for the navy, and in 1906 for the army; +it has also been adopted in the Government schools and Training +Colleges, as well as in all the principal private schools and colleges +for girls, and in many boys' schools, including, among others, Eton, +Winchester, Clifton, and Repton. The following remarks, therefore, +apply only to the Swedish system. + +Until 1885, the rationally trained teacher of gymnastics was unknown +in England, and the physical training of the girls in this country was +monopolised by dancing mistresses and drill sergeants, most of whom +were ignorant of the laws which govern the human body. In that +year Madame Osterberg started a Physical Training College for women +students at Hampstead, the college being removed to Dartford Heath, +Kent, in 1895. Since then similar institutions have been opened at +Bedford, Erdington, Chelsea, etc., and there is a growing army of +women qualified to teach gymnastics and games, and in many cases +dancing and swimming. These trained teachers have studied Anatomy, +Physiology, and Hygiene; they have themselves experienced what they +teach others; they have been trained to observe, and deal gently and +carefully with growing girlhood. They have also studied deformities +such as spinal curvature, round shoulders, and flat feet, and are able +to take all such cases under their special care. + +The course of training lasts from two to three years, and the cost +in a residential college, is about £100 a year. To ensure success as +teachers, students should be tactful, observant, and sympathetic; they +should be medically fit, and physically suited to the work, and should +produce evidence of a good general education. The requirements of the +colleges vary as to educational qualification, some being satisfied +with a school-leaving certificate while others demand Matriculation. +This raising of the standard is a step in the right direction and may +hasten the time when the gymnastic teacher will be thought worthy of a +University degree or diploma. + +The training includes theoretical as well as practical work, and the +idea which used to be prevalent, is now practically exploded, that +a girl who could not pass examinations but who was fairly good +at gymnastics or games might make a good gymnastic teacher. The +theoretical subjects include Physiology, Hygiene, Anatomy, Theory of +Movements, Psychology, and a certain amount of Pathology; whilst the +practical side includes Educational Gymnastics and Teaching, Remedial +Gymnastics and Massage, Games (hockey, cricket, lacrosse, lawn tennis, +net-ball, and gymnasium games), Swimming and Dancing. Dancing is +becoming more and more, a necessary part of the equipment for the +successful gymnastic teacher, who must be able to teach the ordinary +ball-room dances as well as Morris and country dances. + +A typical week's work in the second year's course in one of the +colleges includes six hours' Gymnastics; five hours' Remedial +Gymnastics, and five hours' actual treatment under supervision, of +patients in the clinic; six hours' Anatomy, two hours' Physiology, two +hours' Hygiene, two hours' Vaulting, three and a half hours' Dancing. +In addition to this, four afternoons (from 2 to 4 P.M.) are devoted to +games; class singing-lessons are given twice a week for half an hour, +in addition to a quarter of an hour's practice every day, and each +student teaches in the elementary schools three half hours a week, and +also gets some practice in the high school. Add to all this the time +required for private study, and it will be seen that the work is +fairly strenuous and that none but strong, healthy girls should +undertake it. + +After the course of training the gymnastic teacher usually takes a +post in a school, and having had a few years' experience, may then +become an organiser or inspector to an education committee, a trainer +in an elementary training college or physical training college, the +head of the gymnastic department of a school clinic, or she may +prefer to start a private practice, holding classes, treating cases +of deformity, and also acting as visiting gymnastic teacher or +games-coach to schools in the neighbourhood. + +The rate of remuneration varies according to the kind of work +undertaken; the initial salary in schools is usually £60 to £80 +per annum resident, or £100 to £120 non-resident. Organisers and +inspectors command a much higher salary; the three Government +inspectors start at £200 rising to £400 with first-class travelling +expenses, and the four woman-organisers employed by the London County +Council Education Committee start at £175, rising by £10 a year to +£240 plus actual travelling expenses. Some women do well in private +practice, making from £200 to £300 a year. The salaries of the +gymnastic teachers in the London County Council secondary schools are +fixed at £130 a year with no possibility of advancement, and, though +this may compare favourably with the initial salaries of other +teachers on the staff, it must be remembered that the teaching life of +a gymnastic teacher is shorter and there are no headmistress-ships +to which to look forward. The few "plums" of the profession are the +inspectorships of the Government and of the more important education +committees. For the latter, women have often to compete with men, and +even in cases where both men and women inspectors are employed--the +men doing the same work in the boys' schools as the women do in the +girls'--the men's salaries are considerably higher, despite the +fact that most women give up professional work on marriage, either +voluntarily or compulsorily, and have therefore a shorter time in +which to recover the cost of their training, whereas if they do not +marry, they have to make provision for old age and in many cases to +contribute to the support of others besides themselves. + +With regard to this employment of women after marriage, there would +seem to be no reason why the principals or assistants of colleges or +institutes, or the women with private practices should not continue +their work; but in schools, even where the terms of the appointment +do not demand resignation on marriage, it is not customary for married +teachers to be employed. + +Up to the present, the supply of trained gymnastic teachers has +scarcely satisfied the demand, and fresh openings are from time to +time created. When physical exercises were made compulsory in all the +elementary schools, the class teacher had and still has, to give this +instruction to her class, but there has been an increasing demand for +organisers to teach the elementary school teacher and superintend her +work. This has also led to specialist teachers being appointed to all +the elementary training colleges and pupil teachers' centres. Then +came medical inspection, and with it the need for school clinics, +which could not be complete without a department for treating +curvatures, flat feet, etc., and giving breathing exercises, +especially after the removal of adenoids. Though these clinics are +only in the experimental stage they are sure to expand, and it is +expected that a large number of trained gymnastic teachers will be +required for them. Further it is possible, and may be found desirable, +that specialist teachers should be appointed for groups of elementary +schools, so relieving the class teachers of this part of their work. +Large secondary and private schools often appoint two, three, or four +trained teachers who are jointly responsible for gymnastics, games, +dancing, swimming, and the treatment of deformities throughout the +school. Besides all these openings a considerable number of gymnastic +teachers find work in the colonies, especially in South Africa, +Australia, and New Zealand. + +To band together the teachers of Swedish gymnastics and to guard their +interests generally, the Ling Association was founded in 1899. Though +it is open to men and women, very few men have joined, as the number +of men with the necessary qualifications is very small. Members must +have trained for at least two years at a recognised college, and it +was not till 1912 that the first training college for men was opened +in England. + +With a view to standardising the training and diplomas of gymnastic +teachers, the Ling Association in 1904 started a diploma-examination. +Though the syllabus drawn up is practically the same as those used +in the different colleges, most of the colleges still grant their own +diplomas at the end of the course. + +It is hardly possible at present, to specify the usual age of +retirement for gymnastic teachers, but when a woman becomes too old +for regular school teaching she can organise, supervise, and inspect, +or continue to practise remedial work which includes massage. + +Most of the gymnastic teachers who come within the scope of the +Insurance Act have joined the University, Secondary and Technical +Teachers' Provident Society. + + + + +VII + +THE TEACHING OF DOMESTIC SUBJECTS + + +There are several reasons why instruction in the domestic arts and in +the management of a house has not until quite recently formed part of +the curriculum in girls' secondary schools. In the first years of +the existence of these schools, no handicraft was encouraged except +needlework, and this was soon almost crowded out of the time-table. It +was assumed that household management was taught by the mother. There +was a second assumption made even more confidently than the first, +that a well-informed young woman with an active brain would find no +difficulty in arranging her domestic affairs. This theory was founded +on still another assumption--that there would always be on hire a +sufficiency of servants already well trained for their work. + +It is obvious nowadays that the mistresses of the first two decades +of high-school teaching, being the first college-bred women, were +suffering from a reaction against domestic interests, and the manner +in which these had absorbed the old-fashioned woman. Their best pupils +were at once destined for college; they were considered too good +for mere domestic life, and were prepared for careers, mostly for +teaching. This tendency was naturally accentuated by the fact that +all mistresses were single women, with little prospect of any but a +celibate life. + +In the earlier stages of girls' education, then, it was the teacher +who urged the promising girl to have a career; but the more recent +development is that the parents, harassed by increasing economic +pressure, and encouraged by the instances they meet of successful +professional women, press more and more strongly for their girls to +be educated for professions, whether they are exceptionally gifted or +not. It is recognised in almost all grades of the middle class that +the chance of a daughter marrying, and, further, the chance of her +marriage being an assured provision for her maintenance throughout +life, is by no means a certainty. + +These considerations must militate against the appearance of domestic +subjects in the school time-table, but there are others working in +exactly the opposite direction. These are the increase in house rent +and general rise in prices which make economy in domestic affairs, and +good management, more valued; the dearth of servants; and the decay of +the old traditions of housekeeping. Another factor is the new cult +of hygiene, and increased interest in diet, shown especially by +the inhabitants of large towns, who bewail their lack of energy and +fitness. + +If the home is to establish itself as an acknowledged success in +modern conditions, it ought to be run by women with brains. It is +now becoming acknowledged that the work needs the application of the +scientific method of thinking. It may be true that home-making in the +non-material sense is an art, but housekeeping nowadays is a science; +and so much a science that a woman who has the chance of making +herself an expert will be tempted to make housekeeping a career, and +to undertake the job on a much larger scale than is needed in the +ordinary house. + +Thus, while there was practically no teaching of domestic subjects +in girls' secondary schools until about seven years ago, a demand +for teachers of the kind has sprung up very recently, and is rapidly +increasing. + +The headmistress anxious to undertake something of the sort has had +many difficulties to face in the immediate past. The only teachers +of domestic arts whom she could engage had received a very different +education from the other members of her staff. If their whole time +were not taken up with teaching their subject, they had few or +no subsidiary subjects to offer, nor were they prepared for those +curiously mingled clerical and pastoral duties which fall to the +lot of a form mistress. In general education they might, indeed, be +obviously below the girls in the upper forms, whose general culture +had been sedulously cultivated for years. If teachers of this kind +were, nevertheless, not to be kept for selected "stupid girls," it +was possible (1) to introduce domestic work of the simple handicraft +nature into the middle school, leaving it out of the upper school +where there was a greater pressure on the time-table, or (2) to +organise a post-school domestic course for girls who were not +preparing for a profession. + +The type of woman offering herself as a teacher in domestic arts +has meanwhile been changing and developing, owing to the fact that +a marked advance has taken place in the facilities for training. The +minimum qualifications now required by most education authorities +are diplomas for cookery, laundry-work, and housewifery, granted by a +training school recognised by the Board of Education. It is advisable +to take a fuller course which includes needlework and dressmaking. +Most training schools for domestic arts provide a two or three +year-course, according to the subjects taken. The three-year course, +including cookery, laundry-work, housewifery, dressmaking, and +needlework, costs about £75. Scholarships are offered both by the +training schools and by public bodies. These cover the whole normal +period of training, and an extension course for scientific study. +The subjects included are the principles and processes involved in +cookery, laundry-work, and household management, the last comprising +such diverse matters as the selection and furnishing of various types +of houses, repairing furniture, the choice and care of household +linens, simple upholstery, management of income, first-aid, +home-nursing, and the care of infants and young children. Many +training-schools arrange for their students to gain experience in a +crêche or similar institution, and to visit homes of various +types. Practical experience is gained in housekeeping and catering, +superintending the arrangements for meals, ordering stores and keeping +accounts. Voice production and blackboard drawing are also taught, +while science is studied concurrently with the above. The course in +science embraces some Theoretical and Practical Chemistry, Physics, +Physiology, Hygiene (personal and school hygiene and preventive +measures), and the Theory and Practice of Education. Domestic Science +students gain teaching experience not only in the various departments +of the training-school, but also in elementary and secondary schools; +happily the training is the same for those intending to take up either +elementary or secondary teaching. + +Thus it is seen that the present-day teacher of household arts is +much more fitted to train the well-educated girl to organise household +matters, than was her predecessor. Not only is manipulative skill +acquired, but scientific reasons for processes and methods are +outlined, and improvements are suggested. There is, however, still the +danger that the student's training in science has been so subordinated +to the acquirement of manipulative skill that her knowledge of +scientific facts is not sufficiently based on scientific training and +method. + +Much, then, is to be urged in favour of the woman with a science +degree taking courses in domestic arts, but it is essential for her to +attain a high standard of practical work. It has sometimes been found +that a very academic and scientific method of treatment has tended +to lower the standard of manipulative skill. Nevertheless qualified +graduates find themselves, at the moment, greatly in demand. The +economical headmistress must always be on the look out for an +acquisition to her staff who will, like Count Smorltork's politics, +"surprise in herself many branches." If the headmistress can solve her +difficulty about her domestic arts teacher by engaging a college-bred +woman, with a degree to put on the prospectus, all sorts of ordinary +subjects for her odd hours and undertaking to teach cooking as well, +she will jump at the chance, and pay her £10 to £20 more salary than +the ordinary assistant-mistress. She will economise greatly by the +arrangement. If she has some amount of money to back her schemes, +and a large school to administer, she will prefer two people to +one composite one. But she will beg them to collaborate and to work +together. She will not expect the woman with the science degree and a +brief subsequent training in the arts to have the manipulative skill +of the one who has done something like one thousand hours of actual +practice, according to the prescription of the Board of Education. She +will ask the former to show the girls how modern science is connected +with the modern house, and how the scientific way of thinking helps in +keeping a house, as it does in keeping one's own health and fitness. + +During the past five years one secondary school after another has +taken up Domestic Arts as a school subject. The initiative usually +comes from the headmistress, and is a matter of personal judgment, so +that the introduction is still an experiment on trial, and the method +of trial varies. Before giving some indication of the methods tried, +we must return to the demand for teachers. It will be clear from what +has been said, that a science graduate who has studied and practised +household arts and cooking, or a trained teacher of Domestic Arts +who has also some science certificate and a high standard of general +education, will at this moment command a higher salary than the +ordinary secondary schoolmistress, and is practically certain of +a post. But either of these individuals requires an unusually long +period of training, for which most people have neither the time nor +the spare capital. + +One woman's college in London has started courses of its own in "Home +Science and Economics," and awards a three-year certificate to its +students; also a diploma for science graduates who take a year's +course, and a certificate to Domestic Arts teachers who take a closely +related year's course. This is King's College for Women, which has +just obtained the formal approval of London University for its three +years' curriculum. In a very short time arrangements will be made to +grant a University Diploma to the students who have taken this course, +the fee for which amounts to 30 guineas a session. A scholarship, +covering the cost of tuition, is from time to time awarded to +undergraduate students, and there is also a one-year post-graduate +Gilchrist scholarship of 50 guineas. The name of "Household and +Social Science" is recommended by the Royal Commissioners for the new +co-ordination of subjects. Various American universities and colleges +give diplomas of the same kind: and the New Zealand University has +just initiated one. The three-year course at King's College for Women +may possibly be modified by the University authorities: at present it +consists of two years' training in various branches of pure science, +and a third year in which these branches are applied to household +matters of all kinds. For instance, the usual type of academic course +of Inorganic, Organic, and Physical Chemistry gives place in the third +year to the study of food, cooking utensils and cookers, soap and +other cleansing materials, and woven materials. Biology and Physiology +give place to household Bacteriology and Hygiene. Practice in +Housewifery and Cooking occupies one day per week throughout the three +years. A very important feature in this course is the introduction of +Economics. As with the natural sciences, two years' study of ordinary +Economics, chiefly industrial, is followed by a year of Economics +applied to the household, in which an attempt is made to show the +present and past relations of the household to society. King's +College for Women is the first institution in England to see the +great importance of studying the connection of domestic life with +the outside industrial world, instead of treating it as an isolated +phenomenon. + +This is the outline of the three-year course: students are encouraged +to stay a fourth year for special work; the appointments which they +take up at the end of three or four years are not always as teachers, +but in various other vocations which need not be specified here. As +teachers, the holders of these certificates are subject, of course, to +a double fire of criticism. The science specialist thinks they do +not know enough science, and points out that, beyond a few elementary +facts in Chemistry, Physics, and Physiology soon picked up in an +elementary training in these subjects, there stretches a region of +very abstruse science which cannot be attacked except by specialists +in Organic Chemistry, in the Physiology of Nutrition, and so on. +But it is now suggested that many scientific problems connected with +domestic subjects are waiting for solution. If some of these were +solved, they would bridge the gulf between the elementary and the +abstruse, but they must show themselves of sufficient interest to +investigators. Here is a field for work eminently suited to the +scientific woman with a practical turn of mind. Meanwhile, the cookery +diplomée thinks, often justifiably, that the new teachers have not had +sufficient practice in the art of cooking. Criticism of this kind is +inevitable whenever a new co-ordination of subjects is attempted, and +it will keep the new arrangement on its trial until it can justify +itself. The question at issue in this case, as probably readers will +have divined if they are interested in the problem, is whether the +whole method and tradition of teaching housekeeping ought not to be +under revision, so that it may in a few years be a "subject" vastly +different from the traditional handing-on and practising of receipts. +Once the barrier is broken down between the scientifically trained and +the domestic woman, the whole aspect of affairs changes. It is a sign +of the change that the training-colleges and cookery-schools, besides +introducing more Chemistry, Hygiene, and Physiology into their +curricula, are definitely asking that the teachers they employ for +these subjects, shall be women with science degrees as well as some +knowledge of domestic arts. For instance, at the Gloucester School +of Cookery at least one former teacher had taken the Natural Science +Tripos at Girton as well as Domestic Science Certificates: at +Battersea Polytechnic a recent appointment is that of a Domestic +Science diplomée, who subsequently took a science degree at Armstrong +College, while at the National Training School of Cookery, one member +of Staff is at present a science graduate, who subsequently obtained +the King's College for Women Diploma in Home Science and Economics. +Again, the new Government report just issued on handwork in secondary +schools, while in many ways non-committal, distinctly prefers special +training for teachers of Domestic Subjects following on a good general +education--_i.e._, a University degree plus technical qualifications, +rather than a teaching diploma in Domestic Subjects plus a little +science. There is, then, likely to be an increasing number of openings +for women who can afford the double training. Schools of housecraft +to give all-round training to educated women, are springing up in +all parts of the United Kingdom: in those which are attached to +Polytechnics and similar institutions the fullest advantage is +taken of the pure and technical science teaching available in their +laboratories. + +To those who look for a real advance in household science the weak +point of the present situation is the want of proper correlation and +standardisation of the work going on. The Board of Education does not +examine; it accepts the diploma given by any one of a fairly large +number of domestic science schools. In consequence, teachers from +different quarters may be using quite different processes and methods +in laundry work, cooking, or housekeeping. It is time some fundamental +things were agreed upon, and although standardising must not be +allowed to become stereotyping, at present constructive generalisation +is needed, as well as the upsetting of out-grown traditions. In this +context it would be well to discuss a question more properly to be +taken at the end of this paper--the connection between the teaching in +elementary schools and that in secondary schools. There is no reason +to introduce differentiation in the training of the teachers: it +is obvious, for instance, that the recent development of including +economics in that training, is of extraordinary value to the +elementary school teacher. But it is difficult to correlate the +instruction given in the management of a middle-class household, with +from eight to twenty rooms, and from one to a dozen servants, with +that given in the management of a workman's cottage or of a flat +without assistance. The connection which does need systematising and +establishing is between the management of a middle-class house and the +training of domestic servants, which ought naturally to form part of +the trade or technical after-school work for elementary scholars. Here +again, if training is to be followed by certificates, and the +domestic servant is to be in the smallest degree an expert, some +standardisation of training is necessary. We may, of course, find that +domestic service becomes so much a matter of expert work that it is +taken up on a large scale by middle-class girls, but that can +hardly be prophesied yet, although the "lady servant" is an existing +phenomenon. It is, of course, also possible that a modern curriculum +of "Household and Social Science" may attract a certain number of +men of the suitable type of mind. The attitude of the community is +changing so rapidly that one may hope those fears to be groundless +which speak of "relegating women back to the limited sphere of +domesticity," and thereby losing so much that has been gained with +regard to their education. + +We must now return to give a few particulars which have been passed +over. Any information on this subject is, however, liable to be very +soon out of date. A secondary school that elects to teach cooking and +laundry work will want a specially fitted room, which will cost about +as much as a simple science laboratory, and will be arranged in as +close connection with the science laboratory as is convenient. This +means serious expense, and the headmistress is naturally anxious +to have considerable use made of the room. Thus she will be led to +introduce the subject into a large proportion of the classes, instead +of limiting it to one or two middle-school forms, or to a selected +part of the upper-school. She may, however, try to solve the economic +problem by making it a post-school course for which special fees are +charged. Certain schools, notably Clapham and Croydon High Schools and +Cheltenham Ladies' College are able to make a very important feature +of this type of course. To make it a success, the prestige of the +school, its influence over girls and their parents, must be great and +commanding. Otherwise, unless the girls are aiming definitely at some +professional work after the course, there is a tendency to laxness in +attendance, or to the relinquishment of the work in the middle, which +tendency is engendered by the nature of the subject. The mother's +excuse for getting her grown-up girl's company and help will naturally +be, "Gladys can boil the potatoes at home instead of at school." A +valid answer will be that Gladys is being taught to free her mind +from the eternal English boiled potato by learning many other ways of +treating it, and at the same time learning its proper place in a diet. + +Failing the post-school course, the admittance of domestic subjects to +a notable place in the general school curriculum leads to great stress +being laid on the teaching of the elements of Physical Science. The +eminently "feminine" subject, Botany, gives place to Physics and +Chemistry in the middle-school, followed by Physiology and Hygiene +in the upper-school. The subjects are to be illustrated whenever +convenient, by reference to home life. A student choosing her science +subjects at College should bear these in mind as likely to be at +present of the best market value. Though it is very true that a +practical woman who is a good teacher will nowadays connect any +science subject with home life, still a parallel course of domestic +arts will draw chiefly on the lessons given in these four. + +Another fact worthy of notice is that a married woman who is anxious +to continue her former profession of science teaching will not as a +rule have to suffer the usual unfavourable handicap. That a married +woman should teach the domestic subjects is quite a reasonable +proposition to many who would exclude her from most professions: +if she be also a mother it may even count as an asset instead of a +disadvantage. + +The Delegacy for Oxford Local Examinations has been the first, as far +as we know, to set a paper in domestic science to senior candidates. +There has been a demand for it in the London Matriculation, but +objection has been raised on the score of its being a smattering and +a soft option. The Oxford Delegacy has introduced two new +headings--Domestic Science and Hygiene--and sets two papers under +each, without any practical work. The first paper is the same under +both headings--Elementary Physics and Chemistry, and the preparation +for this is intended to be made at least one school year before the +preparation for the second paper. It should be noted that the Hygiene +paper is for boys and girls; it includes a little Physiology, Personal +Hygiene, and Hygiene of Buildings. The Domestic Science paper is for +girls only; it has several details in common with that in Hygiene, but +its main features are the simple outlines of the chemistry of foods +and of cleansing substances. In a few years the suitability of these +subjects for both sexes may have impressed the community. + +We may notice, lastly, the arrangements made for instruction in +Domestic Subjects in elementary schools.[1] This is given in a +specially equipped Centre attached to a public elementary school, the +girls from that and other schools attending either for a half or whole +day weekly during their last two years at school. In some cases for +about fifteen weeks before they leave school, girls give half the week +to Domestic Subjects. This experiment has been so successful, that it +is likely to be extended in the future. A carefully graded syllabus is +followed; due proportion of time is given to theory and demonstration +as well as to practical work. Each girl is required to do a certain +amount of work by herself, and much thought has been expended in order +to make the lessons as useful as possible. The care of infants and +young children is receiving increased attention, and it is hoped that +much may be done to mitigate evils of wrong feeding and treatment. As +far as possible, the teaching in the Centres is correlated with that +in the schools. Where there are science laboratories the experiments +are made on food-stuffs, changes wrought by application of heat in +various ways, the chemistry of common objects, and so on. + +The opportunity for definite science training in connection with +Domestic Subjects teaching in elementary schools is still very small, +and will probably remain so while the school-leaving age is fourteen. +The problem before the teacher in some instances is to combat not only +an entire ignorance of the home arts, but also, in poor districts, an +active experience of household mismanagement and vicious habits. The +teaching in these cases has to be intensely practical, and to aim +chiefly at character-building; the manual work of the subject has been +found of the greatest educational value in this respect. Though the +training of all Domestic Subjects' teachers should reach the same +standard of scientific knowledge, yet the actual work to be done +in different types of schools is thus seen to be necessarily widely +divergent in character. + +In higher elementary or "central" schools, where the pupils normally +remain until the end of the school year in which they reach the age of +fifteen, Domestic Subjects' teaching may have a much wider scope than +at the ordinary Centre, as the pupils are at a very intelligent age, +and represent the best of the elementary scholars. A special syllabus +is prepared according to the individual need of each school, by the +Domestic Subjects' teacher and the headmistress; the instruction is a +very definite part of the curriculum, and the teacher a member of the +school staff. + +In London and other large towns, and with certain County Councils, +the Centre is under the general supervision of the headmistress of the +school to which it is attached, but technical details are entirely +in the hands of the teacher of Domestic Subjects and of the +superintendent who visits periodically. In some rural areas, the +conditions are not so satisfactory. Frequently one teacher has to +serve several villages, visiting them for instruction on certain days. +The accommodation in such places is often sadly deficient, and much +ingenuity and resource are needed to overcome difficulties which do +not occur when the Centre is well-equipped and in continuous use, and +the teacher, as she should be, a regular member of the school staff. + +On leaving school, there are many scholarships open to the girls for +further training, (_a_)for a home course, (_b_) for domestic service, +(_c_) for the trades of laundress, needlewoman, dressmaker, and cook. +These scholarships are held at Technical Institutes, or Trade Schools, +and the training given is admirable in kind. + +A qualified teacher who wishes to take up elementary school work will +have no difficulty, if physically fit, in obtaining a post under a +County Council or other educational authority at a salary of £80 per +annum, usually rising by annual increments to £120. The maximum is not +so high as that for teachers of ordinary subjects, and pensions are +not universal, though most councils make fairly adequate provision for +retirement, breakdown, and ill-health. + +There is at present very little direct promotion open to the +Domestic Subjects' teacher in elementary schools. In London there are +practising-centres for students in training, and training centres for +teachers during the probationary period, the managers of which hold +very responsible posts that carry extra salary. The inspecting staff +is usually chosen from teachers of experience, but this is necessarily +limited in numbers, vacancies occurring only rarely. The salary +attached to these posts is from £150 to £300. Many good posts in +the Colonies have been obtained by Domestic Subjects' teachers in +elementary schools. Some teachers have become foreign missionaries, +Children's Care Committee visitors, or home mission workers and +visitors. Some have established model laundries, others have taken +charge of students' hostels and boarding-houses; while many have +been successful in the needle-trades, luncheon and tea-rooms, and in +lecturing and demonstrating for gas and electric companies. + +Several organisations for self-protection and the advancement of the +profession are open to teachers of Domestic Subjects. The Association +of Teachers of Domestic Subjects was founded in 1896, and has done +valuable work for the members. It is affiliated to the Association of +Teachers in Technical Institutes, and is thus enabled to obtain +good legal advice. A representative has been appointed to sit on the +Council for the Registration of Teachers. The Association is helping +to educate public opinion, and to review and consider the pedagogy +of domestic subjects in all classes of schools. Domestic Subjects' +teachers are also admitted to membership of other Teachers' +Associations, which safeguard the interest of their members and offer +advantages for training and travelling. Members of the Association of +Teachers of Domestic Subjects have the right to join for the purposes +of the Insurance Act the "Approved" section of the Secondary, +Technical and University Teachers' Provident Society. The London +County Council has secured "exception" from the Act for their Domestic +Subjects' teachers, their allowance for sick leave being better than +the provisions of the Act. The Association of Teachers of Domestic +Subjects has obtained special terms for members from two assurance +companies for deferred annuities or endowment assurances. The London +Teachers' Association has also a provident section. + +We have seen that Domestic Arts may now claim a position of importance +in both the elementary and secondary school curricula, and that the +teaching of these subjects may rank as a profession in which there is +a great deal of scope. The attitude of mind towards these subjects has +much changed during the last few years, largely owing to the efforts +of those who have taken them up as subjects of scientific study. +Much, however, remains to be done, both in organising the teaching in +schools, and in the training of teachers in domestic subjects. Only +those who have had scientific training, are competent to put the work +on a sound scientific basis. + + +[Footnote 1: An interesting sidelight on economic conditions is +afforded by the instructions issued by the London County Council for +the guidance of teachers of Domestic Subjects (Syllabus of Instruction +in Domestic Economy. Revised, March 1912). The girls are to be taught +account-keeping in order to "cultivate a well-balanced sense of +proportion in spending and saving. ... Weekly incomes suitable for +consideration in London, to begin with, are 35s., £3, and 28s. taken +in that order." The number in family is supposed to be six, _i.e.,_ +parents and four children. + +The obvious inference is that experts do not find it possible to deal +satisfactorily with cases in which there are, say, six children and +an income of 25s. An income of £1 a week is not even mentioned, though +many a London school-girl must know "in the last three years of +her school-life" that her mother has not more than this to spend. +Translated into concrete quantities of food, clothing, and rent, +this "living wage" is found insufficient for daily needs. The teacher +therefore is encouraged to ignore the economic conditions of most of +her pupils. [EDITOR]. ] + + + +TABLE I. + + +Cost and duration of courses for the first degree in the Faculties +of Arts and Science, together with Scholarships in those Faculties +available for Women at the Universities and University Colleges[1] of +the United Kingdom. + +_NOTES_. + +1. Scholarships, etc., printed in _italics_ are available for Women only. + +2. Scholarships, etc., printed in #black type# are not restricted to + graduates of any one University. + +3. County Council and Borough Scholarships are included only when tenable + at a specified University or College. Particulars of others should in + each case be obtained from the respective Director or Secretary of the + Education Committee. + +4. No scholarship or prize is included of which the value is less than £15. + + +[Footnote 1: University Colleges are those in receipt of a Government Grant +and doing work of a University standard. Thus the Polytechnics and Colleges +such as the Albert Memorial College, Exeter, are not included, although +they prepare students for degree examinations.] + + +#ENGLAND#. + +UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honours (M.A., M.Sc.) in Arts or Science: 4 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: 54 guineas for the course. +Cost of Tuition in Science: From 47 guineas to £186, 2s. for + the course, according to subjects chosen. +Cost of Residence (optional): From 40 to 55 guineas per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Entrance(2) Not more than £25 + 1 year +Fentham's Trust £75 3 years Awarded on to candidates + who have resided for 5 + years in the City of + Birmingham +University(2) £30 1 year Science +University(2) £30 1 year Arts +University(15) Free tuition and not + more than £30 + maintenance 4 years +Theodore Mander £24 2-3 years Open to sons and daughters + of burgesses of + Wolverhampton, and + awarded to those + intending to take Degree + Courses in the Faculties + of Science of Commerce +Polytechnic(2) £45 _circa_ 3 years +Ascough £36 _circa_ 1 year Chemistry + (renewable) +George Henry £45 3 years Classics + Marshall +German £50 -- Offered each year for 5 + years from 1913. +Education Committee £50 3 years + Major(5) +Corbett £28 _circa_ 1 year For 2nd year students. + Mathematics. + +#Post-Graduate# +University(4) £50 1 year Arts and Science +Research(4) £50 1 year Arts and Science +Priestley(3) £96 _circa_ 1 year Chemistry Research + (renewable) +1851 Exhibition £150 2 years Scientific Research + + + + +UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass or Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: 18 guineas per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: 20 guineas per annum. +Cost of Residence (optional) at Clifton Hill House: 40 guineas per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Bursaries, variable Tuition fees and + in number maintenance grant + 1 year Awarded (to children of + Bristol ratepayers only) + according to + qualification +Vincent Stuckey Lean Interest on Science + Scholarship £1,000 1 year + +#Post-Graduate.# +_Catherine Winkworth_ £30 1 year Arts +_Catherine Winkworth_ £30 1 year Science +Capper Pass Scholarship £25 1 year Metallurgy +Hugh Conway Scholarship £20 1 year English Literature + + + +UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. + +The only University Scholarships for which women are eligible +are the Arnold Gerstenberg Studentship (income of £2,000) for +Philosophical Research and the Benn W. Levy Studentship for +Research in Biological Chemistry (£100 a year). Scholarships at +Girton and Newnham are for women only. + +The University does not grant degrees to women. + + +GIRTON COLLEGE. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. (Pass candidates + are not accepted.) + +Cost of Course: £105 per annum, including tuition, examinations, + and residence. For out-students the fees are £12 a term. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +_Jane Agnes Chessar_ Not less than + £88 4 years Classics +_Russell Gurney_ £40 3 years History +_Sir Francis Goldsmid_ £45 3 years +_Mary Anne Leighton_ About £16 3 years +_Barbara Leigh Smith_ About £44 3 years + _Bodichon_ +_Todd Memorial_ About £35 3 years + _Higgins_ £40 3 years +_Henry Tomkinson_ At least £20 3 years +_Clothworkers_ £60 3 years +_Skinners_ £50 3 years +_Gilchrist_ £50 3 years Also tenable at Newnham +_Queen's School,_ £30 3 years + _Chester_ +_Dove_ £20 3 years For girls from St. + Leonard's School, St. + Andrew's. Classics + +#For Certified Students# +_Gilchrist Studentship_ £100 1 year For Professionals. Open to + Students at Newnham and + Girton +_Old Girtonians'_ Not less than + _Studentship_ £48 1 year +_John Elliot Cairnes_ Not less than + £58 1 year For research in Political + Economy or Economic + History +_Sir Arthur Arnold_ £30 1 year +_Harkness_ About £70 1 year Geology. Also tenable at + Newnham. Awarded + biennially + +#Fellowships.# +_Pfeiffer_ £120 2 years +#Girton College# £300 Various Open to students of all + Universities + +#Prizes.# +_Gamble_ Interest on £500 +_Therese Montifiore_ Interest on £1,700 + + +NEWNHAM COLLEGE. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science: 3 years (Pass candidates + are not accepted). + +Cost of Course: From £90 to £105 per annum, including tuition, + examinations, and residence. For out-students the fees are + £12 a term. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +_College_(2) £50 3 years +_Clothworhers_ £50 3 years +_College_(1 or more) £35 3 years +_Classical_ £50 3 years Also tenable at Girton +_Modern Languages_ £50 3 years Also tenable at Girton +_Liverpool Clough_ £50 2-3 years For those entering the + teaching profession, only +_Gilchrist_ £50 3 years Also tenable at Girton +_Mary Ewart_ £100 3 years For students who have been + in residence three terms +_Harkness_ £70 1 year Geology. Also tenable at + Girton. Awarded + biennially + +#Certificated Students# +_Arthur Hugh Clough_ £40 1 year +_Mary Ewart_ £150 1 year Travelling scholarship +_Gilchrist_ £100 1 year Tenable only by those + entering a profession. + Held alternate years at + Newnham and Girton +#Bathurst# £75 or under 1 year Awarded from time to time + for proficiency in + Natural Science. Not + restricted to Newnham + students +_Marion Kennedy_ £80 1 year Holder eligible for 2nd + _Studentship_ year + +#Fellowships.# +_Associates_(2) £100 1 year Awarded alternate years +_Mary Bateson_ £100 1 year +_"N"_ £100 1 year + +#Prizes.# +_Creighton_ £15 Awarded for an essay on + _Memorial_ History or Archaeology + + +UNIVERSITY OF DURHAM. + +DURHAM COLLEGE. + +Duration of Course in Arts: Pass 2 years; Honours, 3 years. +Duration of Course in Science: Pass and Honours, 3 years. +Cost of Tuition, Arts and Science: £21 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Abbey House (optional): From £12 to £16 a term. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# + +Foundation Scholarships £70 1 year May be renewed. Arts +Foundation Scholarships £40 1 year May be renewed +Foundation Scholarships £30 1 year May be renewed +Entrance Exhibitions(2) £20 1 year May be renewed +Pears Scholarship £50 3 years Arts +_Scholarships_(2) £70 1 year +_Scholarships_(2) £30 1 year +Exhibitions(2) £20 2 years Persons of limited means + +#Undergraduate.# +Scholarships(2) £30 1 year 2nd year students +Scholarships(2) £30 1 year 2nd year students +Gisborne Scholarship £30 1 year 2nd year students +University Classical £30 1 year + Scholarship +University Mathematical £30 1 year + Scholarship +University Hebrew £20 1 year + Scholarship +Thorp Scholarship £20 1 year +Newby Scholarship £18 2 or 3 yrs. Arts +Scholarships(3) £20 1 year Modern B.A. + +#Prizes.# +Gibson £20 Essay + + +ARMSTRONG COLLEGE, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. +Cost of Tuition: £20 per annum. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Exhibition £20 1-2 years Science +Exhibition £15 1-2 years Science +Exhibitions(2) £15 1-2 years Arts +Newcastle-upon-Tyne Free admission to a Open to candidates + Corporation degree course resident in Newcastle. + Exhibitions(10) 2 years Arts + (renewable) +Newcastle-upon-Tyne Free admission to a Open to candidates + Corporation degree course resident in Newcastle. + Exhibitions(10) 2 years Arts + (renewable) +Newcastle-upon-Tyne Free admission to a Open to candidates + Corporation degree course resident in Newcastle. + Exhibitions(10) 2 years Science + (renewable) +Gateshead Corporation Free admission to a Open to candidates + Exhibitions(10) degree course resident in Gateshead. + 2 years + (renewable) + +#Undergraduate.# + +Junior Pemberton £30 and remission of Awarded on the results of + two-thirds of the the first B.Sc. + class fees 1 year examination +Thomas Young Hall £20 with remission of Awarded on the results + two-thirds of the of the first B.Sc. + class fees 3 years examination +Nathaniel Clerk £15 1 year Awarded on the results + of the first B.Sc. + examination +Senior Pemberton £40 and fees 1 year Candidates must have + passed the first B.Sc. + examination + +#Post-Graduate.# +Research Studentships(2) £62, 10s 1 year +1851 Exhibition £150 2 years Science +1851 Exhibition + Probationary Bursaries £70 1 year Science Research + +Johnston Chemical £60 1 year Open to Bachelors of + Science of any British + University of not more + than 3 years' standing + +#Fellowships.# +College £125 1 year +Pemberton £120 3 years Open to graduates in + Science of Durham + University of not more + than 6 years' standing + from their first degree + + +UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS. + +Duration of Pass Course, Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course, Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £19 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £27 per annum. +Cost of Residence at University Hall (optional): From £32 to £41 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Emsley £20 2 years +Edward Baines £20 2 years +Charles Wheatley £25 3 years Arts +William Summers £35 3 years Arts +Brown £40 2 years Science + (renewable) +Senior City(14) £50 3 years Open to candidates of not + (renewable) less than 17 and not more + than 30 years of age +County Major £55 _circa_ 3 years Open to candidates of not + (West Riding)(14) less than 16 and not + more than 30 years of + age +Free Studentships Tuition Fees 3 years + (West Riding) +Major (North Riding)(4) £60 1-3 years Open to women of not less + than 16 and not more than + 20 years of age +Scholarships (East £60 1-3 years + Riding) +Salt £20 2 years Arts +City Council Not specified + +#Post-Graduate.# +1851 Exhibition £150 2 years Science +University (limited £25 1-2 years Awarded ordinarily on + number) Final Honours Examinations +Gilchrist £80 1 year Modern Languages +John Rutson £70 1 year Arts + (renewable) + +#Fellowships.# +University £100 1 year + + +UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Arts: 3 to 4 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Science: 4 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £19 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £25 per annum. +Cost of Residence in University Hall (optional): From 35 to 50 guineas a + session. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Bibby(2) £20 3 years Open to candidates of not + more than 18 years of age +Morris Ranger £20 3 years +_Ladies' Educational £30 3 years Open to women of not less +Association_ than 16 and not more than + 19 years of age +Elizabeth James £40 3 years Arts or Law +Tate (Arts) £35 3 years Open to candidates who + have been educated in one + of the schools of + Liverpool or the + neighbourhood and who are + not more than 18 years of + age +Tate (Science)(3) £35 3 years +Senior City(8) £30 and free admission Open to candidates of not + to lectures less than 16 and not more + 3 years than 19 years of age +Senior City Technical(2) £50 and free admission Open to candidates of not + to lectures less than 16 and not more + than 25 years of age + 3 years +Derby(2) £35 3 years One without limit of age, + one for candidates of not + more than 18 years of age +Canning £28 3 years} +Iliff £20 3 years} Arts including + Mathematics, or B.Sc. + Honours in Mathematics +William Rathbone £20 3 years} +Gossage £70 _circa_ 3 years Open to pupils of schools + in the Borough of Widnes +Lundie Memorial £15 3 years +Wallasey Borough £35 3 years Open to candidates under + Council 19 years of age +W.P. Sinclair Interest on £1,000 Arts or Honour School of + 3 years Mathematics +Henry Deacon £50 3 years Open to candidates of not + more than 19 years of age + who intend studying in + the Honour School of + Chemistry +Sheridan Muspratt £50 2 years Chemistry +Thomas Hornby £20 1 year Greek + (renewable) +Korbach £20 1 year Undergraduates reading + (renewable) German in the Honour + School of Modern + Languages or graduates + wishing to proceed with + German study or research +Henry Warren Meade-King Interest on £1,000 Economics + 2 years +Holt Travelling £50 1 year Architecture +Isaac Roberts(2) £50 1 year Science. Open to graduates + (renewable) and under-graduates +Sir John Willox £50 2 years Chemistry + +#Post-Graduate# +Korbach £20 1 year __See above, undergraduate_ + (renewable) _scholarship of same name_ +Gilchrist £80 1 year Modern Languages +Isaac Roberts(2) £50 1 year _See above, undergraduate_ + _scholarship of same name_ +1851 Exhibition £150 2 years Tenable at any University + in England and abroad, + and to be used for + Science Research work +University(2) £25 1 year +1851 Exhibition Bursary £70 1 year +Derby £45 _circa_ 1 year Mathematics + (renewable) +Owen-Templeman Interest on £450 + 1 year + (renewable) Celtic +Stanley Jones Interest on £1,300 Economics +#Fellowships.# +University -- 1 year +Charles Beard £75 1 year History +Oliver Lodge Interest on £2,650 Physics + 1 year + + +UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. + +The duration of the Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours, +is 3 years. (_See_ under separate Colleges for Fees.) + +All students of the University are eligible for University Scholarships, +Exhibitions, and Prizes in accordance with the regulations +laid down in each case. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#University Undergraduate.# +Exhibitions(5) £40 2 years Arts and Science +Scholarships(19) £50 1 year Arts and Science +Mitchell Exhibitions(4) 2 of £25} 1 year For candidates from the + 2 of £20}(renewable) city of London +_Si Dunstan Exhibitions_ £60 3 years For residents in London of + _for Women_(3) restricted means +_Gilchrist_ £40 2 years One in Arts, one in + _Scholarships, for_ Science (the latter may + _Women_(2) be increased by £10) + +#University Post-Graduate.# +The Lindley Studentship £100 For research in Physiology + (awarded every 3rd year) +The University £50 For research + Studentship in (undergraduates are also + Physiology eligible) +George Smith Studentship £100 + £5 worth Awarded to the best + of books Internal Candidate for + B.A. Honours in English + on condition of + preparation for M.A. +_Gilchrist Studentship_ £100 For graduates in Honours + _for Women_ who undertake to prepare + for and practise some + profession +Gilchrist Studentship in £80 For internal graduates in + Modern Languages Honours (French or + German) who undertake to + follow abroad a course of + preparation for the + profession of Modern + Language Teacher +Carpenter Medal (or its £20 Awarded every 3 years for + pecuniary equivalent) a Thesis in experimental + Psychology presented for + a Doctor's Degree +Ouseley Memorial £50 Oriental Languages, not + Scholarships(3) restricted to graduates +Gilchrist Scholarships(2)£50 Oriental Languages, not + restricted to graduates + + +Grants are also made from the Dixon Fund in aid of scientific +investigations. + + +BEDFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: 27 guineas per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: From 27 to 38 guineas per annum. +Cost of Residence in College (optional): From 58 to 68 guineas per annum. +All Scholarships at Bedford College are open to women only. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Undergraduate.# +_Reid Scholarships_(2) £30 3 years Arts +_Clift Scholarship_ £30 3 years Arts +_Courtauld Scholarship_ £30 3 years Arts +_Henry Tate Scholarship_ £50 3 years Science +_Arnott Scholarship_ £50 3 years Science +_Pfeiffer_ + _Scholarships_(2) £50 3 years +_Reid Scholarship_ £60 3 years +_Jane Benson_ + _Scholarship_ £60 2 years Awarded biennially to a + student of Bedford High + School + +#Post-Graduate# +_Reid Fellowship_ £50 2 years Awarded biennially either + to an Arts or a Science + graduate + + + +EAST LONDON COLLEGE. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts or Science: £10, 10s. per annum. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. + #Entrance.# +Drapers' Company(2) £40 3 years Arts. Candidates must not + exceed 19 years of age +Drapers' Company(2) £40 3 years Science. Candidates must + not exceed 19 years of + age + +#Post-Graduate.# +Research Studentship Conditions not yet + published + + +UNIVERSITY OF LONDON KING'S COLLEGE FOR WOMEN. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £25, 4s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £31, 10s. per annum. +Cost of Residence in King's Hall (optional): From £17, 10s. to £26, 5s. + per term. +All Scholarships, etc., except the three which are specified, are open to + both men and women, and are tenable by the former at King's College, + Strand. + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +_Skinners' Company_ £40 3 years Arts + _Scholarship_ +_Merchant Taylors'_ £40 3 years Arts or Science + _Scholarship_ +Sambrooke Scholarship £25 2 years Classics +Sambrooke Scholarship £25 2 years Science + +#Undergraduate.# +Inglis Scholarship £30 1 year English or History in + alternate years +Sambrooke Exhibition £50 1 year Classics + +#Post-Graduate.# +Inglis Studentship £100 1 year Awarded on the result + of the B.A. Honours + Examination in English + and in History in + alternate years. The + selected Student is + required to prepare for + M.A. and to give some + assistance in teaching +Layton Research £150 2 years Science + Studentship +Gilchrist Scholarship £52, 10S 1 year For graduates intending to + in Home Science take the Post-Graduate + Diploma in Home Science + and Economics. For women + only + +#Prizes.# +Carter Prize £15 in books and gold English Verse + medal +Carter Prize £15 in books and gold Botany + medal + + +ROYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE. + +Cost of Residence and Tuition: £100 per annum. +Cost of Tuition for out-students: £12 per term. +All Scholarships at Royal Holloway College are for women only. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +_Founder's_ £60 3 years + _Scholarships_(4) +_Entrance_ £50 3 years +_Scholarships_(8) +_Martin Holloway_ £35 3 years +_Several Bursaries_ Not exceeding + £30 3 years + +#Undergraduate.# +_Driver_(3) £30 3 years For students who have been + at least three terms in + residence +_Christie_ £60 2 years For History + +#Post-Graduate.# +_Several_ Varying 1 year For students wishing to + _Studentships_ in amount take up post-graduate + work +#Prizes.# +_R.C._ +_Christie, Esq._ £21 French literature +_Martin Holloway._ £15, 15s. +------------------------------------------------------------- + + +UNIVERSITY OF LONDON, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: From £24, 3s. to £42 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £35 per annum. +Cost of Residence in College Hall (optional): From £53 to £82 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Andrews Entrance £30 1 year Arts and Science. Age + Scholarships(3) limit, 18 +Campbell Clarke £40 3 years English Language and + Entrance Scholarship Literature. Age limit, 18 +Goldsmid £30 3 years Science. Age limit, 18 +Rosa Morison £30 3 years Arts. Age limit, 18 +Member's Scholarship £30 3 years Classics +West £30 1 year English and English + History +Morris £16 2 years +St Pancras College fees for Limited to candidates born + 3 years in St Pancras +Campbell Clarke £40 2 or 3 years English Language and + Literature + +#Undergraduate.# +Andrews Scholarships £30 1 year Arts and Science +Derby Zoological £60 2 years +Ellen Watson Memorial £15 1 year Science. Candidates must + be under 21 +Fielden Research £50 1 or 2 years Research in German +_Eleanor Grove_ £30 1 year Research in German + (may be renewed) +John Oliver Hobbes £20 1 year Modern English Literature +Hollier £60 1 year Greek and Hebrew +Jews' Commemoration £15 2 years Arts or Science +Joseph Hume £20 1 year Jurisprudence and + Political Economy +Malden Medal and £20 1 year Proficiency in Greek + Scholarship +Mayer de Rothschild £40 1 year Pure Mathematics +John Stuart Mill £20 1 or 2 years Philosophy of Mind or + Logic +_Rosa Morison_ £30 1 year English Language and + Literature +Ricardo £20 3 years Awarded every third year + for Political Economy +Tuffnell £100 2 years Science. Candidates must + be under 24 + +#Post-Graduate.# +George Jessel £50 1 year Research in Mathematics + Studentship +Jevons Memorial £35 1 or 2 years Research in Political + Economy +Physics Research £60} 1 year + Studentships(2) £40} +Quain £150 3 years English. Awarded every + third year +Quain £100 3 years Biology. Awarded every + third year + +#Prizes.# +Quain £50 English Essay + + +WESTFIELD COLLEGE. + +Cost of Residence and Tuition: £35 a term. +Cost of Tuition for Out-students: £15 a term. +All Scholarships at Westfield College are for women only. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +_Draper's Company_(2) £50 3 years Candidates must be under + age of 20 +_Amy Sanders Stephens_ £50 3 years +_College Scholarships_ £35 to £50 3 years + (2 or more) + + +UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £18 per session. +Cost of Tuition in Science: Pass, from £20 to £30 per annum. + Honours, from £12, 12S. to £45 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Ashburne Hall or Langdale Hall (optional): + From £40 to £52, 10S. per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Rogers £40 2 years Biennial. Classics +Seaton £40 2 years Biennial. Mathematics +Dalton £40 2 years Mathematics +Hulme £35 3 years English and History +Jones £35 2 years History +James Gaskill £35 2 years Mathematics and Chemistry +John Buckley £30 3 years Mathematics and Science +Grace Calvert £30 2 years Science. Biennial +Bleackley £15 3 years Science (not till 1915) +Theodores £15 1 year French and German +_Dora Muir_ £30 3 years +_Alice Fay_ £25 Not more than 3 years +_Ashburne Hall_ £60 3 years +_Marjory Lees_ £40 3 years +_Old Ashburnians_ £30 1-3 years +Jevons £70 1 year Economic Science (once in + six years) +Russian £60 1st year} 2 years + £25 2nd year} +Bishop Fraser £40 2 years Classics +Oliver Heywood £50 2 years Classics +Dieschfield £30 1 year +Robert Platt £50 1-2 years Zoology and Botany +Robert Platt £50 2 years Physiology +Education(2) £50 1 year Intending Teachers +Faulkner (Arts) and £100 1 year + Beyer (Science)(3) +Victoria £40 1 year Classics +Wellington £30 1 year Greek. Biennial +Walters £30 1 year French. German +Bradford £35 1 year History +Shuttleworth £45 1 year Political Economy +Dalton £35 1 year Mathematics +Derby £30 1 year Mathematics +Heginbottom £15 1 year Physics +Dalton £50 2 years Chemical +Mercer £30 1 year Chemistry + +#Post-Graduate.# +Roscoe £50 1 year History + (renewable) +Gilchrist £80 1 year Modern Languages +Graduate £25 1 year One in each Honours School + in Arts and Science +Travelling £60 for 1st year, Russian + and £75 for 2nd year +#1851 Exhibition# £150 2 years Science +Schuster £50 1 year Engineering or Chemistry + +#Fellowships.# +John Harling £125 1-2 years Physics, English +Honorary Schunk £100 1 year Chemistry +Jones £150 2 years History +John Bright £100 2 years +Public Health(2) £50 1 year + +#Prizes.# +Lee Greek Testament £15 + Senior +Warburton £30 + + +UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. (Pass + candidates are not accepted at the Women's Colleges.) + +Women are not eligible for any University Scholarships or Prizes. + All Scholarships at the Women's Colleges are for women only. + The University does not grant degrees to women. + + +SOMERVILLE COLLEGE. + +Combination Fee: From £84 to £105 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +_Entrance £40-£60 3 years + Scholarships_(3) +_Entrance £20-£30 3 years + Exhibitions_(2) +_Shaw Lefevre_ £50 Awarded only to students + in residence + +#Certificated Students.# +#Mary Ewart Travelling# + #Scholarship# £100-£200 Awarded occasionally, and + open to women graduates + of Durham and Dublin, + as well as to all + certificated students of + the Women's Colleges at + Oxford and Cambridge + + +LADY MARGARET HALL. + +Cost of Tuition: £27 per annum. +Cost of Residence (obligatory): From £65 to £75 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +_Jephson Scholarship_ £50 3 years +_College Scholarship_ £40 3 years +_College Scholarship_ £35 3 years + + + +ST HILDA'S HALL. + +Cost of Tuition: £26, 5s. per annum. +Cost of Residence (obligatory): £75 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +_College Scholarship_ £50 3 years +_College Scholarship_ £30 3 years +_Hay Scholarship_ £25-£45 3 years +_Cheltenham Scholarship_ varies in amount Open only to pupils of + 3 years Cheltenham Ladies College + + +ST HUGH'S COLLEGE. + +Combination Fee: From £70 to £95 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +__Old Students'_ £30 3 years + _Scholarship_ +_College Scholarship_ £30 3 years +_College Scholarship_ £25 3 years +_Clara Evelyn Mordan_ + _Scholarship_ £40 3 years Awarded every third year + + +SOCIETY OF HOME STUDENTS. + +Cost of Tuition: From £24 to £30 per annum. + +The Society of Home Students provides for the education of +students who are not in residence at any College. It undertakes +to prepare students for pass as well as honours examinations. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +_Ottley Scholarship_ £40 3 years Open only to pupils of + Worcester High School. +_Gilchrist Travelling_ £100 1 year Open to certificated women + students at Oxford + + + +UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Tuition varies according to subjects chosen. +Cost of Residence in the University Hostel (optional): From +29 to 43 guineas per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Fifth £30 3 years Arts, Science +Corporation £30 3 years Arts, Science +Town Trustees(2) £50 3-4 years Tenable at Sheffield, + Oxford and Cambridge +Education Committee £15, 1st year} + £20, 2nd year}3 years + £25, 3rd year} +Town Trustees(4) £50 3 years Open only to candidates + under 19 years of age + educated in Sheffield +Education Committee £50 3 years Applied Science +Earnshaw[1] £50 at least 1 year Open to inhabitants of the + or more City of Sheffield, and + tenable at any University + in the United Kingdom. + Awarded for Mathematics + or Classics. +Mechanics' Institute £50 and free admission + to lectures 1-2 years +Whitworth Exhibitions(30)£50 3 years Awarded on the results of + Examinations of the Board + of Education +Whitworth(4) £25 3 years Awarded on the results of + Examinations of the Board + of Education +Technical £20, 1st year; £25, 2nd + year; £30, 3rd year; + and free admission to + lectures 3 years +Education Committee £50 3 years Arts +Education Committee(4) £50 3 years Pure or Applied Science + +#Post-Graduate# +Frederick Clifford £50 _circa_ 2 years Open to graduates residing + within a radium of 40 + miles of the University +#1851 Exhibition# £150 2 years Science + +#Fellowships.# +Sorby Interest on £15,503, Chemistry. Next award 1914 + 16s. 6d. 5 years +Town Trustees £75 1 year + + +[Footnote 1: This does not appear to come under either of the categories of +County and Borough Scholarship alluded to in Note 3, p. 28. The Editor +therefore includes it here.] + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, NOTTINGHAM. + +Students read for the external degrees of the University of London. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £12, 12s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £18 per annum. +Cost of Residence at Hylton House (optional): £30 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Scholarships(3) £30 1 year Arts and Science. For + (renewable) students not over 19 + years of age +Studentships Remission of fees + 1 year + (renewable) +_Parker Senior_ £25-£50 3 years For daughters of residents + _Exhibitions_ in Nottingham +County Council College and travelling Open to candidates under + Scholarships fees, and books 19, ordinarily resident + in the County + +#Undergraduate.# +Weinberg Scholarship £15 1 year For students in need of + pecuniary assistance +College Studentships £10 to £18 1 year For students in need of + pecuniary assistance + +#Post-Graduate.# +Science Research(2) £50 and free admission + 1 year +Heymann Research £35 1 year May be divided between two + candidates. Preference + given to students in the + Faculty of Arts +#1851 Exhibition# £150 2 years For Research work in + #Scholarship# Science. Tenable at any + University. + + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, READING. + +Students read for the external degrees of the University of London. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £20. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: From £20 to £24 per annum. + (There is a reduction for local students.) +Cost of Residence in St Andrew's Hall, Wessex Hall and St + George's Hostel (obligatory for students not residing with + parents or guardians): From £32 to £42 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Open Scholarships-- £69} 2 years Science + Major(2) £65} (renewable) Arts + Minor(2) Remission of College + fees 2 years + (renewable) +County Borough of + Reading-- + Minor Scholarships(2) Remission of College For candidates educated + fees. 1 year in Borough of Reading + (renewable) +_St Andrew's Hall._ £40 2 years + (renewable) + +_St Andrew's Hall_ Amount variable Students in need of + _Bursaries_ pecuniary assistance +_Exhibition_ Remission of College For graduates, whether + fees 1 year already students of the + College of not. Secondary + Education Course + + + +HARTLEY UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, SOUTHAMPTON. + +Students read principally for the external degrees of the University of +London. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £20 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £24 per annum. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +College(2) £26, 8s., 1st year} + £34, 8s., 2nd year} 3 + £36, 8s., 3rd year}years +College(2) £26, 8s., 1st year} 2 + £34, 8s., 2nd year}years +Exhibitions(4) £15 and £18 3 years Open to candidates between + the ages of 16 and 19 +Thomas Godolphin £23 1 year Open to candidates who + Rooper have been educated for at + least 2 years at a Public + Elementary School in the + late Mr. Rooper's + Inspectorial District + + + + +#IRELAND.# + + +UNIVERSITY OF DUBLIN. + + +TRINITY COLLEGE. + + +Duration of Arts Course, Pass and Honours, 4 years. +Duration of Science Course: Pass, 4 years; Honours, 5 years. +Cost of Tuition: £16. 16s. per annum. +Cost of Residence in Trinity Hall (for women not residing with + their parents or guardians): From £11 to £15 a term. + + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Exhibitions(12) £20 (6)} 2 years Examination results + £15 (6)} of Irish Board of + Intermediate Education +Junior Exhibitions(16) £20 (12)} 2 years Candidates under 19 + £15 (4) } +Sizarships(10) College fees Students in need of + pecuniary assistance +Non-foundation £30 5 years Arts or Science + Scholarship +James Patrick Kidd £80 4 years Arts or Science +_Irish Society_ £60 3 years Open only to pupils of an + _Scholarship_ Intermediate School in + Londonderry or Coleraine + +#Undergraduate.# +Senior Exhibitions(16) £20} 2 years Arts or Science + £15} +Lloyd Exhibition £16 2 years Mathematics +Mullins Exhibition £17 3 years Classics +Ekenhead Scholarship £32 3 years Science. Open only to + natives of Antrim +FitzGerald Memorial £50 1 year Research in Science + Scholarship +Blake National History £85 4 years + Scholarship + +#Prizes.# +Bishop Law's Mathematics £20 Algebra and Trigonometry +McCullogh £30 and £20 Mathematics +Townsend Memorial £22 Mathematics +Vice Chancellor's £20 Classics +Ferrar Memorial £18 Classics +Marshal Porter Memorial Interest on £500 Classics +Wray Prize £30 Mental and Moral + Philosophy +Cobden Prize £20 Essay on Political Economy +Hebrew Chaldee and £40 + Syriac +Ferguson Memorial £20 Celtic Literature + + +M'CREA MAGEE COLLEGE LONDONDERRY. + +(In connection with the University of Dublin.) + +Duration of Course in Arts: Pass, 3 years 9 months to 4 years; + Honours 4 years. +Duration of Course in Science, Pass and Honours: 4 years. +Cost of Course in Arts or Science: From £32, 12s. to £50. 8s. + for the course. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Bigger £30 1 year +Grocers' Company £25 1 year +M'Crea Science £25 1 year Mathematics and Physics +Adams' Bursary £15 1 year +M'Crea Science £30 1 year Mathematics and Physics +Grocers' Company £25 1 year +Findlater £25 1 year +Irish Society £20 1 year +Mabel £20 1 year Modern Literature + + +NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF IRELAND. + +All students of the University are eligible for University +Scholarships in accordance with the regulations laid + down in each case. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#University Undergraduate.# +Dr Henry Hutchinson £30 3 years Awarded on results of + Stewart Literary First Examination in Arts + Scholarship +Tipperary County £50 3 years + Council + +#University Post-Graduate.# +Coyne Memorial £32 1 year Awarded in alternate years + Scholarship for Essay on Political + Science +University Travelling £200 2 years In Arts and Science + Studentships(3) subjects in rotation + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Arts Course: £28, 10s. +Cost of Science Course: Variable, according to subjects chosen. +Cost of Residence in Loreto Hall or St Mary's Dominican Hall + (optional): From £30 to £40 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance#. +Scholarships(4) £50 1 year +Scholarships(4) £40 1 year +Scholarships(4) £30 1 year +Scholarships(4) £20 1 year + +#Undergraduate.# +Scholarships(4) £50 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd + year students +Scholarships(4) £40 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd + year students +Scholarships(4) £30 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd + year students +Scholarships(4) £20 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd + year students +First Class Exhibitions £20 1 year Result of Examination in + (4) 2nd year + +#Post-Graduate.# +Scholarships(5) £60 1 year Result of B.A. and B.Sc. + Honours Examination +Scholarship £30 1 year +Scholarships(2) £15 1 year +First Class Exhibitions £20 1 year Result of B.A. and B.Sc. + (3) Examination + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, GALWAY. + + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £10 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £15 per annum. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance#. +College(4) £30 1 year +College(8) £25 1 year + +#Under-Graduate#. +College, 2nd year £30 1 year Arts +College, 2nd year(3) £25 1 year Arts +College, 2nd year £30 1 year Science +College, 2nd year(2) £25 1 year Science +Blayney £30 1 year Scholars must attend + Honours Courses +Dr and Mrs W.A. Browne £32 1 year Modern Languages + +#Post-Graduate.# +College(4) £60 1 year + +#Prizes.# +Irish £15 + + + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, CORK. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £9 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science varies according to subjects chosen. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate# +College Scholarships(12) £20-£40 1 year +Honan Scholarships(3) £50 3-5 years To candidates born in + one of the counties of + Munster other than Clare +Cork County Council(10) £24 3 years +Kerry County Council(2) £50 3 years Open to candidates of not + more than 19 years of age +Kerry County Council(3) £30 -- Open to candidates of not + more than 19 years of age +Waterford County £50 3 years Open to candidates of not + Council(3) more than 19 years of age +Waterford County £50 3 years Open to candidates of not + Borough(2) more than 19 years of age +College Scholarships(8) £20-£40 2-3 years Open to 2nd year students + +#Post-Graduate Scholarships.# +Studentships (2) £150 3 years + + + +QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY, BELFAST. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Tuition varies according to subjects chosen, but does +not exceed £11, 11s. per annum for the Arts Course. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate# +Entrance(12) £40 1 year Arts, Science, and + Medicine +Second and Third Year £40 2 years Arts and Science +Porter £20 1-3 years +Porter £40 1 year +Sullivan £40 _circa_ 1 year Open to pupils of the + Royal Belfast Academical + Institution +Sullivan(2) £40 _circa_ 3 years Open to teachers in Irish + National Schools +Sir Hercules Pakenham £20 1 year Science +Emily Lady Pakenham £20 1 year Arts +Reid-Harwood £40 _circa_ 1 year Modern Languages +Andrews Studentship £36, 10s. 2 years Awarded alternate years + for Chemical and Physical + Science +Blayney £27 1 year Arts +County Borough(4) £40 3 years Arts, Science, Medicine, + Law, Commerce +Antrim(2) £40 3 years Tenable at any University + in Ireland +Donegal(2) £45 3 years Tenable at any University + in Ireland +Kildare(4) £50 3 years Tenable at any University + in Ireland by non-Roman + Catholic students +King's County £50 3 years Tenable by non-Roman + Catholics +Monaghan(3) £50 3 years Tenable at any University + in Ireland by a non-Roman + Catholic student +Monaghan Bursaries(2) £25 3 years Tenable at any University + in Ireland by a non-Roman + Catholic student +Westmeath(3) £50 3 years Tenable in the National + University of Ireland or + in Queen's University, + Belfast +Wexford(3) £50 3 years Tenable in any University + or College in Ireland by + a non-Roman Catholic + student +Wexford Bursaries(2) £25 3 years Tenable in any University + or College in Ireland by + a non-Roman Catholic + student + +#Post-Graduate#. +Studentships(5) £50 1 year Arts +Studentships(4) £50 1 year Science +Dunville Studentships(2) £50 1st year } + £100 2nd year}2 years Physical Science and + Biological Science +Purser £108 1 year Mathematics +Studentship £80 1 year Arts + + +ALEXANDRA COLLEGE, DUBLIN. + +Students read for the Examinations of the University of Dublin, the + National University of Ireland, and Queen's University, Belfast. +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 to 4 years. +Cost of Tuition: From £17 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Alexandra Hall: From £58 to £68 per annum. +Alexandra College is for women only. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate#. +_Skinners' Entrance_ £22 total value Candidates must be under + _Scholarship_ 17 on 1st. Jan. +_Governess Association_ £42 total value Candidates must be under + _Scholarship_ 17 on 1st. Jan. +_Pfeiffer Entrance_ £30 total value Candidates must be under + _Scholarship_ 17 on 1st. Jan. +_Stearne Scholarships(2)_£20 total value Candidates must be under + 17 on 1st. Jan. +_Wilson Suffern_ £15 Candidates must be under + 17 +_Skinners' Senior_ £27 total value Awarded in alternate years + _Scholarship_ +_Pfeiffer Senior_ £30 total value + _Scholarship_ +_Pfeiffer Literature_ £30 total value +_Jellicoe Memorial_ £24 total value + _Scholarship (Governess_ + _Association)_ +_Jellicoe Memorial_ £25 total value +_Trench Memorial_ £15 total value + _(Senior)_ +_Trench Memorial_ £15 total value Candidates must be under + _(Junior)_ 17 +_R.P. Graves Memorial_ £15 total value + + + + + +#SCOTLAND#. + +SCHOLARSHIPS TENABLE _AT ANY_ SCOTTISH UNIVERSITY. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +David Anderson(2) £30 4 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Duart £32 3 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Maclean £25 4 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +James Stewart £35 3 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Strang-Steel £30 4 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Glenbuck £27 3 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Ferguson Bursaries £25 to £30 4 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Louson £20 4 years +Dumfries £30 3 years +Spence(2) £30 1st year} 2 years For 2nd year Arts students + £40 2nd year} +Menzies £45 4 years Tenable at St Andrews, + Glasgow, or Edinburgh +Patrick A. Lowson £70 2 years Tenable at any University + in the United Kingdom +Cowan £30 for 2 years } Tenable alternately at + £20 for 3rd year} Edinburgh and Glasgow + 3 years + + +SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., OPEN TO STUDENTS _OF ANY_ SCOTTISH +UNIVERSITY. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Undergraduate#. +Franco-Scottish Society £15 1 year For students wishing to + Travelling Scholarships study in France +Spence Bursaries -- -- _See above,_ Scholarships + tenable at any Scottish + University +James Stewart Bursary -- -- _See ante,_ Scholarships + tenable at any Scottish + University + +#Post-Graduate#. +Ferguson Scholarships(3) £80 2 years Arts and Science. Open to + Masters of Arts +Carnegie Research £150 2 years Arts, Science, Medicine + Fellowships +Carnegie Research £100 1 year Arts, Science, Medicine + Scholarships +1851 Science Scholarship £150 2 years Tenable at any approved + institution +Shaw Philosophical £150 5 years Mental Philosophy. Open to + Fellowship Arts Graduates +_George Heriot_ £30 1 year Open to graduates of +_Bursary for Women_ the United Kingdom for + training as teachers. + Tenable at St. George's + Training College, + Edinburgh + + + +UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honours Course in Arts or Science: 5 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts : £10, 10s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science : £21 per annum. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate.# +Adam(9) £20 (3)} Arts + £15 (6)} 4 years +Campbell(6) £18 4 years Arts +Cargill(8) £20 4 years Arts +Crombie(8) £15 4 years Arts +Fullerton(9) £15 4 years Arts +Gammie £35 2 years French and German +Gordon and Cuming £20 4 years +Hutton(7) £29 (2) } Competitors must not be + £20 (3) } 4 years under 14 + £18 (2) } +Macpherson(3) £20 4 years Arts. Gaelic-speaking + candidates. +Mather(4) £15 4 years Arts +Melvill(2) £15 4 years Arts +Milne and Fraser £20 4 years Arts +Moir(14) £20 (4) } 4 years Arts + £15 (10) } +Red Hyth, Smith and £25 4 years Arts or Science + Short +Reid and Cruden £20 4 years Arts +Rolland £25 4 years Arts +Rose £20 4 years Arts +Simpson(5) £30 4 years Arts +Highland Society of £15 3 years Gaelic-speaking candidates + London + +#Post-Graduate#. +Robert Fletcher £30 2 years Mathematics +Fullerton, Moir, and £100 (4) } 2 years Arts + Gray(7) £75 (3) } 3 years +Fullerton £100 2 years Science +Knox Income on £2,000 Arts + 1 year +Reid Scholarships --- 1 year Amount not specified. Arts + or Science +Croom Robertson £200 3 years Arts + Fellowship +James Day Scholarship £100 1 year Graduate in Arts intending + to take up teaching +Fullerton Scholarship £100 2 years Science + +#Prizes# +Arnott Interest on £1,000 Natural Philosophy +Dr Black £28 Latin +Blackwell £20 English Essay +Caithness £20 History +Greig £30 Natural Philosophy +Simpson and Boxill £65 and £28 Mathematics +Simpson £65 Greek + + + +UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Arts: 4 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Science: 5 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £10, 10s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £15, 15s. per annum for 5 years + for M.A. and B.Sc. £21 per annum for B.Sc. only. +Cost of Residence in Muir Hall (optional): From £10 to £13, 10s. + a term. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Bursaries.# +George Heriot Bursary £20 3 years Arts or Science +Heriot High School £30 3 years + University +R. Johnstone Bursary £19, 13s. 4 years +Chrystie Bursary £18 4 years +Pringle and Wardrop £19, 4s. 4 years + Bursary +Mitchell and Shortt £27, 5s. 4 years +Dundas £36 4 years +Fraser £22, 4s. 7 years Arts +Grant £45 4 years Arts +Stuart £17, 12S 3 years Arts or Science +Jardine £42, 12S. 6d. 4 years Arts or Science. Limited + to natives of Scotland +Bruce(4) £40 (1) } 4 years + £30 (3) } +Patrick £45 4 years +Ayrshire Club £30 2 years +Peebleshire Society £20 4 years Arts or Science +Rhind £20 4 years +Bruce of Grangehill and £35 (3) } 3 years Arts. 1st and 2nd year + Falklands Bursaries £20 (2) } 3 years Students +Horsliehill Scott £39, 16s 2 years 3rd year Arts Students +Harrison £25, 18s. 6d. 2 years 3rd year Arts Students +Border Counties and £30 (1) } 4 years Arts or Science. For + Walter Scott £20 (1) } students having attended + schools in certain + specified counties. + Natives of Argyllshire, + Bute, or Western Islands +Argyllshire £20 3 years Arts or Science. For + students having attended + schools in certain + specified counties. + Natives of Argyllshire, + Bute, or Western Islands +Ardvorlich £15, 13s 4 years Arts. Students must come + from certain specified + parishes +Sibbald £30 3 years Arts and Science. + Specified parishes +Edinburgh Angus Club-- £25 4 years Preference given to + Dalhousie Bursary candidates from the + County +Orkney and Zetland £40 3 years For natives of Orkney and + Zetland + Grierson(5) £20(4) } 4 years Preference given to + £24(1) } natives of parishes of + Cranford or Leadhills +Lanarkshire £20(4) 4 years +Johnstone of Harthope £17,2s. 4 years Natives of Moffat, + Bursary Peebles, and students of + name of Alexander or + Johnstone preferred +Marshall £36,18s. 4 years Restricted +Fothringham and Forrest £24 4 years Restricted +Marquess of Zetland £40 3 years Arts. For natives of + County of Orkney and + Zetland +Thomson £25 4 years +Patterson £16 2 years In Anglo-Saxon Grammar or + Literature +John Welsh(8) £20 4 years Mathematics and Classics +Mackinnon(3) £22,4s.6d. 3 years Arts. Gaelic-speaking + students +Whitelaw(3) £24,12s. 3 years Arts +Renton £19,11s. 1 year Student must be between + age of 16 and 21. Arts + and Science +Newton £23,5s. 2 years Natural Philosophy and + Mathematics +Mann £29,6s.6d. 3 years Candidates must reside in + Nairn +Allan £30 3 years Arts or Science +James Fairbairn £33,4s.6d. 4 years +Jardine or Thorlieshope £40,10s. 4 years Open to natives of + Roxburghshire and + Dumfriesshire +Mackenzie £22 4 years +Maclaurin £91,12s.8d. 4 years Restricted to students + of name of founder +Bailie Cousin's £32,15s. 3 years +Maule £21,2s. 6 years +Donald Fraser £50 1 year For Science Research work +Baxter of Balgavies £30 3 years For students educated at + High School, Dundee +Masterton Memorial £30 3 years For sons and daughters of + ministers of United Free + Church +London Inverness-shire £18 3 years Preference to students of + Association County of Inverness +Lanfine £35 2 years +Auchairne £53,15s.4d. 3 years Natives of County of Ayr +Edinburgh Morayshire £20 3 years Arts or Science. Natives + Club of County of Moray + +#Undergraduate#. +Vans Dunlop £100 3 years Arts and Science +Fettes Exhibition(2) £60 4 years +Skirving £50 3 years +Mackay Smith £27 2 years Natural Philosophy +Nichol Foundation £50 1 year Laboratory Work +Hope Prize £30 1 year Chemistry +Misses Baxter of £40 1 or 2 years Men and women educated in + Balgavies High School of Dundee + +#Fellowships.# +Guthrie £86 4 years Classical Literature +Hamilton £100 3 years Philosophy +Edmonstonne Aytoun £85 3 years English Literature +Falconer Memorial £123 2 years Science + +#Post-Graduate.# +Pitt Club Classical £76 4 years +Mackenzie Club Classical £118 4 years +Sir David Baxter £68 4 years + Mathematical +Sir David Baxter £68 4 years + Philosophical +John Edward Baxter £100 3 years Arts and Science +Drummond Mathematical £103 3 years +Bruce of Grangehill and £100 3 years Classical + Falklands +Bruce of Grangehill and £100 3 years Mental Philosophy + Falklands +Bruce of Grangehill and £100 3 years Mathematics + Falklands +Gray £97 2 years Arts or Science +Rhind £95 2 years Graduates and + undergraduates of not + more than 3 years + standing. Arts +Charles Maclaren £110 3 years Mathematics and Natural + Philosophy +Neil Arnott £40 1 year Experimental Physics +George Scott(Travelling) £40 1 year To enable graduates to + travel for purpose of + Research +Macpherson £85 1 year For study of Celtic +Kirk Patrick £64 1 year History +C.B. Black £74 2 years Greek. Open to graduates + and undergraduates +George Heriot's £100 1 year To graduates intending to + Travelling become teachers of Modern + Languages +Baxter Physical Science £80 2 years +Baxter Natural Science £80 2 years + +#Prizes.# +Ellis £30 Physiology +Lord Rector's £26.5s. Essay +Bruce of Grangehill and £20 Logic and Metaphysics + Falkland +Scott and Dunbar £15 Greek +Cousin £15 Essay +Blackie Celtic £60 + + +UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW. + + +QUEEN MARGARET COLLEGE. + +Duration of Arts Course: Pass, 3 years; Honours, 4 years. +Duration of Science Course, Pass and Honours: 3-4 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £10, 10s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £63 the course of 3 or 4 years. +Cost of Residence at Queen Margaret Hall (optional): From + 17s. to 25s. a week without lunch. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Barbour (Kilbarchan)(1) £25 3 years Arts. Candidates must not + be over 18 +John Clark(24) £30 4 years Arts +Crawford and Brown(1) £19, 13s. 4d 4 years Arts +Forfar(5) £58 4 years Arts +Forrester(1) £20 3 years Arts +Foundation(2) £20 4 years Arts +Gartmore(1) £22 3 years Arts +General Council(5) £20 2 or 3 years Arts +Glasgow City Education £25 4 or 2 years Arts +Endowments(10) £50 +George Grant(1) £40 3 or 4 years Arts +George Grant Junior(1) £40 4 years Arts +Hamilton Educational £20 3 years Arts. Competitors to + Trust(3) pupils from public or + State-aided schools in + burgh and parish of + Hamilton. +Hastie(1) £27 4 years +Highland Society, £20 3 years + Glasgow (12) +Hill(6) £20 3 years Arts. For pupils in School + Board district of Govan +James Laing(8) £25 4 years Arts. For candidates + educated at least 3 years + in schools in County of + Stirling +Lanfine(6) £27 2 years +Lorimer(4) £25 and £17 3 years Mathematics +Alexander Manderson(1) £15 3 years Arts. Natives of the Lower + Ward of Renfrewshire +Marshall Trust(20) £30 4 years Arts. Pupils from public + or State-aided schools in + Lanarkshire or + Stirlingshire +Sir Walter Scott £25 4 years +A. and B. Stewart(13) £20 3 years Arts +Stewart(3) £15 4 years Arts +King Williams(2) £15 3 years Arts +Ayrshire Society(4) £15 3 years Arts or Science. For + descendants of Society or + natives of Aryshire and + Glasgow +Denny(4) £30 4 years Arts or Science. Students + over 14 who have been 2 + years at Dumbarton Burgh + Academy +Dumfriesshire Society(2) £15 4 years Arts or Science +Hart(2) £30 5 years Arts or Science. + Preference to students + born in Ayrshire +Pratt(2) £20 4 years Arts or Science + +#Undergraduate.# +Will. Houldsworth £150 2 years Research in Science +Mackay Smith £48 2 years Natural Philosophy and + Chemistry +MacKinnin £60 1 year Science and Modern + Languages +Thomson Experimental £20 1 year Science + +#Post-Graduate.# +Breadalbane (2) £56 3 years Arts or Science +George A. Clark £170 4 years Arts or Science +John Clark £50 4 years Arts +Alexander Donaldson £44 2 years Chemistry +Robert Donaldson £66 2 years Science +Eglinton £65 2 years Arts +William Euing £80 5 years Arts +Luke £95 3 years Arts +Metcalfe £120 3 years Arts +Reid Stuart £60 3 years Arts +Walter Scott £80 2 years Arts +Mackinnon £60 1 year Geology, Natural History, + Modern Languages + Examination as for Final + Hons. Degree + +#Prizes# +Arnott £25 and £15 Examination +Cobden £20 Essay +Findlater £38 Examination +Gladstone Historical £25 Examination +Henderson £21 Essay +William Jack £35 Thesis for D.Sc. +Kelvin £35 Thesis for D.Sc. +Macfarlan and Cook £21 Examination +MacKenzie £25 Essay +Reid £25 Original Research +Watson £50 Examination + + +UNIVERSITY OF ST ANDREWS. + + +UNITED COLLEGES. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Arts: 4 years. +Duration of Pass and Honour Courses in Science: 4 to 5 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £10, 10S. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £15, 15s. per annum. +Cost of Residence in University Hall (optional): From £45 to + £75 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate.# +Foundation Bursaries(4) £20 4 years +Foundation Bursary(1) £50 4 years +Patrick Kidd £32 3 years +William Byers £39 3 or 4 years Preference given to + students of Mairs and + Strathmartine. Arts +Russell(6) £30 (5) } 3 years Arts and Science + £40 (1) } +Simson(6) £20 (5) } 3 years + £30 (1) } +_Valentine_ £25 3 years Restricted to women + residing in the County + of Fife, Ross or + Cromarty, or in village + of Findhorn, Morayhire +Fife, Clackmannan, and £5 3 or 4 years Restricted to students + Kinross Bursary coming from the above + counties +Wilkie £19 4 years +Henry £15 4 years +Madras £20 4 years +Fairweather £25 3 years Arts or Science. For + pupils from any school in + Dundee +Blyth(2) £20 3 years +George Scott £27 3 or 4 years Arts. Restricted to + applicants who are + natives of the Parishes + of Dull, Weem, Logierait + in Perthshire +Wood of Orkie £20 3 or 4 years Restricted to pupils who + have attended public or + state-aided schools in + the Parishes of Newburn, + Kilconquhar, Scoonie, + Largo, Kennoway, Elie, + Largoward +_Lumsden_ £35 1 to 3 years For women students + educated at St Leonard's + School, St Andrews +Ramsay £40 4 years +Baxter(2) £21 2 years For 2nd year students +Cheape(2) £23 3 years For 2nd year students +Thomas Thow £50 1 year Arts. For 2nd year + students natives of and + resident in Dundee or + the County of Forfar +Stephen Williamson £47 1 year For 4th year Honours + students +Smeaton £20 1 year For 4th year Honours + students + +#Post-Graduate.# + +Bruce and Falkland £50 2 years +Berry £80 1 year May be continued for 2nd + year. Arts or Science +Grants(6) £20 1 year For students entering on + Course of Training for + Secondary Teachers + +#Prizes.# +Miller(2) £30 Arts and Science +Arnott(2) £20 and £10 +Chancellor's £21 Essay + + +DUNDEE COLLEGE. + +Duration of Course in Arts: Pass, 3 years; Honours, 4 years. +Duration of Course in Science: Pass or Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £10, 10s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £21 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Mayfield Hostel (optional): £1 per week. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Armitstead £20-£15 1 year +David Myles -- -- +Entrance Scholarships(9) £15 1 year +Educational Endowment £25 3 years + +#Undergraduate.# +Bursaries(11) £15 to £20 1 year For second and third year +Bursaries(8) £15 to £20 1 year For fourth and subsequent + years +Bute Bursary Income of £1,000 + 3 years + +#Post-Graduate.# +William Strong(2 Income of £3,240 + or more) 1 year + +#Prizes.# +Gladstone Memorial £20 (in books) Essay + + + + +WALES + + +UNIVERSITY OF WALES + +Scholarships, etc., not connected exclusively with one College. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Undergraduate#. +Price Davies £30 2 years Tenable at Aberystwyth or + Scholarship(2) Bangor + +#Post-Graduate#. +University £125 2 years + Fellowships(3) +University £65 2 years Awarded on nomination by + Studentships(6) the Colleges +Eyton Williams £65 2 years + Studentships(6) +#Isaac Roberts# £150 1 year Open to graduates of any + #Scholarship# (renewable) University in the United + Kingdom. Science. Tenable + at Cardiff +1851 Science Scholarship £150 2 years Tenable at any approved + institution +Gilchrist Modern £80 1 year Open to graduates + Language Studentship intending to teach + Modern Languages. + Tenable abroad + + + +ABERYSTWYTH UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £12 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £16 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Alexandra Hall (optional): From £11,11s. + to £17, 17s. per annum. + + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate#. +David Davies £40 1 year Entrance + (renewable) +Open £40 1 year Entrance + (renewable) +Visitor's £15 1 year Entrance + (renewable) + +Commercial Travellers of £20 1 year Entrance + North Wales (renewable) + +Scholarship(1) £20 1 year Confined to students + (renewable) intending to proceed to + the Degree of B.Sc. in + Agriculture and Rural + Economy +Brereton £15 1 year Entrance + (renewable) +_Elizabeth Davies_ £20 1 year Entrance. + (renewable) Limited to women natives + of Cardiganshire or + Carmarthenshire +Cynddelw Welsh £20 1 year For students undertaking + Scholarship to pursue a course of + Welsh study +Humphreys Owen £20 1 year + (renewable) For natives of + Montgomeryshire + +#Post-Graduate.# +Keeling Resewell £40 1 year + Scholarship + +Thomas Davies £54 1 year For Research work in + Chemistry or Agriculture + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF NORTH WALES (BANGOR). + +Cost of Tuition in Arts or Science: £12 per annum. +Cost of Residence in University Hall (optional): £25 to £42 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate.# +Eyton Williams £40 3 years +Eyton Williams £30 3 years +Eyton Williams £20 3 years + Exhibition +Piercey £30 3 years Confined to candidates + from Flintshire or + Denbighshire +Richard Hughes £50 1 year +Isaac Roberts(2) £50 Not less + than 1 yr. + +#Post-Graduate.# +Osborne Morgan £40 Not more Open to past and present + than 3 years students + + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SOUTH WALES AND MONMOUTHSHIRE +(CARDIFF). + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £10 to £12 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £10 to £16 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Aberdare Hall (optional): £34 to £43, 10s. per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Under-graduate.# +Drapers' Company £35 1 year Science + (renewable) +Sir Alfred Thomas £20 3 years +_Caroline Williams_ £25 3 years +College £25 3 years +Craddock Wells(5) £20 and 1 year Open to candidates under + fees 19 years of age +Studentships Fees and Open only to natives of + maintenance Glamorgan and Monmouth, + grant 3 years the City of Cardiff and + the County Borough of + Newport + +#Post-Graduate.# +Catherine Buckton £40 1 year + + + + + +TABLE II. + +In addition to the University Post-Graduate Studentships mentioned +in the above table, the following Research Scholarships in Arts and +Science, not restricted to graduates of any one University, are open +to women:-- + +TABLE II. + +In addition to the University Post-Graduate Studentships mentioned +in the above table, the following Research Scholarships in Arts and +Science, not restricted to graduates of any one University, are open +to women:-- + +Subject. Title. By whom awarded. Restrictions (if any). Annual Value and + Duration + +Subject not fixed. A.K. Travelling A Board of Trustees who receive nominations British Subjects who are £600 and £60 for + Fellowship from Vice-Chancellors of Universities in the University graduates books; 2 awarded + United Kingdom, the President of the Royal annually for 1 year + Society, and the President of the British + Academy + +Physical Science McKinnon Research Royal Society -- £150 for 2 years + Fellowship + +Biological Science McKinnon Research Royal Society -- £150 for 2 years + Fellowship + +Bio-Chemistry -- Lister Institute of Preventive Medecine -- £150 for 1 year, renewable + for a 2nd year. + +Bacteriology -- Lister Institute of Preventive Medecine -- £150 for 1 year, renewable + for a 2nd year. + +Physiology George Henry Lewes Special Trustees; application to Professor Investigator must be in need £200 for 3 years (renewable) + Scholarship Langley, Cambridge of pecuniary help to prosecute + research + +Philosophy George Henry Lewes University of Toronto Graduates who have specialised £50 for 1 year + Scholarship in Philosophy + + +Subject not fixed. _Price Fellowship_ Federation of University Women Women graduates who have £120 for 1 year + already published the results + of independent research + +Natural Science Research Studentship Board of Agriculture and Fisheries Science graduates who are £150 for 3 years, part + prepared to research in of which must be spent + subjects under the purview abroad, and all 3 at + of the Board, and afterwards approved institutions + to adopt a career in + agricultural science + +Economics _Shaw Research_ London School of Economics -- £105 for 2 years + +Economics Hutchinson Research London School of Economics -- £105 for 1 year + +Natural Sciences _The Ellen Richards_ American Association for Advancement of Thesis 1,000 dollars + _Research Prize_ Research Work by Women. Hon. Sec., (£204, 10s.) + Mrs A.D. Mead, 283 Wayland Avenue, + Providence, R.I. + + + + + +SECTION II + +THE MEDICAL PROFESSION INCLUDING DENTISTRY + +I + +MEDICINE AND SURGERY + + +It may be safely claimed that, although there is still much to be +done, in medicine women have gained as good a position as in any other +branch of labour. + +One of the most important considerations in discussing any branch of +women's work is what sort of women are suited for it. The following +are the chief requisites for the medical profession:-- + +(1) The first and most important qualification is enthusiasm. It is +impossible to follow this profession with success, unless it is +work for which one has not only aptitude but also natural taste. It +necessitates a very strenuous life, and many unpleasant details of +work, which are unimportant to a person to whom the occupation +is acceptable as a whole, but which would be quite insuperably +disagreeable to any one to whom the total idea of life embodied in it +was unattractive. + +(2) Another very important qualification is a knowledge of men and +things. A doctor must never forget that she is dealing primarily with +human nature; certainly human nature which may be for a time +unhinged, or the mechanism of which may not be working smoothly, but +nevertheless with the human individual as a whole. + +The so-called "bedside" manner which is the butt for so much ridicule +is not so purely ridiculous as one might be tempted to think. Its +basis is to be found in this very knowledge of human nature which is +so essential, although the superstructure is often nothing more than +vapid futility. In addition to this the ideal doctor should possess a +trained scientific mind, and, of the two, the former is infinitely +the more important, although the latter is very valuable, not only for +itself, but for the training which it gives in "tidy" thinking. + +(3) Good health. A sick doctor is an anomaly and many people prefer +to be indifferently treated by some one who is cheerful and healthy, +rather than have the most expert advice from a woeful person. + +(4) A good general education is essential. This should include a +certain amount of Latin, which is needed throughout medical work. +The student must also possess the necessary capacity for acquiring +knowledge. It is very usual to find among the general public--women in +particular--an idea that a tremendous amount of a vague quality which +they describe as "cleverness" is necessary in order to follow one of +the learned professions. Certainly this is not so in medicine. It is, +however, necessary to be possessed of average intelligence and a +good memory, and it is difficult for people to pass the qualifying +examinations if they have for many years given up "school +work"--_i.e._, the habit of learning large numbers of new facts. + +(5) Money. For three reasons: (i.) The training is expensive, (ii.) +It is also strenuous, making a certain amount of margin for suitable +recreation very desirable, (iii.) Earning capacity, although +ultimately high, so far as women are concerned, is much delayed, and +the work itself is one of considerable nerve-strain. It is, therefore, +very important that economic worry should, if possible, be avoided. + +Medicine is one of the few professions in which women receive as high +remuneration as men. A very strenuous battle was fought between the +public authorities and medical women on the subject of equal pay for +equal work. All sorts of dodges have been used to get cheap woman +labour, but, so far, the victory has been almost completely on the +side of medical women. By the word "almost" is meant the fact, that +if two or three posts of varying grades and remunerations are created +under a health authority the woman nearly always gets the lowest, +whatever her qualifications and experience. With this exception the +victory has been complete, and this has been entirely due to two +things:-- + +(1) The very able support given by the British Medical Association, +which practically served as a Trade Union for doctors, stated the +lowest rate of remuneration to be accepted, and kept a black list +of posts which were advertised at salaries below this rate. The +Association has throughout supported with absolute consistency, the +principle of equal pay for equal work for the two sexes, and has +helped us as medical women to fight many battles. + +(2) The other factor has been the public spirit of the medical women +concerned, without which nothing could have been done. One of the +forms of public service most essential at the present day and for +which the individual gets neither honour nor even thanks, is that of +refusing "black leg" labour. It is generally admitted by those who +have to deal with the question of salaries and conditions of work +under public authorities, that medical women, as a whole, have shown +at least as great public spirit as men in refusing unsatisfactory +terms. To lose a post which would give one enough for one's own +needs and which would mean so much more in the way of experience and +adequate scope for one's energies, and to refuse it simply because +it would lower the market rate of pay, is a very fine thing to do. +Unless, however, this high tone is maintained the position of medical +women will become as bad as that of some other working women. If, on +the other hand, it can be maintained, the position already gained may +be used as a very powerful lever in raising the rate of pay in other +departments of women's work. There is sufficient support for +us amongst medical men. Everything, therefore, depends upon the +_personnel_ of the women doctors, and, as things become easier for +the students, it becomes more and more difficult to convince the new +recruits of the strenuousness of the fight in earlier years and of the +need for constant vigilance and self-sacrifice at the present time. + +Those who fought so nobly in the past have earned the lasting respect +and gratitude of those who come after them. An account of their +labours has been written by Mrs Isabel Thorne, and is called a "Sketch +of the Foundation and Development of the London School of Medicine +for Women."[1] It reads like a romance and shows the absolute +determination and pluck which were needed by the women in order to +gain their point. As one learns of the rebuffs and indignities which +they endured, it reminds one of the struggle which is at the present +time going on for the parliamentary vote. There is one thing which +makes one inclined to "back the women every time," and that is their +stupendous patience. A very short _résumé_ of the facts may not be out +of place here. Miss Elizabeth Blackwell, English by birth but resident +in America, succeeded in 1858 after much difficulty in obtaining the +degree of M.D. of the University of Geneva, United States of America. +She then applied to have her name placed upon the register of duly +qualified medical practitioners of the General Medical Council of +Great Britain and Ireland, and it was discovered to the dismay of the +authorities that she could not be refused. The next step was taken by +Miss Garrett, now Dr Garrett Anderson. She decided to qualify herself +for the medical examinations of the Society of Apothecaries, London, +who also, owing to the wording of their charter, were unable to refuse +her, and in 1865 she successfully passed the required tests. In order, +however, to prevent a recurrence of such "regrettable incidents," the +society made a rule that in future no candidates should be admitted to +their examinations unless they came from a recognised medical school, +and, as no such school would admit women, this closed their doors. + +In the meantime Miss Jex-Blake had applied to Edinburgh University +for medical education, but had been refused on the score that it was +impossible to make such alterations "in the interests of one lady." +Mrs Thorne, Miss Chaplin, Miss Pechey, and Mrs de Lacy Evans then +decided to join Miss Jex-Blake, thus making five instead of one. They +were allowed to matriculate, but forced to form separate classes +and to guarantee 100 guineas for each class. They were not, however, +allowed to receive scholarships, to which their work would have +entitled them, on the score that they were women. Mrs Thorne states +that their "success in the examination lists was their undoing," as, +owing to this, and to the fact that they were unjustly debarred from +receiving the distinctions that they had gained, a great deal of bad +feeling was aroused. + +As the agitation increased, the efforts of these pioneers to obtain +a qualifying course for women in Edinburgh, were supported by a +committee of sympathisers, which speedily rose to five hundred +members, and, after a severe struggle, the question of clinical +teaching in the Infirmary was settled partially in the women's +favour in 1872. Later, the question of the validity of the original +resolutions admitting women to the University was raised and decided +against them. They had, therefore, been four years at the University +and were finally excluded. This, however, proved to be only temporary +as, in later years, the University reopened its medical degrees to +women; but not in time to allow of the return of these courageous +pioneers. + +In the meantime Dr Garrett Anderson, having taken her degree in +Paris, had been steadily working in London, forming the nucleus of the +present New Hospital for Women, and the pioneers from Edinburgh came +to London and helped her to start a school of medicine for women. + +This was successfully accomplished owing to the kind help of many +people, both within and without the profession, but no clinical +teaching could be obtained, as all the big London hospitals were +closed to women students. Finally, however, arrangements were made +with the Royal Free Hospital in Gray's Inn Road. It had no men's +medical school attached to it, and the admission of women to +the hospital was due to the kind intervention of the Rt. Hon. J. +Stansfeld, M.P., who met the Chairman of the hospital, Mr James +Hopgood, while away on a holiday, and induced him to persuade the +hospital authorities to give the dangerous experiment a trial. So +seriously was it regarded, that the women students had to guarantee an +indemnity to the hospital of 300 guineas annually in addition to their +fees, as it was felt that the general support might decrease by, +at least, this amount when the public became aware that there were +medical women studying at the hospital! This was soon found not to +be the case, and the yearly indemnity was generously remitted by the +hospital authorities, the students simply paying the usual fees for +instruction. In connection with this subject, it may be of interest +to note that to-day the presence of medical women at the hospital is +evidently found by the authorities to be an important means of +gaining the sympathy of the general public, for appeals for funds may +frequently be seen in London omnibuses stating, as the ground for +an appeal, the fact that this is the only general hospital in London +where women medical students are trained. + +The medical school which began in a small Georgian house has now a +fine block of buildings with all modern appliances, and the hospital +is, at the time that this book goes to press, undergoing extensive +alterations and additions, including enlargement of the students' +quarters. + +The success of this pioneer work has been sufficiently amazing, but +it is most important that every one should realise that the fight is +still going on. Not a day passes but somebody tries to get medical +women to work either for less pay or under less honourable conditions +than those required by their medical brethren, and one of the most +trying parts of work in this profession at the present time is the +constant alertness required both for detecting and defeating these +attempts. That they should be made is not surprising, when we remember +the lower market value attached to women's work in almost every other +occupation. Practical examples of the sort of attempts made, may be of +service. + +_Example 1._--A medical woman went as _locum tenens_ for a +practitioner in a country town during the South African War. The +practitioner himself was at the time absolutely incapacitated by a +severe form of influenza, complicated by ocular neuralgia which made +work absolutely impossible. Owing to the War, he was quite unable to +get a man to act as _locum tenens_. A woman consented to help him in +his extremity, at considerable inconvenience both to herself and to +the people with whom she was working at the time. She carried on the +practice during the depth of the winter, having on some occasions to +go out in the snow-sleigh and frequently to drive in an open trap +at night in the deadly cold. She carried on the work with such +conspicuous success that her "chief" asked her to stay on as his +assistant when he was convalescent. For this he offered her £85 a +year, living in, saying, without any shame, that he knew that this was +not the price that any man would command, but that it was plenty for a +woman. He was bound to admit that he had lost no patient through her, +that he charged no lower fees when she went to a case than when he +did, that she did half the work while acting as his assistant, and +that she had kept his practice together for him while he was ill. +Fortunately, owing to the fact that she had behind her means +of subsistence without her salary, she was able to refuse his +unsatisfactory offer, although at considerable violence to her +feelings, for she had made many friends in the neighbourhood. + +_Example 2_.--A husband and wife, both medical, went to settle in a +town in the north of England. They both practised, the qualifications +of both were excellent, but the woman was the more brilliant of the +two, having better degrees and more distinctions. Both applied to +be admitted to the local medical society. The man was, of course, +accepted, the woman refused on the score of her sex, this meaning that +she would be cut off from all opportunity of hearing medical papers +and discussing medical subjects with her colleagues. During the next +few months a local friendly society was anxious to obtain a medical +officer and was offering terms regarded as insufficient by the local +doctors. Among others approached by this society was the medical woman +in question. Directly the officials of the medical society, which had +banned her when her own benefit was concerned, heard that she had been +approached by the friendly society, they elected her without asking +her consent to the very society from which they had previously +excluded her, in order that she might be unable to take the post in +question, whereby they might have financially suffered. + +_Example 3_.--The exclusion from medical societies referred to under +Example 2, like many similar actions in life, tends to recoil on its +instigators. For instance, a medical woman in another northern town +applied for and accepted a post which the local men had decided was +unsatisfactory in some particulars, and for which therefore none of +them had applied. They were loud in their denunciations of the woman +in question, but owing to the fact that her men colleagues had not +recognised her professionally in other ways, she was quite unaware of +her offence for several months after undertaking her new duties. + +_Example 4_.--Men and women are sometimes appointed on apparently +equal terms and conditions to posts which are not, however, really +equal, in that there is a chance of promotion for the men but none for +the women. + +_Example 5_.--In another town in the north of England men and women +appointed to do the work of school medical inspection on equal terms +recently considered that they were not sufficiently remunerated. They +met and decided that they would together apply for better terms. A +rumour was then set abroad that the authority under whom they worked +would certainly not consider such an increase in expenditure. In this +crisis the men on the staff, although they had so far joined with +their women colleagues in sending up their petition, sent up another +of their own, without informing or consulting the women at all, in +which they said that they considered it was time that this equality of +remuneration for both sexes should cease. They begged the authority +to neglect their public appeal, but to grant instead increased +remuneration to the men, and the men only. One of the reasons given +for this suggestion on the part of the men was that their liabilities +were greater. The result of enquiry, however, proved that of the three +men, one only was engaged to be married, the other two had no one +dependent upon them; whereas of the three women, two were supporting +other people--one being a married woman separated from her husband and +with two children to support and educate. + +_Example 6_.--The following is an instance of the way in which the +Government is sometimes responsible for encouraging women's "black +leg" labour. Dr Leslie Mackenzie in his evidence given recently before +the Civil Service Commission said that the Treasury refused to allow +the Scottish Local Government Board to have a woman medical inspector +at a medical inspector's salary, but permitted them to engage a woman +with medical qualifications at a woman inspector's salary, which was, +of course, much less. Sad to relate a woman was found to accept this +post. + +These examples have been given because it is necessary that a woman +intending to adopt the profession of medicine should know the sort +of work, quite apart from the treatment of her cases, which a medical +woman, worth her salt, has to do. It may be asked how it is, if these +difficulties are still constantly arising, that our pioneers were so +successful? For several reasons: first, because they were in the best +sense women of the world: they understood when to be firm and when +to give way. They understood mankind. Secondly, they had an assured +position. This is probably the most essential condition of all for +success. Before decent terms and conditions of work can be demanded, +the worker must be in such a position financially that she can, if +necessary, refuse the work in question, and if possible the employer +must be aware of this fact. So often women enter the labour market +only when driven by stark necessity, that it is unfortunately the +easiest thing in the world to exploit them. People of either sex faced +by starvation for themselves or those dependent on them must take the +first thing that offers if the conditions be in any way bearable. In +my opinion, next to the parliamentary vote, the most powerful lever +in raising the condition of women will be the entrance into the labour +market of a considerable number of women so trained in Economics that +they will always "play the game," and at the same time sufficiently +remote from want to be able to resist the sweating employer. + +Some people discourage women of independent means from entering the +labour market through the mistaken idea that if such women work they +are taking away the chance of some other women who are in need. In +case any reader may be in doubt on this question, I should like +to point out that it is the groups of workers among whom no such +economically independent individuals are to be found, that are always +exploited by the unscrupulous employer; they are such easy prey. + +What really makes women workers afraid of their independent sisters is +that extremely pernicious system of payment euphemistically known as +"pocket-money." This should be swept off the face of the earth. Even +the richer woman has some rights, notably the right to work, and +I would suggest that she has this particular, and certainly not +unimportant function of raising the rate of remuneration. From my +knowledge of her, I consider that she is most anxious to do nothing +but good to her fellows. The only thing she needs in order to become +a help instead of a menace to her poorer sisters is knowledge of the +rules that govern the economic labour market. + +Owing to the necessary expense and prolonged training for the medical +profession it has probably attracted a larger proportion of working +women who were not subject to immediate economic stress than most +other branches of work, and it is, in my opinion, due to the +presence of such women, that the conditions in it as a whole are so +satisfactory. + +Having discussed the sort of woman suitable for the medical +profession, I now pass on to a consideration of the course of training +which must be taken in order to fit her for the work. + +Before beginning her training, the student has to decide what medical +qualification she will take. Her choice lies between + + (1) A degree of one of the universities, and + (2) A diploma. + +It is essential to go to some University or Examining Board which +admits women and not to one, such as Oxford or Cambridge, where women +are denied the degree to which their work entitles them. As a matter +of fact, women medical students are not accepted at Oxford and +Cambridge. It is not possible to practise medicine, in a satisfactory +way unless one is actually in possession of the qualification. Any +one who does so, however well trained, ranks as a quack, and is not +legally entitled to sign death certificates nor to recover fees. + +The degrees open to women in medicine, as in other branches of +learning, are those of London, Glasgow, Trinity College, Dublin, and, +in fact, of all the Universities of the United Kingdom except the two +just mentioned. + +Qualifying diplomas other than degrees are those granted by:-- + + (1) The Conjoint Examining Board of the + Royal Colleges of Physicians and + Surgeons of England. + (2) The Royal Colleges of Scotland. + (3) The Royal Colleges of Ireland. + (4) The Society of Apothecaries of London. + +The authorities at the Women's Medical School strongly advise students +to take a degree, and that the best open to them, namely, in Great +Britain, that of London for the south, or one of the good Scottish +Universities for the north. Their reason for this advice is that they +feel that it is extremely important that medical women should rank as +high as possible in their profession. + +At London University there are no sex restrictions. A woman is +eligible not only to take the examinations on equal terms with a man, +but all the rights and honours (except, of course, the Parliamentary +vote) are also open to her. Women may vote for and sit upon the +Senate, become members of Convocation and take any of the exhibitions, +medals, or scholarships which are offered to candidates at +examinations. For this reason women feel attached and like to belong +to the London University, and to do it honour. + +Having decided which qualification she wishes to take, the candidate +applies to be entered as a medical student at a definite school. If +she elects to work in _London_ she must follow the course of study +at the Royal Free Hospital School of Medicine for Women at 8 Hunter +Street, Brunswick Square. + +At _Glasgow_ the students are all entered at the Women's College +(Queen Margaret's). The medical course is taken in conjunction with +men students. At the Royal Infirmary some wards are open to women for +clinical instruction. + +At _Dublin_ the students are admitted to the degrees and diplomas +in medicine, surgery, and midwifery on the same conditions as men. +A special anatomical department with dissecting room, etc., has been +erected by the Board of Trinity College for them. + +At _Edinburgh_ the arrangements for women students are largely +separate from those for the men. The degrees are open to them. + +At _Durham_ the degrees are open to women, and most of their work is +done with the men. + +The same applies to _Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham,_ and +_Sheffield_. + +The course takes from five to six years, but it is wise to allow the +longer time. The preliminary examination in general subjects is taken +before admission to the medical school. After this, the first year +at the medical school is spent in scientific study, such as Biology, +Inorganic Chemistry, etc. Having passed her first scientific +examination, the student proceeds to the study of the human +individual, and deals for the next two years with Anatomy, which +includes dissection, Physiology, the study of drugs in Materia Medica +and Pharmacology, and Organic Chemistry. When the examination in these +subjects has been satisfactorily negotiated, she passes on to medical +work proper, the study of disease and the result of accident in the +living person--in other words, she walks the wards of the hospital and +undertakes duties as clerk to physicians and dresser to surgeons, from +whom she receives instruction in medicine, surgery, and pathology. +Special branches are also studied, such as midwifery, women's +diseases, and affections of the throat, ear, eye, and skin. The +treatment of minor accidents also receives special attention. During +the whole of this time the student also attends regular courses of +lectures on these subjects, and she then takes her final examination. +If this be a degree examination, she becomes, on passing it, Bachelor +of Medicine, or M.B., and Bachelor of Surgery, Ch.B. or B.S. Having +obtained a diploma, she is generally entitled to style herself a +Member or Licentiate of the college of which she has passed the +qualifying examination, for example, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. or L.S.A. +On application, she is then placed upon the Medical Register, and is +known as a registered medical practitioner. + +The cost of the training is approximately as follows :-- + +_For a London Degree._ + +Fee at the Medical School for Women, if paid as a composition fee in +five yearly instalments of £28, £51, £45, £40, and £15; Total:--£179, +or, if the whole sum is paid on entrance to the school, £160. In +addition there is a fee of three guineas for the special study of +fevers. These fees include everything in the way of material, except +books and instruments for which it is wise to allow another £30. The +examination fees of the university are £25. These amounts make no +allowance for any failures, and consequent revision of work, and +re-entry for examination. In reckoning the expense, the necessary cost +of living for the six years must also be included. For those students +whose homes are not in London there are flats and boarding-houses +where it is possible to live very reasonably. Suitable board and +residence can be obtained from about 25s. a week. + +_For the Diploma of the Conjoint Board._ + +The school fees are the same; the examination fees are, however, +higher, namely £42. + +For other qualifications, the school fees are £20 less for the course. + +Certain scholarships are available for students, of which all +particulars can be obtained from the secretary of each school. + +When a woman becomes a registered medical practitioner, she is for +the first time legally entitled to treat patients herself, and is +entrusted with responsibility. As in most other branches of knowledge +in the world, while she has simply been learning and carrying out her +duties under authority, she has had no opportunity of really testing +her own knowledge. It is, therefore, very generally felt amongst newly +qualified medical practitioners that they need more experience before +undertaking quite independent medical work. This experience is +best gained by taking hospital posts. By this is meant positions of +moderate responsibility, such as that of resident house physician or +resident house surgeon in a hospital, where the newly qualified doctor +is under the authority of an experienced visiting "chief," but is +expected to deal with ordinary incidents as they may arise, to realise +the relative importance of different symptoms, and report those that +matter to the visiting physician or surgeon. + +It is at this stage that the doctor must decide whether she wishes to +become + + (a) a "specialist" in some particular branch + of medicine or surgery, + (b) a general practitioner, or + (c) whether she wishes to work in the public + service. + +(a) If she wishes to be a specialist she must so arrange her future +work as to gain experience in the branch which she selects. For +this purpose it is necessary to take posts at special hospitals, and +ultimately to become a member of the staff of some hospital in the +department chosen. Here women find that they are heavily handicapped. +The only hospital of any size in London of which the members of staff +are all women is the New Hospital, Euston Road, and this admits only +of a small staff, giving opportunities to comparatively few women for +special experience. + +The Royal Free Hospital, where women take their training as students, +has now two women on its staff in the department for gynaecology. It +has also a woman anaesthetist, and some of the minor posts, such as +clinical assistant to the outpatients, pathologist, etc., are open to +them. All the physicians, the surgeons, and the assistant physicians +and surgeons are, however, men. + +Of the hospitals for special ailments in London, none so far admits +women to the staff, and it has only recently become possible for +them even to form part of the medical audience at the outpatients' +department at some of these special hospitals. + + No London Hospital for Diseases of Women + and Midwifery (except that of Dr M'Call), + or for Diseases of Children (except one recently + started by women), + or for Diseases of the Eye, + or for Diseases of the Ear, Nose and Throat, + or for Diseases of the Nervous System, +admits women to its staff, although several of them allow women to +take appointments as clinical assistants, pathologists, anaesthetists, +and other minor posts. Their admission to the full staff is, perhaps, +merely a question of time, and of the naturally slow movement of the +British mind towards admitting women to positions of responsibility. + +There has, however, been of late years a tendency on the part of +medical women themselves to take this matter into their own hands, and +new women's hospitals are being started about London where the staff +is exclusively composed of women. + +(b) If, on the other hand, the newly qualified doctor decides to +become a general practitioner, her course is much simpler. She takes +such posts as are available, which she thinks will aid her general +knowledge of medicine. Then she selects a neighbourhood, puts up a +plate, and waits. + +This course also involves delayed earning capacity, as she must be +prepared to face outlay for several years without much return. During +this time she generally augments the income which she gets from her +private practice by other part-time paid work, notably by giving +lectures in first aid, etc., by school inspection, where part-time +officers are appointed, and other such work. She also generally does +a certain amount of voluntary work on that most pernicious system +of giving her services in order to get known. It is in this way that +doctors are everywhere so terribly exploited. When they are _all_ so +busy doing work which they think will bring them into the public view, +this becomes of no particular use to any of them, and the only people +who benefit, and at the same time scoff, are the members of the +general public, who become so used to getting the doctor to work for +nothing or next to nothing, that it comes as a shock when they have +to pay. It is a healthy sign that the long-suffering doctor is at last +beginning to show symptoms of fight, and in the future it may be +hoped that doctors, like lawyers, will not be required to give their +services free to the community. It may be true that if a man will not +work neither shall he eat, but the converse should also be true, that +if a man works he should eat, and at present it is not by any means +always true of the doctor. + +(c) Should she decide to enter the public service, she will still +require to take a certain number of posts, especially those dealing +with eyes, ears, and skin, and must also obtain the Diploma of Public +Health. To gain this diploma she will need to devote several months +to post-graduate study in that subject before taking the necessary +examination. + +The chief posts at present open in the public service to a woman +are:-- + + (1) School medical officer, or assistant medical + officer of health. + (2) Assistant medical officer in some asylums + and poor law infirmaries. + +There is one woman inspector of prisons who is a medical woman, but +she is not a medical inspector and was not appointed in that capacity. +It is much to be hoped that women prison medical officers will +speedily be appointed on equal terms with their medical colleagues. +The conditions for women prisoners from the standpoint of health are, +at the present time, extremely unsatisfactory. + +The tendency is to employ more and more women in the public service, +and therefore the opportunities are likely rapidly to become more +numerous. + +The Act, under which medical school inspection was made obligatory, +particularly mentioned the suitability of women for much of this work. +It is therefore becoming usual all over the country to have at least +one woman school doctor, and in some districts there are several on +the staff. This work is not extremely arduous, is free from the heavy +strain of private practice, and, if the school medical officer is +allowed reasonable freedom in her work, may be made of much interest. +It is, however, somewhat monotonous, and has the great disadvantage +that at present the stimulus of promotion is largely absent, as the +higher administrative posts are almost universally in the hands of +men. This is a disadvantage which will also be gradually, perhaps +rapidly removed as the prejudice against women in authority dies down. + +After having practised medicine for some years, further degrees +indicating experience are open to the medical practitioner; thus, if +she has taken the Bachelorship of Medicine she may, after the lapse of +three or four years, enter for her Doctorate. This is gained either +by a further examination or by writing a thesis on some subject of +original research. If she has taken the Diploma of the Royal Colleges, +it is open to her to sit for the Fellowship in Surgery or Membership +in Medicine. She is also open to election to the Fellowship in +Medicine. + +It is extremely difficult to give anything like an adequate idea +of the remuneration to be obtained in medicine, as it varies +tremendously. + +The first posts, which are taken soon after qualification, if really +first-rate in the experience which they give, seldom include any +salary at all, though board and lodging are provided. Posts which rank +as slightly inferior to these, but still give a considerable amount of +experience, are often associated with honoraria varying from about £50 +to £150 a year, including board and lodging. + +(a) If we turn again to our three sub-divisions we find that a +specialist or consultant cannot expect to earn her working expenses +for a good many years. She must have one room at least in a certain +specialist quarter of the town, known as the consultants' area, and +there the rents are usually high, in London about £150 a year, in the +provinces slightly less. + +We have already stated that she requires some hospital post; for this +she will receive no remuneration, but if the hospital where she works +has a medical school attached to it, she may expect to get a certain +number of patients through the recommendation of students whom she +teaches at the hospital. There is generally also some teaching at +the hospitals, for which the students pay definite fees. She may also +augment her income by lectures and work of that description. She will +probably find it necessary to write papers on her special branch of +work and on the cases which come under her observation, but for this +she will very seldom be paid. It is, therefore only possible for a +girl with some monetary resources independent of her work, to take up +successfully a special branch of medicine. + +If she elect to become a surgeon, a hospital post is an absolute +necessity, and her income will, as in the case of the medical +specialist, be delayed. Eventually, however, if she is successful, it +is greater than that to be obtained on the medical side. The fees are +high, and therefore money can be made more speedily in this branch of +the work. People, however, hesitate as a rule to trust a very young +surgeon, so she will at first get her work chiefly as assistant to +her seniors and must be content to wait some years for the much bigger +fees which she will get as principal. Ultimately she should make +£1,000 to £2,000 a year. + +(b) If she elect to become a general practitioner, her outlay at first +is probably as great as that of the specialist, if not greater, but +the return is quicker, and a great deal depends upon the choice of a +neighbourhood. If she chooses an upper middle class district she +also, like the specialist, must be content to wait, and in fact she is +ill-advised to choose such a neighbourhood unless she can rely on some +good social introductions. + +If she choose a district partly middle and partly lower middle class +her return will be infinitely quicker. She may expect to cover her +expenses in the course of two or three years. The work is, however, +incessant and rather harassing. If she select a working-class +neighbourhood and have a dispensary, her return will be still quicker, +such places frequently paying their expenses in the first or second +year. The people are nice to deal with, and the work is interesting, +but it is apt to be very distressing for two reasons--(1) that owing +to the poverty of the patients they can so seldom be attended under +conditions in which they have a fair chance of recovery, and (2) there +is apt to be an appreciable amount of dirt. + +The most varying reports are given as to the incomes to be made in +private practice and it is almost impossible to get at the truth, +because it is obviously to everybody's interest to make them appear +as high as possible. A woman's practice also is admittedly rather a +specialist one. She does not get the general local practice of the +ordinary practitioner, but instead certain selected women who want to +consult a member of their own sex. These often live at considerable +distances, thus making the work more difficult to arrange and the +travelling more expensive than in the case of the ordinary medical +man. It is rare for a woman to be able to buy a practice. She must +generally build it up for herself, as it is of little or no use for +her to buy a man's practice, and there are only very few women's +available. + +Generally, it may be stated that a woman covers her expenses by about +the third or fourth year after starting, and she may ultimately make, +according to the district and her success, anything between £400 and +£1,500 a year. Frequently two medical women settle together, which +seems to be a very good arrangement. + +(c) If she elect to enter the public service her outlay is very small. +Beyond equipping herself for this work in certain special branches +already described, all that is necessary is that she should be able to +keep herself until she obtains a suitable post. The salary given for +whole time work in the public service should not be less than £250 a +year rising to £400 or £500 a year. In most cases the school doctor +gets the school holidays, including the whole of every Saturday. + +English women who go to India, do so generally in connection with +either + + (1) a missionary society, or + (2) a hospital under the Dufferin Fund. + +(1) Many missionary societies engage medical women to treat the native +women. Salaries, of course, differ, but are, on the whole, low, as the +aim of a missionary is not supposed, primarily, to be financial gain. +Generally somewhere about £110 in English money is given, with +an allowance for carriage and house including the chief items of +furniture. Leave is also granted with second class return fare every +five years--in some missions every three years. The medical experience +is excellent, the opportunities of doing good professional work are +practically unlimited, and the professional position of the doctor +quite untrammelled. She is assisted, usually, by good nurses, under a +proper scheme, these being Indian girls superintended by fully trained +English sisters. + +(2) Under the Dufferin Fund[2] things are very different. It is +somewhat difficult to speak of this branch of the work, as it is, at +the present time, the subject of enquiry, and it may be legitimately +expected that it will, before long, be put on a more satisfactory +basis. The fund was originally started by Lady Dufferin as the direct +result of a command by the late Queen Victoria, and it was intended +to provide the services of medical women for the Purdah women of India +who, owing to the strictness of their rules, were not infrequently +debarred from the full benefit of medical treatment by men. +Unfortunately, however, the doctor in charge of most of the Dufferin +Hospitals is under the local senior civil surgeon, who is a man. As +he has the right, if he wishes to exercise it, of seeing any of +the patients, and doing any of the operations or other treatment +necessary, it is obvious that the hospitals are of little or no use to +Purdah women, as they have no guarantee against treatment by a man. + +There is also no security of tenure for the doctor who is not allowed +to be present at the meetings of the governing body, and may find +herself dismissed or transferred from a good post to a bad one at +short notice. + +The remuneration varies roughly between £250 and £500 a year, with +house but no carriage allowance. The doctor is entitled to add to her +salary by private practice. In some towns this is a considerable +item, whereas in others it is quite negligible. There is no definite +furlough allowance, and the doctor may be removed from her post and +required to keep herself on very little for a considerable period of +time before being appointed to another hospital. All this causes a +severe drain on the resources of doctors without private means. The +staff is also frequently inefficient, and the nursing is sometimes +very indifferent, being undertaken by Eurasian girls under partly +trained women who have never been "home." + + +In the practice of medicine as in all other branches of women's +labour, the question of the effect of marriage upon work is a very +important and difficult one. In its general aspect it lies at the very +heart of the whole question of the working woman. Its effect on the +medical woman varies according to the branch of her profession which +she selects. If she wishes to become _(a)_ a specialist or _(b)_ a +general practitioner, she has perfect freedom of choice as to what she +will do in the event of marriage; and some women retire while others +continue their work. The latter is a much more desirable course from +the point of view of medical women as a whole. The medical woman who +is married can, better than any one else, render to society certain +services in her profession, and it is desirable that these should not +be lost. In any event no woman need retire from her work on marriage, +though it is, of course, most important that the married medical woman +should not deny to herself and to her husband the normal healthy joy +of having children. To continue in practice, however, while bearing a +child requires a certain amount of expenditure, as such a doctor +will need to retire from practice for at least two or three months, +probably longer, and is therefore put to the expense of engaging a +_locum tenens._ This ought, however, to be possible when both husband +and wife are earning incomes. + +From the point of view of society as a whole, it is waste that any one +who has had such a long and arduous training as that required for +the medical profession should not use it in service to the community. +There is a form of selfishness not sufficiently recognised, which +consists not in acquiring goods but in acquiring knowledge without +rendering it again in service to one's fellow men and women. + +Should the doctor decide _(c)_ to enter the public service, the +question will probably not be in her own control as there is an +ever-increasing tendency on the part of public authorities to insist +on single women or widows only among the medical women whom they +employ. There is a big fight to be waged here--one of the many that +our pioneers have left for us and our successors. The lack of social +instinct which lies behind this edict is amazing. What can be more +anti-social than that a young, healthy, and highly-trained woman +should have to decide between marriage and executing that public work +for which she has with great labour fitted herself? In at least some +cases of which the writer is aware, the demand that a doctor shall +retire on marriage, has led to a decision against matrimony, and this +is not surprising, although very serious as a general problem. The +great need of society at the present day is that the most healthy and +well-trained young men and women should be induced to found families, +and public authorities by this bar put on the trained woman, are doing +their best to hinder marriage. + +Medical women have, for their protection, societies of registered +medical women in London and in the north of England and also in +Scotland, these working more or less in touch with one another. In +common with other medical societies they have meetings at which the +advances in medical science are discussed, and they also act in a +modified way as Trade Unions, Members of these societies can always +gain information from them as to the recognised rate of pay in any +particular branch of the work which they may wish to undertake. + +Reference has already been made to the excellent work which has been +done by the British Medical Association in uniting the men and women +of the profession and helping both to keep up the salary rate. Without +this aid the women's associations would have been comparatively +helpless, as they would have erred in ignorance, though certainly +not by intention. The gratitude of medical women to this association +cannot therefore be overstated, and I think I am justified in saying +that the same is true with regard to medical men. If their chief +"Union" had not admitted women we might unwittingly have become a +danger to our medical colleagues as black-leg labour. This has been +almost universally the case in other work which women have taken up, +and one cannot help wishing that men in other branches of labour might +speedily realise the fact that women cannot be stopped from working, +and that the only wise thing, from the men's point of view as well as +from the women's, is to admit all to their unions that they may fight +shoulder to shoulder for better labour conditions, and not against +each other. An example of a case where this was realised has already +been quoted under Example 2, page 144. + +With regard to the opportunities for post-graduate study:--At first +all the men's medical societies were closed to women, the provincial +societies being among the first to recognise their women medical +colleagues. London, being in this as in all things conservative, took +many years to move, and did so very grudgingly; but now nearly all +the important medical societies admit women, in this falling into line +with the learned professions generally. The Royal Medical Society, +London, at first admitted women to its separate sections only, +while denying them the Fellowship, with which would have gone that +mysterious power which men so deeply resent our possessing--the power +to vote on matters of its internal economy. The authorities of this +society have, however, recently admitted medical women on perfectly +equal terms with men to their Fellowship--a privilege for which we are +deeply grateful, as post-graduate knowledge of recent investigations +is absolutely essential to good work. + +In conclusion, the general position of medical women at present may be +shortly summarised as follows:-- + +Their legal status is _absolutely identical_ with that of men in +every respect, by which is meant that by being placed upon the Medical +Register they have every privilege, duty, and responsibility which +they would have if they were men. In obtaining this and allowing many +other things to be settled by their successors our pioneers showed +their tremendous wisdom. + +We have in the medical profession, what women are now claiming in the +State, the abolition of legal sex disqualification. With this firm +platform upon which to stand, it entirely depends upon medical women +themselves what position they will gain in their profession. All other +disabilities and disqualifications are minor and remediable. + +This absolute equality of medical men and women before the law +includes the rights to + + (1) Practise in any department of medicine in + which their services may be demanded. + + (2) Recover fees if necessary. + + (3) Sign death certificates. + + (4) Sign any certificates for which a medical + signature is essential. + +Under this latter heading a curious anomaly arises. If a man is signed +up as a lunatic, he is, for so long as he remains a lunatic, debarred +from using his Parliamentary vote, and, as may be seen from the above, +a medical woman's signature is as valid as that of a man for this +disfranchising certificate of lunacy. The State, therefore, at the +present time allows that a medical woman may be sufficiently learned +and reliable to disfranchise a man, though she be not sufficiently +learned and reliable to vote herself. + +The Insurance Act concerned medical women only in the same way that +it affected their men colleagues. The sole reason, therefore, for +mentioning it in this paper is that it affords an indication of two +things:-- + +(1)that the Government therein makes no sex distinction in the +profession; + +(2)that the bogey of sex cleavage, so often mentioned by the timorous +in the political world, is here, as always where it is put to the +test, proved to be without foundation. + +Unfortunately, the Insurance Act divided the medical profession into +two parties; women, no more than men, were unanimous on the subject +and some were to be found on either side. + +Women are still debarred from the full use of their medical powers in +the following ways:-- + +(1) The demand for their services from the general public is at +present not so great nor so universal as that for men. This is not +surprising when it is realised for how short a time there have been +medical women; however, the demand on the part of the public is very +rapidly increasing, naturally, of course, amongst their own sex. + +(2) As in other work the tendency is to restrict women to the +lower branches of public work, or to the so-called "blind alley" +occupations. This can only be cured by public demand, and some +improvement is to be noted in this respect. There is, however, no +doubt that general practice affords at present the most unrestricted +field for a medical woman's activity, because there she suffers from +no limitations except those of her own personality in relation to +society. Any patients who are inclined to trust her are absolutely +free to do so, and it is open to her to demand what fees her services +are found to be worth. + +If, on the other hand, she enters the public service she may +admittedly qualify herself in every way by attainments and experience +in the lower ranks for one of the higher administrative posts and be +barred simply by sex disqualification. This also will no doubt in time +improve, and the pioneer work that it implies may attract many, but +the progress is necessarily slower. + +(3) She is still debarred from full opportunity for specialist work. +(See efforts being made by women themselves to obviate this by the +starting of women's hospitals, p. 149.) + +Finally, then, the medical profession should attract women of good +average capacity and general education, good health and certain, even +if moderate, means. Above all do they need public spirit, which will +make them anxious to maintain and improve the excellent position +medical women have so far obtained. It is a very widely interesting +life, bringing those who adopt it out of the study into direct touch +with human affairs. + + +[Footnote 1: Publisher, G. Sharrow, 28A Devonshire Street, Portland +Place, W.] + +[Footnote 2: Quite recently the outline of a new scheme was put +before a meeting at the Women's Medical School in London by the +Director-General of the Indian Medical Service. Under this scheme the +Women's Medical Service in India would not be upon the same footing +as the Indian Medical Service (I.M.S.) for men, but would remain as +at present, a Dufferin Association. It would, however, receive a +Government grant of £10,000 yearly, and proper arrangements would be +made for pay, furlough, promotion, and security of tenure. The scheme +is open to criticism on some points, but, as a whole, it marks a +considerable advance on the previous conditions of service in this +department of women's work, and may be welcomed as a genuine if +somewhat belated attempt on the part of the Government to deal fairly +with an urgent question.] + + + + +II + +DENTAL SURGERY + + +It is not sufficiently well-known that dental surgery as a profession, +opens up a practically unexplored and lucrative work for women. + +The training in the British Isles can be carried out in London, +Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Dublin, each of these cities granting their +Licentiate of Dental Surgery. In London, the National Dental Hospital, +and the London School of Medicine for Women (Royal Free Hospital) have +special facilities for women students, including special bursaries +and scholarships, while dental and medical studies can be carried +on concurrently. The course of study includes the passing of a +Professional Preliminary Examination or Matriculation, followed by two +years' mechanical work, and two years' hospital practice. The student +can be articled to a qualified dental practitioner for mechanics, or +can obtain tuition at the Dental Hospital. This branch includes the +preparation of models, vulcanite and metal dentures, crowns, and +bridges, etc. + +The Dental Hospital course for two years includes lectures on Physics +and Chemistry, Dental Anatomy and Surgery, Metallurgy and Materia +Medica. At the same time practical work is done--extractions, +fillings, crowns, bridges, dentures, and the regulation of children's +teeth. At the medical school and hospital, lectures on Anatomy, +Physiology, Surgery, and Medicine must be attended, and dissections on +the human body, and clinics in the ward must be completed. At the end +of each year examinations in the subjects are taken, the whole course +covering a minimum time of four years. The qualification of the +Licentiate of Dental Surgery of the Royal College of Surgeons of +England is now open to women. The composite fee for training extending +over four years, is about £200, but an additional sum of at least £100 +is required for incidental expenses. Should the woman student desire +to confine herself to dental mechanics this would materially lessen +the expense. The average wage for a good male mechanic is £120 per +annum. Hospitals can be joined at the age of nineteen, and it is +advisable to begin study soon after leaving school or college. + +If it is possible, a woman should obtain a medical qualification as +well as the L.D.S. Much of the work can be taken at the same time as +the dental course. A medical degree enlarges a dentist's sphere of +usefulness and interest and adds to her _locus standi_: on the other +hand, it necessitates two or three years' extra study, and the fees +are increased by several hundred pounds. + +The woman dentist will probably find it necessary to start practice on +her own account as soon as she is qualified, as it is not likely she +will be able to obtain an assistantship with men practitioners, but +there are an increasing number of posts open to women, such as dental +surgeon to school clinics or to factories. These posts offer the same +salaries to men and women. Smaller part-time appointments, with an +honorarium attached, can be obtained, and are especially useful to the +newly qualified practitioner who is building up a practice. + +It is essential for the woman who intends to succeed in this +profession to have excellent physical and mental health, though +great muscular strength is not necessary. During student life and in +practice, every care should be taken of the general health--exercise +in the open air being especially necessary, though this should not be +too energetic in character. It is a well-known fact that male dentists +doing careful and conscientious work, cannot, as a rule, stand the +strain for many hours daily after they have reached middle age, and +the intending student should consider this point. + +The prolonged hours of standing in a cramped position, the confined +space, the exactitude required for minute and painful operations, are +some of the causes of this overstrain. Great self-control and will +power must be exercised as the patients, especially children, are +frequently nervous, and confidence must be imparted to them if the +work is to be well done. + +The British Dental Association and the Odontological Society are both +open to women, and male practitioners have always displayed the utmost +courtesy though some prejudice must be expected. The general public +apparently welcome the advent of women dentists as the few qualified +women in London and the Provinces have excellent practices. It is +curious, however, to note that few Englishwomen have taken up the +profession, there being about twelve practising in the United Kingdom, +though in Germany, Russia, and the United States there are great +numbers of women practitioners. + +With regard to restrictions from which women at present suffer, one +dental hospital only is open to women in London, and, until recently, +no posts could be obtained. But as more women qualify, these +disadvantages will probably be removed. It is also extremely difficult +to obtain mechanical work in private work-rooms. Women should bear in +mind that they require exactly the same facilities for study as men, +and try to get admittance to all hospitals and posts on an equal +basis--_i.e._, the salary should be equal for equal work, and a +smaller fee should not be accepted. + +In deciding whether a practice should be started in London or a +provincial town, the question of capital must be carefully considered, +as it is improbable that the expenses will be met during the first +year of practice. The upkeep necessarily varies with the locality +chosen, and a minimum capital of £150 is desirable. + +Pioneer women must be prepared to do their work conscientiously, and +to the utmost of their ability, and they must always remember that +their work will be very severely criticised. + +This necessitates frequent inspection of both the clothing and persons +of the children. Certain cases which are found to need attention are +also visited in their homes. The school nurse is so much alone in +her work that she requires to be very experienced and her powers of +observation to be highly trained in order to enable her to detect +signs of ill-health in its early stages. Firmness and kindness +are constantly required in dealing with parents, and tact and +consideration in her dealings with all with whom her work brings her +in contact. + +In the London area the salary begins at £80 rising by £2, 10s. +yearly to £85, and then by £5 yearly to £105. Uniform and travelling +expenses, within the county, are provided. The nurse is required to +contribute to the superannuation fund from which she can ultimately +draw a pension if she remains all her working life in the service of +the Council. + +The hours of work are from 9 A.M. to 4.30 P.M. five days weekly, and +from 9 to 12.30 on Saturdays. Clerical work must be done out of school +hours. Holidays are arranged during the school holidays. + +There are 128 nurses working under one Superintendent, +two Assistant-Superintendents, and four Divisional +Assistant-Superintendents. + +_B_. There are 42 nurses attached to schools for the physically +defective whose special duties are concerned with the care of the +crippled and delicate children who attend these schools. Certain +special precautions against injury and strain are necessary for these +children, and the nurse receives instructions concerning these from +the visiting doctor. The salary is the same as that mentioned above, +and the nurses get the school holidays. At open-air schools the +nurse's work is somewhat similar to that in the schools for the +physically defective. + +_C_. There are 8 nurses now working under the Infant Life Protection +Act. + +All women who undertake the care of an infant for payment have to be +registered. Of such children, a large proportion is illegitimate. It +is the duty of the nurses to visit every such case. Each nurse has +an area allotted to her; the work is arduous and responsible as the +visitor has full powers under an Act of Parliament summarily to remove +the child if the conditions required by the Act are not complied +with. The nurse who undertakes this work should have been trained +in maternity work (and if possible have been examined by the Central +Midwives' Board). She should also have her certificate from the +Sanitary Institute as she is expected to report on the sanitation +of the premises as well as on the condition of the child. There is a +considerable amount of clerical work in connection with these posts. + +The salary of these nurses is good, compared with the usual salaries +for nurses--£120 to £150, with a further rise to £200 after ten years +of service. + +The superannuation fund, which is compulsory for all permanent +officers, yields a provision of not less than one-third of the average +rate of pay in a case of complete breakdown in health after ten or +more years in the service of the council. The retiring age, apart from +breakdown, is sixty-five years. + +The conditions of work in the Provinces are much the same in general +outline as those described above, which prevail in London, except that +in the country the nurse often undertakes in addition the work done in +London by Care Committees and Attendance Officers. This, although it +increases her work also increases its variety. + + + + +VIII + +NURSING IN HOSPITALS FOR THE INSANE + + +Mental nursing as a profession for educated women has much to +recommend it. It is of absorbing interest to those of a sympathetic +nature and of a scientific turn of mind, and it develops all the finer +qualities, self-control, patience, tact, and common-sense. It gives +scope for originality and accomplishments of every kind. The work +itself is difficult, and is the one of all the many branches of +nursing which demands the closest personal devotion and service, great +as is the necessity for these in all forms of a nurse's work. + +Mental nurses are employed in (1) county asylums, (2) mental +hospitals, (3) private work. + +(1) _County Asylums_--These may take from 1,000 to 2,000 patients +each. They are usually situated in the country with healthy +surroundings and large grounds, and they are generally placed within +reasonable access to some town. + +Probationer nurses are received for training from twenty-one years +of age. They must be of good health and physique. A nurse who is +successful in this branch of work should be able to obtain her +certificate from the Medico Psychological Board at the end of three +years' training. The salary is £19 the first year, with an annual +increase of £1 up to £35. Free board, lodging, washing, medical +attendance, are also supplied and uniform after three months' trial. +The hours on duty are from 6 A.M. to 8 P.M., with two hours off for +meals. Nurses get leave from 8 P.M. to 10 P.M. daily and one day +weekly; they also have fourteen days' holiday after the first twelve +months, increasing subsequently to three weeks a year. + +The duties of the nurse in an asylum consist of the care of the +patients, the supervision of the cleanliness of the wards and +linen, and also of the work done by the patients in the various +departments--the needleroom, laundry, kitchen, corridors, etc. It is +obvious that in view of the number of patients, individual attention +is practically impossible. Entertainments of all kinds are provided +for the help and amusement of the patients, and nurses are expected to +assist in arranging these. Consequently any one with a gift for music, +acting, singing, or other accomplishment is an acquisition to the +staff. + +(2) _Registered Mental Hospitals_.--These, owing to their different +circumstances, vary much in their conditions of service. Most of them +are training-schools and receive probationers of good education, from +twenty-two years of age, for a course of training. This consists of +lectures by the Medical Staff and Matron, the subjects receiving most +attention being Elementary Anatomy, Physiology, and Psychology; and +there is, of course, practical training in the nursing of mental +cases: in some hospitals a course of Massage and Swedish Drill are +added in the fourth year. + +Salaries are on the whole lower than in the County Asylums, beginning +at anything from £15 rising to £19 in the third year with a bonus of +£3 on passing the final examination of the Medico-Psychological Board. +There must, however, be set against this lower rate of remuneration, +the fact that these mental hospitals are often situated more centrally +than the county asylums, thus making less expenditure necessary for +travelling to and from the hospital when out on leave. The usual free +board, lodging, washing, medical attendance, and uniform are also +given after three months' satisfactory service. + +The hours of duty are from 7 A.M. to 8 P.M. with two hours off for +meals, etc. Leave during a month varies with the different hospitals, +but is usually two whole days, three half days, four evenings from 6 +P.M. to 10 P.M., and four evenings from 8 P.M. to 10 P.M.: there is +also annual leave of fourteen days after the first twelve months, +increasing to three weeks after three years' service. + +The work in a mental hospital is totally different from that in large +asylums. As there are fewer patients, individual treatment is the +rule, and the nurse gets more intimate knowledge of her patients' +condition, which she may thus do much to ameliorate. Owing to the +homelike freedom allowed, nurses need to be specially patient +and tactful. In return for this, however, by their much closer +companionship with their patients they gain the opportunity of +thoroughly knowing and therefore sympathising with and guiding them, +and on this, successful treatment largely depends. The majority of +the patients in these hospitals are suffering from acute forms of +insanity, and this adds both to the strenuousness and to the interest +of the nursing work: the fact that such patients frequently recover, +acts as a great incentive to the work. + +Private asylums are on a different basis and do not as a rule offer +training. + +A trained nurse may hope for promotion to posts as Sister of a ward, +Night Superintendent, Assistant Matron, or Matron. These posts demand +personal attributes in addition to good training--_e.g._, powers of +organisation and administration, a knowledge of housekeeping, laundry +work, etc. For the higher posts, training in general nursing is +essential. In all forms of mental nursing it is undoubtedly a great +advantage if the nurse has had a preliminary general training before +entering on the special branch of the work. + +The conditions for private mental cases are the same as those +described under private nursing for general work (see page 184). The +fees, however, compare very favourably with those obtained for general +work, being almost universally higher. The great disadvantage is that +the hours are very long and the work necessarily exhausting. + +Much has been done of recent years to improve the conditions of +service for workers in institutions, and there is still room for +amelioration. Particularly is this so with regard to the long hours +on duty and insufficient leave, due, chiefly, to shortage of staff. +Increase is also urgently needed in the salaries in every department +so that the nurses may be able to make provision for old age. When, as +now, so many of them are dependent on a pension as the only provision +for their old age, they are bound to stay at one institution for the +whole or nearly the whole of their lives--an arrangement which is not +to the benefit of either party, for "change is necessary to progress, +and the tendency is, from long years of service in one place, to +narrow and lose the adaptability of earlier years." + +More arrangements are needed for the recreation of the nurses when +off duty, especially in institutions situated in the country. Swimming +baths would be a real boon; the beneficial effects of this form +of exercise upon both nerves and body being too well known to need +further comment. Its value also in promoting mutual helpfulness is +by no means negligible. Reading-rooms, apart from the general +common-room, are very valuable, as are also tennis courts where they +can be arranged. All these, of course, mean expense, but, if the +better class woman is to be attracted to the work, her interests +must be considered. Moreover, healthful recreations, apart from their +benefit to the nurse herself, must re-act favourably on the patients. + + + + +IX + +NURSING IN THE COLONIES + + +Colonial nursing is usually undertaken by those who possess the spirit +of adventure, and do not mind the prospect of pioneering work. Love of +novelty, strong interest in fresh scenes and peoples, a desire to make +more money than can in most cases be made in England, help a nurse in +colonial work, provided that work really means her life, and she loves +it. But let it be emphatically stated that the nurses who are _not_ +wanted in the colonies, in any capacity, are those who are failures +in their work in England, or who simply leave the dull work of the old +country with the object of having a good time abroad. Such women may +do immense harm in countries where it is essential to the Empire that +English people should be looked up to with respect and admiration, +and where almost the most important part of an English nurse's work +(_quite_ the most important _if_ she is working in a hospital), is to +make the native nurses, of whatever race they may happen to be, see +the dignity and possibilities of their profession, and be stirred with +the desire to become proficient themselves. + +No special training is required for colonial work. A thorough +all-round training, including midwifery, a high standard of nursing +ethics, a knowledge of hospital organisation, and good business +abilities are needed. The rest is chiefly a matter of temperament +and constitution. It goes without saying that a nurse for foreign +climates, whether tropical, as in the majority of colonial posts, +or subject to extremes of heat and cold, such as in Canada, must +be physically strong; she should also be of an even temper and +philosophical disposition, easily adaptable to climate, conditions, +circumstances, and racial peculiarities. + +The nature of the work will vary greatly with the locality and the +kind of post undertaken. The colonial nurse who does private work will +find patients and their needs much the same all the world over; she +must, however, be prepared for anything, and ready to make the best of +all things in emergencies. + +In tropical hospitals it is altogether another matter. If the nurse +taking a Matron's post in such a hospital is the first European +to have occupied that post, she will probably have every detail to +organise and put in order, from providing dusters for use in the +wards, to arranging off-duty time for the nurses. She will mostly +likely see at once that everything wants altering, and yet she +will have to "make haste slowly," _very_ slowly, or she will have +everything in a ferment, and every one in open rebellion against her. + +If she is working in the East, she will have the endless complications +of caste and race and religion to deal with, and will have for some +time, to learn vastly more than she teaches. Her success or failure +will depend very largely upon how she gets on with the medical +department--in other words, upon her own tact and common-sense, and +whether she can so approve herself to the various medical officers +that they will loyally back her up in her attempts at reform. Once +things are established in working order, it is a question of constant +supervision, day by day, for in no tropical hospital is it possible to +expect that native nurses will do their work well and conscientiously, +without the constant example and supervision of their trained Matron +and Sisters. + +Colonial posts are chiefly to be obtained through the Colonial Nursing +Association, of which offices are at the Imperial Institute, South +Kensington. + +Salaries vary considerably, according to climate and the nature of the +work. In very unhealthy climates, such as the west coast of Africa, +the salary is high, and the risks proportionately so. + +Private nurses, and those holding subordinate posts in hospitals get +salaries varying from £60, which is the minimum, to £120 a year. An +Assistant Matron may in some few cases get a salary increasing to +£150 or £200. In a large hospital there is the ordinary chance of +promotion--a Sister may be made Assistant Matron, or an Assistant +Matron become Matron; but most colonial posts are simply for a certain +term of years, at the expiration of which the nurse seeks fresh +fields, her passage, both out and home, being paid. If, however, there +should be a desire on both sides for a renewal of the engagement, the +nurse can usually obtain an increase of salary. + +A Matron's salary will vary from £100 to £250, in large Government +hospitals in the Colonies where, it must be borne in mind, leave +entails a journey to England, and a very expensive passage. In +colonial posts there is usually six weeks leave yearly (which may be +taken as three months together in the second year), but in most places +there is no bracing climate within a reasonable distance. This, of +course, does not apply to India and Ceylon, where the hills are easily +accessible. + +Each Government has its own arrangements with regard to pensions; some +posts include pensions, but not all. The retiring age is usually +sixty years. There is, unfortunately, no pension obtainable from the +Colonial Nursing Association itself. This is certainly one respect +in which it would be well if an alteration could be made; it is +a question of funds and has already been brought forward for +consideration. There would be vastly more inducement for really +capable nurses, no longer very young (the age limit for joining is +thirty-five) to join the Colonial Nursing Association, and serve their +country in foreign dependencies, if they were assured of even a small +pension after ten years' hard work in trying climates. + + + + +X + +NURSING IN THE ARMY AND NAVY + + +The training required by Army and Navy nurses is that for general +work. Additional experience according to the branch of the service +which the nurse wishes to enter is also useful. Only fully trained +nurses are appointed. Some of the tending of the sick is done by the +men themselves, under supervision. + +In the _Military Service_ the salaries are as follows: +Matron-in-Chief, £305; ordinary Matron, from £75 to £150; Sister, from +£50 to £65; Staff Nurse, from £40 to £45, with allowance for board, +washing, etc., and arrangements for leave and pension after twenty +years' service. + +In the _Naval Service _the arrangements are slightly different, +but the salaries work out at about the same. Foreign service is +obligatory. + +There is also a small Army Nursing Reserve, but this is quite +inadequate for purposes of defence, and great efforts have recently +been made to supplement it by voluntary organisations, such as the +British Red Cross Society. + + + + +XI + +PRISON NURSING + + +This is, at the present time, carried out by the ordinary staff of +prison warders. There are all over England not more than two or three +trained nurses among them, and it is most desirable that properly +trained women should be in charge of prison infirmary wards, just as +much as in the infirmary wards of workhouses. Prisoners are just as +likely to suffer from disease as other people, and they surely do not +forfeit all claim to expert care, simply because they have, perhaps +in a moment of weakness, yielded to temptation. To one form of illness +needing specially expert nursing, they are peculiarly liable--mental +disease. It is almost impossible to gauge the amount of good which +might be done both for the individual and for society by providing +trained nurses to attend to these unfortunate people. + + + + +XII + +MIDWIFERY AS A PROFESSION FOR WOMEN (OTHER THAN DOCTORS) + + +This is not a paper to discuss the suitability of women for midwifery. +All through the ages it has been done by women, until early in the +nineteenth century in England and its colonies, it gradually became +customary for men-doctors to attend such cases; apart from this, the +work of midwifery has never been in the hands of men, except when +abnormal cases have required the assistance of a doctor with knowledge +of anatomy and skilled in instrumental delivery. Even before +the passing of the Midwives Act in 1902, statistics proved that +three-quarters of all confinements in this country were attended by +women. + +Continental countries have been alive to the need for training the +women who did this work. For instance, in the great General Hospital +in Vienna with its 3,000 beds, 550 beds were kept apart for maternity +wards, and of these, 200 were reserved for the State training of +midwives--a course of _one_ year's duration being obligatory, with +_daily_ lectures on every detail in midwifery from the Professor of +Obstetrics. The present writer attended these lectures daily for six +months in 1885, and was made to feel the importance in teaching of +"hammering" at essentials and of questioning, so that the lecturer +might discover whether he were talking above the head of the least +clever of the audience. + +England's population increased so steadily and rapidly during the +nineteenth century, that it seemed to trouble no one that countless +lives of mothers and babies were lost during the perils of +child-birth; it remained the only civilised country of Europe where a +woman could practise as a midwife without any training at all. + +For nearly twenty years before the passing of the Midwives Act in +1902, a small band of devoted women laboured in season and out of +season urging on Parliament the need of a bill requiring a _minimum_ +of three months' theoretical and practical training and an examination +before trusting a woman with the lives of mother and child. + +This historical fact alone is a sufficiently cogent reason for the +now ever-increasing demand on the part of women for the parliamentary +vote. + +The Central Midwives Board (C.M.B.), a body of eight members (experts +elected by various bodies, such as the Royal Colleges of Physicians +and Surgeons, the British Nurses' Association, the Midwives' +Institute, etc.), now exercises supervision over the midwives of the +whole of England and Wales, though local supervising authorities also +take cognisance of midwives' work and investigate cases of malpractice +and the like. The address of the Central Midwives' Board is Caxton +House, Westminster. + +The training for the examination of the Central Midwives' Board is +based on the method pursued in medical education in English-speaking +countries, viz., there is not one uniform course, but each of the +training schools attached to hospitals follows out its own plan of +training, each hospital having been approved by the Central Midwives' +Board as giving an adequate training for its examination. There are +now seven maternity hospitals in London, where women students may +train in midwifery. Of these, only one--the Clapham Maternity Hospital +(with its training school founded by Mrs Meredith in 1885)--is, and +always has been, entirely officered by women. Here the course advised +is six months, viz., three months in the hospital (Monthly Nursing), +and three months in the hospital and district doing Midwifery proper. +During this time over 200 cases may be seen, and nearly 100 cases +attended personally. The cost of this training is £35 to £40, which +includes board and residence for twenty-six weeks. Students previously +trained elsewhere may take one months' extra training at a cost of +ten guineas. Private doctors and midwives may also take pupils if +recognised as teachers by the Board. + +Midwifery training is now required not only by those who are going +to act as midwives, but also by most missionaries, all fully trained +nurses (for matrons' posts or colonial posts) and by health visitors +and inspectors before obtaining appointments. + +But it should be borne in mind, especially in considering the present +condition and future prospects of Midwifery as a profession, that even +now a large though ever-decreasing proportion of registered midwives +are still ignorant women who have never passed the Central Midwives' +Board or any other examination, and have had no teaching from any +one more experienced or better informed than themselves. For when +the Midwives' Act came into force in 1903, it was necessary to move +slowly, and so a clause was inserted, permitting women who had been +in _bonâ-fide_ practice for more than one year before 1902 to continue +their work under inspection and supervision (with many attempts at +teaching them by means of simple lectures and demonstrations). This +plan, or some similar one, was necessary, not only in the interests +of the midwives themselves, a set of decent and kindly, if ignorant +women, who would have been ruined by too sudden a change, but also +because a large number of mothers in England would have been left with +no one to help them in their time of need unless they were prepared +to run the risk of breaking the law. This, until recently, respectable +English women disliked to do. + +It is important to remember this fact, when considering the present +and future prospects of the midwife. The untrained woman used to +charge 5s. or 7s. 6d. for her services, and the fact that her name had +been enrolled on the Government Register, that she was subject to +the supervision of an inspector, without having spent anything on her +change of status beyond the 10s. registration fee, did not suggest the +need of any particular change in her scale of charges. Thus 7s. +6d. per case, unfortunately still remains the very common fee for +midwifery, though this now involves, under the rules of the Midwives' +Board, not only the long hours of watchful care at the birth, but ten +days of daily visits to supervise both mother and baby, with careful +records of pulse and temperature, etc., kept in a register. Naturally, +the general public who employ midwives--viz., the poorer classes--do +not differentiate between the trained certificated midwife and the +untrained _bonâ-fide_ midwife whose name is on the register, and thus +the scale of charges remains very low and the profession, as one for +educated women, is thereby greatly injured. + +Granted an intelligent woman is willing to give six months' work and +study and £35 to £40 for her training, what chance has she of earning +a decent living? If she could command 15s. or 17s. 6d. per case +afterwards, she could make a decent living, given fairly hard work and +the acceptance of real responsibility. If she had 100 cases a year, +she would earn £75 at 15s. per case, and so on. This rise in the +fees payable to midwives has just been made possible by the National +Insurance Act of 1911, the framers of which appear to have recognised +the necessary result of the Midwives' Act of 1902. As the _bonâ-fide_ +midwife, who has received no training, gradually dies out, it becomes +necessary to provide the means of paying trained midwives, whom the +people are obliged to employ in place of the old ones, but who would +soon be non-existent were the means of paying them not also provided +by the State. + +A 30s. maternity benefit is now given for every confinement of an +insured person or the wife of an insured person. As the patient may +have free choice of doctor or midwife, it seems possible, now that it +has been established that the benefit shall go direct to the mother or +her nominee, that hereafter the greater part of it may be paid over to +the person who can supply that most necessary item of the treatment, +i.e., good and intelligent midwifery with nursing care of mother and +child. Therefore, it is the right moment for the careful, well-trained +popular midwife definitely to raise her fees to all "insured" +patients, being still willing to help the poor at a low fee as before. +It should be remembered that in about one-tenth of all her cases, +medical help will be required, but this case could probably be guarded +against by an insurance fund, if properly organised. + +We frankly admit that as things now stand--apart from the possibility +of the maternity benefit being made to help her--midwifery is +financially but a poor profession. But to an enthusiastic lover of +her kind, who has other means or prospects for her future than the +proceeds of her profession, there is much that is attractive in this +most useful calling. + +Now let us turn to a consideration of the poor mother. Dr Matthews +Duncan in 1870 put the puerperal mortality at 1 in 100 for in-patients +and 1 in 120 for patients in their own homes--shocking figures for +a physiological event! Miss Wilson, a member of the Central Midwives +Board, stated in 1907 that the average mortality of English women, +from puerperal fever, a preventable disease, is 47 in 10,000 or _1 in +213_, but that in three of the best lying-in hospitals this figure has +been reduced to less than _1 in 3,000_. To quote Miss Alice Gregory +in her article on this subject in _The Nineteenth Century_ for January +1908: "We feel there is something hopelessly wrong somewhere. It +becomes indeed a burning question: By what means have the Maternity +Hospitals so marvellously reduced their death rate?" + +The answer is not now far to seek in the opinion of the writer, +who has worked continuously at Midwifery since 1st May 1884. It is +probably wholly contained in the three following points:-- + + (1) All that makes for scrupulous asepsis in + every detail for the surroundings of the + mother. + + (2) The absence of "Meddlesome Midwifery." + + (3) Pre-maternity treatment, a factor which + the writer considers to be of great importance, + and of which she would like + to have much more experience. + +By this is meant the building up of the future mother's health by +improved hygiene and careful, wise dieting and exercising and bathing +during the last three months of pregnancy, which enables many a +stumbling-block to be removed out of the way. Hence, the utility of +pre-maternity wards wisely used. This is, one knows, a "counsel of +perfection"; but every expectant mother should and could be taught how +to treat herself wisely at this time. + +These three points are all in favour of the well-trained midwife. + +(1) _Scrupulous Asepsis_, if intelligently taught, can be learned in +six months' training, though one feels bound to add it requires moral +"grit" in the character to make one unswervingly faithful in observing +it. The midwife, too, should run no risk of carrying infection from +others, as a doctor might do. + +(2) "Meddlesome Midwifery" is not so much a temptation for the midwife +as the doctor, though she also may want to do too much. Patience +combined with accurate knowledge when interference is urgently needed, +is part of her training. + +(3) The midwife who becomes a wise friend to her patients will be just +the one to whom the mother will gladly apply early, and who will know +if it is advisable to send for skilled medical advice. Contracted +pelvis, threatened eclampsia, and antepartum haemorrhage are typical +cases, which lose half their terror if diagnosed and treated early. + +If ever it is recognised that good midwifery is at the root of the +health of the nation and the new maternity benefit is made to help +in obtaining it, it will at once become worth while for educated and +intelligent women to take to the profession seriously. A practice +could then be worked by sets of two or three midwives in co-operation, +and with proper organisation as regards an insurance fund for securing +operative midwifery from medical practitioners when necessary. + +There is ample room for a much larger body of trained midwives than +exists at present, if the health and welfare of the nation are to be +secured, while the women themselves could, under these conditions, +earn a sufficient livelihood. + +Trained nurses also specialise in midwifery. They take the full course +of training described above, completing this by passing the Central +Midwives' Board Examination. They do not practise for themselves, +but work only under doctors, thus replacing the monthly nurse. The +improvement in health and comfort of both mother and child, when +nursed by some one thoroughly competent, is very marked. + +The fees which they receive for this work are usually 12 to 14 guineas +for the month, and in some cases may rise to 18 guineas. + + + + +XIII + +MASSAGE + + +This work demands a healthy body and cheerful mind, a love of the +work, endurance, and much tact in dealing with the nervous cases for +which this form of treatment is found to be beneficial. + +It may be undertaken either + +(1) As a separate profession, or + +(2) As an additional qualification by trained nurses. + +The training must be good and adequate to ensure any success as a +masseuse, so great care should be exercised in the choice of a +school. The many training schools advertised are of varying degrees +of efficiency, and those prepared to train in a few weeks, or by +correspondence only, are obviously unsatisfactory. + +On application to the secretary of the Incorporated Society of Trained +Masseuses, information can be obtained with regard to the training +schools in London and the Provinces where a course of instruction in +massage is given, which is accepted by the society as adequate. + +The society itself is an independent examining body which insists on +a satisfactory standard for massage workers. It holds two examinations +yearly and grants a certificate to successful candidates. No one may +enter for the examination unless she can show that she has received +her training at one of the schools approved by the society. + +Adequate training in massage includes a course of not less than six +months in Elementary Anatomy and Physiology, the Theory and Practice +of Massage and a course of bandaging. Students usually attend the +classes from 10 A.M. to 4 P.M., lectures being given in the morning, +demonstrations and practical work on "model patients" in the afternoon +hours. + +Sufficiently advanced students are allowed to attend at hospitals or +infirmaries to see--and themselves to carry out under the teacher's +supervision--the treatment ordered for the patients by the doctor. In +this way all students have opportunity during their training of seeing +and giving treatment to the various cases which they may have to deal +with as qualified masseuses when working under private doctors. + +Some training schools give their own certificate after training, +and this is useful as a guarantee of the training taken. It is not, +however, such an assurance of efficiency to the medical profession or +the general public as the certificate gained after examination by an +independent examining body. + +There is also a further examination held by the society once yearly +in Medical Gymnastics. The minimum time to expend on this is a further +six months after qualifying as a masseuse, so that it takes a year to +gain the double qualification. + +In addition to supplying the independent examination in these +subjects, the society watches over the interests of the masseuses. All +its members are bound to observe the rules of the society. The result +of this is threefold. + + (1) The doctor is assured that the masseuse + will not undertake cases on her own + diagnosis, but work only under qualified + direction. + + (2) The public is assured that the masseuse + is a trustworthy woman as well as an + efficient worker. + + (3) The masseuse herself is protected from + undesirable engagements. This is of + considerable importance. + + The training for the examination previously + mentioned is from 10 to 15 guineas for those taking + the course. There is generally some reduction + made for nurses. The further course in Medical + Gymnastics costs from 20 guineas. + +From this it will be seen that the whole training is comparatively +inexpensive; it is, however, not a profession to be entered lightly. +London is already overstocked and the better openings at the present +time are to be found in the Provinces, in Scotland and the Colonies. +It is well to start, if possible, in a town where the masseuse is +already known either to the doctors, or to some influential residents. +Much depends on the individuality of the masseuse, and one who is +prepared to give all her time to the work, taking every call that +comes, may reasonably expect to make in her first year from £50 to +£100. By the third year a steady connection should be formed, bringing +in an income of £150 to £250. This cannot, however, be expected unless +the masseuse has some introductions to start her in her work. + +Fees in the country vary from 3s. 6d. to 7s. a visit, and in London +and some other places they rise to 10s. 6d. for an hour or less. + +Hospital and nursing-home appointments are most useful as experience +for the masseuse in her first year; they should be tried before +she finally decides where to start work. Such appointments are +residential, and the salaries offered vary from £30 to £70 a year. + + It must not be forgotten that, owing to the short and comparatively + inexpensive training, very many women take up this work, + so that the above excellent results are not realised unless the + masseuse has good introductions. The value of a thoroughly reliable + society such as that mentioned cannot be over-estimated, not only + for its certificate, but also on account of the information it can + give as to the respectability of posts advertised for masseuses. + Many of these are unfortunately merely blinds for undesirable houses. + [SUB-EDITOR.] + + + + +SECTION IV + +WOMEN AS SANITARY INSPECTORS AND HEALTH VISITORS + + +The introduction of women into the public health service is a modern +development, although they have been engaged in it longer than is +usually known. + +Women who are employed in Public Health Work hold office under Local +Sanitary Authorities, and their work must not be confused with that +of the Women Home Office Officials, who were first appointed in 1895; +these inspect factories and workshops, but their powers and duties +are of a different character. For instance, the Women Home Office +Inspectors deal, amongst other things, with the cleanliness of +factories, but not with the cleanliness of workshops, and with the +heating of workshops, while the ventilation of the same workshops is +under the control of the local sanitary officials. + +Glasgow was the first county borough to utilise the services of Women +Health Officials, for in May 1870 four "Female Visitors," afterwards +known as Assistant Sanitary Inspectors, were appointed in connection +with the Public Health Department. Their duties were: "by persuasion +principally, to induce the women householders to keep the interiors +of their dwellings in a clean and sanitary condition, and to advise +generally how best this can be maintained." They possessed the same +right of entry to premises as the men inspectors, and were required +to hold the certificate of the Incorporated Sanitary Association of +Scotland. They reported certain nuisances, but themselves dealt +with others, such as "dirty homes or dirty bedding, clothing, and +furnishing." + +The work of Women Health Officials in England, dates from the passing +of the Factory and Workshops Act of 1891, when certain duties with +regard to workshops, which had previously been performed by the Home +Office Inspectors, were laid upon Sanitary Authorities. + +In the opinion of Dr Orme Dudfield, late Medical Officer of Health +for Kensington: "It soon became apparent that, not only was systematic +inspection necessary, but also that many of the duties involved +were of so special and delicate a nature that they could not +be satisfactorily discharged by male inspectors." He therefore +recommended the appointment of two Women Inspectors of Workshops in +Kensington. In the meantime the city of Nottingham had appointed a +Woman Inspector of Workshops in May 1892, and in accordance with +Dr Dudfield's recommendation two Women Inspectors were appointed in +Kensington in 1893. + +These ladies were appointed as inspectors of workshops _only_. +They did not hold Sanitary Certificates, nor had they the status of +Sanitary Inspectors. In practice, this entailed a visit by a male +inspector every time it was necessary to serve a legal notice for +the abatement of any contravention of the Factory and Workshops' +Act. Therefore, when these ladies resigned upon their appointment as +Factory Inspectors, it was decided to appoint the in-coming ladies as +Sanitary Inspectors, with power to deal with these matters themselves. +It was, however, Islington which appointed the first woman with the +legal status of Sanitary Inspector in 1895. + +By 1901, eleven women had been appointed in the Metropolitan area as +Sanitary Inspectors, nearly all of them exclusively engaged in the +inspection of workshops. Since that time the number of women appointed +by Local Sanitary Authorities has increased considerably, both in +London and the Provinces. The exact number outside London is only +known approximately, as no register exists which is available to the +public. It is to be hoped that this information may be obtainable +from the last census returns. The figures with regard to London are +published annually by the London County Council, and there are now +forty-one Women Sanitary Inspectors in the Metropolitan area. + +Sanitary inspectors in London, whether men or women, are required to +hold the certificate of the Sanitary Inspectors' Examination Board, +the examination for which is the same for men and women.[1] Outside +London no definite qualification is required by the Local Government +Board, but it is usual in county and municipal boroughs for a sanitary +certificate to be demanded from candidates for the position of +Inspector of Nuisances (the term used outside London for Sanitary +Officials). Men and Women Sanitary Inspectors possess equal rights of +entry to premises and equal statutory powers for enforcing compliance +with the law. + +The duties of Women Sanitary Inspectors have become very varied and +numerous during the past ten years; they differ considerably according +to locality and to the opinions of the local Medical Officer of +Health. Broadly speaking, before 1905 women in London were mainly +engaged in the inspection of workshops, whereas in the Provinces (with +the exception of Nottingham, Leicester, and Manchester) they were +engaged in house-to-house visitation in the poorer parts of the towns, +with a view to the promotion of cleanliness, giving advice to mothers +concerning the feeding and care of infants and young children, and +the detection of sanitary defects. The inspection of workshops in the +Provinces was a later development. + +These varied duties have called for special qualifications, and, in +addition to certificates in sanitation, Women Sanitary Inspectors +usually hold qualifications in nursing or midwifery. The general +education of the women who take up this profession is, on the whole, +superior to that of the men. Most of the women have had a high school +education, and many are University graduates, while the men, as a +rule, come from the elementary schools. + +The duties of a Woman Sanitary Inspector are sufficiently varied to +avoid monotony, and may comprise any or all of the following:-- + + _A_. (1) The inspection of factories in order to + see that suitable and sufficient sanitary + accommodation is provided for women, + in accordance with the requirements of + the Public Health Acts. + + (2) The carrying out of the provisions of + the Public Health and Factory and + Workshops Acts, with regard to the + registration and inspection of + + _(a)_ laundries, workshops, and workplaces + (including kitchens of + hotels and restaurants) where + women are employed; + + _(b)_ Outworkers' premises. + + (3) The inspection of tenement houses and + houses let in lodgings, and the enforcement + of the bye-laws of the Sanitary + Authority affecting these. + + (4) House-to-house inspection in the poorer + parts of the district. + + (5) The inspection of public lavatories for + women. + + (6) The carrying out of duties and inspection + concerning + + (_a_) Notifiable infectious diseases, + such as scarlet fever. + + (_b_) Non-notifiable infectious diseases + such as measles. + + (_c_) The notification of consumption. + + (7) Taking samples under the Food and + Drugs Acts. (This work is rarely + given to women.) + +For many of the above duties, women are obviously better fitted than +men, but for the following most important group of duties men are +practically disqualified by reason of their sex:-- + + _B_. Health visiting. Work in connection with + the reduction of infantile mortality :-- + + (1) Notification of Births Act, 1907. Visiting + infants and giving advice to mothers + about the feeding and general management + of young children. + + (2) Advising expectant mothers on the + management of their health and as + to the influence of ante-natal conditions + on their infants. + + (3) Work in connection with milk depôts and + infant consultations. + + (4) Promotion of general cleanliness in the + home and discovery of sanitary defects + + remediable under the Public Health + Acts. + + (5) Investigation of deaths of infants under one year of age. + + (6) Lecturing at mothers' meetings. + + (7) Organisation of voluntary Health + Workers in the district and arrangement + of their work. + + _C._ The following duties may also be required + in the Provinces:-- + + (1) Work relating to the administration of + the Midwives' Act, 1902 (where the + County Council have delegated their + powers to the District Council). + + (2) The inspection of shops under the Shop + Hours Act, 1892-94, and the Seats for + Shop-Assistants Act, 1899. + +The work described under _C._ 1 and 2, is performed in London (except +in the City) by special inspectors appointed by the London County +Council, who also inspect employment agencies where sleeping +accommodation is provided and carry out certain duties under the +Children's Act. + + (3) Work in connection with the medical + inspection of school children (performed + in London by the London + County Council school nurses). + +The duties of Men Sanitary Inspectors are very clearly defined, and +differ considerably from those of the women. Men are mainly engaged +in the inspection and reconstruction of drains, the detection of +structural defects in the houses of the working classes, the carrying +out of bye-laws with regard to tenement houses, the investigation of +cases of notifiable infectious diseases, the inspection of workshops +and factories, the enforcement of the law with regard to the sale of +foods and drugs and the abatement of smoke nuisances. + +As will be seen from the duties enumerated above, Women Inspectors, as +a general rule, are brought into very close and intimate contact with +the homes of the people, and this necessitates the exercise of much +tact and patience. The large demands thus made upon their powers of +persuasion and teaching capacity, involve a considerable strain upon +their nervous energy as well as their physical strength. The work +of the Men Inspectors, on the other hand, being of a more official +character, does not involve the same strain. + +There is no uniformity of practice with regard to hours of work, +holidays, remuneration or superannuation, either within or without the +metropolitan area. Each Local Authority makes its own arrangements. +Many have no superannuation scheme and give no pensions. Men and women +working for the same Authority usually work under the same conditions +as to hours and holidays: the rate of remuneration, however, is by no +means the same. The salaries of Women Sanitary Inspectors within the +Metropolitan area range from £100 to £200 per annum, the latter figure +being reached only in two boroughs and in the City of London: whilst +the salaries of the men range from £150 to £350. The average maximum +salary of the women is £150, and the average maximum salary of the men +is £205. Outside London, the salaries of both men and women are lower, +those of the women ranging from £65 to £100, a few rising to £150. +Payments are made monthly, and a month's notice can be demanded +on leaving, though it is frequently not enforced. Another unjust +distinction frequently made between men and women is that the latter +are generally compelled to retire upon marriage, thus enforcing +celibacy on some of our most capable women. + +The hours of work are usually from 9 A.M. to 5 or 6 P.M. and to 1 +P.M. on Saturdays. If we consider the nature of the work, the holidays +appear most inadequate--viz.: only from two to three weeks per +annum are allowed in London, and from ten to fourteen days in many +provincial towns. + +The Health Visitor, as a public official, was not known until 1899, +when several were appointed by the City Council of Birmingham. The +name "Health Visitor" was thought to be more feminine and suitable +than that of Inspector, and it was imagined that she would in +consequence be better received in the homes of the people. As a +private society in Manchester had previously engaged women of an +inferior class and education with the title of "Health Visitor," this +designation was deprecated by women already in the profession. Many +smaller provincial towns, however, followed the example of Birmingham, +and appointed Health Visitors instead of Women Sanitary Inspectors. +It was not until later that the Health Visitor was introduced into +London, and in the following way:-- + +In the Metropolitan area (exclusive of the City) half of the salary +of all Sanitary Inspectors is paid out of the County Rate, and their +duties are defined in Sections 107 and 108 of the Public Health +(London) Act, 1891. As Medical Officers of Health and the public +generally became more and more interested in the question of infant +mortality, Women Inspectors were employed to investigate infant +deaths, to visit houses where a birth had taken place and advise +mothers on infant care, to manage milk depôts, to weigh babies, and to +assist at infant consultations, and to do a great deal of work which +hitherto had not been considered the work of a Sanitary Inspector. +There was never any question as to the value of the work done nor of +the efficiency with which it was performed, but the Local Government +Board Auditor took the view that it did not come within the scope of +the order of 1891, defining the duties of a Sanitary Inspector, and +he refused to sanction the payment out of the County Rate of half the +salary of those women who were engaged in Health Visiting work. In +March 1905, the borough of Kensington solved the difficulty for itself +by appointing a Health Visitor and paying the whole of her salary out +of the Local Rate; but less wealthy boroughs felt unable to do this. +It was work which the Sanitary Authorities wanted to undertake; it was +work which the London County Council and the Local Government Board +were desirous of seeing performed, but this technical difficulty stood +in the way. It was overcome by the inclusion in the London County +Council General Powers' Act of 1908, of Section 7, which empowered +Sanitary Authorities in the Metropolitan area to appoint Health +Visitors, and this enabled the London County Council to contribute +half their salaries out of the County Rate. As a matter of fact, at +the present time (November 1913) the whole of the salary of Health +Visitors in London is being paid out of the Local Rate, as the +Exchequer contribution account is completely depleted by the payment +of the moiety of the salary of Sanitary Inspectors. + +The essential difference between a Woman Sanitary Inspector and a +Health Visitor is that the Woman Sanitary Inspector is a statutory +officer with a legal position, having definite rights of entry and +certain statutory powers for enforcing the Public Health Acts, while +a Health Visitor is a purely advisory officer, with no legal status +or right of entry or power to carry out any of the provisions of the +Public Health Acts. + +In actual practice, the title of Inspector has in no way proved an +obstacle to successful health visiting, as may be demonstrated by +an enquiry into the work now being carried on by Women Sanitary +Inspectors in Sheffield, Leeds, Liverpool, Bradford, London, and other +places. On the contrary, it has enabled officials to obtain an entry +into dirty and insanitary places and to expose cases of neglect, which +might otherwise have remained undiscovered. + +The Health Visitor is usually paid a lower salary than the Woman +Sanitary Inspector; this ranges in London from £100 to £120; in the +provinces it may be as low as £65 per annum, and rarely rises above +£100. The hours of work and holidays are, as a rule, the same as for +Women Sanitary Inspectors. The difference in salary has proved a great +temptation to Local Authorities in London to appoint Health Visitors +when Women Sanitary Inspectors would have been more useful and +efficient officers. Indeed, it is to be deplored that very few members +of Local Authorities understood the advantages to be gained by the +appointment of the more highly qualified official. The immediate +effect of Section 7 was that several boroughs, having no women +officials, proceeded to appoint Health Visitors; other boroughs, which +possessed Women Sanitary Inspectors, also appointed Health Visitors. +Seven or eight boroughs re-appointed their women officials in the dual +capacity of Sanitary Inspector and Health Visitor so that the work in +those cases went on as before. An indirect effect has been the almost +complete cessation of the appointment of Women Sanitary Inspectors +and the diminution in their number in some boroughs by the lapse of +appointments on resignation or marriage. The inspection of workshops +where women are employed has, in several instances, fallen back into +the hands of Men Inspectors, whose unsuitability for this work first +called women in England into the Public Health Service. + +In September 1909 the Local Government Board issued the following +order with regard to Health Visitors in London:-- + +"Art. 1. Qualifications. A woman shall be qualified to be appointed a +Health Visitor if she + +(_a_) is a duly qualified medical practitioner ; or + +(_b_) is a duly qualified nurse with three years' training in a +hospital or infirmary, being a training school for nurses and having a +resident physician or surgeon; or + +(_c_) is certified under the Midwives' Act, 1902; or + +(_d_) has had six months' nursing experience in a hospital receiving +children as well as adults, and holds the certificate of the Royal +Sanitary Institute for Health Visitors and School Nurses, or the +Diploma of the National Health Society; or + +(_e_) has discharged duties similar to those presented in the +regulations in the services of a Sanitary Authority and produces such +evidence as suffices to prove her competency; or + +(_f_) has a competent knowledge and experience of the theory and +practice of nurture, and the care and management of young children, +of attendance on women in and immediately after child-birth, and of +nursing attendance in cases of sickness or other mental or bodily +infirmity. + +"Art. 2. Every appointment must be confirmed by the Board. + +"Art. 6. Enables a Sanitary Authority to determine the appointment of +a Health Visitor by giving her three months' notice, and no woman may +be appointed unless she agrees to give three months' notice previous +to resigning the office or to forfeit a sum to be agreed. + +"Art. 8. Outlines the duties of the Health Visitor but prohibits +her from discharging duties pertaining to the position of a Sanitary +Inspector (unless with the consent of the Board she holds the dual +appointment). + +"Art. 9. The Board's approval is required to the salary to be paid +to the Health Visitor, and an allowance in respect of clothing, where +uniform or other distinctive dress is required, may be made." + +The Board in their circular letter state that they consider that, +in consideration of the importance of the duties and of the salaries +often paid to Women Sanitary Inspectors in London, the salary ought +not to be less than £100 per annum. + +It will be seen from the above that it is quite possible for a Health +Visitor to be appointed practically without any qualification for the +position, and with absolutely no knowledge of Public Health Law and +sanitation. + +It is, therefore, apparent that there are two classes of women +officials in connection with Public Health Departments, one on the +same footing as the men, with equal powers and responsibilities, but +remunerated at a much lower rate, and another with a lower status and +a still lower rate of remuneration. The duties of the second class may +be performed equally well by the first, but the duties of the first +cannot be performed by the second. The introduction of the Health +Visitor has therefore lowered the status of the Public Health Service. + +The remedy for this state of affairs is for competent woman officials +in the future to be appointed in the dual capacity of Sanitary +Inspector and Health Visitor at an adequate remuneration, and for +the order of 1891 defining the duties of a Sanitary Inspector to be +expanded to meet the developments which have been taking place in the +Public Health Acts since that date. + +There are two organisations which Women Sanitary Inspectors may +join:-- + +(1) The Women Sanitary Inspectors' Association, which includes +as members Women Sanitary Inspectors and Health Visitors holding +recognised certificates in sanitation. (Health Visitors holding +official appointments but without these recognised certificates in +sanitation may become associates.) + +(2) The Sanitary Inspectors' Association, which is composed of a large +number of Men Sanitary Inspectors and a few Women Sanitary Inspectors. +This is not open to Health Visitors. + +There is no approved society for Sanitary Inspectors under the +Insurance Act. The income of the majority of Men Inspectors exempts +them from the operation of the Act, but a large number of Men and +Women Inspectors receiving less than £160 per annum, have joined +the approved society of the National Association of Local Government +Officers. + +To sum up, we may say that on the whole the life of a Health Official +is a healthy and suitable one for a woman of average physique; it +demands great activity, with many hours spent out of doors, and +whoever undertakes it must be prepared for surprises and difficulties. +She may find herself in an office staffed entirely by men, with chief, +committee, and council composed entirely of men--indeed everything +looked at from the male standpoint. She either works singly or in +small groups of two or three, except in a few large towns where the +women officials may number from ten to twenty. Thus isolated and +scattered, it is extremely difficult for the Women Health Officials +to form an effective organisation. What is accomplished under one +Authority may have little or no effect upon another. + +One condition which presses heavily on many women is the shortness +of the holidays. The work is always arduous, particularly in poor +districts where one is brought face to face with poverty, disease, and +suffering, and from two to three weeks is not sufficient for rest and +recuperation, particularly as the years pass on. + +The creation of public opinion and the advent of a greater number of +women on Municipal Councils and Health Committees is greatly needed +to improve the conditions under which women officials work, and to +support their reasonable demands.[2] + + +[Footnote 1: Full particulars of this can be obtained from the +Secretary, Sanitary Inspectors' Examination Board, Adelaide Buildings, +London Bridge.] + +[Footnote 2: The above article considers under the term "Health +Visitors" such women only as are serving under public Municipal +Authorities. Unfortunately, since it gives rise to confusion, the +name is also used in connection with officials privately appointed by +various charitable institutions. These have no universally recognised +standard of attainments: some of the so-called "Health Visitors" are +without any qualifications, others, _e.g._, those employed by the +Jewish Board of Guardians, are fully trained and do excellent work, +comparable with that performed by Hospital Almoners. We hope, in a +later volume of this series, to publish an article on their duties and +position.[EDITOR.]] + + + + +SECTION V + +WOMEN IN THE CIVIL SERVICE + +I + +THE HIGHER GRADES: PRESENT POSITION AND PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE + + +The claim that women should be allowed to enter not only the lower but +the higher branches of the Civil Service is being freely made at the +present time. It is very generally felt that posts in which the holder +has to execute judgment and to decide on administrative matters should +be open to women as well as to men. + +Many reasons are urged for admitting women more freely to a share in +the responsible work of the Service, but the true basis of their claim +lies in this--that the most successful form of government and the +happiest condition for the governed can only be attained, in the +State as in the family, when masculine and feminine influences work in +harmony. + +It is not, perhaps, widely known that women have already made their +way into many branches of the Service and have done invaluable work +therein. Perhaps the strongest argument that can be urged in favour of +their admission into yet other branches of the Service will be found +in the following brief survey of the appointments held and the work +already done by them in various directions. + +_The Local Government Boards_ + +The credit of being the first Government Department to appoint a Woman +Inspector belongs to the English Local Government Board. As far +back as 1873, yielding to the pressure of public opinion, that Board +appointed a Woman Inspector, with full powers to inspect workhouses, +and district schools. During the short period of her appointment, this +lady did excellent work, and called attention to much needed reforms +in the education of girls in Poor Law Schools. Unfortunately, owing +to a breakdown in health, she was obliged to resign her appointment in +November 1874, and the Local Government Board, either repenting of +its enlightened action, or not appreciating the aid of a woman even +in matters concerning the welfare of women and girls, refrained from +appointing a woman to succeed her. It was not until 1885 that another +Woman Inspector was appointed, and then her work was restricted to the +inspection of Poor Law Children boarded out beyond the Union to which +they belonged. In 1896, once more by reason of the pressure of public +opinion, a woman was appointed as an Assistant Inspector of Poor +Law Institutions in the Metropolis. In 1898 a second Inspector +of Boarded-out Children was appointed, and in 1903 the number of +Inspectors was increased to three, each Inspector having a district +assigned to her. + +Four years ago the total number of Women Inspectors was increased to +seven, and the scope of their duties somewhat widened, as will be seen +below. There is now one Superintendent Inspector at a salary of £400 +to £450, and six Inspectors at £250 to £350. Candidates for these +inspectorships must have had considerable administrative experience. +They must hold a certificate of three years' training as a Nurse, and +the Central Midwives' Board's certificate is considered desirable. +These qualifications have only been required since 1910. + +The duties assigned to the Women Inspectors include (1) the inspection +of boarded-out children, both within and beyond the Poor Law Unions +to which they belong; and (2) the inspection of Poor Law +Institutions--_i.e._, infirmaries, sick wards of workhouses, maternity +wards, and workhouse nurseries: also of Certified Homes, Cottage +Homes, and Scattered Homes. + +The duties of the Women Inspectors in connection with the boarding-out +of Poor Law Children include the visiting of officials of Boarding-Out +Committees, and of homes in which children are boarded out; the +Inspector visits a sufficient number of children and homes to enable +her to satisfy herself that the duties of the Boarding-Out Committee +are carried out in a satisfactory manner, and makes a report to the +Board thereon. Women Inspectors arrange their own inspections of +boarded-out children within a prescribed district. + +Each of the fourteen districts into which the country is divided for +Poor Law purposes is placed under the care of a General Inspector +(male), whilst the half dozen Women Inspectors are available for +duty in these districts, but only at the invitation of the General +Inspector. If an Inspector omits to arrange for these visits it is +possible for his district to remain unvisited by a Woman Inspector for +an indefinite period. When it is remembered that there are still +194 Unions without a woman on the Board of Guardians, the present +arrangement, by which the Women Inspectors can only inspect Poor Law +Institutions on sufferance, is seen to be indefensible and the need +for reform in this direction urgent. + +There is one Assistant Woman Inspector, who is a highly qualified +medical woman, in the Public Health Department of the Board. She has +been in office only a few months, but it has been remarked in more +than one quarter that the enhanced value of the recent report of +the Board's Medical Officer on Infant Mortality is due to her +co-operation. + +The jurisdiction of the Local Government Board in London is confined +to England and Wales--Scotland and Ireland having their own Boards in +Edinburgh and Dublin respectively. + +The Local Government Board for Scotland appointed a Woman Inspector +for the first time about three years ago, at a salary of £200 a year. +She is a fully qualified medical woman. Her duties include both Poor +Law Work (_e.g._ the inspection of children in poor-houses or boarded +out, enquiries into complaints of inadequate relief to widows) and +Public Health Work (_e.g._ enquiries into any special incidence of +disease). + +The Local Government Board for Ireland employs two Women Inspectors, +one at a salary of £200-10-£300 and the other at a salary of £200, to +inspect boarded-out children. + +There are no prescribed qualifications for these posts; but they +have always been, and still are, held by highly qualified +women--distinguished graduates and experienced in social work; one is +a doctor of medicine. + +Sir Henry Robinson, Vice-President of the Local Government Board for +Ireland, said in his evidence before the Royal Commission on the Civil +Service that he would like to have one or two women doctors to go +round the work-houses and to visit the female wards, but the salaries +offered by the Treasury to women doctors seemed to him too low to +attract well qualified women. + +_The Home Office_ + +It was about twenty years ago that the Home Office began to realise +that the ever-increasing number of women and girl workers in factories +and workshops made it imperative that women as well as men inspectors +should be appointed if the Factory Acts intended for the protection of +workers were to be effectually enforced. There was no doubt even from +the first about the usefulness of these Women Inspectors, but in ten +years' time the number appointed for the whole of the United Kingdom +had only increased to eight. At the beginning of the present year, +1913, they numbered eighteen, and only within the last few months has +this number been increased to twenty. + +There is one Woman Inspector of Prisons at a salary of £300-15-£400. +(The lowest salary received by Men Inspectors is £600-20-£700.) + +There is also one Woman Assistant Inspector of Reformatories and +Industrial Schools. Her salary is £200-10-£300, whilst that of Men +Assistant Inspectors is £250-15-£400. + +Women Factory Inspectors are appointed in the same way as men. A +register of candidates is kept in the office, in which the name of +every applicant is entered. When a vacancy occurs a selection is made +from the list, and the best qualified candidates are interviewed by +a Committee of Selection, consisting of the Parliamentary +Under-Secretary, the Private Secretary, the Chief Inspector of +Factories and the Chief Woman Inspector. Generally speaking, about +one half of the candidates interviewed are selected to sit for an +examination in general subjects. At the end of two years' probation +a qualifying examination in Factory Law and Sanitary Science must be +passed. + +The Principal Woman Inspector is responsible to the Chief Inspector +of Factories for the administration of the Women Inspectors' work +throughout the United Kingdom. Women Inspectors are stationed at +Manchester, Birmingham, Glasgow, and Belfast. The work of the Women +Inspectors is so organised as to be entirely separate from that of the +Men Inspectors, although they cover the same ground. The nature and +scope of the women's work is so generally known that it is perhaps +unnecessary to describe it in much detail. Investigations into cases +of accident affecting women and girl workers or into complaints as to +the conditions under which they work are promptly made by the Women +Inspectors. Women Inspectors (equally with men) have power to enter +and inspect all factory and workshop premises where women and girls +are employed. They are empowered to enforce the provisions of the +Factory and Truck Acts and to prosecute in cases of breach of the law. +They conduct their own prosecutions. + +The reports of the Women Inspectors evoked much appreciative comment +during a recent debate in the House of Commons. Some interesting +remarks on their work are also to be found in the evidence given +before the Royal Commission on the Civil Service by Sir Edward Troup, +K.C.B., Permanent Under-Secretary of the Home Office. + +The number of Women Inspectors at present employed is not nearly +large enough to cope with the work that needs to be done. It must +be remembered that the staff enumerated above is responsible for the +inspection of factories and workshops in Scotland and Ireland as well +as in England, and that the number of women engaged in industrial work +has increased during the last five years from about one and a half +millions to two millions. The necessity of increasing the number of +Women Inspectors has frequently been urged upon the Government in +the House of Commons and in the press, and it seems probable that the +Government must soon yield to this pressure. + +The following extract from the _Women's Trade Union League Quarterly +Review_, July 1913, may be of interest in this connection:-- + +"That the Women Inspectors' staff in particular is far below the +numerical strength which would enable it to cope adequately--we do not +say completely--with the task presented to it, has long been patent +to every one who knows anything of the industrial world and the +part taken in it by the woman worker. But in 1912 promotions and +resignations left gaps in the already meagre ranks which for some time +were not filled even by recruits, with the result that the number +of inspections was necessarily reduced in proportion. To those who +realise, as we do, the importance of the women inspectors' visits, +both in detecting infringements of the law and in making clear its +provisions and their value to the employer and worker alike, this +decrease, even for a time, of the opportunities which Miss Anderson's +staff enjoy of exercising their beneficent and educative influence +seems altogether deplorable. The recent promise of the Home Secretary +to increase that staff by two is very welcome, but we cannot pretend +to think that such an increase will meet the need which these pages +reveal." + +There is one Woman Inspector of Prisons, a qualified medical woman, +who acts also as Assistant Inspector of State and Certified Inebriate +Reformatories. Her salary is £300-15-£400, whilst the lowest salary +received by Men Inspectors is £600-20-£700. + +There is one Woman Assistant Inspector of Reformatories and Industrial +Schools in Great Britain. Her salary is £200-10-£300, whilst that of +Men Assistant Inspectors is £250-15-£400. + +_The Board of Trade_ + +The first woman to be admitted to the higher branches of the Board +of Trade was appointed as a Labour Correspondent in 1893. In 1903 she +became the Senior Investigator for Women's Industries, the salary of +the post being fixed at £450. A Senior Investigator's Assistant was +also appointed at a salary of £120-10-£200, but the salary has now +been increased to £200-£300. These posts are open only to University +women with high honours. + +The Senior Investigator, with the help of her Assistant, undertakes +special enquiries into the conditions in women's industries. Perhaps +her most important function is to originate investigations concerning +women, which will yield information likely to be useful to the +Department in the future, when some particular question comes up for +discussion or decision. For instance, when the question of bringing +laundries within the scope of the Trade Boards Act was under +discussion, the investigations previously made by the Women +Investigators into wages and conditions proved invaluable. + +There are also three Women Investigators appointed in connection +with the Trade Boards. Their duty is to assist in the collection of +information relating to the scheduled trades, in all of which a large +number of women is employed. They may be called upon to help in the +preliminary work involved in setting up new Trade Boards. They explain +as far as necessary the provisions of the Act to the working women +concerned get nominations of workers to sit on those Boards and +otherwise assist the Boards in carrying out their functions. They also +conduct inspections to see that the law is carried out. + +All these appointments are made by the President of the Board of Trade +on the recommendation of the Civil Service Commissioners. + +_Labour Exchanges_ + +The establishment of Labour Exchanges under the Board of Trade some +years ago gave occasion for the appointment of a considerable number +of women to responsible posts. On the organising staff at the Central +Office there is a Principal Woman Officer at £400-15-£450, who is +responsible for the organisation of the women's work in all the Labour +Exchanges. She has an Assistant at £150-£7, 10s.--£200. A woman also +acts as Secretary to the large London Juvenile Advisory Committee. She +has the acting rank of an Assistant Divisional Officer, although her +salary (£300-15-£400) is less than that received by men Assistant +Divisional Officers. + +There are nine Senior Organising Officers with salaries of +£250-10-£350, six of whom are women. The three men holding these +appointments deal with Juvenile work only, whereas some of the women +are in charge of both Women's and Juvenile work. Of the five Junior +Organising Officers at £200--£7, 10s.--£250, three are women. The nine +Assistant Organising Officers at £150--£7, 10s.--£200 are all women. +All these officers are engaged in organising the work of the Juvenile +and Women's Departments all over the country, and inspecting local +offices. There are also twenty secretaries to Juvenile Advisory +Committees, who may be either men or women. The salary for these posts +is £150-5--£200. + +In the Divisional Offices there are some staff posts open to women +at a salary of £200 to £300. Their work is purely clerical, and is +concerned with Unemployment Insurance. + +The original appointments in this branch of the Board of Trade were +made by a Selection Committee on which the Civil Service Commissioners +were represented. Applications were invited by advertisement, and +a large number of candidates was interviewed. The more recent +appointments have been filled by candidates who have first appeared +before a Board, and have then passed a qualifying examination, +conducted by the Civil Service Commission. + +_Board of Education_ + +The Board of Education (or the Education Department, as it was +then called) was established in consequence of the passing of the +Elementary Education Act of 1870. Its jurisdiction was and still is +limited to England and Wales. + +Notwithstanding that it was responsible to Parliament for regulating +the conduct of public elementary education all over the country, +and that in those schools there were hundreds of women teachers and +thousands of little girl pupils, it seems not to have occurred to +the Department to call in the aid of women either as inspectors +or administrators until the appointment in 1884 of a Directress of +Needlework. A Directress of Cookery was added in 1891, and laundry +work was brought under her supervision in 1893. It was only when +the passing of the Education Act of 1893 had brought other forms of +education--secondary, technical, and scientific--more completely under +the supervision of the Department that the need for Women Inspectors +began to be felt. In justice to the Department it must be said that +having once realised the need, they did not meet it grudgingly. The +first Women Inspectors were appointed in 1904, and by the spring of +1905 there were no less than twelve, one of whom was appointed as +Chief. Since then the number has been steadily increasing, and there +are now 45--a much more satisfactory rate of progress than that of the +Women Factory Inspectors. + +_Educational Inspectors._--There are now 1 Chief Woman Inspector, at +a salary of £650; 45 Inspectors, 8 at £400-10-£500, and 35 at +£200-15-£400. + +The method of appointment of Women Inspectors' is similar to that of +men--_i.e._, by nomination of the President of the Board of Education. +The Chief Woman Inspector first interviews candidates, weighs their +qualifications, and reports upon them to the Secretary. There is no +examination on appointment. Besides academic qualifications, which +are the same as those of men, many of the Inspectors have special +qualifications, as well as having had practical experience in +teaching. + +A special class of work is allotted to each Inspector: about 17 of +them are occupied in inspecting Girls' and Infants' Public Elementary +Schools: 15 are responsible for Domestic Subject Centres in Elementary +Schools: 4 for Girls' and Mixed Secondary Schools: 3 for Training +Colleges (women's and mixed): and 3 again for Domestic and Trade +Courses and Girls' Clubs. + +In the case of secondary schools, the Women Inspectors pay special +attention to women's subjects, but they also take part in full +inspections. They are not in charge of districts, and therefore do +not carry on the miscellaneous correspondence with the Local Education +Authorities which falls to the lot of a District Inspector. In +relation to domestic subjects, however, the Women Inspectors are +practically in charge of districts, and deal directly with Local +Education Authorities. They inspect the work done by girls, and +look into the organisation of the schools with regard to health, +suitability of curricula, etc. + +In the case of elementary schools, the Women Inspectors are attached +to the various districts and are directed by the District Inspectors +(men) as occasion requires, to deal with infants' and mixed schools, +and to carry out routine inspections of public elementary schools. + +_Medical Inspectors._--There are one Senior Medical Officer at +£600-£800; one Junior Medical Officer at £400-20-£500; and also three +Inspectors of Physical Exercises at £200-15-£400. + +The Women Medical Inspectors take part in the work of the medical +branch in the same way as men; Physical Exercises come under their +jurisdiction. + +The Board of Education also employs three women on the permanent staff +of the Department of Special Enquiries and Reports. The salaries are +£100-£7, 10s-£180, and the posts are pensionable. The duties consist +partly of library work and partly of giving assistance in the general +intelligence work of the office. + +The Right Hon. A.H. Dyke Acland said in his evidence before the Royal +Commission on the Civil Service that he did not see why at the Board +of Education the same sort of women who become good inspectors and +headmistresses should not take part in the administrative work of the +office. + +_Scotch Education Department_ + +The first Woman Inspector was appointed by the Scotch Education +Department in 1902, and two others were appointed in 1910. Their scale +of salary is £200-15-£400. They are strictly specialist inspectors for +domestic economy subjects, cookery, laundry, etc., for which they have +qualifications including experience in teaching and inspecting such +subjects. + +Specially qualified women are occasionally employed by the Department +to inspect girls' schools, and are paid a fee according to the time +occupied. + +_National Education Board, Ireland_ + +Two Women Inspectors are employed by the Irish National Education +Board. Their salary is £150-10-£300, the same as that of Men Junior +Inspectors; Men Senior Inspectors receive £300-20-£700. + +There are two Women Organisers, whose duty it is to organise weak +schools. + +There are also 14 Organisers of Domestic Economy; their work is +similar to that of Inspectors; they travel about and have authority +in the schools; they do not inspect general subjects, but confine +themselves to cookery, laundry and domestic science. + +There are also six Women Organisers of Kindergarten. + +_The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries._ + +This Department has recently employed a few women upon various kinds +of scientific work. Three women are appointed as Assistant Naturalists +in the Fishery Branch, at a salary of £150 per annum, and two as +Junior Assistant Naturalists at £2 per week. They are appointed on +the nomination of the President, without examination, but they must +possess the necessary scientific qualifications and have taken a +recognised course of study. These posts are non-pensionable. The +Fishery Branch deals with questions relating to the natural history +and diseases of fish, fish-hatcheries and laboratories, the protection +of undersized fish, the effect of methods of capture, international +investigations, and grants in aid of fishery research. The women +are engaged upon the same work as men, except that they do not write +technical reports and are not liable to be called upon for sea duty. + +In the Herbarium and Library of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew there +are two Women Assistants at £150-10-£300 (the Men Assistants' scale is +£150-15-£300). Scientific qualifications are required for these posts, +and there is an examination by the Civil Service Commission. The +Library is maintained for official consultative work, to supply the +basis of an accurate nomenclature throughout the establishment and +as an aid to research. The Herbarium aims at representing the entire +vegetation of the earth with especial regard to that of British +possessions. A scheme for preparing a complete series of floras of +India and the Colonies was sanctioned by the Government in 1856, and +has been steadily prosecuted ever since. The principle work of the +staff is the correct identification of the specimens which reach +Kew from every part of the world, and their incorporation in the +Herbarium. It is visited for the purposes of study and research by +botanists from every country. + +The scientific work in the various branches of the Board of +Agriculture and Fisheries would seem to afford some scope for women of +scientific attainment. Sir T. Elliott, formerly Permanent Secretary +to the Board, in his evidence before the Royal Commission on the Civil +Service, said he considered that women could do good work in many +directions, and that their help might be especially valuable in +entomology. + +_The Public Trustee's Office._ + +The Public Trustee's office was established in 1908, under the Act of +1906. Two Women Inspectors--or more correctly speaking, Visitors--are +now employed, one of whom receives a salary of £200 and the other +£180. + +These Visitors are attached to the special Department set up to take +charge of children (1) left by will to the guardianship of the Public +Trustee, or (2) who have been awarded damages in the High Court either +for injury or for the loss of parents or guardians. + +As regards the first-named, the Public Trustee has express powers +under his rules to act either as sole guardian or co-trustee. In these +cases the Women Visitors assist the Public Trustee in discharging his +trust. They visit the children, go thoroughly into the circumstances +of each case, consulting with relatives and family solicitors. Schools +are chosen, holidays arranged, careers decided upon, apprenticeship or +training provided for; medical attendance is secured and even clothing +attended to. + +In all cases concerning children in which an action for damages has +been brought under the Common Law or under Lord Campbell's Act, the +money awarded as compensation is paid over to the Public Trustee, +unless the judge otherwise directs. A large part of the Women +Visitors' work consists of supervising these compensation cases. It is +important to see that the money is spent upon the children, and in +the manner most likely to promote their future welfare--_e.g._, +in providing education or special training. In the case of injured +children, proper medical attention is secured and any instruments or +artificial limbs which may be necessary. + +It is becoming increasingly the practice, when funds are raised +locally to help special cases, to place the money collected in the +hands of the Public Trustee, instead of appointing local trustees. +Where the beneficiaries of such funds are women or children--very +often they are widows--it becomes the duty of the Women Visitors to +find out on the spot how the money can best be applied, and to advise +the Public Trustee accordingly. + +In all cases the supervision is continued as long as it is required, +but where relatives are found to be competent and willing to take +charge of children the responsibility is left to them. + +Such work, concerned as it is with the young and the helpless, seems +peculiarly suited to women. The Public Trustee in his evidence before +the Royal Commission on the Civil Service, stated that the women +already appointed had proved themselves "most efficient." + + +_The National Health Insurance Commissions._ + +The Inspectors appointed by the National Health Insurance Commissions +are so recent an institution that it is not yet possible to say +whether the work to be performed by this Department will afford scope +for the employment of a large number of educated women. + +It is satisfactory to note, however, that the salaries of men and +women more nearly approximate to equality than in any previous +appointments. The salaries of the Women Commissioners in all four +countries are the same as those of the men, viz., £1,000 per annum. + +The English Commission has 10, the Scotch 1, and the Irish 1 Woman +Inspector at £300-10-£400. Men Inspectors begin at the same salary but +rise to £500. + +The English Commission has 25, the Welsh 3, the Scotch 5, and the +Irish 4 Assistant Women Inspectors at £100-10-£300. Men Assistant +Inspectors begin at the same salary, but after two years they rise by +£15 to £350. + +The English Commission has 19, the Welsh 1, the Scotch 5, and +the Irish 5 Women Health Insurance Officers, on a scale of salary +£80-5-£110, after two years rising by £7, 10s. to £150. This scale is +precisely the same as that of Men Health Insurance Officers. + +The duties of Men and Women Inspectors and Officers under the National +Health Insurance Commission are identical in character and scope. + +The primary function of these officers is to impose upon the whole +adult population the new conditions created by the Act--_i.e._, they +have to ensure the proper payment of contributions in respect of all +persons liable to be insured. + +Trades are assigned to Men or Women Inspectors according as a trade +employs men or women in greater numbers. + +The Insurance Commissioners work through the Inspectors in all matters +that are more susceptible to local treatment than to treatment by +correspondence. The Inspectors obtain information and make local +enquiries as to the facts in cases submitted to the Commissioners for +determination under various sections of the Act. + +An interesting account of the very varied duties which fall to the +lot of these Officers will be found in the first "Report on the +Administration of the National Insurance Act," Part I., which has +recently been published. The following extract from that Report will +give some idea of the work done by the Women Inspectors, and the +estimate which has been formed of it. + +"Inasmuch as the Insurance Commission is the first Government +Department in which a woman staff has been appointed from the outset, +special mention may be made of one portion of the work carried out +by the women inspectors during the past year. The enquiry held in the +autumn by Mr Pope on the objections raised to the inclusion of +married women outworkers within the provisions of Part I. of the Act +necessitated much careful investigation among employers and outworkers +in a large number of trades all over the country, such as tailoring, +glove-making, lace manufacture, carding of hooks and eyes, pins and +needles, buttons and fish-hooks at Birmingham, net-making at +Bridport, chain-making at Cradley Heath, straw hat-making at Luton, +chair-making, box-making, and boot, shoe, and hosiery manufacture. +This investigation was undertaken by the women staff. The enquiry +entailed hundreds of visits, both in the poorest parts of industrial +towns and in remote country districts, and in interviews with +employers and workers great tact and patience were required. Of the +evidence given by the women inspectors, Mr Pope reports that they +'one and all gave evidence with extreme moderation, impartiality and +discretion. The conspicuous fairness and the success with which they +had collected information were frequently a matter of commendation +from employers, who informed me that the enquiry had afforded them +information about their own trades which years of work in it had not +made known to them.'" + +_The General Post Office_ + +This paper would not be complete without some reference to the large +number--now nearly 3,000--of women clerks employed by the General Post +Office, all of whom enter the service by open competition, either +as girl clerks between sixteen and eighteen years of age or as women +clerks between eighteen and twenty. Their duties are necessarily of a +clerical nature, and in their earlier years at least they can hardly, +perhaps, be included in the "higher grades." Yet the supervisory posts +which become necessary wherever large numbers of workers are employed +call for considerable administrative ability and are proportionately +better remunerated. All women clerks are eligible for these posts, and +indeed they are never filled in any other way. + +The highest post open to a woman clerk in the General Post Office is +that of Superintendent at the _Savings Bank,_ the present holder +of which is on a scale of £350-20-£600. There are 4 Deputy +Superintendents at £270-15-£330; 13 Assistant Superintendents at +£210-10-£260; and 53 Principal Clerks at £150-10-£200. The Savings +Bank has the largest group of women clerks--numbering 1,210--of any +department, and of these 150 are in the first class. + +The next largest group of Women Clerks is in the _Money Order +Department;_ in this office the women outnumber the men in the +proportion of 5 to 1. They number 592, of whom 67 are in the +first class. There is one Superintendent at £350-20-£500; 1 Deputy +Superintendent at £270-15-£330; 5 Assistant Superintendents at +£210-10-£260; and 24 Principal Clerks at £150-10-£200. + +The _Accountant General's Department_ has 1 Superintendent at +£280-15-£400; 3 Assistant Superintendents at £210-10-£260; and 3 +Principal Clerks at £150-10-£200. The staff of clerks numbers 416, of +whom 57 are in the first class. + +The _London Telephone Service_ has 1 Assistant Superintendent at +£210-10-£260 and 5 Principal Clerks at £150-10-£200, with a staff of +278 clerks, of whom 21 are in the first class. + +The _Accountants Offices_ are the only ones in Edinburgh and Dublin +which employ women as Clerks. In Dublin there is 1 Superintendent at +£210-10-£250 and 2 Assistant Superintendents at £150-10-£170. Of +the staff of 61 clerks, 7 are first class. In Edinburgh there is 1 +Superintendent at £200-10-£250, and 1 Assistant Superintendent at +£150-10-£190. Of the staff of 69, 8 are in the first class. + +In consequence of the employment of so large a number of women, the +General Post Office found it necessary many years ago to employ a +Woman Medical Officer. The present holder of this office receives +a salary of £350-20-£500. She has the help of two Assistants, whose +salary is £180-15-£300. + +A few posts which may properly be deemed "higher" are also open to +Women Counter Clerks and Telegraphists. In the London Postal District +there are 3 Supervisors at £180-10-£250, 50 Assistant Supervisors +(first class) at £140-6-£170 and 61 Assistant Supervisors (second +class) at £115-5-£130. + +In the _Central Telegraph Office_ the Chief Supervisor of Women +Telegraphists receives a salary of £180-10-£300 (not a large salary +for supervising a staff numbering nearly 1,000), the 13 Supervisors +receive £180-10-£250, and the 35 Assistant Supervisors £140-6-£170. + +The _Postal District and Telegraph Offices_ in Dublin and Edinburgh +have each one Woman Supervisor of Counter and Telegraph Clerks at +£140-6-£875. In Dublin there are 12 and in Edinburgh 6 Assistants at +£110-5-£135. There are also a number of Supervisors in the provinces +whose rates of pay vary from £149-6-£175 to £115-5-£135, according to +the size of the district. + +The _Telephone Service_ also offers a few important posts to women. +In the London Telephone Service a Woman Superintendent is appointed +at £200-10-£300, 9 Supervisors at £159-6-£190, and 40 Assistant +Supervisors at £110-5-£145. There are about 3,600 Women Telephonists +employed within the London postal area. The salaries of Supervisors in +the provinces vary from £125-5-£150 to £105-5-£120, according to the +size of the district. + +The variety of work, which is now efficiently performed by women in +the various departments above enumerated, seems to prove conclusively +that when other branches are opened to them they will be equally +successful. + +In the statements recently submitted to the Royal Commission of the +Civil Service on behalf of various women's organisations, the reasons +for throwing open to women the more highly paid and responsible posts +were admirably set forth. + +On behalf of the Association of Headmistresses it was stated by Miss +R. Oldham:-- + + "In asking that in future some of the more highly paid + and responsible posts in the Civil Service should be thrown + open to women, the Headmistresses are conscious of the + fact that modern economic conditions have evolved the + woman who must of necessity, as well as by choice, + become self-supporting. The professions of teaching, + medicine, art, and literature offer openings with adequate + remuneration for the highly educated young woman of + to-day. Those lower branches of the Civil Service which, + with a few exceptions, alone are open to women do not + supply posts of enough responsibility and administrative + power to prove attractive to able women of secondary + school and university education, many of whom, in the + opinion of the Headmistresses are fitted, both by their + education and by their natural ability, to fill positions + of equal responsibility with their brothers. + + "They desire to submit the following reasons why + women should be considered eligible for positions of + administrative responsibility in the service of the + State :-- + + "(1) Women have shown by their success in positions + of great responsibility that they are capable of + undertaking high administrative work. + + "(2) Women have special gifts for social investigation + and inquiry, and special knowledge in many + important subjects, which ought to be used + in the service of the State. + + "(3) Under present conditions of women's employment + in the Service, the ablest and most + highly qualified women do not enter it. + + "(4) The presence of a large number of women in + the lower branches of the Civil Service makes + it desirable that there should be women + employed in higher and more responsible + posts. This would have the effect of ensuring + good discipline and judicious promotion. + + "(5) The present almost total exclusion of women + from high and responsible posts has the effect + of discrediting them as applicants for such + posts outside the Service. Private employers + when asked to give women opportunities for + rising to posts of responsibility, are able to + point to the failure of the Government to + do so." + + In the statement submitted by Mrs W.L. + Courtney on behalf of the Council on Women's + Employment in the Civil Service the claim was + made:-- + + "That women should be eligible for first division + appointments, or equivalent appointments, in suitable + offices, such as the Education Office, the Local Government + Board, the Home Office, the Insurance Commission, + and the Board of Trade. It has already been found + necessary to appoint women to responsible posts in the + Inspectorate of each of these offices, and the same + reasons which justify those appointments point also to + the desirability of appointing women to positions in the + corresponding internal administrative service." + +There is another point to be remembered in this connection; it is +important that the recommendations made by Women Inspectors should +have the chance of being considered and acted upon by women in an +administrative capacity, as well as by men. Otherwise there is danger +that the women's point of view put forward by an Inspector may be +overlooked or her recommendations brushed aside. + +Miss Penrose, Principal of Somerville College, Oxford, in her +statement for the Royal Commission, said: + + "In branches of the Service, such as the Home Office, + the Local Government Board, and the Board of Trade, in + which a good deal of work is done, or should be done, by + women because it is concerned with women, I think it + would be an advantage to have one or more women on + the general administrative staff, which deals with the + work of the departments as a whole. + + "If a board which deals with human beings, does not + employ women except to carry out the policy of the + Board, after that policy has been initiated, shaped and + embodied in regulations, it may not infrequently be found + that regulations unsuitable in some respects to be applied + to women have been drafted, or that unnecessary differences + of treatment have been created. Just as in so far + as women look at things from a different angle it is + important that their point of view should be at the service + of a department at as early a stage as possible." + +An illustration of this may be found in the draft Order for the +regulation of Poor Law Institutions which is now before the public. +This draft has been drawn up by a departmental committee of the Local +Government Board, composed entirely of men, notwithstanding that it +will regulate the administration of institutions staffed by women +and having large numbers of women and children as inmates. It is not +surprising to find that the draft Order meets with the disapproval of +many women engaged in poor law work. + +The Council on Women's Employment also claimed:-- + + "That women should be made eligible or considered + for appointment-- + + "As scientific specialists, especially museum assistants + and keepers. The area of choice would thus be enlarged + in cases where there is sometimes a very small number of + suitable candidates. Women have been notably successful + in original work in various departments of botany, and + have done valuable original work in bacteriology and + archaeology. They are already employed as scientific + specialists in certain departments and in temporary work + for the British Museum, though hitherto excluded from + its permanent service. + + "As librarians, keepers of records and papers, and + assistants to the holders of these offices, and to positions + requiring qualifications for statistical work and historical + knowledge, such as those in the Public Record Office. + + "That appointments in suitable offices should be opened + to women between the ages of 19 and 24, who have either + passed or can pass an examination equivalent to that of + male second division clerks, or clerks of the intermediate + class, according to the practice of the department in + filling its appointments. It seems desirable that the + abilities of women who would otherwise be occupied in + business, teaching, secretarial and clerical, and other work, + much of which is closely comparable with that of second + division and intermediate clerks, should be available for + the work of the Civil Service, especially in the offices + already mentioned in connection with the first division + appointments." + +These claims, pertinent as they are, and strongly as they should be +urged, need to be extended still further. + +Women claim to be admitted to share in the administrative work, not +only of those departments directly concerned with women, but also +in those in which the work concerns equally men and women as +citizens--_e.g._, the Treasury, the Foreign Office, the Colonial +Office, the Inland Revenue. No one could argue that the work of these +departments is unsuitable for women, any more than is the work of the +General Post Office, in which they have so conspicuously succeeded. +Even the War Office, with the charge of so many soldiers' wives and +children living in barracks, removed from the jurisdiction of all +civic services, and the control of so large a number of Army Nurses, +needs women amongst its administrators. + +The claim must also be made quite clearly, that in throwing open these +posts to women, the same method of recruiting must be employed as +for men, and the remuneration must be at the same rate. In asking for +these opportunities women are simply asking that the sex disability +which at present bars them from the majority of posts in the service, +may be removed. They do not seek admission in some special way, nor do +they wish to undercut men by accepting lower salaries. They ask that +the sex barrier may be removed in the case of both Class I. and Class +II. appointments--in other words, that these appointments may be open +to them on the same conditions as they are or may be open to men. + +In the case of the majority of the appointments hitherto held by +women, some care has been taken to put them on a different footing +from those of men; in these instances it is not easy to compare the +work of women with that of men, or to urge the claim of women to +be paid at the same rate as men for work of equal value. There are, +however, some conspicuous instances--_e.g._, of the Factory Inspectors +and Inspectors of Schools--in which no such differentiation is +possible and in which the only reason for paying the women less than +the men seems to be that given by the ex-Permanent Secretary of the +Treasury in his evidence before the Royal Commission on the Civil +Service, "that women ought to be got as cheaply as possible, and that +if they can be got for less, they ought not to be paid the same as +men." + +There seems some ground for believing that official opinion in +this matter is undergoing modification, since in the case of later +appointments--_e.g._, in the Labour Exchanges and in the National +Health Insurance Commission--the tendency has been to approximate the +salaries of women much more closely to those of men and even in some +instances to make them identical. It is therefore reasonable to hope +that the principle of equal pay for equal work will, before long, be +extended to appointments of longer standing, in which its application +would be no less just than in the case of new appointments. + + + + +II + +THE LOWER GRADES AND THE PRESENT POSITION + + +So far as the position of its women workers is concerned, the State is +very far from being the model employer it sometimes professes to +be. When one considers the very wide disparity existing between the +salaries for similar work of women and of men, one realises to what +an enormous extent the Exchequer, and, consequently, the taxpayer, has +benefited by the economies practised at the expense of the women Civil +Servants ever since their introduction in the early seventies. +There is not a shadow of doubt that economy was the motive for their +employment, but even economy would not have justified the continued +increase in their numbers, had they not exhibited what has been +called by a high official, "remarkable efficiency," and also the very +desirable qualities of docility, patience, and conscientiousness. + +When the Government first took over the telegraphs from the private +companies, it found women in their employ, and decided to retain them +in the service. Women Telegraphists and Counter Clerks are now a very +large body numbering in London about 2,000, and in the Provinces about +5,000,--a total of 7,000 women as compared with 16,000 men. The duties +of men and women telegraphists are more closely comparable than their +respective work in any other class in the Civil Service, practically +the only differentiation being that women are debarred from night +duty. They are also generally exempt from Sunday duty, excessive late +duty, and special duties in connection with race meetings, although +the Hobhouse Committee in 1907 recommended that women should do the +Sunday work if required. (As, however, payment for this is made at a +higher rate, there is usually no lack of volunteers.) Their scale +of salary in the Central Telegraph Office is 18s. a week at eighteen +years of age, rising to a maximum of 40s. The men's scale is 20s. +rising to 65s. When the necessary technical qualifications are +acquired, an allowance of 3s. a week carried beyond the maximum and +pensionable, is now given to both sexes alike. Formerly the technical +allowance for women was 1s. 6d. per week only, and this would appear +to account for the lower proportion of women who have qualified for +the technical increment. + +There appears to be a tendency to stereotype certain kinds of work for +men only, in order to justify the differentiation in pay, but in +point of fact, most of the work now exclusively allotted to male +telegraphists was at one time done by women. The work done by men and +women Counter Clerks is identical. The women in the Telegraph Service +have no separate organisation, but combine with the men in the Postal +Telegraph Clerks' Association, which has a large number of branches, +and carries on a very active campaign for improvement in pay and +conditions of service. Equal pay for equal work is one of the planks +in its platform, and formed part of the case put forward before the +Select Committee on Post Office Servants last year. + +Women Clerks are employed in the great financial Services of the +General Post Office, the Savings Bank Department, Money Order +Department (including the Postal Order Branch), Accountant-General's +Department, and the Controller's Office of the London Telephone +Service, as well as in the Accountant's Departments of the General +Post Offices in Edinburgh and Dublin. In all, they number nearly +3,000. It may, perhaps, be of interest to go into the history of this +class. + +Women Clerks were first introduced into the General Post Office +in 1871 by Mr Scudamore, who considered that as women were more +"fault-finding" than men, they might well be used as "a check on the +somewhat illiterate postmasters of the United Kingdom in the +interests of a somewhat long-suffering public." Entry was at first +by nomination, but in 1881 the appointment of Women Clerks was thrown +open to the public by competitive examination by Mr Fawcett, who was +then Postmaster General. This step met with some opposition, and Queen +Victoria even caused a letter to be written to Mr Fawcett expressing +her strong disapproval of the change. The Postmaster-General, however, +carried his point, and fixed the scale of salary at £65, rising by £3 +per annum to £80. When the working day was increased from six to seven +hours, the maximum was raised to £100. The revisions of the Tweedmouth +Inter-Departmental Committee came into force in 1897, involving many +concessions to the male staff, and simultaneously the minimum salary +of the Women Clerks was, without any warning, reduced for new entrants +to £55 per annum, and the increment for the first six years was +reduced to £2, 10s. + +Realising the defencelessness of their position, the Women Clerks +formed an Association in 1901, and so strong was the case for +improvement which they were able to bring before the Hobhouse +Parliamentary Committee of 1906, that in spite of considerable +misrepresentation of their work in the evidence given by Heads of +Departments, they were able not only to get back the 1881 minimum of +£65, but were awarded further an increased increment of £5 throughout +the scale and a rise of £10 in the maximum. This was the position +until December 1911, when a tentative scheme was introduced in the +Money Order Department to hand over all the simpler duties to a new +class of Assistant Women Clerks with an eight-hour day and a wage +of 18s. rising to 34s. a week. The Association of Post Office Women +Clerks, the basis of which is "equal pay and opportunities for women +with men in the Civil Service," and which therefore necessarily +stands for simplification of the classes of employment, regarded +the restriction of a fresh grade of women to yet another water-tight +compartment at a low wage as in itself an evil. But apart from this, +they looked upon the scheme as a deliberate evasion of the Hobhouse +Committee's recommendations. So strong was the criticism levelled at +the new scheme, both by Members of Parliament and the Press, that the +Postmaster-General, Mr Herbert Samuel, consented to refer the +matter to the Select Committee on the Post Office (known as the Holt +Committee)[1], which was appointed in the early part of 1912, and +he gave an undertaking that no more appointments to the new grade +should be made in the Money Order Department until the Committee had +reported, The value of this concession was considerably lessened by +its limited application, and the fact that many Assistant Women Clerks +were subsequently appointed to the London Telephone Service, clearly +indicated the intention of the authorities to proceed with the +development of the scheme in a Department which provided an easier +field of operation in the shape of new work and a new staff taken over +from the National Telephone Company. + +In 1897 the class of Girl Clerks was created, to undertake some of the +simpler duties in the Savings Bank Department, hitherto performed by +Women Clerks. They were subsequently introduced into the Money +Order Department and the Controller's Office of the London Telephone +Service, and there are approximately 250 now employed. They take +the same examination as Women Clerks, but at a lower age--sixteen +to eighteen--and are grouped apart for the purpose of marking. Their +hours of duty are seven daily, and their salary £42, raising by £3 per +annum, to £48. They are in reality a probationary class, and become +Women Clerks automatically after two years' service. The introduction +of this class was not considered by the Department to be an +administrative success, as the obligation to make them Women Clerks in +two years prevented their being employed in sufficiently large numbers +to effect any appreciable economy. The scheme for the introduction of +the grade of Assistant Woman Clerk involved the abolition of the Girl +Clerk. + +The Women Clerks are an analogous grade to the Male Clerks of the +Second Division who are common to the whole Civil Service, and they +do practically the same class of work. The examinations for the +two classes are somewhat severe in character and are roughly +comparable.[2] There is, however, a wide disparity in the salaries +paid, as will be seen from the following comparison:-- + + SECOND DIVISION CLERKS. + + £70 by £7, 10s. per an. to £130 + thence by £10 per an. to £200 + thence by £10 per an. to £300 + (Efficiency Bar at £130 and + £200) + + Above the salary of £300 advancement + to higher posts by promotion. + + + WOMEN CLERKS. + + _Second Class_-- + £65 by £5 per an. to £100 + (No Efficiency Bar) + + _First Class _(by promotion)-- + £115 by £5 to £140 + + Above the rank of First Class + Clerk there are certain higher + posts which constitute a percentage + of 4.6 of the total + number of First and Second + Class Clerks. + +The existence of this double standard of payment for the same kind +of work is not only an injustice to the women concerned, but is a +standing menace to the men, who rightly consider that the presence +of women as a blackleg class keeps down their wages and reduces their +prospect of promotion. A sense of irritation and dissatisfaction is +thus engendered between the two sexes. The maintenance of separate +staffs of similar status but with different rates of remuneration, +enables the department to play off one against the other, for the +existence of a lower paid class makes it increasingly difficult for +the Men Clerks to substantiate a claim for better pay themselves. The +standard of their work is raised by the "moving-down" or "degrading" +of duties, without any improvement in pay such as they would probably +be able to obtain if women were not involuntarily undercutting them. +Women fully sympathise with their male colleagues, whose prospects +are injured in this way, but they insist that the only solution of +the difficulty is equal treatment and fair and open competition. +The Association of Clerks of the Second Division supported the Women +Clerks' claim for equal pay for equal work in their evidence before +the Royal Commission on the Civil Service, and it is gratifying that, +in spite of the determined policy of the department to adhere as far +as possible to the absurd segregation of the sexes, the two organised +bodies of Men and Women Clerks are on excellent terms. + +In 1883 the class of Women Sorters was instituted, its original scale +of pay ranging from 12s. per week, increasing by annual increments of +1s. to 20s. per week. In 1885 a first class was created with a maximum +of 30s. per week. The Tweedmouth Committee of 1897 abolished the +classification, and substituted therefor an efficiency bar at 21s., +so that, unless incompetent, all the Women Sorters have a right to +proceed to the maximum of 30s. Since the salary was fixed at that +figure, the work of the Sorters has greatly improved in character. +Originally introduced for the purpose of sorting, arranging, and +filing the multitudinous kinds of official documents and papers, +they have by degrees taken over more and more of the simpler duties +formerly performed by the Women Clerks, until, at the present day, +it is no exaggeration to say that nearly one-half of their duties +consists of elementary clerical work. The Women Sorters are recruited +from an examination of the same standard as that hitherto applied +to Telegraphists, and the Women Sorters' Association claims that the +principle of equality between Sorters and Telegraphists, which was +recommended to the department by the Tweedmouth Committee in 1897, +should be applied to the Women Sorters. Prior to 1900, vacancies +occurring in the female staff at the Returned Letter Office were +filled by transferred Women Telegraphists, but since that date, +vacancies have been filled by successful candidates at the Women +Sorters' examinations, who are awarded the Women Telegraphists' scale +of pay. There is, therefore, the anomaly of two different scales +of pay being given to successful candidates in the Women Sorters' +examinations. The Women Sorters also claim some outlet, or prospect of +advancement, other than that provided by the "Senior Sorterships," +of which there are a few in each department, carrying a supervising +allowance of 3s. a week; this claim has been partly met by the +apportionment of the new posts of Assistant Women Clerks previously +mentioned. + +Women Telephone Operators are a large and rapidly growing class, +recruited entirely by nomination followed by a qualifying examination. +They number at the present time about 4,000, including Supervisors. +The growing use of the telephone is replacing the telegraph, and +is likely to make of this class a serious rival to the grade of +Telegraphist. In this connection, it is important to recognise that +the change is likely to entail an enormous increase in the use of +cheap labour. The maximum salary of the Telephonist in London is only +28s. per week. The work is extremely exacting and exhausting to the +nervous system, so much so, that it is an absolute necessity for the +maintenance of health that proper and adequate rest-room accommodation +should be provided, and that the operators should be equipped with +apparatus of the proper type. + +The classes already mentioned have, until the present year (1913), +been recruited solely for the Post Office, but the class of Women +Typists, numbering about 600, are a Treasury Class, and are common to +the whole Civil Service, the conditions of entry varying according +to the Department. In the Post Office alone, are Typists recruited +by open competitive examination. The scale of salary is 20s. a week, +rising in three years to 26s.: they then have the option of qualifying +in shorthand, after which they can rise to 31s. per week. In the Post +Office, however, the number allowed to qualify in this way is +limited to 50 per cent. of the staff. The supervising posts are: +Superintendent, 35s. a week, and Chief Superintendent, 40s. a week. +No higher positions are open to Typists anywhere, no matter how good +their qualifications and educational equipment. The Association of +Civil Service Typists claim some avenue of promotion to clerical work +in the Departments in which they serve. + +There are also about 650 women employed by the Board of Trade in the +Labour Exchange Service. With the exception of about 180, who were +transferred from the Post Office for Unemployment Insurance Work under +Part II. of the National Insurance Act, these women were admitted +by the new method of recruitment adopted by the Civil Service +Commissioner under Clause VII. of the Order in Council of January +1910. Under this system, applications are invited, and a certain +number of apparently suitable candidates are interviewed by a +committee of selection, and those chosen for appointment are +subsequently required to pass a qualifying examination. The +educational standard of this examination, for both men and women, +is so low that it appears to be designed, not for the purpose +of selecting candidates of good general education, but merely to +eliminate the illiterate. + +The scale of salary for these posts is the same for women as for men, +and is as follows:-- + + Lower Grade £60, rising by increments of £5 + per annum to £105. + Higher Grade £110, rising by increments of + £5 per annum to £150. + +There are also a few higher appointments. Women are, however, under +a particular disability in that they must wait for a vacancy in the +Higher Grade before passing on beyond £105, whilst in the case of +the Men Clerks there is no such stoppage, officers being allowed to +proceed straight on, if certified efficient. + +It will, no doubt, have been observed that the post of Women Clerk is +the highest in the Service open to women by competitive examination, +and with the exception of some sixteen or eighteen appointments in the +Board of Education, Women Clerks have hitherto been recruited for the +Post Office alone. They are now being recruited from this examination +for the National Health Insurance Commissions. The exclusion of Women +Clerks from the numerous State Departments such as the Home Office, +Local Government Board, Inland Revenue, etc., is mainly traditional, +as they are not excluded by the wording of the Order in Council of +10th January 1910 (paragraph 5, Part I.) which states that + + "all appointments ... shall be made by means of competitive + examinations according to regulations framed, or + to be from time to time framed by the Commissioners, + and approved by the Treasury, _open to all persons_(of the + requisite age, health, character, and other qualifications + prescribed in the said regulations) who may be desirous + of attending the same...." + +In this passage the word "persons" is interpreted to mean men only, +but as other professions are yielding to the pressure of modern +economic conditions and are opening their doors to women, it is +time that the State considered the advisability of profiting by the +services of women eminently fitted to perform clerical, organising, +and administrative duties, many of whom may possess the special +qualifications needed for the work in various Government Departments. + +The present limitation of the employment of women, and their lack of +prospects of advancement constitutes a serious grievance. Whilst many +avenues are open to men to improve their condition in the early years +of service, if they possess the necessary ability and enterprise, +women have no such opportunities, and have practically no chance of +advancement except by way of supervision in their own grade. Moreover, +if we look at this question from the point of view of advantage to the +community, we find that the present mode of staffing the higher posts +of the service from the male sex narrows the field of selection. It is +in the interests of the public that the best type of officer should be +secured, and not merely the best male available, and the unrestricted +admission of women to the higher classes in the Civil Service, and +their payment on the same terms as men would make for the greater +efficiency of the Department, by securing the services of highly +qualified women, who at present are not attracted by the small +salaries and the meagre prospects offered. It must also be realised by +heads of families that they have a right to expect that the service of +the State--a dignified, secure, and independent profession--should be +open to their daughters as well as to their sons. Furthermore, as +the revenue, out of which the salaries of Civil Servants are paid, is +collected from women as well as from men, women should have an equal +right to earn those salaries. + +Economy in working and simplification of administration would be +attained by abolishing the separate examinations, and allowing men and +women to enter for the same examinations on equal terms. + +There are certain advantages attached to service under the State, +which are taken into account when salaries are fixed, but the value +of these privileges to the staff is frequently over-estimated by +the outsider. For instance, security of tenure and the prospect of +a pension at retirement, often act as a deterrent to clever and +enterprising officers who, but for the sacrifice involved, would +throw up their appointment and seek more remunerative and promising +employment outside. Again, the medical attendance provided by the +Post Office is, in the case of the women employed in the Headquarters +Departments, only available in practice when they are well enough to +attend at the office to wait on the Medical Officer there. In theory, +every employée is entitled to the services of a Medical Officer at her +own home in case of serious illness, but, in fact, the Women Medical +Officers are too few to be able to give the necessary individual +attention. As an instance of this, it may be stated that to one +Department, numbering 1,800 women, the part time of one doctor only, +is allotted. + +Other advantages are a steadily progressing scale of salary, +provided that efficient service is rendered; annual leave with pay; +a reasonable working day--seven hours for the clerical force and the +typists, and eight hours for the other classes; in most Departments +payment is made for overtime; a pension on compulsory retirement after +ten years' service, except in the case of women retired on marriage, +when a gratuity is given after six years' service, amounting to +one month's salary for every year of service up to twelve years. +A compassionate allowance is also given on the same basis for both +sexes, in cases where an officer is compelled to retire through +ill-health before completing ten years' service. Sick pay is granted +up to a maximum of six months on full pay and six months on half +pay. The full period of leave is not, however, always allowed before +retirement. It is given only at the discretion of the Department, +if there is a chance of complete recovery; officers have no definite +claim to it. Although these are distinct advantages to the staff, it +must not be overlooked that it is essential for the State to offer +some inducements of this kind, in order to obtain a staff more or less +permanent who will regard their employment as a career. It is most +important for the proper conduct of a Government office that the +officials should have a lasting interest in their work, and a share in +the successful administration of the Department. + +Women Civil Servants are under the Superannuation Act of 1859 as +regards their pensions, and receive an amount equal to one-sixtieth +of their annual salary at retirement, for every year of service. Under +the Courtney Scheme of 1909, the basis of calculation is one-eightieth +instead of one-sixtieth, and the reduction in the pension is +compensated by a cash payment at retirement, or, in the event of +death occurring whilst in harness, a cash payment is made to the +next-of-kin. Women secured their exclusion from the provisions of the +latter scheme at their own request, as it was felt that the larger +pension was of more value to them than the cash payment at death or +retirement; moreover their pensions were already too small to admit of +further diminution. + +It is a general rule throughout the Service that a woman must retire +on marriage; as already mentioned, a compensating-bonus is granted in +respect of the loss of pension thereby sustained. A married woman has +no definite claim to return to her employment, should she again desire +to earn her own living, and only if widowed is she allowed, in certain +circumstances, to return to the Service. Should any other misfortune +overtake her, or should she for any other reason wish to become +economically independent, she is not allowed to earn her living by +means of her own profession of Civil Servant. This rule of the Service +undoubtedly acts as a deterrent to marriage for, according to the +statistics published, only about 3 per cent. of the whole female staff +annually leave to be married. It need hardly be pointed out that +in the present state of the law of the land, when no portion of a +husband's income is secured to his wife as a right, a woman will not +lightly throw up her means of livelihood with no prospect of returning +to it should she so desire, in order to take her chance of happiness +with a man whom the law permits to hold her in subjection body and +soul. There is another aspect of the question: Women Civil Servants +have to pass a strict medical examination before entering the Service; +they have to furnish satisfactory evidence of respectability, of the +health of their antecedents, and of a certain standard of education. +They are therefore what is known as "selected lives": if these women +are forced to remain celibate as a condition of their employment, +it is a distinct loss to the nation of a specially selected class +of potential mothers. In these days, when the declining birthrate is +causing some concern to our statesmen, it would surely be worth their +while to consider how far they are themselves contributing to the +condition of affairs which they deplore, by maintaining this rigid +regulation for the sake of a worn-out sentiment. The compulsory +resignation on marriage is a definite wrong both to the women +concerned and to the community at large, for women of selected health +and intellect are discouraged from marriage by this regulation. +Pending the final settlement of this question which is likely to be a +very controversial one, the difficulty might be met by a modification +of the existing rule allowing married women who have been Civil +Servants to return to their employment should they again desire to +earn their own living by means of the only profession for which they +have qualified. + +Women in the Civil Service are in a peculiar position with regard +to their rights as citizens. They are handicapped by all the rules +governing the political action of men, while they are without the +means of maintaining their status as wage-earners. Although they +are prohibited by reason of their sex, from taking part in any +Parliamentary election as voters, they are nevertheless bound by the +rules of the Civil Service which were drawn up when Civil Servants +were first enfranchised. These rules state that "now officers have +been relieved of the electoral disabilities to which they were +formerly subject, they are eligible to be placed on the Parliamentary +Register and to vote at a parliamentary election. Nevertheless, it +is expected of them as Public Servants that they should maintain a +certain reserve in political matters and not put themselves forward +on one side or the other." This rule has been interpreted by the +Department to mean that no Woman Civil Servant may take an active part +in any Suffrage Society which interferes in party politics. Thus women +are forced to accept a subservient position, and are also prevented +from taking direct steps to raise their status. The principle of equal +pay for equal work, if conceded without equal opportunities, is liable +to be evaded, and must be safeguarded by statute, and there is no +guarantee that any improvement gained will be permanent until women +have political power to enforce their demands, for the masculine +point of view dominates every Government Department and colours all +administration. + +Moreover, it should be borne in mind that women are handicapped by +being, to a large degree, dependent on reports of their work emanating +from male Heads of Departments who are in many cases prejudiced, +sometimes unconsciously, against their employment. Heads of +Departments do not as a rule take the same amount of personal interest +as a private employer in the women under their control, and so these +are frequently the victims of caprice. If the person in authority at +a particular office happens to object to employing women, he actually +opposes their appointment in that office, and deprives them of the +chance of displaying their ability. Whilst they have more than their +fair share of routine work, and are excluded from practically all the +higher posts, they are on that account actually accused of possessing +less initiative, less administrative ability, and less power of acting +in sudden emergencies than men. It is indeed a vicious circle. They +are prevented by their sex from acquiring these qualities in the +ordinary course of their duties and excluded from the examinations for +admission to those posts in which such qualities would be of use. It +is then seriously urged by responsible officials of the Civil Service +as an argument against their admittance to superior appointments, that +they are lacking in the necessary qualifications. + +Such unreasonable and unfair criticism creates bitterness in the minds +of the women, who find themselves, in a large number of cases, saddled +with domestic responsibilities as great or greater than those of the +officials who would seek to drive them back into the home, and who +endeavour to prevent them from rising to any decent positions in their +profession. An encouraging sign, however, is the enlightened attitude +shown by some of the members of the Royal Commission on the Civil +Service; the pertinent enquiries made of the Heads of Departments +regarding the position of women tend to show that the question will, +at least, receive consideration, and that the evidence placed before +the Commission by the women's organisations will not be without its +effect on the administration of the Civil Service in the future. + +The recognition by the male staff in the Civil Service of the +importance of the principle of equal pay for equal work is a sign of +advance which should be welcomed by all who have the cause of women +at heart. This increased enlightenment was evidenced at the Annual +Conference of the Civil Service Federation held at the Guildhall +on the 11th October last. Delegates were present, representing +approximately 100,000 Civil Servants, and the following resolution, +which is important enough to be quoted in full, was passed by a +majority of 31 votes to 10. + + "That this Council expresses its conviction that equal + pay for equal work is the only solution of the problem + of male and female labour in the Civil Service, and + considers that the establishment of this principle is the + only alternative to the competition of cheapness which + is the result of the existing double standard of payment, + and is affecting so injuriously the conditions of service + of both men and women. It therefore pledges itself to + endeavour to obtain the abolition of the sex disability." + +Women in the Service are realising more and more that their strength +lies in effective combination. A new organisation has recently sprung +into being as a result of the introduction of Women Clerks into +the Board of Trade and the National Health Insurance Service, the +Federation of Civil Service Women Clerks having been formed for +the purpose of working for the larger interests of the women in the +various clerical departments of the Civil Service. The general policy +of the Federation will be to afford a ready means of communication +between various sections of the Service for the purpose of taking +joint action when necessary in the interests of the whole body of +Women Clerks, and to enable them to concentrate more effectively on +the larger issues connected with the claim for equality of opportunity +for women with men in the Civil Service. + + * * * * * + +This article will not be complete without some reference to the +Report of the Holt Committee which is engaging the attention of the +Postmaster General at the present time. + +When the Report was published in August last, it was generally agreed +that the women had been badly treated. The demand for equality of +remuneration with the male staff which was put forward by the Women +Telegraphists and the Women Clerks has been completely ignored. The +Women Sorters are awarded an increase of 2s. a week in the maximum +salary, and, as a set off, it is proposed that they shall undertake +a larger portion of the minor clerical duties now performed by Women +Clerks. The immediate supervision of the Women Sorters is to be met +by the establishment of the Senior Sorters (who at present receive a +supervising allowance of 3s. a week) as a regular supervising class +with a fixed scale of salary, viz., 32s. per week rising by 1s. 6d. +to 38s. The ultimate supervision remains in the hands of the Women +Clerks. The Committee recommended the abandonment of the tentative new +grade of Female Assistant Clerks on the ground that there is no need +for a class intermediate between the Women Sorters and the Girl +and Women Clerks. A further recommendation, causing widespread +dissatisfaction, is that the hours of duty shall be increased by three +and a half hours per week. The eight-hour day for manipulative +work and the seven-hour day for clerical work has hitherto been the +standard working day in the Post Office, and the suggested increase +with no compensating rise in salary apart from an immediate increment, +not to be carried above the maximum of the scale, has been rejected by +all classes with indignation.[3] The Women Telegraphists get nothing, +the Women Telephonists nothing, the Women Clerks of the First +and Second classes, £10 and £5 increase in the maximum salary +respectively. The Women Counter Clerks and Telegraphists in the +provinces get nothing, although the men of the same class get 2s. a +week increase in the maximum. + +It is understood from a reliable source that the higher officials of +the Post Office admit that the women on the whole have been scurvily +treated, and it is confidently expected that the Postmaster General +will modify and improve some of the proposals when the final revision +of the Report is undertaken. Apart from the various class interests, +the only recommendation that can be regarded as in any way +satisfactory to women is the abolition of the grade of Assistant Women +Clerks as at present constituted. The only form in which the new grade +could be at all acceptable would be in substitution for the grades of +Girl Clerk and Women Sorter with a scale of salary comparable to the +Male Assistant Clerk, in accordance with the claim placed before the +Holt Commission and before the Royal Commission on the Civil Service. +The insertion of a new water-tight compartment such as the Department +proposed, between the Women Sorters and Women Clerks would be +dangerous to the interests, and detrimental to the expansion of +both, while the present restriction of women to rank and file work +continues. It would press the Sorters still further down in the scale +by depriving them of all opportunity of succeeding to clerical work, +as the recruitment of the Assistant Clerks from their ranks would +inevitably be very small; and it would also injure the prospects +of promotion of the Women Clerks by decreasing their numbers and by +depriving them of higher posts due to growth of work and increase of +staff. This latter result was clearly foreseen by the Department when +the scheme was first promulgated. Moreover, it would be a blow to the +general status of women in the Post Office by depreciating the value +of their work and lowering the standard of their employment. It is a +matter for congratulation, therefore, that the Select Committee have +advised the abolition of the new grade, and the Postmaster General, +having agreed in the House of Commons to refer the matter to the +arbitrament of the Parliamentary Committee, can hardly repudiate their +decision. + + +[Footnote 1: See the end of the article for the Report of the Holt +Committee.] + +[Footnote 2: The women are pressing for identical examinations. +[EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 3: The Postmaster General has recently (December 1913), +conceded the point, and has promised that there shall be no increase +in the hours of duty in the Post Office Service; concessions about pay +have been refused. [EDITOR.]] + + + + +SECTION VI + +WOMEN CLERKS AND SECRETARIES + + +The salary of the woman secretary of the best class, whether working +privately or for a firm, seems to be £100 to £150 a year. Generally +speaking, this is exactly what it was twenty years ago. It would seem +that the highest salaries are those given by City men to confidential +clerks (sometimes relatives), who are either good accountants or good +linguists. The head of an influential typing office and registry in +London informed me that the highly paid posts of translators to City +firms are usually filled by German girls. The woman receiving £200 to +£250 is a very rare person. I know only of one who receives £5 a +week, and that is from an American firm in London. She does +private secretarial work, but has no book-keeping and no foreign +correspondence. Some years ago I knew of another woman, private +secretary to the head of a large publishing firm, who had £200 a year. +She was an efficient French correspondent, an able, all-round woman, +and had been with the firm for twenty years. There are now two clerks +in her place at much lower salaries. There seems to be a tendency to +employ two cheap clerks in place of one expensive one. + +People unacquainted with the facts, seldom realise how small is the +remuneration of capable secretaries. I am acquainted with the work of +a woman who has the following qualifications: verbatim shorthand, neat +typing and sound knowledge of secretarial and business work, including +book-keeping; she is methodical and conscientious in her work, has had +some years' City Experience, three years in the shorthand and typing +offices in the Houses of Parliament and with peers and members. She is +asking 45s. a week, and would take 40s. "with prospects." + +Well-paid posts seem to be exceptional. A woman with an intimate +knowledge of City conditions, who was chief accountant to an important +firm for sixteen years, informs me that £175 is the highest salary she +has ever known a woman clerk to receive. The lowest on record seems +to be 5s. a week. There is a woman running a typing office in the City +who hires out shorthand typists at this figure to business firms. +She employs a staff of from fifteen to twenty girls. Similarly, an +industrial insurance company, nine months ago, opened a new department +to deal with the work of the new Act. They engaged fifty girl clerks +at 10s. with a superintendent, also a woman, at 30s. a week. + +There is sometimes difficulty in getting accurate information with +regard to payments. The heads of typing schools and colleges are apt +to give too rosy a picture, and the individual clerk has usually a +somewhat narrow experience and is inclined to be pessimistic. A man +whom I interviewed (in place of the manager, who was engaged), at +one of the biggest schools for training clerks, informed me that +everything depended on the clerk. He said the girls who were getting +10s. a week were not worth more, and that there were "many" women +clerks getting from £300 to £350. I said I was delighted to hear this +as I had had difficulty in running to earth the woman clerk with +£200, and had not before heard of the higher salaries. I took out my +notebook and begged for particulars. He then said he knew of "one" of +their diplomées working for a firm of florists, who had a salary +of £300: she was able to correspond in English, French, German, and +Spanish. I asked if he would kindly give me her name and address that +I might interview her, but he said he could not possibly do that, as +any woman clerk who allowed herself to be interviewed would be certain +to lose her post. + +The manager of a business in Manchester, who employs five shorthand +typists, pays them from 15s. to 30s. He admits that it is impossible +for the girls to live on their salaries unless they are at home with +their parents, as is the case with all of them. But he says that it +is unreasonable to expect him to give more than the market rates, and +that for 30s. he gets excellent service. He suggests that the only way +to raise wages is for the clerks to organise. + +The principal of a high class typing office in the City, a woman of +experience, who trains only a select number of educated girls, never +allows a pupil from her school to begin at less than 25s. a week with +a prospect of speedy increase. She pays her own translator £3, 5s. +a week, and four members of her staff are paid at the rate of £160 a +year. + +Mr Elvin, Secretary of the Union of Clerks, tries to enforce a minimum +wage of 35s. a week as the beginning salary for an expert shorthand +typist, and this may be regarded as the present Trade Union rate. Mr +Elvin's difficulty is chiefly with the girls themselves. They are so +accustomed to the idea of women being paid less than men that it is +not easy to get them to insist on equal pay. In one case he was asked +to supply a woman secretary for a certain post. He agreed to find a +suitable person if the firm would guarantee a commencing salary of +35s. a week. After some demur this was conceded, and he sent to a +well-known school for three competent clerks that he might examine +them and recommend the best of the three. After the test he asked +them, in turn, what salary they expected. They were all over +twenty-one years of age and all competent. One mentioned 25s., the +second 23s., and the third £1 a week. On being asked, they said they +knew they were worth more, but they thought that, as they were women, +they would not get it. + +Where there is no one to safeguard the interests of the clerk, an +employer, on the look-out for cheap labour, finds it easily enough. +The head of a big firm offered a French girl, an expert shorthand +writer in three languages, 15s. a week, with a possible rise after +three months. She finally accepted a post at 30s. a week as she could +get nothing better through registries or by advertisement. + +Unless a girl has a claim on a school where she has trained, or has +influential friends, it is very difficult for her to get a post suited +to her needs in London. The whole profession seems to be in a chaotic +condition, and the chances through advertisement are haphazard and +unsatisfactory. Employment bureaux maintain that there are more good +posts than there are qualified women to fill them, but individual +secretaries are timid about giving up unsatisfactory posts as they do +not know how to get better. + +Take the case of a private secretary to a Member of Parliament. +He loses his seat, retires to the country, and gives up his London +secretary. He gives her a number of introductions. These lead to +nothing, and she is forced into the competition of the City. Her +particular training is of no use in a commercial office, and her value +falls to 30s. a week. + +A woman with an intimate knowledge of women clerks and secretaries +in the City for the past twenty years, says that it is difficult to +overestimate the poverty of a vast number of girls. Many of them are +the chief breadwinners of the family. She knows of half a dozen cases +of men of forty and a little older who are living on the earnings of +their daughters; there may be two girls in the family, one getting +12s. and the other 25s. a week. + +The private secretary who lives in, has usually excellent food and +pleasant surroundings, but in some cases the life is a solitary +one. Unless there is a governess or other educated employeé in the +household, she has no companionship. The salary varies from £30 to +£120 and sometimes more. There is apparently no fixed rate. One lady +writes: + +"For two years I lived in the house of Sir----, the most hopelessly +isolated and uninteresting existence, within the four walls of his +study. A secretary should certainly stick out for a free week-end once +a month when living in. Isolation is horribly bad for one." + +The secretary living in with congenial literary or medical people, +where she is made one of the family circle, has a happier time, but +the payment is not high. + +Apart from salary, the conditions in which the woman clerk works are +by no means ideal. + +Twenty years ago, in a far northern city, there was a flourishing new +school where over thirty girls of from fifteen to twenty were being +taught shorthand, typewriting, book-keeping, and all that goes to the +making of a fully-equipped clerk. This school was the first experiment +of the kind in an enterprising community. As the pupils qualified, +with Pitman certificates of varying degrees of speed, at the end of +six months or longer, the way in which old-fashioned lawyers accepted +the innovation of attractive young women on their clerical staff, +seemed almost magical. Decorum relegated the young women to separate +rooms from the rest of the employeés, and the formality in the bearing +of heads of departments towards these pioneer females must have been +gratifying to Mrs Grundy. So superior to human exigencies seemed these +dignified men, that the subject of lavatory accommodation for young +women, mewed up from 9 to 1 and from 2 to 5.30, was not mentioned. +Woman's modesty, if it were to reach the high standard made for her by +man, had to come before her health or comfort. Although typists of +all grades have multiplied by thousands[1] during the past twenty +years--in London alone there are over 25,000 women clerks and +secretaries--there is still need for adequate inspection of sanitary +accommodation for women workers of this class. Apart altogether from +sanitary accommodation, common sense would seem to suggest that, +in the case of any one who has to turn out decent typing, a regular +supply of hot water is a necessity for washing hands that may have to +change a ribbon or do the many little messy jobs that typing involves. + +In a lecture before the Fabian Women's Group in February 1912, Miss +Florence, of the Association of Women Clerks and Secretaries, said: + +"With regard to the sanitary conditions--these as a rule are bad, +especially where there is only one woman. The difficulty has been +shirked by the women themselves in a great many cases.... I do not see +how these can be altered except by improving the status and position +of women, so that they may become strong enough to say they will not +have it if it is too bad." + +Who is to dictate what is "too bad"? Surely the only remedy is to +have a proper standard of decency enforced by law. Women as a rule are +fools on this subject, and will endure almost any discomfort, rather +than complain. + +In giving evidence before the Royal Commission, in May last year, +concerning the conditions of employment and their effect on the +health of Civil Service female typists and shorthand writers, Miss +Charlesworth, Honorary Secretary of the Civil Service Typists' +Association, said: + +"The statistics as regards sickness relating to our class are almost +too small to be of very much use.... I may say from experience that +they are greatly influenced by the conditions under which the work +is done. In my own department (Local Government Board) our average +absence from sickness in the old office, where we were much +overcrowded, varied between ten and fourteen days a year, while in +our new office the average has steadily gone down from twelve to a +fraction over six last year.... It is very striking that there has +been that reduction in the average number of days' absence per year +from sickness, from twelve to six in four years while we have been +working under better conditions ... that means a less number of typing +machines in one room, more light to work by and more air--better rooms +to work in." + +This evidence is interesting, as the worst conditions that could +possibly exist in the lofty rooms of a Government office, where +everything is on a big scale and there is a certain standard of +comfort, must be superior to the majority of commercial offices, +especially in London, where space is so expensive. Think of four girls +taking shorthand notes by telephone in a room with thirty typewriting +machines working at once! + +There are no figures available with regard to the health of women +clerks generally. The common ailments are neuritis, anaemia, and +nervous breakdown. Typing is also a strain on the eyesight and +hearing. Miss Charlesworth says that in her experience it is the girls +who are not suited for the work who suffer most from ill-health. + +One typing office and school, of high repute for excellence of work, +had rooms so dark that electric light was always used in one or other +of them during part of the day. No sun ever entered the work-rooms. +The salaries were good, but overtime was paid at only 6d. an hour. +There was a sort of compulsion, too, to work overtime; some of the +best typists, occasionally even stayed all night during excessive +rushes of work. No holidays were paid for, and it was regarded as +disloyalty on the part of a clerk to stay away for sickness. There +was an instance of a girl being dismissed because she stayed away a +fortnight owing to influenza. This particular firm recently moved into +bigger, brighter rooms, not out of humanity to its staff, but because +the lease had run out. + +Where competition is as keen as in the typing business, it is often +the case that the comfort of employeés is considered as little as is +compatible with running the place at a profit. There seems to be no +inspection, and there is no law to say how many typists may be worked +together, or what limit of noise shall be endured by them. Everything +is ruled by the individual standard of decency of the employer. Many +well-educated girls enter typing offices for the excellent practical +training to be had, and for the short time they remain they are +willing to put up with severe discipline and some personal discomfort. +There are, of course, typing offices with as high a level of comfort +and decency as the most exacting law would prescribe. Many of the +big engineering firms and City houses have most comfortable and even +luxurious quarters for their women clerks. + +In old days in the above-mentioned northern school, it was possible +to get complete teaching as a clerk--excellent teaching, too--for a +guinea a term. There were some shorthand typists whose training cost +them only that initial guinea and the fees of the supplementary course +of evening classes, 5s. and 10s. according to the number of subjects. +In London at that time a year's course in the same subjects cost +as much as 60 guineas at some of the chief typing schools. The fee +nowadays, at one of the foremost London schools for a secretarial +course for six months only, is 60 guineas; a year's course is £100.[2] +This includes book-keeping and shorthand correspondence in one foreign +language, besides shorthand and typing, etc. + +The best testimony shows that a year is altogether too long for +an intelligent well-educated girl of eighteen or more to spend on +technical training.[3] Mr James Oliphant, writing in _The School +World_ for July 1913 on the subject of secretarial training for girls, +says: + +".... It is to be noted that the curriculum in girls' schools is of +a much more reasonable character than that which is commonly provided +for boys, and that the more completely it is fitted to supply a good +general education, the better it would be adapted to the special +needs of those who wish to become clerks or secretaries. It would +seem eminently desirable that such aspirants should continue at the +secondary school between the ages of sixteen and eighteen, being +provided with a specialised course of study ... but whenever it is +possible it would be well to insist that no subject should be included +which is not generally educative in the widest sense. The acquisition +of such mechanical arts as stenography and typewriting should be +relegated to technical colleges where, according to general testimony, +proficiency can be gained by well-educated girls in a period +varying from six to nine months. 'Commercial correspondence' is +an abomination; a sufficient knowledge of the ordinary forms +of letter-writing should be imparted in every course of English +composition ... while the special jargon of each business or office +can be readily acquired by any intelligent girl when it becomes +necessary." + +There is every variety of price at the various technical training +schools all over the country, from a guinea to £100. With regard to +the training given in non-technical schools, the capable head of a +well-equipped West End typing office writes: + +"It is a pity the ordinary schools are taking it up. I know of at +least one so-called secondary school which makes a speciality of +'Commercial Training.' The girls who take up the subject are quite +the wrong kind, with absolutely no real education,... and are ready +to accept anything in the way of salary. The really good schools where +the girls remain till they are 18 or 19 give a better training, of +course.... But I do not think the schools have any right to undertake +a specialised vocational training; it must lower the standard. +Every other profession has its special training after a good general +education has been acquired." + +The best-known societies for protecting the interests of women clerks +and secretaries are, the Association of Women Clerks and Secretaries +at 12 Buckingham Street, Strand, and the National Union of Clerks +at 186-188 Bishopsgate Street. These are the only approved societies +under the National Insurance Act. + +The Association of Women Clerks and Secretaries has been in existence +for eight years, and during the last year has more than trebled its +members, the clerks' attitude towards combination having recently +changed somewhat, in London at any rate. The Association has a devoted +secretary and does excellent work. Its aims are: + + (1) To raise the status of women clerks and secretaries, + and to encourage a higher standard of + practical training. + + (2) To secure a just remuneration for all grades. + + (3) To render legal aid and give advice to members, + and to benefit generally the clerical and secretarial + profession for women. + + (4) To maintain a registry for women clerks and secretaries, + and to watch for openings for members of + the Association. + + (5) To establish and maintain an Approved Society + under the National Insurance Act, 1911, for the + benefit of Women Clerks and Secretaries. + +The Association is not yet, however, strong enough to form a +recognised union able to fix a minimum education qualification for +membership. An important conference was held by this Association in +May last at the University of London. Every speaker emphasised the +need for better and wider education before taking up the profession, +and there was unanimity of opinion that no girl should be allowed to +start the technical part until she was at least sixteen. A remark of +Mrs W.L. Courtney, who was one of the speakers, is well worth quoting: +"One of the cleverest women I ever knew, who was an amateur indexer, +said to me one day, 'It does not matter in doing this work about being +clever; what matters is to have lived.'" There is not much chance then +for the school-girl of sixteen.[4] + +The National Union of Clerks is conducted with energy and +enlightenment. It has increased its membership by nearly 8,000 in the +last twelve months, and one of the best reasons it offers women clerks +for joining, is that it is the only National Society for Clerks that +has always accepted women as members on equal terms as men. There are +1,000 women in a membership of 10,000. Notwithstanding the hard work +these two societies are doing, there is nothing like the response +there should be from women clerks. It is only the exceptional woman +clerk who has yet developed anything like a corporate conscience. The +reason is partly that she is often an isolated being. Where there is a +large number of clerks together, as in the Civil Service, there is no +lack of the right spirit. + +Here are a few of the causes of the overstocking of the clerical +market by women. Almost any one can be a clerk of a kind. The training +is cheap and easily obtainable. Many parents want their children to +bring in money early, and this seems an easy way. A large percentage +of young girls (in 1907-1909, 87 per cent.) who fail to pass Civil +Service examinations, try to become clerks. Some time ago there was +an article in a daily newspaper entitled "The Passing of the +15s.-a-week-Girl." She is with us in larger numbers than ever, +however, and she has added to her numbers a 10s.-a-week-girl and even +a cheaper girl, as we have seen. We meet her daily in Tube and 'bus, +looking remarkably attractive, in spite of foolish shoes and a bad +habit of eating four-penny lunches. The chief charge some of her +fellow clerks have against her, apart from her inferior work, is that +she only makes use of typing as a road to marriage. The other class of +offender is the daughter of well-to-do parents. Typing is regarded +as a ladylike employment, and parents, who would never expect their +daughters to be self-supporting, are glad for them to earn pocket +money or just enough for dress. + +According to Mr Elvin of the National Union of Clerks, even in +prosperous times there are always 3 per cent. of unemployed clerks. In +bad times the percentage must be greater. Whether the times are good +or bad, young girls with the most elementary education are being +turned out by hundreds from typing schools. + +The only remedy is that the output of clerks should be restricted; no +one should be allowed to become a clerk who has not reached a certain +standard of efficiency. The parents are the chief offenders. Many of +them do not seem to have the necessary energy or intelligence to find +out for what their daughters are best fitted. Advisory Committees are +wanted in connection with all elementary and secondary schools. Of the +girl typists and shorthand writers who resigned from the Civil Service +from 1894 to 1906 for various causes, 17 per cent. left to take up +other work. The lady superintendent in one of the Civil Service typing +rooms pointed out a girl and said: "That girl would have made an +excellent milliner or a kindergarten teacher, but she is not at all +suited for this work." + +The chief grievance of the really efficient woman clerk and secretary +is that she has not enough scope. One woman writes: + +"If the various firms and professions who employ girls as typists were +to give them an insight into the business, whatever it might be, it +would add enormously to the enthusiasm of the worker. In America +they do this very often. The wonderful Miss Alice Duckin, the lady +skyscraper builder, was once a typist. When she entered the firm they +allowed her full scope to develop, and she mastered the building trade +and is now the chief partner of Messrs Duckin and Lass. There is one +firm of lawyers in London who allow their typists to attend the Law +Courts, and give them work to do which is usually reserved for men. +Only under such conditions can the profession expand." + +There is often a chance for a secretary in a newspaper office to +develop into a journalist. But there are instances when the private +secretary, who begins writing for the paper on which she is employed, +is told that she was engaged not as a contributor but as an efficient +secretary. + +One girl who had been for ten years private secretary to a literary +man in London, horrified her relatives, and gave her employer a shock, +by suddenly throwing up her much-envied post and entering herself at +a hospital for a particularly strenuous kind of nursing. Her salary +as secretary was 35s. a week; she had a comfortable room of her own +to work in, a good annual holiday, and other blessings. Her chief said +"good morning" and "good evening" to her, but she saw no one else, and +frequently she had technical German translations in the evenings, +for which she got nothing extra. Her chief did not know German, and +thought she did the translations as easily as she wrote shorthand. Her +whole work was moderately interesting, but the dullness of her life +became insupportable. Another private secretary at the end of fifteen +years in an excellent post, opened a tea-shop. + +An Edinburgh woman sends the following interesting statement:-- + +"Secretarial work seems to me one of the most congenial for educated +women. In Edinburgh the prospects are excellent. The headmasters and +mistresses of all the large schools, medical men, dentists, university +professors, managing editors of our great printing and publishing +houses, several of whom are editing encylopaedias, need a fair number +of women secretaries. And there is not a sufficient supply for the law +offices of which Edinburgh has such a large number. + +"The conditions are in need of some kind of organised supervision, +particularly where everything depends on an individual employer. In my +first post with a medical specialist, for instance, my time was never +my own; my work began at 9 and often did not end at midnight. Sunday +work was quite common; there were no Saturday afternoons off, but I +had free hours here and there which it was impossible to utilise. + +"Another post I had was ideal. I worked for two men, for one of whom I +spent the morning in a pathological laboratory. Here I did nothing +but research work and writing. In the afternoon I did general +correspondence and assistant editing of one of the medical journals. I +had free evenings and Saturday afternoons. It is an excellent plan +to work for two men, as it gives variety and may often be more +remunerative, although for myself I never had more than £100 a year. +There is lack of organisation in this profession, and posts are +difficult to get by registry or advertisement. I have never found a +Women's Employment Bureau of any use whatever. I have got everything +by personal recommendation." + +A common grievance seems to be the amount of overtime imposed on many +clerks, sometimes paid for, but often obligatory whether paid for +or not. There is a naive arrangement in the Civil Service Typing +Department. It seems that the typists are allowed 9d. or 10d. an hour +for overtime up to a limit of fifteen hours a month, but any overtime +beyond that is not paid for. In the Minutes of Evidence before the +Royal Commission we read:-- + +"_Commissioner_. Is any other time beyond that (15 hours a month) ever +exacted? + +"_Superintendent_. Yes. + +"_Commissioner_. Are they ever required to work longer than that? + +"_Superintendent_. Yes. + +"_Commissioner_. And are they not paid for it? + +"_Superintendent_. No. + +"_Commissioner_. What is the reason for that? + +"_Superintendent_. The Treasury laid it down in their minute. + +"_Commissioner_. Have you questioned it? + +"_Superintendent_. Yes, we have many times asked the Treasury to allow +the department to pay for more, but so far as I know, in no case has +it been allowed, and at this present time (May 1912), in the +London Telephone Service all shorthand-typists and typists and +superintendents are doing a great deal of overtime, but only 15 hours +in a month of 4 weeks is paid for. Superintendents are not paid at all +for overtime. The only reason, apparently, for the limitation is that +the salaries are so close that if shorthand-typists were paid for +more overtime than 15 hours they would be earning more than the +superintendents." + +It seems impossible to tell as yet how the working of the National +Insurance Act will affect women clerks. The secretary of the +Information Bureau of the Woman's Institute says that, as far as she +knows, good offices continue to pay their clerks their salaries in +cases of illness, only making a deduction of the 7s. 6d. paid as +insurance money. + +To sum up, there is urgent need for better organisation among clerks +and secretaries. They should be graded in some way, so that the +efficient who are out of work may easily be brought in touch with +employers. The societies reach only a small proportion of the +workers, many of whom do not even know of their existence. It must +be remembered that a difficulty in the way of men and women clerks +combining, is that women of good education, sometimes in possession of +degrees, find themselves in competition with men of an inferior social +class. A large proportion of the best secretaries are the daughters +of professional men. The average woman clerk is invariably a person of +better education and manners than the male clerk at the same salary. + +In the next place, better sanitation and better working conditions +must be secured. Only last year, a firm employing hundreds of men and +a dozen women, had no separate lavatory for the women. It is to the +interest of the employer of women clerks to look after their health +and to provide rest rooms. Anti-feminists are positive as to women's +"inferior physique," but their practice as employers is too often +inconsistent with their opinions. + +Most important of all, women clerks and secretaries want more scope. +After ten years of clerking and secretarying they find that they are +up against a dead wall. There is no prospect of advancement, and no +call on their initiative. In private secretarial work this is not +always the fault of the employer; it is often inherent in the nature +of the work. Unless the secretary has, say, literary or journalistic +ability and develops in that way, she is worth little more to her +chief, if he is a literary man, after fifteen years than she was at +the end of ten. There may be progress from a less desirable to a more +desirable post, but there can be no advancement in the work itself. +As a training, however, a private post is incomparable. With the woman +who works for a commercial firm, it is a different matter. Women of +the best type who do this work, have a right to complain when they are +without chance of promotion. They feel that they should be given the +same opportunity of rising in the business, whatever it may be, as is +open to any intelligent office boy. The reply of the employer is, that +while the office boy, if promoted and given increasing pay, may be +expected to stay with the firm for a lifetime, there is not the same +certainty of continuity of service from women clerks, who may at any +time leave to get married. There are cases, however, where women have +stayed on after marriage when it has been made worth their while. +One woman who entered a firm as a young girl, continued with the +firm after marriage, and is now, as a widow, working for the same +employers. There is no reason why such cases should be exceptional. + +The calling, the conditions of which we have been considering, suffers +from its accessibility to the half trained and undisciplined of +various social grades. When, however, the righteous complaint of the +employer against the incompetent and scatter-brained has been heard, +the fact remains that among women clerks and secretaries there is an +exceptionally large proportion who give, for a moderate return and +limited prospects of advancement, conscientious, loyal, and skilful +service. + + +[Footnote 1: See Appendix II., p. 317.] + +[Footnote 2: Satisfactory secretarial training may be obtained in +London from reliable teachers for a fee of 25 guineas for a year's +course. It is, however, necessary to make searching enquiries before +arranging to enter any school, as some of these neither give a sound +training, nor obtain posts for their pupils as their advertisements +promise. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 3: First rate secretarial preparation includes more than +merely technical instruction. It gives a sound business training as +well, and, in addition, insists on one or more foreign languages. A +girl who hopes to become something more than a shorthand-typist ought +not to scamp her professional training: this should, of course, +follow her school-course--_i.e._, not begin until she is seventeen or +eighteen. Graduates, who have specialised in foreign languages, +may also advantageously prepare for the better secretarial posts. +[EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 4: Apart from monetary prospects altogether, no girl should +be allowed to enter the profession until she is old enough and wise +enough to protect herself, should need arise, from the undesirable +employer, who may insult her with unwelcome attentions. The +possibility of such annoyance is an additional reason for all clerks +to join a Trade Union, which helps individuals to insist on proper +conditions of work. [EDITOR.]] + + + + +SECTION VII + +ACTING AS A PROFESSION FOR WOMEN + + +I do not know that the first actress who ever faced the public told +her friends that _the_ profession was not all paint and glitter, +because being a pioneer, and so treading on the corns of custom, she +was held as an unwomanly creature, and had unpleasant things thrown at +her, as well as words. So her impressions are not recorded. But when +women had settled down into the work, and were allowed to represent +themselves in the theatre (a privilege not as yet accorded to them +elsewhere), they announced practically and forcibly that all that +glittered was not gold, and that a successful, much-loved heroine +did not invariably tread the rosy path without finding the proverbial +thorns. + +The word "hardship" often repeated by successful artists, is accepted +by the public as a truism, which affects their attitude towards the +stage as a career about as much as the statement that the world is +round, when in their eyes it appears disappointingly flat. Yet the +word "hardship" has a meaning which most hurts those who have most +capacity for pain, and who are specially sensitive to humiliations, +disappointments, and discomforts--artists. + +But there are compensations, urges the outsider: good pay, congenial +work, and fame. If there are hardships what a glittering prize +compensates for the suffering! + +Let us at once grant the compensations which the few achieve. The few +make world-wide reputations, large salaries, and many devoted friends: +their life is full of interesting and successful work. But the average +individual is in the great majority, and the many spend all and obtain +nothing, trying to obtain a bargain which is no bargain: a bargain in +which there is something to sell and no one to buy--even our average +actress has something to sell, something worth buying--composed of +talent, ambition, long study, and application. There are, of course, +many more successful women in the theatre than there used to be, owing +to the tremendous opening up of this means of livelihood; but though +the successful are more abundant, there is, alas! no doubt a growing +number of unsuccessful workers in this very much over-crowded market. +In fact, it is becoming a profession in which it is only possible +to survive if the worker has some private means, or a supplementary +trade. + +I believe that this question of a supplementary trade requires +consideration, and am, myself, at present working on the subject, in +the hope that a scheme may be evolved to ensure those willing to +work an opportunity of gaining a livelihood during the long "resting" +periods. This waiting for work is almost universally the largest part +of an actress's life; and any satisfaction in the magnitude of the +wages which may be obtained must always be balanced by the knowledge +that an enormous number of weeks must be taken into consideration, +when work is quite unattainable. + +Here is one of the gravest disabilities of the profession. Only +continuous work can develop the powers of any artist, and this +is particularly true of the art of the theatre. Under the present +conditions an artist is, with an entire want of reason, raised to a +pinnacle of importance when playing a good part in a successful play; +but she may with equal suddenness be dashed into a gulf of failure and +non-productiveness, also without reason. + +There have been many artists, who at the end of a brilliant run of +a successful play, to the success of which they have largely +contributed, have found themselves forgotten by the powers that be, +and have discovered with bitter disappointment that a successful run +may result in being left utterly ignored, without a single offer of +work. + +The Christmas pantomime and the summer season cut down the actor's +year to forty weeks. From information which I was able to obtain from +the Actor's Association, the average yearly income of an actor is £70. +From this, £37 may be deducted for travelling and other expenses. For +though the actual railway fare is usually paid, no allowance is made +for conveyance of luggage from station to lodgings, and the constant +change of quarters naturally makes the weekly expenditure on a higher +scale. On these figures the average weekly earnings of an actor would +be 12s. 6d., or 1s. 9d. per day. + +This is the average income of an actor when working, but under present +conditions, the average day for an average actress is one in which she +looks for work. So let us take the average day of the average actress, +and see how she spends it. + +After leaving her tiny, grubby back room in Bloomsbury (time and fares +prohibit a bigger, better room in the suburbs), where she has cleaned +her own shoes, ironed her blouse and sewn in frilling before starting, +she walks down to an agent. The waiting-room there has a couple +of forms, which are already filled, and groups of girls have been +standing for some time. They have all had insufficient breakfasts, +badly served and ill-cooked; they all wear cheap and uncomfortable +shoes, too thin for wet pavements; they are all obliged to put on a +desperately photographic pose and expression, in case the agent's eyes +light on them. One or two, better dressed and more self-possessed, +secure interviews and pass out by another door. No information about +the part is to be procured, they are all there "on the chance." At +half past one the agent comes out for lunch, saying, as he passes +through the room, "No use waiting, ladies; no one else wanted to-day." +Our average friend has stayed for three hours, knowing no one to speak +to, and leaves no nearer her goal for her morning's congenial work. +She lunches on sandwiches and tea, re-arranges her hat and veil, and +starts out with fresh hope to use her one letter of introduction to +the manager of a West End theatre. + +She hands it to a door-keeper, who may possibly be considerate, but +cannot offer her a chair. There is no waiting-room; she waits in a +draughty, tiny passage, stage hands constantly squeezing by her. There +is a rehearsal; she must wait, or come back in an hour's time. She +walks round and looks into the shops in Leicester Square, and returns +thoroughly fatigued and a little pale, at four o'clock. She is shown +into an office, and by virtue of her letter of introduction is asked +to sit down. A few questions are put to her about her past work: she +does not know what part the manager has in mind, and puts forward +inept qualifications. In two or three minutes the important man has +formed his opinion of her face, carriage, expression, and has decided +if he will remember her or not. Her name being average, the odds are +that he will not; but he murmurs, "If anything turns up, I will let +you know," and her big chance is over. There is nothing approaching an +audition, such as a singer gets. It is the only opportunity afforded +her, this poor and hopeless method of proving her capacity as an +actress. It leaves her poorer for the day's outlay in food. She walks +back to the little room, her foothold in London--the great art market. + +This is a "congenial" day's work, which may be repeated for weeks, +and it occurs on an average in every three months. The adventure of it +stales very quickly. + +Let there be no mistake in the mind of the reader. This is not only +the experience of a would-be actress, a well-trained, medal-laden +aspirant from one of the good dramatic schools, but is one of the +bitter and frequent experiences of the thoroughly capable, trained, +and occasionally well-salaried actress, who has failed to arrive, +during her eighteen to twenty years of experience, at the much +coveted, and supposedly safe position at the top of the theatrical +ladder. + +Suppose our average actress is lucky, and her letter of introduction +gains her a small part in the London production. Into her three lines +she tries to crowd all she can of what she has learned from teachers +and experience. It is her opportunity. She has stepped forward amongst +those fortunate ones whose names are mentioned in the programme. +She starts for rehearsal happily enough from the little room in +Bloomsbury, passes the door-keeper without question, and takes up her +stand in the wings. There she stays three hours. She has companionship +in hushed whispers, and the right to exist. At two o'clock her act has +not yet been reached, and the artists are allowed to leave the theatre +for half an hour to get lunch. As she is not paid for rehearsals, +she cannot afford more than sixpence for a meal; so her repast is +necessarily a light one. At five, rehearsal is dismissed, and she +has gone through her part twice. Five minutes would cover her actual +acting for the day; and having stood about for nearly six hours she +walks back home to her room. + +As the play nears production, the rehearsal hours lengthen, and the +lunch times shorten. Her own hoard of savings offer her less and less +to spend on food, and when finally the play is produced--let us face +the worst--it not infrequently occurs that the run of the piece may +end in three weeks. She has rehearsed for four weeks, has been glad +to accept £2 for her tiny part, and out of that short run, which +represents £6, she must save enough to tide her over the next few +weeks, or perhaps months, until she gets her next engagement, more +unpaid rehearsals, and perhaps another short run. There is always +wearing anxiety, and the unpleasing, thankless, humiliating searching +for work, under the most distasteful conditions possible. + +There is now an effort being made by a few of the London managers to +pay a percentage on salaries for rehearsing. The movement, I think, is +partially due to the Insurance Act, which, of course, touches all +the low paid labour in the theatre. This effort, though obviously of +importance, can hardly as yet be considered as quite satisfactory. The +payments for five weeks' rehearsals are 6s. on the £1, 1s. salaries, +which include dancers, walkers-on, etc.: and 12s. 6d. a week on +salaries of £3. In each case, of course, the threepence insurance has +to be deducted, and it must be quite clear that no woman can live on +5s. 9d., much less make a good appearance, unless she has other means +of support. + +She may get an engagement to tour for a limited number of weeks. If +so, she gazes in despair at her small wardrobe, trying to puzzle out +three costumes to be used in the play, for actresses going on tour +have usually to provide their own dresses. + +A friend of mine played the leading part on the tour of a West +End production. She had to find all her own dresses, hats, +shoes, stockings, etc., and her salary was £3, 10s. a week. In a +"boiled-down" version she played twice nightly for £5 a week, and +found four dresses, two hats, an evening cloak, besides the shoes, +stockings, gloves, etc., incidental to a well dressed part. Another +soubrette on a salary of £2, 5s. paid her fare both on joining and +leaving the company, and was obliged to provide two dresses, one +evening dress and cloak, shoes, stockings, etc. + +The average salaries in melodrama are £4 a week, out of which must +be provided many dresses. The "heavy lead" or "adventuress" type, +generally magnificently attired, gets about £3 a week. In London, of +course, in the West End productions, dresses are provided, but the +engagement is not for a definite period as it would be on a tour, +and a curious difficulty arises through this arrangement, since the +actress who has once been beautifully dressed has a natural and +very comprehensible predilection thenceforward to continue to be so +delightfully gowned. Her own opinion as to what a dress should cost +almost invariably, after a London engagement, ceases to be on a level +with what her yearly income should permit. Clothes assume a horrible +importance not known in other trades, since her appearance may mean +her livelihood as a worker; for do we not know of engagements which +have been made when the angle of a hat has exactly coincided with the +mood of the manager who is engaging his company? + +So our little average actress, starting off on tour, patches and +manoeuvres to have a satisfactory appearance, and is painfully +self-conscious of deficiencies when the eyes of the manager, or the +more well-to-do sharers of the dressing-room, appear to enquire too +closely into details. One of my first successes was a triumphant one +for my sister; since an evening blouse, ingeniously concocted from a +table-centre, received some long notices in the Press. + +Theatrical lodgings, when one's salary is 25s. a week, are not always +the most pleasing in the town. Rheumatic fever and other unpleasant +illnesses have been contracted from damp beds, when the landlady, in +her desire to live up to the degree of cleanliness expected of her, +returns the sheets too quickly to the so-lately vacated bed; because, +with one company leaving in the morning, and another arriving at +tea-time, there are not many hours to clean out a room, and wash and +iron the only pair. + +The lodgings are usually extremely bad and dirty, and generally in the +least attractive and most unsavoury quarters of the town. The food is +generally unappetising and cooked with very little intelligence. +There have been many cases of women finding themselves in disreputable +houses; and even recommended lodgings have been found empty on +arrival, the police having raided them. I feel very strongly that the +only comfortable and dignified way to meet this difficulty is to have +a regular chain of clubs, on the principle of the Three Arts Club. + +Recently, in the correspondence of a leading "Daily," I read a letter +in which a man wrote that actresses on tour were able to perfect +themselves as wives and housekeepers. This throws a curious side-light +on the ignorance of people in general with regard to the theatre. +Actresses may, and do, become admirable workers, wives, and +housekeepers; but this is rather from the hardships of their lives +than from any possibility of developing a natural aptitude for +housekeeping whilst travelling week after week from town to town, +and living in rooms where the cleaning and cooking are done by the +landlady. As all domestic work is undertaken by the people who let the +rooms, the days go slowly, and there is absolutely nothing of +interest to do. If our average actress is with a successful play, her +engagement may be a long one; and she lives through the discomforts, +buoyed up by the hope of further opportunities, and a swelling account +at the Post Office. + +The happiest of all existences, for an actress, despite hard work and +much study, is in a repertory theatre. The opportunities are great; +ambition is not thwarted at every step; the day is filled with hard +study, but the nights result in greater or smaller achievement. +Everybody with whom she comes in contact is working as hard and +earnestly as she is. Life invigorating, progressive, uplifting, is +hers. To-night she is conscious she was not quite her best, but next +week, when the play is done again, she will work to make that point +real, she will laugh more naturally, cry more movingly, progress a +little further on the way to realise her dream of perfect expression, +free from worry and anxiety, free to work. + +Having achieved a certain amount of experience on tour and in London, +and being more or less proficient in her profession, does not, +however, ensure an increase in the actor's value. A domestic servant +receives a character, which is, if satisfactory, a sure means of +employment; a teacher, inspector, etc., has a certificate which is a +pronouncement of efficiency; but however great the achievement of +the theatre there is no lasting sign of your work, and the want of +definite aim is mentally demoralising. I have heard men say, and I +think not unjustly, that as many of these women are practically "on +the rocks," they will do anything for money; and this brings one to +a question which looms largely when considering unskilled trades. The +unskilled, pleasure-loving, short-sighted but ambitious girl, is apt +to lose her sense of values, and to be an easy and sometimes very +willing victim. If she be attractive, the eye of a powerful person may +alight upon her, and several shades of temptations are placed before +her. Not only money, and the advantages which an outward show of +prosperity may bring with it; not only amusements and luxuries; but a +much more dangerous and difficult temptation, which is not possible +in other trades, is placed before the worker--the offer of greater +opportunities in her work, the opportunities which an "understudy" may +bring in its train; the opportunity of a small part; the gratification +of ambition. There is no more immorality than in other trades, but +there is an amount of humiliating and degrading philandering, a +mauling sensuality which is more degrading than any violent abduction. +To be immoral a certain amount of courage is required; but the curse +of modern theatrical conditions is this corrupt debauchery. Many girls +have come to me explaining their difficulties, and many in asking my +advice ended up with the persistent cry of the modern woman, "I do so +want to get on!" This is a transitional stage in the world, as well as +in the theatre. When women are more intelligent and independent, there +will not be the same amount of selling themselves for the necessities +of existence. They will be able to secure the necessities, and a large +number of the luxuries, for themselves--one of the reasons, doubtless, +why the reactionaries cry out so loudly against the woman's movement. + +People love power over others; they love to control their destinies; +and there is a very large number of men who drift towards the theatre, +and like to consider the poor little butterflies as creatures of a +different species from their wives and daughters--a species provided +by a material Providence, who supplies their other appetites. The +poor little butterflies are glad, for a short time, to put up with +stupidity and egoism for the sake of a temporary relief from sordid +discomfort and gloom. Of course, I am not speaking of the women who, +without economic pressure, lead an illicit life. There are a few +of these women who are more than able to protect themselves, and +occasionally avenge their sisters. + +Of course, there are also theatres which are obviously dependent +for their great success upon this "oldest profession in the world": +theatres where a fairly good salary is offered with the suggestion +that it is as well to sup at some well-known restaurant, at least +three times a week; to drive to the theatre in a motor car, and to be +dressed by one of the famous dressmakers, whose names are given with +the salary. There are theatres where an eye is kept on the number of +stalls which are filled by the employed. But on the tours of these +successes, the managers are often very strict in their regulations, +and do everything to prevent those employed from supplementing their +incomes in this manner. + +There are, unfortunately, too many women who still believe in +dependence, so the supply is quite as great as the demand. To the real +artist who is deeply centred in her work, this particular evil is +of practically little importance. A great belief in her own powers +enables her to push aside opportunities which are not genuine. Men are +also human, and if met frankly and straightforwardly in work, or +for that matter, out of it, are as capable of honest, helpful good +fellowship as any woman. In fact, the work of the theatre, which +employs men and women, on more or less equal terms, is a splendid +place to find out that humanity is not limited to sexual problems, and +that the spirit of work removes these limitations, and gives place +to a healthy, invigorating atmosphere of _camaraderie_. It is quite a +false idea that a move in the wrong direction is in any way necessary +to success. + +Something must be said with regard to the sanitation and ventilation +of the theatre. Though there has been latterly a great effort to +improve the dressing-rooms in the new buildings, there is still a +great deal to be remedied. Here is a description of a dressing-room +used by a young artist in a modern West End theatre. + +"We were seven in a room which just held seven small toilet tables on +a shelf running round the wall, and a narrow walking space from the +door to the window in between. This dressing-room was two floors +below the level of the street, and the one window opened on a passage +covered with thick glass, so that there was no direct air channel. +Next door was a man's urinal used by about forty men--actors, stage +hands, and scene shifters. A pipe from this place came through +the dressing-room; the smell sometimes, even in the winter, was +overpowering; and we ourselves bought Sanitas and kept sprinkling it +on the floor of the room and the passage. Added to this was the fact +that the stairs from the stage led straight down facing the entrance +of this men's urinal, and not infrequently the door would be open and +shut as we came down, and it was altogether very objectionable." + +The report of a young artist who toured for some time with a comedy +sketch in the music halls shows equally bad conditions. This sketch +was sent out by a first rate London management, and the halls visited +were on the first-class tours. She told me that in one of the largest +towns in England the Music Hall had only one ladies' lavatory, which +was on the stage exactly behind the back-drop. A horse was necessary +for an Indian sketch on the same bill in which the comedy sketch was +played, and the recess by the lavatory was found to be the only +safe place to stable the horse. The door of the ladies' lavatory was +therefore nailed up for the week. Should anyone wish, she could, on +explaining to the ushers in the front of the house, receive a pass +of admission to the ladies' cloakroom, but to reach the front of the +house meant a walk of four minutes round a complete block, and, +even if it had not been winter time, it is almost impossible for any +actress, when once dressed for her part, to go into the street without +attracting a great deal of notice, and also very likely entirely +spoiling her appearance, as theatrical "make-up" is only meant for the +dry atmosphere of the theatre. + +On this same tour, in a famous south coast resort, this lady had to +dress in an underground dressing-room with twelve others, and the only +lavatory for women's use was opposite the stage-door box, where all +letters were called for, and the stage hands lounged about the whole +evening. In the most important town on this tour the dressing-room +in which she was directed to dress had, for its sole ventilation, the +door by which one entered, exactly facing the one general lavatory. +The aperture, high up in the wall, opened into another room where, +during this week, fifty cocks and hens, used in an animal turn, were +kept. It would be quite impossible to describe the sickening smell +which all this meant. The only thoroughly clean, sanitary hall which +she visited, was in Scotland. + +In almost all the theatres, even where the conditions are considered +above criticism, the lavatories reserved for the ladies are, by a +curious arrangement, generally on the floor where most of the actors +dress. They are almost invariably difficult to use, for as the +dressing-rooms are usually allotted by men, there is little +consideration of women's comfort in this matter. It is a curious +side-light on the intelligence of men that they almost universally +seem to think that women, by a special Providence, are exempt from +these natural laws; and almost all women are still too Early Victorian +to insist upon some change. Many of the old theatres in London and the +provinces suffer from want of proper ventilation; and many of them +are appallingly, incredibly dirty. In the provinces dressing-rooms are +sometimes dripping with damp; and it is not an uncommon experience to +share the room with mice and other vermin. + +It is only possible for me to touch very lightly on employment by the +cinematograph firms; but from the enquiries I have made, the usual +payment seems to be roughly from 5s. to 7s. 6d. a day, the workers +finding their own clothes: 10s. 6d. if the workers can ride and swim: +3s. a day for walking on, when light meals are provided. There is +a form of application to be filled in, which demands the following +particulars:-- + + Height. + Bust measurement. + Waist measurement. + Skirt length. + Age. + Line of work. + Remarks. + Ride horseback. Cycle. Swim. + +The pictures take about ten days to prepare, and as a supplementary +trade, undoubtedly this work is of value to the actress. + +An evil which attacks the theatre of the present day is the horrible +mantle of respectability which has settled on the profession. +Respectability in Art is a blight which undermines, and the moment +any worker or profession of workers is accepted on equal terms by +the non-workers of the community, misery invariably ensues. It is +impossible for a non-worker to comprehend the life of a worker, or +to make any margin for the work, which, if we judge by the example of +their own lives, they evidently despise. The restrictions which all +honest work brings, along with its compensations, are annoying to +ornamental parasites; and the contempt for restrictions is apt subtly +to undermine the mind of the worker. + +There is no doubt that for the average actress, when such an enormous +number of people are rushing into the theatrical profession, there is +little security. The life of a successful actress is undoubtedly one +of the very best, so far, open to women. It is not a fact that the +best and greatest actresses are always the successful ones: but it is +a truth that all the successful ones have some natural qualifications +which have enabled them to gain that position. + +Then what is the matter with the theatre? and why has it become such +a miserable life for the average worker? It is an unskilled trade, +and the people who have control of the trade have a contempt for the +average worker. They believe they can teach in a few weeks, what they +have not, in years, succeeded in mastering themselves. The unfortunate +worker is taught like a parrot, used for a short time, and then thrown +on the scrap-heap of the unfit for the theatre, when the theatre has +unfitted them for more honourable work. + +The employer is at the present moment a man, and a man will offer a +salary of 30s. a week to a woman, because she will take 30s.: but he +will not offer that sum to an actor. There is a subtle assumption that +because women will take less, they are not entirely dependent on their +work; and a manager will sometimes offer a large salary to a woman who +drives up in a motor car, magnificently dressed, most obviously not +dependent on her earnings; whilst the accomplished actress, without +these powerful assets, and obviously dependent on her work, is paid +practically a third of that salary. + +Let us sincerely hope that this transitional stage from the days when +each town had its own theatre, and engagements were always for the +season, to the waste and despair of the present conditions of the mass +of the workers in the theatre of this country, may give place to +some system which will select the fit from the unfit, and give them +a permanent engagement with a proper clause of notice on either side, +such as that to which workers in other trades are entitled. More care +in selection; more belief that an actress, if she be of any use, can +represent a diversity of types; a shutting of the doors on those who +are obviously unfitted, however cheap their labour may be, would +be salvation to the women who are trying to earn their bread in the +theatre. For it is time we ceased to grovel before this misused word +"Art," which covers the wasteful cruelty the present conditions in the +theatre permit. + + + + +APPENDIX I + +SCHEME OF WORK OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP + + +The Group was formed by some women members of the Fabian Society +in 1908, chiefly with the object of studying the problem of women's +economic independence in relation to socialism. The work was mapped +out on the following lines, to which the Group has adhered:-- + +_Part I.--Differences in Ability for Productive Work Involved in +Difference of Sex Function._ + +Division 1.--Natural disabilities of women when not actively engaged +in childbearing. + +Division 2.--Natural disabilities of women when actively so engaged. + +_Part II.--Women's Economic Independence in Relation to Social +Conditions._ + +Division 1.--Women as productive workers and as consumers in the past. + +Division 2.--Women as productive workers and as consumers in the +present. + +_Part III.--Practical Steps towards such Modification of Social +Conditions as will enable Women:_ + +(_a_) Freely to use and develop their physical and mental capacities +in productive work, while remaining free and fully able to exercise +their special function of childbearing. + +(_b_) Each personally to receive her individual share of the social +wealth. + +Two Summaries of the lectures and discussions arising out of Part I. +were issued for private circulation in 1910. Copies, 1d. each, can now +be procured through the Fabian Office, 3 Clement's Inn, W.C. + +Fifteen papers of the Historical Series, Part II., Division I, have +already been given, and the subjects considered in them have nearly +covered the field of material at present available for the rough +preliminary enquiry, in which the Group has led the way. When the +series is finished, it is hoped to shape the material into essay form +for publication. + +The present volume is the outcome of lectures and discussions arising +out of Part II., Division 2. It is hoped that it may prove to be +the first of a Series dealing with this part of the investigations +undertaken by the Women's Group. + + + + +APPENDIX II + +LATEST CENSUS RETURNS[1] OF WOMEN WORKERS IN THE SEVEN PROFESSIONS +CONSIDERED IN THIS BOOK + + + Total. Unmarried. Married. Widowed. + + I. Teachers 187,283 171,480 11,798 4,005 + + II. Physicians, Surgeons 477 382 76 19 + and Registered Practitioners + + III. Midwives, Sick Nurses, 83,662 55,288 11,867 16,507 + Invalid Attendants + + IV. Poor Law, Municipal, 19,437 14,439 2,514 2,484 + Parish, etc., Officers + + V. National Government 31,538 25,843 3,410 2,285 + Employeés + + VI. Commercial or Business 117,057 114,429 1,733 895 + Clerks + + VII. Actresses 9,171 5,259 3,540 372 + +In a volume which may be issued by the Census Office in February, some +sub-divisions of the above headings will be made. Thus (1) teachers +employed by Local Authorities will be separated from those in other +schools; (2) the number of dentists (not included above) will be +given; (3) the number of midwives will be shown separately; (4) Poor +Law will be distinguished from other Local Government Service; (5) +Post Office Servants will be distinguished from other Civil Servants; +(6) clerks will, as far as possible, be classified according to the +industry with which they are connected; (7) actresses in music-halls +will, as far as possible, be distinguished from those in theatres. + + +[Footnote 1: In connection with these returns of 1911, it must be +remembered that a large number of women workers resisted the census in +that year as a protest against their exclusion from citizenship. +The above figures are, therefore, though official, unavoidably an +understatement.] + + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Women Workers in Seven Professions +by Edith J. Morley + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12171 *** diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..fe50d3f --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #12171 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12171) diff --git a/old/12171-8.txt b/old/12171-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..9e85c22 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/12171-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10497 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Women Workers in Seven Professions, by Edith J. Morley + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Women Workers in Seven Professions + +Author: Edith J. Morley + +Release Date: April 27, 2004 [EBook #12171] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOMEN WORKERS IN SEVEN PROFESSIONS *** + + + + +Produced by Curtis Weyant, Leah Moser and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team. + + + + + + +WOMEN WORKERS IN SEVEN PROFESSIONS + +A SURVEY OF THEIR ECONOMIC CONDITIONS AND PROSPECTS + +EDITED FOR THE STUDIES COMMITTEE OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP + +BY + +EDITH J. MORLEY + +1914 + + + + +PREFATORY NOTE + + +The task of collecting and editing the various essays of which this +book is comprised, has not been altogether easy. Some literary defects +and absence of unity are, by the nature of the scheme, inevitable: +we hope these are counterbalanced by the collection of first-hand +evidence from those in a position to speak authoritatively of the +professions which they follow. _Experientia docet_, and those who +desire to investigate the conditions of women's public work in various +directions, as well as those who are hesitating in their choice of a +career, may like carefully to weigh these opinions formed as a result +of personal experience. + +For other defects in selection, arrangement, proportion and the like, +I am alone responsible. I have, from the first, been conscious +that many people were better suited to the editorial task than +myself--women with more knowledge of social and economic problems, +and, perhaps, with more leisure. But at the moment no one seemed to +be available, and I was persuaded to do what I could to carry out the +wishes of the Studies Committee of the Fabian Women's Group. If I +have in any measure succeeded, it is owing to the generous help and +unvarying kindness I have received in all directions. In the first +place, I would express my gratitude to the members of the Studies +Committee, and more particularly to Mrs Charlotte Wilson, the fount +and inspiration of the whole scheme, to Mrs Pember Reeves, and to +Mrs Bernard Shaw. My indebtedness to all the contributors for their +promptitude, patience, and courtesy, it is impossible to exaggerate. +I hope it will not be thought invidious if I say that without Dr +Murrell's sub-editorship of the Medical and Nursing Sections, and the +unstinted and continual help of Dr O'Brien Harris, the book could +not have appeared at all. The latter's paper on "Secondary School +Teaching" has had the benefit of criticism and suggestions from one +of the most notable Head-Mistresses of her day--Mrs Woodhouse, whose +experience of work in the schools of the Girls' Public Day School +Trust was kindly placed at the author's disposal. Similarly, some of +the details mentioned in the section on "Acting," were kindly supplied +by Mrs St John Ervine. Lastly--for it is impossible to mention all +who have assisted--I wish to thank Miss Ellen Smith for her unsparing +secretarial labours, and Miss M.G. Spencer and Miss Craig, of the +Central Bureau for the Employment of Women, for the Table which +appears at the end of Section I. This is unique as an exhaustive +summary of a mass of information, hitherto not easily accessible to +the general public. + +EDITH J. MORLEY. + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, READING, _December_ 1913. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +PREFATORY NOTE. By the Editor + +FOREWORDS. ON BEHALF OF THE STUDIES COMMITTEE OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S +GROUP + +I. THE TEACHING PROFESSION + + I. INTRODUCTION. By EDITH J. MORLEY, Oxford Honour + School of English Language and Literature. Professor + of English Language, University College, Reading. + Fellow and Lecturer of University of London + King's College for Women + + II. WOMEN AT THE UNIVERSITIES AND UNIVERSITY + TEACHING AS A PROFESSION. By EDITH J. MORLEY + + III. SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHING. By (Mrs) M. O'BRIEN + HARRIS, D.Sc., London, Hon. Member of Somerville + College, Oxford. Headmistress of the County + Secondary School, South Hackney + + IV. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHING. By (Mrs) KATE + DICE, C.T., Class Teacher in the service of the London + County Council, Hon. Sec. of the Fabian Education + Group + + V. TEACHING IN SCHOOLS FOR THE MENTALLY AND + PHYSICALLY DEFECTIVE. By (Mrs) JESSIE E. + THOMAS, C.T., Class Teacher at the London County + Council School for Physically Defective Children, + Turney Road, Dulwich + + VI. THE TEACHING OF GYMNASTICS. By MARY HANKINSON, + Hon. Sec. of the Ling Association. Diploma of the + Dartford Physical Training College + + VII. THE TEACHING OF DOMESTIC SUBJECTS. By (Mrs) + MARGARET M'KILLOP, M.A. (Dublin). Oxford + Honour Schools of Natural Science and of Mathematics + Fellow and Tutor of University of London King's + College for Women; + and + E. BEATRICE HOGG, first-class Diploma, National + Training School of Cookery. Instructress, London + County Council Probationary and Training Centres, + Examiner in Domestic Subjects to the City and + Guilds of London Institute, the Nautical School + of Cookery, etc. Some time Hon. Sec. London + Branch, Assistant Teachers of Domestic Subjects + + TABLE I. SHOWING THE COST AND DURATION OF + EDUCATION IN ARTS AND SCIENCE, AND THE + SCHOLARSHIPS AVAILABLE FOR WOMEN STUDENTS + AT THE VARIOUS BRITISH UNIVERSITIES. Reprinted + (with additions), by special permission, from the + pamphlet, "Openings for University Women," published + by the Central Bureau for the Employment of + Women for the Students' Careers Association + + TABLE II. SHOWING SOME ADDITIONAL POST-GRADUATE + RESEARCH SCHOLARSHIPS IN ARTS AND SCIENCE + AVAILABLE FOR WOMEN STUDENTS, AWARDED BY + BODIES OTHER THAN UNIVERSITIES OF THE UNITED + KINGDOM. Compiled (with additions) by special permission, + from the "Report on the Opportunities for + Post-Graduate Work open to Women" published by + the Federation of University Women + +II. THE MEDICAL PROFESSION INCLUDING DENTISTRY. Sub-Editor: CHRISTINE +M. MURRELL, M.D., B.S., London, Assistant Medical Officer of Health +(Special Schools) London County Council; Lecturer and Examiner on +Adolescence, Health, First Aid, Infant Care, etc., London County +Council and Battersea Polytechnic, Honorary Medical Officer, +Paddington Creche, and for Infant Consultations, North Marylebone; +late Medical Registrar and Electrician and late Resident House +Physician, Royal Free Hospital + + I. MEDICINE AND SURGERY. By the Sub-Editor + + II. DENTAL SURGERY. By (Mrs) Eva M. HANDLEY + READ, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., L.S.A., L.D.S. Dental + Surgeon to the Royal Free Hospital, the Margaret + M'Donald Baby Clinic, and the Cripple Hostel + Camberwell + +III. THE NURSING PROFESSION TOGETHER WITH MIDWIFERY AND MASSAGE. +Sub-Editor: CHRISTINE M. MURRELL + + PREFACE. By the Sub-Editor + I. GENERAL SURVEY AND INTRODUCTION. By E.M. + Musson. Matron of the General Hospital, Birmingham + + II. NURSING IN GENERAL HOSPITALS. By E.M. + MUSSON + + III. NURSING IN PRIVATE HOMES AND Co--OPERATIONS. + By GERTRUDE TOWNEND, Sister in her own Nursing + Home; late Deputy-Sister, St. Bartholomew's + Hospital; late Matron, Royal Ear Hospital, Dean + Street + + IV. NURSING IN POOR LAW INFIRMARIES. By ELEANOR + C. BARTON, President of the Poor Law Infirmary + Matrons' Association + + V. NURSING IN FEVER HOSPITALS. By S.G. VILLIERS, + Matron of the South-West Fever Hospital + + VI. DISTRICT NURSING. By AMY HUGHES, General Superintendent + of the Queen Victoria Jubilee Institute for + Nurses + + VII. NURSING IN SCHOOLS AND NURSES AS INSPECTORS. + By H.L. PEARSE + + VIII. NURSING IN HOSPITALS FOR THE INSANE. By a + Matron of one of them + + IX. NURSING IN THE COLONIES. By A. FRICKER, Matron + of the Colonial Hospital, Trinidad, under the Colonial + Nursing Association + + X. NURSING IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. By the Sub-Editor + + XI. PRISON NURSING. By the Sub-Editor + + XII. MIDWIFERY AS A PROFESSION FOR WOMEN (OTHER + THAN DOCTORS). By ANNIE M'CALL, M.D., Senior + Medical Officer and Lecturer, Clapham Maternity + Hospital and School of Midwifery; late Lecturer in + and Demonstrator of Operative Midwifery, London + School of Medicine for Women; Examiner, Central + Midwives' Board; Vice-Chairman of the Committee of + the London County Council for the Supervision of + Midwives in the County of London + + XIII. MASSAGE. By EDITH M. TEMPLETON, Secretary of the + Incorporated Society of Trained Masseuses + +IV. WOMEN AS SANITARY INSPECTORS AND HEALTH VISITORS. By (Mrs) F.J. +GREENWOOD, Sanitary Inspector, Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury, late +Chief Woman Inspector, Sheffield; Associate Royal Sanitary Institute; +Certificate, Central Midwives' Board; Diploma, National Health Society + +V. WOMEN IN THE CIVIL SERVICE + + I. THE HIGHER GRADES: PRESENT POSITION AND + PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE. By a Woman Civil + Servant + + II. THE LOWER GRADES AND THE PRESENT POSITION. + By Another Woman Civil Servant + +VI. WOMEN CLERKS AND SECRETARIES. By (Mrs) ELSPETH KEITH ROBERTSON +SCOTT + +VII. ACTING AS A PROFESSION FOR WOMEN. By LENA ASHWELL + +APPENDIX I. SCHEME OF WORK OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP + +APPENDIX II. LATEST CENSUS RETURNS OF WOMEN WORKERS IN THE SEVEN +PROFESSIONS CONSIDERED IN THIS BOOK + + + + +FOREWORDS + +ON BEHALF OF THE STUDIES COMMITTEE OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP + + +The present economic position of women bristles with anomalies. It +is the outcome of long ages of semi-serfdom, when women toiled +continuously to produce wealth, which, if they were married, they +could enjoy only at the good pleasure of their lords,--ages when the +work of most women was conditioned and subordinated by male dominance. +Yet in those days the working housewife commanded the consideration +always conceded to a bread-winner--even when dependent. In modern +times women's economic position has been undermined by the helpless +dependence engendered amongst the well-to-do by "parasitism" resulting +from nineteenth-century luxury--to quote the striking word of Olive +Schreiner. Similarly, dependence has been forced upon large sections +of women-folk amongst the manual workers by the loss of their hold +upon land and by the decay of home industries. Now a new force is at +work: the revolt of the modern woman against parasitism and dependence +in all their forms; her demand for freedom to work and to choose her +sphere of work, as well as for the right to dispose of what she gains. + +Six years ago some women of the Fabian Society, deeply stirred by the +tremendous social import of this movement, banded themselves together +to unravel the tangled skein of women's economic subjection and to +discover how its knots were tied. The first step was to get women to +speak out, to analyse their own difficulties and hindrances as matters +boldly to be faced. Whatever the truth may turn out to be with regard +to natural and inevitable differences of faculty between men and +women, it is at least certain that difference of sex, like any other +persistent condition of individual existence, implies some difference +of outlook. The woman's own standpoint--that is the first essential in +understanding her position, economic or other: the trouble is that +she has but recently begun to realise that she inevitably has a +standpoint, which is not that of her husband, or her brother, or of +the men with whom she works, or even that which these persons imagine +must naturally be hers. Her point of view is her own, and it is +essential to social progress that she shall both recognise this fact +and make it understood. + +The aim of the Fabian Women's Group was to elicit women's own thoughts +and feelings on their economic position, and to this end we invited +women of experience and expert knowledge, from various quarters and +of many types of thought, to discourse of what they best knew to +audiences of women. After the lectures, the questions raised were +discussed in all their bearings by women speaking amongst women +without diffidence or prejudice. In this manner the physical +disabilities of women as workers have been explained clearly by women +doctors, and carefully and frankly weighed and considered; the part +taken by women in producing the wealth of this country in past times +has been set forth by students of economic history, and much scattered +material of great value unearthed, and for the first time brought +together concerning a subject hitherto deemed negligible by the male +historian. Lastly, women employed in or closely connected with +each leading occupation or group of occupations to-day--from the +professions to the sweated industries--are being asked to describe +and to discuss with us the economic conditions they have directly +experienced or observed.[1] + +It is hoped in time to complete and shape for publication all the +material accumulated during these six years. We make a beginning with +this book of essays on the economic position of women in seven of the +leading professions at present open to them. Some of the papers appear +almost in the form in which they were first read to the group and its +women visitors: when the original lectures did not fully cover the +ground, they have been revised, altered, expanded, or re-written, +or essays by new writers have been substituted for those originally +presented. Thus the papers on "Teaching in Secondary Schools" by Dr +O'Brien Harris and that on "Teaching in Elementary Schools" by Mrs +Dice, take the place of an address on "The Life of a Teacher," by +Miss Drummond, President of the Incorporated Association of Assistant +Mistresses. This paper was withdrawn at the writer's request, but many +valuable points from her lecture, which she generously placed at the +disposal of the Editor, have been embodied. The other papers in the +Education Section are all new. Similarly, in the section which +deals with the profession of Nursing, Miss Hughes' paper on +"District-Nursing" is the only one which is based on a lecture given +to the group; the other articles are all supplementary. Together, we +believe they form a unique and almost exhaustive description of the +profession. + +That the volume might be made as useful as possible, the same method +has been followed throughout. The paper and discussion at the group +meeting have formed the nucleus from which a thorough treatment of the +subject has been developed. + +We hope and believe that this book may help to arouse deeper interest +in the vigour and energy with which professional women are now +striving to make good their economic position; that it may serve +to enlist active sympathy with their struggle against the special +difficulties and hindrances which beset them, and make plain the +value to society of the work they can do. We also believe that the +information here brought together may be useful in helping young women +to choose and prepare for their life-work. + +No pains have been spared to make the book as accurate as possible, +and to bring it in every case up to date. + +It should be clearly emphasised that each contributor to this volume +has expressed her own opinions freely and independently, and that the +writers have been selected because they are leading members of their +respective professions, not because they represent a particular school +of thought. We have endeavoured to get our material from the most +authoritative quarters, irrespective of the personal views of those +who have supplied it. All the writers have given generously of +their time and labour in order that they might contribute to an +investigation of profound social and national importance--the clear +presentation of the economic position of women as it appears to women +themselves. Widely different as are the professional interests and +divergent the opinions of the writers of these essays, no one can, as +we think, read consecutively the various sections of the book without +arriving at the conclusion that, on certain fundamental questions, +there is substantial agreement among them. Almost all, as a result of +their professional experience, definitely express the conviction that +women need economic independence and political emancipation: nowhere +is there any hint of opposition to either of these ideals. The writers +are unanimous in their insistence upon the importance--to men as +well as to women--of equal pay for equal work, irrespective of +sex. Wherever the subject of the employment of married women is +mentioned--and it crops up in most of the papers--there is adverse +comment on the economically unsound, unjust, and racially dangerous +tendency in many salaried professions to enforce upon women +resignation on marriage. It is clear that professional women are +beginning to show resentment at the attempt to force celibacy upon +them: they feel themselves insulted and wronged as human beings when, +being physically and mentally fit, they are not permitted to judge for +themselves in this matter. Apart from their righteous indignation, it +may be suggested that, even from the ratepayers' point of view, +the normal disabilities of motherhood, with the consequent leave of +absence, would probably in the long run be less expensive than the +dismissal, at the zenith of their powers, of experienced workers, +who have to be replaced by younger and less efficient women. It +is, moreover, a truism that the best work is produced by the +most contented worker. A fundamentally happy woman, continually +strengthened and refreshed by affectionate companionship, is obviously +better able to endure the strain of professional work than her +unmarried sister, who at best, is deprived of the normal joys +of fully--developed womanhood. The action of Central and Local +Authorities and of other employers who make marriage a disability +for their women employèes, is alluded to by our contributors with an +indignation, the more striking for the studied calm with which it is +expressed.[2] + +The future as foreshadowed in these papers seems to us bright with +hope. In spite of difficulties, opposition, rebuffs, and prejudice, +professional women workers are slowly but surely advancing in status +and in recognition. They are gaining courage to train themselves +to claim positions of responsibility and command, and to refuse, if +occasion arises, to be subordinated, on the ground of their +womanhood, to men less able than themselves. They are learning by +experience,--many have already learned,--the need for co-operation and +loyalty to one another. While they are thus gaining new and valuable +qualities, they have never lost, in spite of many hardships, the +peculiar joy and lofty idealism in work which are, in part, a reaction +from ages of economic and personal dependence. + + +[Footnote 1: For an analysis of the whole scheme of work of the Fabian +Women's Group, _see_ Appendix I.] + +[Footnote 2: In Western Australia the following Amendment, 340A., +to the Criminal Code has passed the third reading in the Legislative +Assembly, and is expected to pass the Legislative Council before this +book appears:-- + +(1) Any person, who, either as principal or agent--_(a)_ Makes +or enters into or enforces or seeks to enforce any rule, order, +regulation, contract, agreement or arrangement in restraint of or +with intent to restrain, prevent or hinder the marriage of _any person +(N.B._ A woman is a "person" in Western Australia) who is in his +employment or in the employment of his principal, and is of the age of +twenty-one years or upwards; or + +_(b)_ Dismisses or threatens to dismiss any person from his employment +or the employment of his principal, or alters or threatens to alter, +any such person's position to the prejudice of such person by reason +of the fact that such person has married or intends to marry, or +with a view to restrain, prevent, or hinder such person from getting +married; + +is guilty of an offence, and is liable to imprisonment for three +months, or to a fine not exceeding five hundred pounds. + +(2) The provisions of this section shall apply to corporations so far +as they are capable of being applied.] + + + + +WOMEN WORKERS IN SEVEN PROFESSIONS + +SECTION I + +THE TEACHING PROFESSION + + "All stood thus far + Upon equal ground: that we were brothers all + In honour, as in one community." + +I + +INTRODUCTION + + +Until recently, girls who desired to earn their livelihood drifted +naturally into teaching, which was often the last refuge of the +destitute. Even nowadays, it is taken too much for granted that some +form of teaching is the obvious opening for educated women, who +aspire to economic independence. But, thanks to various causes and +developments, it is now almost universally recognised that teaching is +a profession, and one which can be entered only by candidates, who are +properly equipped and trained. In a book such as this, it may then +be assumed that the elderly governess, driven to teach by poverty and +lack of friends, with no qualifications but gentility, good manners, +good principles, and a humble mind, is a figure which is mercifully +becoming less and less common. It is still necessary, however, to +insist on the fact that brains and education and training are not +by themselves sufficient to produce a successful teacher. Quite +literally, teaching is a "calling" as well as a profession: the true +candidate must have a vocation; she must mount her rostrum or enter +her class-room with a full conviction of the importance of her +mission, and of her desire to undertake it. This earnest purpose +should not, however, destroy her sense of humour and of proportion; +it is possible to take oneself and one's daily routine of work too +seriously, a fault which does not tend to impress their importance on +a scoffing world. No girl should become a teacher because she does +not know how else to gain her living. The profession is lamentably +overstocked with mediocrities, lacking enthusiasm and vigour, drifting +more and more hopelessly from one post to another. But there is plenty +of room for keen and competent women, eager to learn and to teach, and +this is true of all branches of the profession. No work can well be +more thankless, more full of drudgery and of disappointment than that +of a teacher who has missed her vocation. Few lives can be more full +of happy work and wide interests than those of teachers who rejoice in +their calling. + +Yet there is need to call attention to certain drawbacks which are +common to all branches of the profession. As a class, teachers are +badly paid, and many are overworked. The physical and mental strain +is inevitably severe: in many cases this is unnecessarily increased +by red-tape regulations that involve loss of time and temper and an +amount of clerical work, which serves no useful purpose. Teachers +need to concentrate their energies on essentials: of these the life +intellectual is the most important, and this, however elementary the +standard of work demanded in class. No one can teach freshly unless +she is at the same time learning, and widening her own mental horizon. +Too many forms to fill up, too many complicated registers to keep, too +many meetings to attend--these things stultify the mind and crush the +spirit. They are not a necessary accompaniment of State or municipal +control, though sometimes under present conditions it is hard to +believe that they are not the inevitable concomitants of official +regulations. Anything which tends to make teachers' lives more narrow, +is opposed to the cause of education. This truth should be instilled +into all official bosoms. Wherever the State or the local authority +intervenes, wherever public money has been granted, there regular +inspection obviously becomes inevitable, but the multiplication of +inspectors, each representing a different authority, is not necessary +or sensible. At present, in all grant-aided institutions, whatever +their status, inspectors do not cease from troubling, and teachers as +well as administrative officers, though weary, find no rest.[1] This +is as detrimental to the pupil as to the teacher, for it lowers the +intellectual standard by substituting form for matter and the letter +for the spirit. Thus the inspector of an art-school who enquires only +about what are officially termed "student-hours," and not at all about +the work therein accomplished, does not make for artistic efficiency +either in teacher or taught. Yet this instance is of very recent +occurrence, and there are countless parallel cases. No wonder the +Universities demand freedom from State control; no wonder Training +Colleges and subsidised secondary as well as elementary schools groan +under its tender mercies. The present forms taken by this control are +mostly obnoxious to all practical educationists. They arise from lack +of trust in the teaching profession on the part of administrators--a +mistrust which it is of primary importance to allay by increased +efficiency, independence, and organisation. Nationalisation of +the schools is necessary, if a real highway of education is to be +established: it must be obtained without irritating conditions which +make freedom, experiment, and progress too often impossible. The task +before the teaching profession is to retain full scope for initiative +and experiment, whilst working loyally under a public body. This +should be specially the work of the socialist teacher, while the +socialist administrator and legislator must see that their side of the +work leaves full room for individuality. + +In the following section it is obviously impossible adequately to +consider all branches of the teaching profession, and it has therefore +been thought the wisest course to select the leading varieties of work +in which women teachers are engaged and to treat them in some detail. +The writers of the various articles express their own points of view, +gained by practical first-hand experience of the work they describe. +Allowance must, perhaps, in some cases be made for personal +enthusiasm, or for the depression that arises from thwarted efforts +and unfulfilled ideals. At any rate no attempt has been made to +co-ordinate the papers or to give them any particular tendency. As +a result, certain deductions may be made with some confidence. Women +teachers of experience are convinced of the manifold attractions of +their profession, and at the same time are alive to its disadvantages +as well as to its possibilities. Alike in University, secondary +school, and elementary school there is the joy of service, and the +power to train, + + "To riper growth the mind and will. + + "And what delights can equal those + That stir the spirit's inner deeps, + When one that loves, but knows not, reaps + A truth from one that loves and knows?" + +Of all teachers, perhaps she who elects to work in an elementary +school is in this respect most fortunate and most rich in +opportunities, since, to many of her children, she is the one bright +spot in their lives, the one person who endeavours to understand and +to stimulate them to the effort which all normal children enjoy. For +her, too, particularly if her work lies in a poor district, there +is the opportunity, if she care to take it, for all kinds of social +interests. There will, of course, be much to sadden her in such +experiences, but at least they will add a sense of reality to her +teaching which will keep her in close touch with life. She will find +that there are compensations for hard work and red-tape regulations, +even for low remuneration and slowness of promotion. Nor must it +be forgotten that, inadequate as is her salary, it contrasts not +unfavourably with that of other occupations for women, _e.g._ +clerkships and the Civil Service, in which the work is in itself less +attractive. As compared with the assistant mistress in a secondary +school, her lot is not altogether unenviable. If she has shorter +holidays, larger classes, and at the worst, but by no means +inevitably, a lower stipend, these facts must be counterbalanced by +remembering that she has comparatively few corrections, much less +homework, and no pressure of external examining bodies, that her +tenure is far less insecure, and that her training and education +have been to a very large extent borne by the State or by local +authorities. + +The following table gives the approximate cost of College education +for elementary teachers-in-training. If it be compared with the +expenses that have to be met by other students from private sources +(_vide_ p. 7, or, in greater detail, pp. 82 _et seq_.), it will be +seen that the elementary teacher begins her career with a substantial +subsidy from the State. + +_Elementary Teachers_. + +The following is a typical table of annual cost at a University +College which provides for two-year and for three-year students. The +training is obtainable at slightly lower cost to students in some +other colleges. + + Grants by Board of Fees payable by students + Education to College. to College. + + Tuition. Maintenance. Tuition. Maintenance. + + Women students £13 £20 £12 From £12 to + in residence £22 according + to accommodation. + (It is to be noted that the Government maintenance grant + for men students in residence is £40, which can be + made practically to cover expenses.) + + Women students £13 £20 £12 ... + living at home (paid to student) + + Men students receive _£25 _maintenance grant. + +Apparently the Government policy, as evidenced by its maintenance +grants, is to discourage women students from entering residential +colleges. Yet it is a well-known fact that the wear and tear involved +in living at home is far greater than at college--especially for +women--and the educational advantages correspondingly fewer than those +resulting from residence. + +County Councils frequently provide "free places" at local colleges, +together, in some cases, with supplementary bursaries for +maintenance. Non-resident students--_e.g._, in London--seldom have +any out-of-pocket expenses for their actual education. Nor must it be +forgotten that education up to college age is free to junior county +scholars and to bursars, who also receive small grants towards +maintenance. + +_College Fees for other than Elementary Teachers-in-Training_[2] + + Oxford and Cambridge Colleges From £90 to £105 a year for a + minimum of 3 years (of 24 weeks). + + Other Residential Universities + and Colleges From £52 to £90 or £110 a + year for a minimum of 3 + years (of 30 to 35 weeks). + + Non-residential Colleges From £20 to £55 a year for a + minimum of 3 years. (The + cost of maintenance must be + reckoned at about £40 a + year, as a minimum.) + +Students who desire to do advanced work will need at least one, and +probably two, additional years at the University, while all women who +intend to teach in schools ought also to spend one year in training. + +A large number of County Councils provide "senior" scholarships to +cover or partially to cover college fees. In some counties only one +or two such scholarships are given annually, and there is severe +competition: in others they are comparatively easy to obtain, though +there are never enough for all candidates who desire a University +education. Most of these scholarships are not renewable for a fourth +year of training--an extremely short-sighted policy on the part of the +authorities. + +At practically every University, entrance or other scholarships and +exhibitions are awarded annually. Competition for these is usually +very severe, and they are extremely difficult to gain. At Oxford +and Cambridge only quite exceptional candidates can hope to secure +scholarships at the women's colleges. Moreover, scholarships seldom +cover the complete cost of maintenance and tuition; at Oxford and +Cambridge they never do so. + +Most secondary teachers, then, must incur liabilities varying from +£60 to £350, apart from school, holiday, and personal expenses, before +they obtain their first degree. On the other hand, a graduate with +good testimonials can very often obtain her professional training at +comparatively small cost by means of a bursary: with luck, she may get +maintenance as well as free tuition. Every year, however, as training +is more widely recognised as essential, the proportion of scholarships +available becomes smaller. With the advent of the new Teachers' +Register, which makes training indispensable after 1918, girls will +more and more often be obliged to find means to pay for their own +training. At present it is often possible to borrow for this purpose +from loan societies specially formed to meet the needs of women +preparing to enter professions. + +The training for kindergarten and lower-form mistresses is less +expensive, arduous, and lengthy. Students are required to give +evidence of having received a good secondary education; they can then +take their First Froebel Certificate after one year, and their Higher +Froebel Certificate after about two years' training. The cost of such +training varies from £30 to £58 non-resident; £120 to £150 resident. +If they elect to go to the House of Education at Ambleside, the +training is for two years, and is specially suited to those who +wish to teach in private families. The cost amounts to £90 a year, +including residence, which is obligatory. + +Kindergarten assistant-mistresses usually obtain from £90 to £100 +salary for part-day work, while for whole-day work the rate is the +same as that of their colleagues. Mistresses in charge of a large +kindergarten department often receive additions to their stipend if +they are willing to train student-mistresses for Froebel examinations. + +The Ambleside students usually teach small private classes, or accept +posts as resident governesses in families. Their remuneration varies +in accordance with the work done, but it is usually about the same as +that received by kindergarten and lower-form mistresses. + +The stipends of other secondary teachers are considered in the article +by Dr O'Brien Harris (see p. 32). It should be noted that in good +private schools where the standard of teaching is equally high, the +salaries are approximately on the same scale as in public schools. But +private schools vary enormously in standing. When they are inferior, +the teachers are paid miserable pittances, and are often worth no more +than they receive. Such schools, however, are rapidly decreasing in +number, since they cannot survive competition with public State-aided +schools. The best private schools, on the other hand, supply a real +need, and, as a large proportion of their pupils do not enter +for public examinations, it is possible in them, to make valuable +experiments which could not easily be tried in larger subsidised +institutions. + +In boarding-schools, the conditions do not markedly differ from those +obtaining in day-schools. The chief danger is lest the teachers should +suffer from the strain of supervision-duties in addition to their +work in school. But in the better schools this is avoided by the +appointment of house-mistresses, the teaching staff living apart from +the girls, either in lodgings or in a hostel of their own. When they +"live in," the value of their board for the school terms is usually +reckoned at about £40 a year, which is deducted from the ordinary +salary of an assistant. The cost of living in a mistresses' house is +usually higher, but there are many counterbalancing advantages, the +chief of which is complete freedom when school duties are over. + +It would not be surprising if all women who have incurred the heavy +expenses of preparation for a teaching career, were dissatisfied with +the very small return they may expect by way of salary. Certainly if +we judged by the standard of payment, the profession might well appear +unimportant. Men and women alike receive inadequate remuneration in +all its branches, but, as in other callings, women are worse paid than +men. One might imagine that the training of girls was less arduous +or less important than that of boys, since no one suggests that women +teachers are less conscientious or less competent than their male +colleagues. Now that at every stage co-education of the sexes is +becoming less unusual, it is wise policy in the interests of men as +well as of women, to make the standard of remuneration depend, not on +the sex of the worker, but on the quality of the work. Otherwise +men will gradually be driven from the profession, as is already the +tendency in the United States of America and, to some extent, in +elementary teaching in this country. Needless to say, the women's +salaries need levelling up: it would be hopeless policy to reduce the +men's maxima to those of the women. In many secondary schools and in +at any rate some elementary ones, there is too great a discrepancy +between the salary of the head and that of the assistants. Here +again, teachers might endeavour to arrive at some united expression +of opinion. All would probably agree that the profession should be +entered for the sake of the work itself, and not on the remote chance +of becoming a head-mistress. But while the difference in salary is +very great, it is inevitable that ambitious teachers must aspire to +headships, even though they be better suited to class work. + +Finally, it may be repeated, that with all its drawbacks, the teaching +profession has much to recommend it to those who desire to make +it their life-work. It is not suited to all comers: it makes heavy +demands on mind and body and heart; it gives little material return. +But it gives other returns in generous measure. For teachers it is +less difficult than for most people to preserve their faith in human +nature, less impossible, even in the midst of daily routine, to +believe in the dignity of labour, and to illuminate it with the light +of enthusiasm and aspiration. + + "... whether we be young or old + Our destiny, our being's heart and home, + Is with infinitude, and only there; + With hope it is, hope that can never die, + Effort, and expectation and desire, + And something evermore about to be." + + +[Footnote 1: The ideal inspector is, of course, a help and not a +hindrance to the teacher, acting as a propagator of new ideas +and bringing into touch with one another, workers who are widely +separated. But the reach of most inspectors far exceeds their grasp.] + +[Footnote 2: See table at end of section, p. 82.] + + + + +II + +WOMEN AT THE UNIVERSITIES AND UNIVERSITY TEACHING AS A PROFESSION + + +When a girl is about to leave school at the age of seventeen or +eighteen, she is often as little able to determine what profession +she wishes to adopt, as is her brother in similar case. If she is +intelligent, well-trained and eager to study, her natural impulse is +to go to college, and to get there, it is still usually the line of +least resistance to say that she wishes to become a teacher. When +there are pecuniary difficulties in the way, the decision must be +taken still earlier. The unfortunate child in the elementary school +used to be compelled to make her choice at the age of twelve +or thirteen, often to find later on, when the first barriers of +pupil-teaching and King's Scholarship were surmounted, that she +was not really suited to her profession or that continued study +was uncongenial. Even now, when the system is different and better, +children are bound too early by a contract they find it hard to break. +It cannot be too often insisted that every intelligent child who +is worthy of a junior or senior scholarship, is not therefore of +necessity predestined to the profession of teaching--a profession so +arduous, so full of drudgery and of disappointment that it should be +entered by those only who are sure of their mission, and full of the +spirit that makes learning and teaching a lasting joy. + +There should be other paths from elementary and secondary school to +the University than that which leads to the teacher's platform. + +Moreover, granted that the desire to teach is a real one, and that +the girl has aptitude, it ought still to be unnecessary to choose +a particular branch of the profession before she has become an +under-graduate. A University career means, among other things, the +discovery of new powers, new interests, and opportunities; sometimes +it brings with it the painful conviction that aspiration has +outstripped capacity. The bright girl who has excelled at school, +may find that she is unfitted for independent honour work: she is not +necessarily worse on that account, but she must substitute some other +plan for her ambition to become a "specialist." The slow plodder who +could never trust her memory at school, may, at College, discover +unsuspected powers of investigation and co-ordination which mark her +out for some branch of higher study. The University, the first contact +with a more independent and larger life, is the "testing-place for +young souls": students should enter its portals as free women, the +world all before them where to choose. In many cases not until the +first degree is taken, has the proper time come to determine finally +the profession which is to be adopted. This is the ideal--for most +people admittedly a far away one at present. But even now, the +would-be teacher should not be asked to decide earlier than this on +the particular branch of the profession which she is to enter. The +average pass graduate will do best to fit herself as an all-round +form mistress: there should be no reason to determine in what type of +school, elementary or secondary. The training required should be the +same if the classes were, as they ought to be, of manageable size, and +the equipment in both types of institution equally good. Teachers +in both kinds of school would benefit if the present absurd division +between them ceased to exist. Children under fourteen require similar +discipline whatever their social status: even if the subjects taught +are to differ somewhat--a matter which is controversial and need not +be discussed here--the teachers need similar training and the same +kind and amount of academic education. Until these are secured, there +can be no real equality of opportunity for the elementary school +child: only the very best intellects in the class of 60 can hope to +compete with the average individually educated child in the form of +20 or 30--and this is true whatever the merits and enthusiasm of the +teacher. + +Some girls will welcome the larger opportunities for social service +which are open to the elementary school-teacher: others will prefer +and be better suited to the conditions of the secondary school. +Clearly, the student, whose expenses have been defrayed by the +Government on condition that she enters its service, must fulfil her +undertaking: but that should not in itself limit her to one type of +school in these days of grant-aided institutions.[1] The new four-year +course makes it possible for her, as for independent students, to +train in the year subsequent to taking a degree--an essential reform +if the old over-strain and rush are to be avoided. It is generally +accepted, and in girls' secondary schools commonly acted upon, that +professional training for one year after graduation, is indispensable. +The teacher is born, not made, but she needs help if she is to avoid +mistakes equally disastrous to herself and her pupils: she requires +some knowledge of child-character, some acquaintance with the history +and theory of education, some leisure to formulate, some opportunity +to consider the aims as well as the methods of her teaching. We have, +perhaps, passed beyond the stage when it is necessary further to +discuss the value and effect of training. It is still desirable +to emphasise the fact that the untrained woman teacher finds it +increasingly difficult to obtain satisfactory and well-paid school +posts.[2] Girls should endeavour by every means in their power to +secure this fourth year at college, which is essential to their +competency and to security of employment. It would also be well to +impress on county councils that their work is but half done if they +continue to refuse a renewal of scholarships for training to those who +have taken a degree. + +Students who have graduated with honours will have to decide before +they begin to train, whether they wish to become specialist teachers +and whether they have sufficient intellectual capacity to do so. +Generally speaking, a student who has obtained third-class honours +will do better to prepare herself for ordinary form work; she is +not likely to obtain control of the teaching of her own subject in a +first-rate school, though doubtless she will often get the opportunity +to take some classes under the direction of the specialists. Graduates +in high honours will usually desire to devote themselves mainly to the +subject in which they have proved their ability, and their training +must be adapted to their end. Modern language or English specialists +will need practical training in phonetics, for example: mathematicians +require to study modern methods of teaching their subject, and so +forth. The best training colleges, of course, provide for such cases; +in this respect, University training-departments have the advantage +over others, since they can secure the services of experts for the +discussion of their own subjects. + +There remains, lastly, the case of the student who, while definitely +desiring to teach, wishes at the same time to go on with her own work, +to undertake research or advanced or independent study. Such an +one will aim at a University or College appointment, in the hope +of pursuing her own work under congenial conditions. At Oxford and +Cambridge a woman is, at this stage and always, definitely at a +disadvantage by reason of her sex. For her there are scarcely any +fellowships or post-graduate scholarships, and too often the promising +scholar is caught up in the whirl of teaching for her daily bread at +the very moment when it is most necessary for her to have leisure and +ease of mind. Few things are more required in women's education at +the moment than liberal endowments for post-graduate study. The +comparatively new Federation of University Women Graduates has done +good work by making a list[3] of the opportunities available for women +graduates, either by open competition or otherwise, at the various +Universities and elsewhere: it has also founded, and twice awarded, +an annual fellowship for a woman who has already published a +distinguished contribution to learning. But much more is needed in +this direction if women are to have the same chances as men to qualify +themselves for the higher university appointments. At almost all the +new Universities men and women are nominally alike eligible for every +teaching post. In practice, women are rarely if ever selected for the +higher positions. Sex prejudice undoubtedly counts for something in +this result. It may be assumed that, with two candidates of equal +merit, preference will certainly be given to the man: indeed, it is +certain that a woman must be exceptionally qualified and far more +distinguished than her male competitors to stand a chance of a +professorial appointment even in the most liberal of co-education +universities--Manchester, for example, where the conditions are +exceptionally good. This fact should not deter _fully qualified_ women +from applying for professorial chairs. The power of suggestion is +very great, and it is well to accustom appointment committees to the +consideration of women's claims: in time it may appear less strange to +choose a strong woman candidate than to reject her in favour of a less +qualified male applicant. + +It must be confessed, however, that the case does not at present often +arise. The girl who has had a brilliant undergraduate career, and who +has real capacity for advanced study, exists in her hundreds. But in +almost every case when she is not financially independent, at best +after an interval of preparation for her M.A., she accepts a junior +lectureship or demonstratorship, and from that time onwards is +swallowed up in the vortex of teaching and routine work. Often she +makes heroic efforts and succeeds in producing independent results, +but, so far, to nothing like the extent that would be commensurate +with the promise of her undergraduate achievement. Generally she +is too conscientious about detail, too interested in her students +individually and collectively, to secure sufficient time for her own +studies. + +If a lecturer be known to teach between twenty and thirty hours a +week, it is tolerably, though not entirely, safe to assume that it is +a woman who is so foolish. In so doing, she is destroying her chances +of advancement--intellectual and professional--and is laying her whole +sex open to the charge of being unsuited to university work except in +its lower branches. + +It is certain that the number of University appointments open to women +is on the increase, and that there is no present likelihood that the +demand for qualified women will remain stationary. On the other hand, +the necessary qualifications, personal as well as intellectual, are +high; the work is hard, though attractive, and it is in every respect +undesirable that those whose talents can better be exerted in other +branches of the profession should endeavour to obtain College posts. +Roughly speaking such openings are of four kinds :-- + +(1) Administrative posts. These are usually the reward of long and +successful service in junior appointments. The heads of the various +women's University Colleges are often, but by no means invariably, +well paid, and may look forward to a salary ranging from £400 to +£1,000. Such posts are obviously few in number and entail hard work +and grave responsibility. They necessarily preclude much time for +research, or even for teaching. The corresponding, but much less +responsible, influential, and well-paid position in a co-educational +University is that of Dean or Tutor of Women Students. This post +is usually, and should always be held by a woman of senior academic +standing, whose position in the class-room or laboratory commands +as much respect as her authority outside. The Dean or Tutor is +responsible for the welfare and discipline of all women students, and +is nowadays usually a member of the Senate or academic governing +body. Sometimes she is also Warden of a Women's Hostel, but this is +obviously undesirable if there be more than one Hall of Residence, +lest she may appear to favour her own students at the expense of the +others. + +(2) Professorial posts and Staff Lectureships.[4] These are almost +entirely confined to Women's Colleges, though there are a very few +exceptions to this rule. The University of London has established +University Professorships and Readerships at the various constituent +Women's Colleges.[5] One of the former and several of the latter +are held by women who have been appointed after open competition. In +addition, a woman, Mrs Knowles, holds a University Readership at the +co-educational London School of Economics. There are also one or two +women professors at the newer Universities, but these as a rule retain +their positions by right of past service in a struggling institution, +not as a result of open competition, when University status had been +attained and reasonable stipends were offered to new-comers. The +National University of Ireland has, however, appointed several women +professors at its various constituent Colleges. + +Salaries probably range from £300 to £700, the better paid posts as +yet very seldom falling to women. + +(3) Lectureships, assistant lectureships, and demonstratorships. These +are usually open to women in practice as well as in theory, though +much depends on the personal idiosyncrasy of the head of the +department, and on the importance of the post and the salary offered. +But since it is, unhappily, often easy to secure an able woman for the +same stipend as that which must be offered to an inexperienced man, +fresh from college, difficulties are not, as a rule, placed in the +way of such appointments. The salary begins at about £150 (sometimes +less), and rises normally to about £200 or £250. A few senior and +independent lectureships are better remunerated. + +(4) Closely allied with University work is the work of training +teachers. In Training-Colleges, and in University training-departments +there is a constant demand for lecturers and mistresses of method. +These posts, which are remunerated on about the same scale as other +University lectureships, are well suited to those whose interest lies +mainly in purely educational matters. Girls who have obtained +good degrees, but who do not wish to devote themselves entirely to +scholarship, will find here an attractive and ever-extending sphere of +influence. Lecturers in Training-Colleges must, of course, themselves +hold a University teaching-diploma: they should have school experience +of various kinds, and they must be enthusiastic in the cause of +training and of teaching. For competent and broad-minded women there +are many openings in this branch of the profession, and there is +much scope for independent and original work in many directions. The +training of teachers, as well as actual teaching, is of the nature +of scientific, experimental, and observational work. Lecturers in +Training-Colleges most of all, but to a large extent teachers of every +degree, must be students of psychology and of human nature. Mistresses +of Method are well aware that the ideal type of training has not yet +been evolved: they are seeking new ways of carrying on their work and +experimenting with new methods at the same time as they are guiding +others along paths already familiar to themselves. This absence of +finality, characteristic of the teaching profession as a whole, and +constituting one of its chief attractions, is especially noticeable in +all work connected with the training of teachers. + +Senior appointments at all properly constituted Universities are of +life tenure--nominally until the age of sixty-five, though probably +earlier retirement will be made possible. They are made by the +Council, which usually entrusts the election either to the Senate or +to a committee, on which are representatives of both the Council and +the Senate. Unfortunately this procedure is not universal, and the +teachers are not invariably consulted in their official capacity. +Junior appointments, while subject to ratification by the Council, +are usually made in the first instance by the head of the department +concerned, usually, but not invariably, after consultation with the +Dean of the Faculty or the Vice-Chancellor. They are sometimes of +three years' tenure with or without possible extension, sometimes +subject merely to terminal notice on either side. + +In the last four or five years contributory pension schemes for +the professorial body and for permanent assistants in receipt of +a specified income (usually £250 or £200 and upwards) have been +compulsorily established at all British Universities in receipt of +a Government grant. In June 1913, the Advisory Committee on the +Distribution of Exchequer Grants to Universities and University +Colleges laid on the table of the House of Commons a scheme which came +into force on 29th September, and is compulsory on every member of +the staff entering a University after that date at a salary of £300 or +upwards. Members appointed at salaries of between £200 and £300 have +the option of joining the scheme, while those appointed at salaries +of between £160 and £200 may join with the consent of the institution. +Members of existing schemes are entitled to join under similar +conditions. Special facilities are given for the transference of +policies from one University to another, since the view is taken +that the teachers in all the Universities constitute a profession +comparable with the Civil Service, and that transference from one +University to another should not be accompanied by a financial penalty +any more than is transference from one Government office to another. + +A competent girl who can bide her time can usually get a footing in +some University. Her future advancement will depend on her value to +the institution, on her original writing and research even more than +on her teaching, work on committees and influence with the students. +Largely, too, it will depend on her tact and popularity with her +colleagues: to a very considerable extent it still rests also on +conditions over which she has no control, and which are part and +parcel of the slow recognition of a woman's right to compete on equal +terms with men. + +It seems, as far as can be judged, that future opportunities are +likely to occur when the right candidates for posts are there in +sufficient numbers to make their exclusion on the ground of sex, +already seldom explicitly stated, impossible or inexpedient. Meanwhile +it is probable that individual women will continue, in some cases, to +suffer injustice, while in others, by virtue of their unquestionable +attainments and strength of personality, they may attain the positions +they desire. Slow progress is not altogether bad for the ultimate +cause of women at the Universities: nothing could injure that cause so +much as mistakes at the initial stage. An important appointment +given to the wrong woman, or to one in any respect inferior to her +colleagues, would be used as an argument against further experiment +for many years. + +University women teachers can best help to secure equality of +opportunity by rendering themselves indispensable members of the body +corporate. In their case much is required of those to whom little is +given. Above all they must avoid the temptation to live entirely in +the absorbing interests of the present: they must remember that it is +the business of a University to make contributions to learning as well +as to teach. Secondly, they must insist on equality of payment and +status when there is any disposition, overt or acknowledged, to +differentiate on the score of sex. It is not right to yield on these +points, for an important principle is at stake. On the other hand the +time and place for insistence must be wisely selected, and any +claim made must be incontrovertible on the score of justice and +practicability. Lastly, women on committees and elsewhere are +not justified in keeping unduly in the background. When they have +something worth contributing to the discussion, it is not modesty but +lack of business capacity, which makes them silent. "Mauvaise honte" +is as much out of place as undue pertinacity. Women who are unwilling +or unable to assert themselves when necessary, are not in place at +a co-educational University. Most women, however, will derive +intellectual stimulus from the free interchange of opinion, possible +only when both sexes are working happily together, with common +interests and common aims. + +If relatively too much space in this article has been given to women's +work at mixed Universities, the excuse lies ready to hand. In Women's +Colleges there is, of course, no sex bar, and the way lies clear +from the bottom to the top of the ladder. Conditions of appointment, +tenure, and work do not greatly differ from those described, except +in so far as the stipends tend to be lower, especially for more +responsible posts, when these are ordinarily occupied by women. It is +a sign of the times that in at least one Women's College in a mixed +University, it has been recently necessary to rule that posts are +open to men as well as to women, unless it is specially stated to the +contrary. Thus, when the power is theirs, women also may be unwisely +tempted to erect a new form of sex barrier. To do so would be to +play into the hands of those enemies who are always raising the voice +against equal pay for equal work. The most suitable candidate for a +post is the one who should be selected, irrespective of sex. It is +this principle that women are endeavouring to establish. They must +do so by scrupulous fairness when the power is theirs: by making +themselves indisputably most fitted, when they are knocking at the +closed door. + +One further topic needs discussion in this section--the continued +employment of married women in University posts. At present there +is no universal rule, and every case has to be judged on its merits. +Every lecturer who marries, can and ought to help to form the +precedent that continuance of professional work is a matter for her +own decision and is not one that concerns governing bodies. Already a +good many women, mothers as well as wives, have set the good example +and have established their own position, sometimes without question, +sometimes as the result of a difficult struggle. It is clear that +Universities, with their long vacations, and with their established +recognition of long absences for specified purposes, have less ground +than most employers to raise difficulties for married women. Thus the +holder of an A.K. scholarship may travel for a year, in order, by the +wise provision of the founder, to enlarge his or her mind and +bring back new experience to University organisation, research, +and teaching. The woman who fulfils the claims of sex, and to do so +journeys into the realm where life and death struggle for victory, +cannot thereby be unfitted for the profession for which she has +qualified. Enlargement of mind and new experience will help her too, +in the daily routine. It is for her alone to decide whether new claims +and old can be reconciled. If in practice in an individual case they +cannot, then and only then has the University or College a right to +interfere, and on no other ground than that the work suffers. Since +women workers are as a rule only too conscientious, this contingency +is unlikely often to arise. + + +[Footnote 1: Her local authority may, however, have claims upon her, +if she has promised to teach in an elementary school.] + +[Footnote 2: Trained teachers only, men and women, will be admitted to +the new Register.] + +[Footnote 3: See tables at the end of this section, pp. 82 to 136.] + +[Footnote 4: On the Continent even in Germany, and in the U.S.A. +several women have been elected to University chairs.] + +[Footnote 5: Dr Benson, Staff Lecturer at Royal Holloway College, was +raised to the status of University Professor of Botany in 1912 without +open competition; Dr Spurgeon was appointed to the new University +Chair of English Literature, tenable at Bedford College as from 1st +September 1913, after open competition. These professorships are +the only two held by women at the University of London but there are +several women Readers.] + + + + + +III + +SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHING + + +The girls' secondary day schools of this country, largely built up in +the first place by the individual pioneer work of broad-minded women +during the last thirty years of the nineteenth century, are now in +most cases coming, if not under State control, at least into the +sphere of State influence. These women educationists in some cases +worked on old foundations, in others obtained from guilds or governors +a share for girls' education of funds previously allocated to various +benefactions or to the education of boys only. Private enterprise, +individual or, as in the case of the Girls' Public Day School Company, +collective, added schools in most important towns. + +Thus by the beginning of the twentieth century there was provision for +a large number of girls of the middle class up to eighteen years of +age, in schools which as High Schools were analogous to the Grammar +Schools for boys dating to a corresponding burst of educational +activity rather more than three centuries earlier. Dependent on the +fees of their pupils or on special funds or endowments, these schools +could not, for the classes unable to pay a fee, adequately supplement +the elementary schools of the country, which provide for such +children education at most up to fourteen or fifteen years of age. The +Education Act of 1902, therefore, placed education beyond this age in +the hands of local authorities, the Board of Education supplementing +the rates by grants for secondary education--so that publicly owned +schools have been started by municipalities and County Councils, while +other institutions receive grants on certain conditions. + +Schools of all the types mentioned and a few others, providing +education at least from ten to sixteen (or eighteen) years of age, +are known as secondary schools, and it is to work in them that this +article refers.[1] Various as may be their origins, and different +their aims, the teachers in them form a fairly homogeneous group, +with definite points in common, resulting from the requirements of the +Board of Education for the earning of the grant now paid to most of +these schools, or for the register in force for a short time--as +well as from the co-ordinating influence of membership of the +Headmistresses' or the Assistant Mistresses' Associations and other +professional and educational bodies, and of educational literature +from the publications of the Board of Education downwards. + +It would be well if for this, as for other parts of educational work, +people of middle age, or in fact all whose school days lie in the +past, would dismiss their ideas gained from schools of even the end +of the nineteenth century, and realise that the daily life of a school +to-day is, in most cases, very different from that which they have +in their minds. The time-table and the class-room work may not +appear dissimilar to the casual observer, but a difference there +is, nevertheless. The chief alteration, however, is that a girl's +education is increasingly carried on by many agencies other than +these. In the school society rather than in the class-room lesson, +at net-ball and hockey rather than in the drill lesson, on the school +stage or in the school choir she learns, rather than is taught, her +most valuable lessons. Examinations still exist, it is true; but these +come later in a girl's school life, and are more frequently based on +the school curriculum and held in the school than used to be the case. + +What does all this new life mean in the work of the teacher and her +preparation for it? + +Miss Drummond, President of the Incorporated Association of Assistant +Mistresses, spoke thus on the subject[2]:-- + + "In a lesson in a good school there is most often a + happy give and take between the teacher and the class. + The teacher guides, but every girl is called on to take her + part and put forward individual effort. The homework is + no longer mere memorizing from some dry little manual, + but requires thought and gives scope for originality. The + whole results in a rigorous mental discipline, real stimulus + to power of original thought, eager enthusiasm in learning.... It + means an enormously increased demand upon the teacher." Again, "it + must not be thought, however, that the work of the school is limited + to lesson hours. We aim not only at giving a definite intellectual + equipment but at producing independence and self-reliance together with + that public spirit which enables a girl quite simply and without + self-consciousness to take her part in the life of a community." + +Besides games, which may be organised by a special mistress (see p. +59) or by ordinary members of the school staff, + + "there are nearly always several societies, run again by + the girls as far as possible, but almost always with the + inspiration and sympathy of some mistress at the back of + them. Thus there are social guilds of various kinds. + These vary from mere working parties for philanthropic + purposes to large organisations which embrace a number + of activities.... Of something the same kind are the + archaeological and scientific, the literary and debating + societies.... These societies are among the most interesting + and important parts of the work of a teacher, as they are + also among the most exacting. Games and societies together + tend to lengthen the hours of a school day, but even on + leaving school, her work is not finished. There are always + corrections to be done.... Still this is not all if lessons + are to be kept as alive and stimulating as they should be. + First and foremost, it is absolutely essential that the + teacher should not be jaded. She must get relaxation, + she must mix with other people and exchange ideas, she + must go about and keep in touch with all kinds of + activities. But at the same time she has to read in her + own subject, she has to keep up with modern methods of + teaching, she has to think out her various lessons."[3] + +Just as the headmaster of a public school often seeks for a cricketer +rather than a classical scholar for his staff, so the headmistress +thinks not only of academic attainments but seeks for an assistant who +can keep going a school society or a magazine (while leaving it in the +hands of the girls), who enjoys acting and stage management, who can +take responsibility for a dozen girls on a week's school journey (the +nearest approach to camping out--and experience of this would perhaps +be a recommendation!). She wants some one not merely to teach or +manage or discipline girls, but a woman who can share the life of the +girls, or at least understand it well enough to let them live it. + +Not that the intellectual side is unimportant. A University degree is +normally required in an assistant and this involves a three or four +years' course of considerable expense (see p. 7). An honours degree +is often essential--always, nowadays, in the case of a headmistress. +Whilst well-trained foreigners hold an important place in some +schools, modern languages are more frequently taught by an +Englishwoman who has lived abroad rather than by a foreign governess; +even English, happily, is no longer entrusted to any one not specially +qualified. As will be seen from the article on domestic work, the +graduate in chemistry has in this a promising field, while the +botanist or zoologist and the geologist have the basis on which to +specialise in nature-study or geography. This, however, usually comes +after the preliminary general academic training. It is well to keep up +a many-sided interest apart from bread-and-butter subjects, not +only in view of demands that may be made on one, but because the +intellectual woman will best qualify by developing her own powers as +far as possible. If of the right calibre, she can afterwards readily +take up even a new subject and make it her own. A good secondary +school needs that some of its mistresses should have the habits and +tastes of the scholar who loves work for its own sake, or rather for +the sake of truth. A woman with strong well-trained intellectual power +need not fear the competition of even the capable woman of action +indicated in the preceding paragraph. Both qualifications may, in +fact, exist in the same person. + +The woman with brains is indeed needed in the schools. The work of +women's education was but begun by the illustrious pioneers to whom +reference has already been made. There are to-day many new problems +to solve, new difficulties caused by the very success of the older +generation. On the one hand it was necessary that women should at +first, by following the same lines as men, prove their powers on +common ground; now they must find whether there are special fields for +them, and how, if these exist, they may best be occupied. They need +no longer be afraid to emphasise what was good in the old-fashioned +education of girls. Might not, for example, elocution and caligraphy +with advantage re-appear as good reading aloud and beautiful +penmanship? just as physical training carries on the lessons of +deportment and the Domestic Science course revives the lessons of the +still-room, the kitchen, and the store. On the other hand, under the +existing pressure to relieve the burden of childhood, women must see +to it that the mothers of the coming generation are not sacrificed to +the earliest stages of the lives of their children that are to be. +The motherhood of women and their home-making powers are indeed to +be developed, but not at the expense of their own lives and their +citizenship. Women educators, then, must take what is good in boys' +education, what has been good in girls', and must utilise both. This +work is great, and it is specially difficult because legislation and +administration are almost entirely in the hands of men. Now men are +apt to take for granted either that girls should be treated just like +boys, or that they are entirely different and are to be brought up on +different lines; and women who see the truth there is in both of these +propositions are hindered alike by the men who hold the one and those +who hold the other. + +The pioneer girls' schools of the nineteenth century did much +experimental work and established the right of individual initiative +and a distinct line of work for each school. Perhaps special gratitude +is due in respect of this to the governing body of the Girls' Public +Day School Trust, since its schools were numerous enough soon to +create a tradition requiring for their Headmistresses great initiatory +power and considerable freedom. + + "This freedom," writes a recently retired Headmistress + of thirty-six years' standing (Mrs Woodhouse, late of + Clapham High School), "was of the greatest value as leading + to differentiation of type and character of school. It + ensured a spirit of joy in work for the whole staff; for the + Headmistress and her band of like-minded colleagues were + co-workers in experiments towards development and + sharers in the realisation of ideals. The vitality thus + secured has been appreciated at its true value by His + Majesty's Inspectors when in recent years they have + come into touch with these schools, and as far as my + experience goes, they have left such initiative untouched." + +The danger resulting from the progress made in education during the +twentieth century is that secondary schools, coming as nearly all now +do under the cognizance if not the control of the Board of Education, +may become too much office-managed and State-regulated, thus losing +life in routine. The task of resisting this, of working loyally with +local and central government departments, and yet of keeping the +school a living organism and not merely a moving machine is one +requiring by no means ordinary ability. Is there not here a call to +women of the highest power and academic standing? + +It is true that the direct facing of these wider problems does not +fall to the lot of the assistant mistress in her earlier years. But +the ambitious aspirant to a profession looks to the possibility of a +judgeship or bishopric in choosing his life-work. The capable woman +then will look at all the possibilities in the teaching profession. +Long before she is Headmistress she will have made her mark in her +school--for not only the numerous activities mentioned but also +the organisation of ordinary school work require initiative and +self-reliance. The head of a large school is only too glad to hand +over to a competent assistant the organisation of her own department +and its co-ordination with other school activities. + +Just because there are now openings in other branches of work for +women of the highest power, those of this type should give teaching +some consideration. Since it has ceased to be the only avenue for +trained and educated women, it is no longer so crowded with them, and +as in other callings, there is plenty of room at the top. + +In addition to a degree, the qualification of training is a strong +recommendation.[4] It involves, as a rule, a year after graduation, in +special colleges such as exist in Oxford, Cambridge, or London, or +in the Secondary Training Department of one or other of the local +Universities. The expense varies, usually meaning a fee of about £10 +to £30 in addition to cost of living; so that a fairly expensive +year intervenes between graduation and the commencement of a salary. +Alternatives to a training-college course have been recently suggested +by the Board of Education, and may shortly be available. During the +training period the intending teacher must, if this is not already +determined, decide on the special branch for which she wishes to +prepare, according to her qualifications and the needs of schools. +If actual teaching experience can first be obtained for two or three +years, it enables earning to begin at once and greatly increases the +value of the training taken subsequently. + +The secondary teacher thus spends from three to five years in academic +and professional training; and in accordance with current economic +ideas should receive a salary proportionate to the outlay involved. +The scheme of salaries approved by the Assistant Mistresses' +Association in January 1912 suggests £120 as the initial minimum +salary (non-residential) for a mistress with degree and training, +rising in ten years to £220 in ordinary cases, to £250 where +"positions of special responsibility" are occupied. £100 to £180 is +suggested for non-graduates. "These salaries are higher than those +provided by the Girls' Public Day School Trust, and other governing +bodies outside the London County Council. In most cases £120 to £130 +a year may be taken as a fair average for an assistant mistress."[5] +Headmistresses' salaries vary from £200 to, at least in one +exceptional case, £1,500. They often depend in part on capitation +fees. The Headmistresses' Association considers that the minimum +should be £300. + +In secondary schools as in other grades of educational work the +salaries of women are lower than those of men, as may be illustrated +by the London County Council scale of salaries. + + Men: Assistants . . £150-£300 (or £350) + Heads . . £400-£600 (or £800) + + Women: Assistants . . £120-£220 (or £250) + Heads . . £300-£450 (or £600) + +The difference between the salaries of heads and assistants is in many +cases greater than is desirable. Things being as they are, it is +well that there should be some prizes to attract ability into the +profession. On the other hand, a woman, whose best work is that of +an assistant, should not be tempted to give it up for the salary of +a headmistress. The assistant has the opportunity for closer and more +personal touch with her girls, being intimately responsible for a +smaller number; she has also better opportunities for working out the +teaching of her subject and improving its technique. Education would +gain if more of the ablest teachers, specially successful in one or +other of these directions, were left in a position to continue this +work, instead of feeling obliged to substitute for it the perhaps +uncongenial task of organisation on a large scale, and that contact +with visitors, organisers, inspectors, committees, and the public, +which occupies the time of the heads of schools. The truth of this is, +I am told, better appreciated in Germany than in this country. + +Since local authorities took over the work, secondary teachers have +gained considerably both as regards salaries and tenure. They are now, +as a rule, better paid than elementary teachers, which was not always +the case before 1902. + +The tenure of the teacher varies in different schools. It is now less +common than formerly for the appointment and dismissal of the staff to +be entirely in the hands of the Headmistress; and assistants are +thus safe-guarded against possible unfair and arbitrary action. The +Headmistress,[6] however, has almost invariably a preponderating voice +in the selection of her staff--as is right if the school is to be +a living organism, not merely one of a series of machines with +interchangeable parts; but the power of dismissal, if in her hands, +is usually safe-guarded by the right of appeal to the appointing +body--local authority or board of governors as the case may be. This +right of appeal should be universal, and formal agreements should in +all cases be made. (A model form of agreement has been drawn up by the +Association of Assistant Mistresses.) + +Pensions are not generally provided for secondary teachers; but a +national pension scheme for them is under consideration, and there is +hope that it will not be long delayed. + +The poorer members of the teaching profession come under the National +Health Insurance Act and are provided for by the University, Secondary +and Technical Teachers' Insurance Society which already numbers eleven +thousand members. This society also offers, in its Dividend Section, +to those not compulsorily insured the opportunity for voluntary +insurance against sickness. Association among secondary teachers has +been considerably furthered by the desire to qualify for membership in +the Insurance Society. + +The distinctive associations for secondary mistresses are the +Headmistresses' Association and the Association of Assistant +Mistresses in Public Secondary Schools. These are concerned with +general educational as well as professional problems, and their +opinion is sought at times by the Board of Education with regard to +proposed regulations. Each of them is represented on the recently +established Registration Council, which has just reported (November +1913). + +Membership of the Teachers' Guild of Great Britain and Ireland, of the +College of Preceptors, and of the National Union of Teachers is also +open to secondary teachers. In the last-named they may join hands with +the great body of elementary teachers; in the first two organisations +with private teachers also. There are also associations for teachers +of certain subjects, the Ling Association and the Association of +Teachers of Domestic Subjects. Membership of such bodies as the +Historical, Geographical and various Scientific Associations is +valuable because not confined to teachers. + +Though the President of the Association of Assistant Mistresses +has said that "there would be a strong feeling against definite +organisation for the purpose of forcing up rates of remuneration,"[7] +yet that body has investigated the scales of pay offered by local +authorities, and writes in protest when posts are advertised at low +rates. + +Under present conditions the principle of general equality of income, +not yet being considered as a serious proposition, it is surely +economically right for the teaching profession to claim remuneration +sufficient to give it a status corresponding to the worth and +dignity of its work. Above all, women not entirely dependent on their +earnings, and therefore in a position to resist under-payment, should +not act as blacklegs and keep down the rate for others dependent for a +livelihood on their occupation. + +Under-payment for teachers means a narrower, more anxious life than +should be theirs who are to live in the strongly electric atmosphere +of a body of girls and young women and yet keep a calm serenity of +spirit--a life less full than is essential for those who have to give +at all times freely of their best. + +Similarly, in order that the fullest possible life may be open to the +woman teacher, it seems desirable that continuance in the profession +after marriage should be more usual than it is. Again, from the point +of view of the pupils this is desirable. Mrs Humphrey Ward is not +the only opponent of women's suffrage to state that the atmosphere +of girls' schools suffers from the preponderating spinster element. +Suffragists may for once join hands with her and urge that the +married woman is in some ways better suited for young people than her +unmarried colleague.[8] Often the most valuable years of a woman's +life are lost to the school by her enforced retirement at marriage. +She gives to it her younger, less experienced years, when she knows +less of the world, less of the problems of the household, less of the +outlook of the parents. It must be remembered that the parents' point +of view is important if there is to be right co-operation between home +and school. To the teacher-mother there will come an altogether new +power of understanding, which should ultimately compensate the school +for broken time during the earlier years of the life of her children. +Provision for absence in these cases might well render more possible +provision for a "rest-term" or a _Wanderjahr_, such as should be +possible to all mistresses at intervals in their teaching career. +Mistresses are not as a rule aware that under most existing agreements +they may claim to continue their work after marriage. They would in +a large number of cases be rendering a service to girls' education by +doing so. Many secondary teachers will welcome the idea that they +need not abandon either the career they have chosen or the prospect of +their fullest development as women. The teaching profession would thus +retain many valuable members now lost to it on marriage, and the ranks +of married women be recruited by many well suited to be the mothers of +citizens. + +The career of teaching adolescent girls gives to those following +it, in the daily routine, many experiences which others seek for in +leisure hours. The woman among girls has the privilege of handing on +to them the keys to the intellectual treasuries where she has enriched +herself, of setting their feet in the paths which have led her to +fruitful fields. She may watch over the birth and growth of the +reasoning powers of her pupils and guide them to their intellectual +victories, initiating them into the great fellowship of workers for +truth. It is interesting but it is not easy work. We have seen that +the material recompense of the teacher is not great, and if she looks +for other return she will too often be disappointed. And yet there is +compensation. Here as elsewhere he that saveth his life shall lose it; +but he that loseth his life shall indeed find it. + + +[Footnote 1: "A secondary school ... is a school which provides a +progressive course of general education suitable for pupils of an +age-range at least as wide as from twelve to seventeen" (Board of +Education, Circular 826).] + +[Footnote 2: Lecture on "The Life of a Teacher" given to the Fabian, +Women's Group, 1912.] + +[Footnote 3: Miss I.M. Drummond, _loc, cit._] + +[Footnote 4: By the Conditions of Registration issued November 1913, +one year's training will be required for all entering the profession +after the end of 1918.] + +[Footnote 5: Miss I.M. Drummond _loc. cit._ For example, a science +graduate with special qualifications in geography, three years' +experience, and a training diploma has recently been appointed to a +leading London High School at a salary of £110, with no agreement for +yearly or other augmentation. [EDITOR].] + +[Footnote 6: The practice of the Girl's Public Day School Trust, +largely followed by other governing bodies, is to give the Head the +right of nomination, and of dismissal during the probationary period +subject to the veto, rarely exercised, of the Committee.] + +[Footnote 7: Miss I.M. Drummond _loc. cit._] + +[Footnote 8: This is surely a better solution than that proposed +in the November 1913, Educational Supplement to the _Times_. The +suggestion is there made that the "conventual system" prevailing in +some girls' boarding-schools should be changed by having Headmasters +instead of Headmistresses. The writer apparently fails to realise +that one of the greatest difficulties in co-educational schools is to +attract the right sort of mistress, because there is no prospect that +she may ultimately attain a headship. The same danger will inevitably +arise in any schools which introduce Headmasters. If the masculine +element is desirable, and we agree that this may well be so, the +obvious course is either to have some male assistants, or to have +married house-mistresses, on the analogy of the married house-master +at boys' schools. A still better solution, in our opinion, is +co-education, with pupils of both sexes, a mixed staff, and a joint +Headmaster and Headmistress. In many of the new County and Municipal +Secondary Schools this innovation has been successfully adopted, +though the Senior Mistress is unfortunately in all cases definitely +subordinate to the Headmaster. [EDITOR.]] + + + + +IV + +ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHING + + +Progressive women to-day resent the social system which requires them +to be economically dependent upon others. They realise that social +service needs labour of a highly skilled variety, and they therefore +demand, on the one hand, training for their work as a guarantee of +their efficiency in its performance, and, on the other hand, monetary +payment and security of tenure as guarantees to them of economic +independence. As a natural corollary to woman's lack of political +power, there are no spheres of professional work in which prevailing +conditions are in these respects completely satisfactory. Perhaps the +teaching service in the State schools comes nearest to complying with +progressive demands: at any rate Government recognises the need for +training, and, to a large extent, meets its cost; a salary, more or +less adequate, is paid in return for the teaching given, and security +of tenure is, with few exceptions, assured. Again, the work done +in the State schools is now generally and rightly regarded as of +first-rate importance to the community, and therefore as meriting +national gratitude in the form of Government superannuation. Popular +prejudice against compulsory education, once so strong, may now be +said to have disappeared, and the work of the pioneers who endeavoured +to create a public opinion in its favour, has borne fruit. To-day +the parents' attitude towards the teacher is normally one of friendly +co-operation and respect, with the result that the latter is fast +becoming a powerful factor in shaping and influencing the democracy. +The school is extending its influence in every sphere which touches +on the social, physical, intellectual, and spiritual well-being of the +people. Activities which, until recently,[1] were associated only +with institutions distinctly religious in character, are now regularly +connected with the work of primary schools. Thus the teacher has +every opportunity for the exercise of public spirit, within school +and without. He is daily confronted with the problem of evolving and +developing an educated democracy, which will demand and obtain proper +conditions of life. + +The nature of the work asked of the teachers in primary schools, has +led to insistence by the State on the necessity for their professional +training, as well as for their academic proficiency. These +requirements have met with the counter-demand on the part of +the teachers in State schools, for State registration. When this +Register,[2] now in process of creation, has become an accomplished +fact, one of the chief remaining obstacles to the progress of the +teaching service will be removed. + +It is now time to turn to the conditions of training, service, and +remuneration prevailing in English and Welsh elementary schools. The +Scotch service differs in some respects, while the state of primary +education and the position of elementary teachers in Ireland[3] are +altogether worse than in Great Britain. + +The Board of Education recognises the following grades of men and +women teachers in public elementary schools: pupil teachers, bursars +and student teachers, uncertificated teachers, and certificated +teachers. Women, over eighteen years of age, who have been vaccinated, +may, without any other qualifications, be engaged as supplementary +teachers, although the Board cannot entertain any application for the +recognition of men in this capacity. A supplementary teacher may teach +(I) infants' classes, that is to say, classes in which the majority of +the scholars are under eight years of age, or (2) the lowest class +of older scholars in a school or department in a rural parish, if the +average attendance in the school does not exceed 100. + +The number of supplementary teachers employed in the schools of +England and Wales in the year 1910-11 was 14,454. + +If we turn to uncertificated teachers, we find that during the year +1909-10 there were 45,549 employed in the schools of England and +Wales, and that this number was increased by 182 during the year +1910-11. Of the uncertificated teachers of England in the year +1910-11, 5,106 were men and 35,222 were women. + +The vast majority of rural schools have only one certificated teacher +on the staff, and in hundreds of rural schools the head teacher is not +certificated. + +The following statistics with regard to certificated teachers have +been taken from the published return of the Board of Education, + 1910-11:[4]-- + England. Wales. + Men. Women. Men. Women. + + Trained 22,134 30,410 2,260 1810 + Untrained 9,060 33,121 539 1598 + +These figures show that of men teachers, 70 per cent. in England and +81 per cent. in Wales are trained, while of women teachers only 46 per +cent. in England and 51 per cent. in Wales are trained. + +These statistics are indicative of the urgent need for total abolition +of uncertificated and supplementary teachers, since the recognition +of these grades offers a direct incentive to girls just to bridge +over the period between leaving school and getting married, without +qualifying even for what ought to be regarded as the lowest ranks of +the profession. This fact is at once realised, when one contrasts the +percentage of women teachers who are untrained, viz., 54 per cent, in +England, 49 per cent, in Wales, with the corresponding figures for men +teachers, viz., 30 per cent, in England and 29 per cent, in Wales. + +Every candidate for teachership, who has passed through a Training +College, is required by the Board of Education to serve in a +recognised school--a woman for five out of the first eight years after +leaving College; a man for seven out of the first ten years after +leaving College--or pay the whole or part of the Government grant +in respect of College training. But, notwithstanding this agreement, +enforceable under Act of Parliament,[5] the Board of Education neither +takes steps to find employment for such candidates in the State +schools of the country, nor admits any responsibility on its part for +the conditions under which teachers are employed. By the Education Act +of 1902, local authorities, of which there are 318, were made +chiefly responsible for the work of education, and it is these local +authorities who lay down the conditions of appointment. + +This refusal by the Board of Education of responsibility for +appointments and conditions of appointment to teaching posts, leaves +it for local authorities to fix scales of salaries, and to decide such +questions as, for example, whether married women teachers shall be +employed. The grave effect of this state of things on the economic +interests of the teachers of the country cannot be too much +emphasised, having regard to the fact that local authorities are +bodies composed mainly of men elected on a rate-saving principle. + +The salaries paid to bursars and student teachers are insufficient +to cover charges for maintenance, clothes, books, etc. Speaking +generally, a quite substantial sum must also be found during each +year of the collegiate course, for college expenses and for board +and lodging during vacations, so that a candidate's parents must hold +themselves financially responsible for her during the various +stages of her training, except in so far as the cost is covered by +scholarship and maintenance grants. Women candidates are in this +respect far worse off than their male colleagues, as, at every stage +of their training, they receive a smaller maintenance grant. At a +residential college, while men receive £40, women receive £20; at a +non-residential college the grant for men is £25, for women £20. +As the whole supply of teachers for each year leaves the Training +Colleges in July,[6] it follows that many of these must wait for +varying periods before finding employment: during these periods the +burden of maintenance must again be borne by the parents. The need for +legislation in the economic interests of teachers is borne out by the +fact that highly trained students of good character are unable to +find employment, even at low salaries. Of 4,384 teachers who left +the training colleges in July 1908, at least 1,226 were, three months +later, without employment, and 259 were known to be without employment +even twelve months later; whilst of the 4,386 students who left the +Training Colleges in July 1909, 1,528 were still without employment in +October 1909. These figures are for both sexes, but by far the larger +number of teachers are women. + +These facts explain why it is that local authorities, bent on +keeping down the rates, have been enabled to obtain the services of +certificated teachers at the scale of salaries which they advertise +for uncertificated teachers: in fact many fully qualified certificated +teachers have been forced to work for a rate of payment lower than +that received by an unskilled labourer; a natural corollary to this +condition of things is that many would-be teachers refuse to expend +time and money on training. + +This state of affairs has had one other effect which is of vital +importance when the economic position of women teachers is being +considered, namely, that local authorities, in order to appease the +popular outcry against this apparently overstocked market, have been +led to sanction regulations for the compulsory retirement of women +teachers on marriage. Happily the London County Council has not +succumbed to this temptation, and there are other equally enlightened +authorities. But constant watchfulness is needed in order to prevent +retrogression in this matter. Young teachers, anxiously awaiting +promotion, sometimes foolishly resist the appointment or retention of +married women. This is a suicidal policy, to be resisted at all costs, +both in the interests of the teachers and of the children. Salaries +are bound to remain low, while women are forced to consider their +profession in the light of a stop-gap until marriage, and not as +a life-work. Moreover, there are real dangers in entrusting girls' +education entirely to unmarried women. The salaries of assistant +teachers vary very considerably. In no single instance is a woman +teacher paid the same rate of salary as a man of the same professional +status. This is true even when the work is identical in character, as +is the case in mixed schools and pupil teachers' centres. One of the +results of this inequality of payment is that women teachers are often +employed to teach the lower classes in boys' schools, and some rural +schools are staffed entirely by women, not because the woman teacher +is deemed more suitable for the work, but because her labour is +cheaper; hence the need, in the teaching profession, for recognition +of the principle of "equal pay for equal work." Without it, the +status of the woman becomes lower than that of the man, inferior +or unqualified women are appointed, and men are driven from the +profession. Only when there is equality of pay can there be security +that the best candidate will be appointed, irrespective of sex. + +The following table taken from the latest returns of the Board of +Education contrasts the number of women and men employed in the +elementary schools of England, and the number of women and men +employed in the better paid higher elementary schools of the country, +for the year 1910-11. + + Higher + Elementary Elementary + Schools Schools. + + No. of Head Teachers (certificated) Men : 12,477 : 36 + " " " " Women : 16,648 : 4 + " Assistant " " Men : 18,659 : 161 + " " " Women : 46,881 : 117 + " " (uncertificated) Men : 5,091 : 4 + " " " Women : 34,910 : 2 + +An examination of statistics with regard to the salaries of teachers +in England, taken from the same returns, year 1910-11, shows that-- + + I. Average salaries (Elementary Schools) were:-- + £ s. d. + Head Teachers (Certificated) Men 176 3 11 + " " " Women 122 18 1 + " " (uncertificated) Men 94 8 0 + " " " Women 68 3 5 + Assistant Teachers (certificated) Men 127 9 11 + " " " Women 92 8 6 + " " (uncertificated) Men 65 2 11 + " " " Women 54 14 1 + +II. (1) 67.93 per cent. of the certificated head masters receive less +than £200 per annum. + +(2) 93.9 per cent. of the certificated head mistresses receive less +than £200 per annum. + +(3) 93.38 per cent. of the certificated assistant masters receive less +than £200 per annum. + +(4) 97.73 per cent. of the certificated assistant mistresses receive +less than £150 per annum. + +III. The salaries of certificated teachers (England) were:-- + + Head Teachers. Assistant Teachers. + Men. Women. Men. Women. + Under £50 1 2 2 352 + Totals £50 and under £100 394 4,967 3,838 29,915 + " 100 " " 150 4,506 8,032 9,933 15,548 + " 150 " " 200 3,575 2,631 3,651 1,065 + " 200 " " 250 2,395 742 1,235 1 + " 250 " " 300 963 209 ---- ---- + " 300 " " 350 422 65 ---- ---- + " 350 " " 400 125 ---- ---- ---- + " 400 " " 450 93 ---- ---- ---- + " 450 " " 500 2 ---- ---- ---- + " 560 1 ---- ---- ---- + +IV. The salaries of uncertificated teachers are usually lower than the +wage of a skilled artisan--the average for men _head_ teachers being +below £100, and for women _head_ teachers below £70, whilst 7,855 +assistant teachers receive less than £50. + +V. Supplementary teachers usually receive, of course without board +or lodging, a salary equal to the money-wage of an average domestic +servant. They are commonly less well qualified than is she, for the +work undertaken. + +The chances of promotion to a headship are obviously so few, that the +certificated teacher will probably remain an assistant all her life. +Chances of head-teacherships are being still further reduced by the +amalgamation of departments under a head _master_. + +In the schools of many large urban education authorities, less than 1 +per cent. of the assistant teachers obtain promotion in twelve months. +The total number applying for the 163 places to be filled in the last +promotion list that was formed by the London Education Authority, was +2,337, so that, as a direct result of the publication of that list, +2,174 teachers resumed their work after the summer vacation of +1911 with feelings of less hopefulness with regard to their future +prospects. The issue of a promotion list is in itself a fact to be +deplored, seeing that it acts as a check to mental alertness. For the +2,174 unsuccessful candidates for inclusion, their application has now +either destroyed hope, or suspended any chances of its realisation +for at least two years. There is a consciousness in the unsuccessful +applicant of somehow being worth less than she was before, since +she is now an assistant mistress without potentiality for head +teachership. This feeling does not promote good work. The issue of a +promotion list is from every point of view bad policy, and although +its direct action is confined to London, its sphere of indirect +influence is very far-reaching, since London County Council applicants +for country posts are often asked whether they have been included in +it. + +The essential qualification in a mistress of an elementary school is +ability to teach a great variety of subjects: she must be qualified +for and prepared to teach all the subjects which make up the +curriculum of her school. The diversity of these will be seen from the +subjects taught in an average typical elementary school:-- + + _Girls' Department_.--Reading, writing, + arithmetic, English grammar, literature, history, + geography, nature study, hygiene, physical + training, drawing (including brush-work), + needlework (including cutting-out), knitting, + scripture. + + _Infants' Department_.--Reading, writing, + number, kindergarten and other varied + occupations, physical exercises (dancing + and games), needlework and knitting, + singing, drawing, painting, modelling, + recitation, oral composition, dramatising + stories, scripture. + +The ordinary day is divided into two sessions: the morning session +lasting from 9 A.M. to 12 noon, and the afternoon session from 2 P.M. +to 4 P.M. (infants), 4.30 P.M. (girls). + +The strain of a teacher's life in an elementary school, and the +deadening influence of routine work will be realised when it is stated +that, besides teaching all the subjects above-mentioned, she is +in front of her class of sixty pupils during the whole of the two +sessions each day, from Monday morning to Friday afternoon. + +In addition to the purely teaching work the mistress has to take +her share in the various activities which are now centring in the +school--Care Committees, After-Care Committees, the feeding of +necessitous children, the cleansing of children, medical inspection, +and so forth. There are also such social activities as old girls' +clubs, school journeys and school parties, in which she has to +co-operate; finally, the strain is not lessened by the fact that she +has to satisfy two sets of inspectors, viz., those of the Board of +Education and those of the local authority who require her to keep +special report books, varying in character and in the amount of detail +required, according to the idiosyncrasies of the particular inspectors +who may happen to be allocated to her district. + +In spite of the building regulations of the Board of Education, many +school premises are far from satisfactory with regard to lighting, +ventilation, construction, and often even cleanliness; these defects +naturally have their effect on the health of the teachers, so that +notwithstanding medical inspection during training and the rejection +of the unfit, an alarming number of cases of consumption has been +reported to the Benevolent Fund of the National Union of Teachers. +In addition to this, the strain (already referred to) under which +teachers in the Metropolitan and larger urban districts work, is +resulting in an increasing number of nervous breaksdown. + +The conditions under which a teacher works in a school in a rural +district are so unsatisfactory that they deserve special mention. +There are 245 schools in Wales and 2,199 in England with an average +attendance of less than 40; such schools are staffed by a head +teacher, assisted, in all probability, only by a supplementary +teacher. Education suffers in these circumstances as a result of the +number and the manysidedness of the responsibilities which devolve +upon the head teacher; while the consciousness of her inability to +realise her ideals will re-act unfavourably upon her health. Another +factor that must be borne in mind is that these rural schools, being +small, should, to secure efficiency, be proportionately expensive for +up-keep. In order to keep the cost of maintenance as low as possible, +however, the remuneration offered to teachers in rural schools is so +small as to be a national disgrace. To this must be further added the +fact that many rural teachers are compelled to live 5, 10, and even 15 +miles away from a railway station, so that the cost of living is much +more than it would be in town. Thus it is that rural schools which +should cost more for up-keep than large urban schools, work out at a +smaller figure per scholar.[7] + +Not only is her salary low, but a mistress in a rural school often +has to live in a state of semi-isolation from social and intellectual +activities. It should excite no surprise, therefore, that mistresses +are reluctant to apply for such posts. This difficulty of shortage +of supply is having a sinister and subtle effect on the economic +interests of married women teachers, for, owing to the difficulty in +obtaining assistant teachers in rural districts, it frequently happens +that where the head teacher is a master, his wife, who may be a +fully qualified certificated teacher, has to act as his assistant and +receive the pay of a supplementary teacher. + +During her years of service, each mistress in an elementary school +is required to contribute £2, 8s. per annum to the Government +Superannuation Fund. These contributions purchase a small annuity to +which the Government add a pension at the rate of 10s. for each year +of service. When she becomes qualified for a pension, the mistress +must surrender her certificate and cease to practise as a teacher, +so that, if we assume she has begun work at the age of twenty and +has continued teaching to the age of sixty-five, she will, after +forty-five years of recorded service, receive a pension of £22, +10s. per annum, plus the annuity which her contributions will have +purchased. It should, however, be mentioned that London and a few +other towns have established complementary schemes whereby teachers, +though contributing more, obtain pensions more commensurate with their +salaries. Under the Government scheme, the superannuation allowance +cannot become payable until the teacher has attained the age of +sixty-five years, and, even then, it can be obtained only by a teacher +whose years of recorded service are not less than half the number of +years which have elapsed since she became certificated; thus, if the +mistress, being certificated at the age of twenty, marries and, by the +regulations of the local authority, is forced to resign, she forfeits +all claim to the Government contribution, unless she has completed +twenty-two years of recorded service: nor are her contributions +returned to her. + +Teachers in elementary schools are well organised for the purpose of +self-protection. The National Union of Teachers is a powerful body, +having a membership of 78,000 men and women teachers. It is directly +represented in Parliament, both on the Liberal and Labour sides, and +owes its influence largely to the voting power of its members.[8] + +When the National Insurance Act of 1912 came into force, there were +85,000 elementary teachers to whom its clauses applied, and who +therefore found it advisable to join an approved society. For this +purpose the Teachers' Provident Society of the National Union of +Teachers was re-organised as an approved society under the Act. In +addition to providing protection for its members, the National Union +of Teachers, by means of its Benevolent and Orphan Fund, helps those, +who, through ill-health or other causes are in need of assistance. +It also maintains two orphanages--one for boys in London, and one for +girls in Sheffield. + +At the present time there is a strong probability of a dearth of +qualified teachers for elementary schools in the near future. There +are several factors which have been influential in bringing about this +state of affairs--one is, the uncertainty of employment, even after a +long and comparatively costly training. This defect will be remedied +only when a rational method of regulating the supply of teachers +is established, so that each candidate may be certain that, if she +qualifies, she will be guaranteed employment. + +Many desirable persons are debarred from entering the teaching +profession, because the rate of remuneration is low, considering +the responsibility of the work; and this drawback is still further +emphasised by the very inadequate pension which is offered at the +close of the teacher's career. This difficulty can be overcome only +when the main burden of the cost of education is removed from local +taxation and placed on the national exchequer. + +Another factor which tends to make the teaching profession +unattractive, is the very strenuous life which it entails under +modern conditions. Again, so far as women are concerned, there is not +complete security of tenure, though apart from the regulation that +obtains under some local authorities, requiring women to resign on +marriage, teachers in elementary schools, owing to the efforts of +their various organisations, possess far greater security of tenure +than teachers in any other branch of the profession. Another point in +favour of the teachers in elementary schools, is their freedom from +the burden of extraneous duties, and from the nightmare of external +examinations. + +When schools can be more generously staffed, so that, for example, +the number of assistant teachers exceeds the number of classes to be +taught, a good deal will have been done to relieve the strain under +which teachers are at present working. + +Finally, when education authorities and the public generally, become +sufficiently enlightened to realise that it is uneconomical to dismiss +a teacher when she marries _i.e._, when by her experience she is +most capable of preparing her pupils for life--then women will be +encouraged to enter the teaching profession, and to realise that they +must equip themselves as well as possible for what is to be their +life-work. + + +[Footnote 1: In this connection, the work of the Care-Committees, now +an integral feature of the elementary education system, must not +be forgotten. It will be fully considered in a later volume of this +series. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 2: The conditions for registration were issued on 22nd +November 1913, after this book had gone to press. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 3: _Vide_ Article on Education in Ireland, by May Starkie +in _The New Statesman Supplement_ on "The Awakening of Ireland," 12th +July 1913. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 4: Since this paper was written, a fresh report (Code 6707) +has been published by the Board of Education. The statistical tables +do not materially differ from those given above.] + +[Footnote 5: On the other hand, the Board seldom proceeds against +teachers who have broken their bond. [Editor.]] + +[Footnote 6: The experiment of ending the College course for certain +students at Easter, is now being made. But the movement is too young, +and the Colleges experimenting are too few, to make it possible +to draw deductions. At any rate it looks like a move in the right +direction.] + +[Footnote 7: This is a matter, the investigation of which should +be included in Mr Lloyd George's Land Campaign. There is an obvious +connection between the status of the agricultural labourer and the +inefficiency of rural schools. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 8: The women members are in a large majority, but, being +women, do not, as yet, possess the vote. Their peculiar interests, of +course, do not obtain representation.] + + + + + +V + +TEACHING IN SCHOOLS FOR THE MENTALLY AND PHYSICALLY DEFECTIVE + + +The particular branch of teaching which forms the subject of this +paper--namely, that carried on in schools for mentally or physically +defective children--affords scope for a lifetime of very happy work to +women who are really fitted for it. + +The qualifications required by teachers in these schools are the +ordinary certificates accepted by the Board of Education, but, in +practice, a preference is given to women who have taken up studies +which bear on their particular work. For instance, it is obvious that +a good grounding in psychology, physiology, and hygiene is especially +valuable in schools of this description, and proofs of the successful +study of these subjects undoubtedly carry weight in deciding +appointments to these schools. Also, it is unusual to appoint young +teachers, coming straight from Training Colleges, with very little +practical experience in dealing with children, though under special +circumstances such appointments are occasionally made. The large +majority of women appointed to the London mentally defective or +physically defective schools are, however, teachers of several years' +standing, who are also under the age limit of thirty-five. + +The salary of assistant teachers in the London special schools is £10 +a year more than the salary such assistants would be getting in the +ordinary Council schools. This extra pay only obtains until the normal +maximum salary of assistant mistresses is reached, _i.e._, £150, so +that the monetary advantage is confined to reaching the maximum a +little earlier than would otherwise be the case. With regard to head +teachers, the extra salary varies with the size of the school, £10 +being allowed for a one-class centre, £20 for a two-, three-, or +four-class centre, and £30 for a five- or six-class centre. Schools of +six classes are unusual; the majority of schools contain three or +four classes. Elder mentally defective boys from several neighbouring +schools are frequently grouped together in a special centre under +masters, and there are a few schools specially for elder mentally +defective girls, naturally under mistresses. For elder physically +defective girls there are centres in London where they may be +specially trained in blousemaking and fine needlework. These centres +have, in addition to an ordinary teacher, a trade mistress duly +qualified in the particular branch of work undertaken. The age of +compulsory retirement from teaching in special schools is sixty-five, +as in the case of ordinary schools. For both branches of the service +married women are eligible. The hours of work in mentally defective +schools are from 9.30 to 12 and from 2 to 4. In physically defective +schools the hours are nominally from 9.30 to 12, and 1.30 to 3, but in +practice they are longer, as the children begin to arrive at school +in their ambulances by 8.45, and in the afternoon the last children +rarely leave till an hour after the time of stopping actual lessons. +It is usual to arrange things so that the teacher who comes "early" +one week, is free to come "late" the next, and it is also usually +taken in turns to stay late in the afternoons. The short dinner recess +is due to the fact that most of the children necessarily have their +dinner at school, so there is no reason to allow the usual two hours +for going home and coming back. During the dinner-hour the children +are in charge of the school nurse and the ambulance attendants. + +Work in both sorts of special school has its own particular +difficulties. One great drawback is the impossibility of adequate +classification. In a small three-class centre, there will be +children from five years old up to sixteen years. That, of course, in +physically defective schools means that the work usually divided +among all the classes of an ordinary infant school must be done in the +lowest class, the second class must take the work of standards I. to +III., while the highest class must take that of standards IV. to +VII. It is true that the special schools have a great advantage +over ordinary schools in that the classes never contain more than +twenty-five children, but even granted the small numbers, the need for +taking several groups in a class makes the work very exhausting. The +more successful the teacher, that is to say, the more truly she draws +out the individual powers of each child, the harder does her work +become, for she tends more and more to have a class of children +working at varying stages. In the mentally defective schools it is not +possible to reach the work of the higher standards, so that there +is not the _same_ difficulty, but there is the even greater one of +dealing with different standards of defect, instead of different +standards of attainment. + +Another difficulty encountered in the physically defective schools +is the interrupted school-life. Children will frequently drop out for +three months, six months, or a year at a time in order to have some +operation performed in hospital, or to go to a convalescent home, or +because of an attack of illness. Both branches of the special schools +are faced with the peculiar difficulty of the "spoilt" child--the lame +girl who, by reason of her helplessness, has been indulged and waited +on by the healthy members of her family; the ill-balanced boy whose +brain-storms have been so disturbing that any opposition to his will +has been shirked. It must not be thought that these children are in +the majority at special schools, but they do form a certain proportion +of the children there; they give much trouble, and they call for a +great deal of tact and patience. Patience is so continually needed in +special-school work that women who are not particularly patient would +find themselves definitely unfit for it. Indeed, although patience +and the hopeful spirit do not figure on the list of qualifications +demanded of candidates, they might well head it, for most certainly +an irritable or despondent woman could not find any work for which she +was more unsuited, or in which she was more likely to be miserable and +unsuccessful. + +A further difficulty of the special-school teacher lies in the +"all-round" demands made on her. The children she must teach, are +defective in mind or body, or both. Some will respond to one subject, +some to another; some will make poor progress with headwork, but will +do excellent handwork. The teacher must be able to help each child +along its own path, and must be familiar with the various forms +of simple handwork as well as with the more usual school subjects. +Basket-weaving, clay-modelling, raffia-work, fretwork, bent-ironwork, +strip-woodwork, rug-making, painting, and brush-work, as well as +different forms of needlework and embroidery, are all branches +of handwork helpful in different degrees to these children. +The importance of handwork to them is felt so keenly, that the +special-schools time-tables usually show a morning devoted to headwork +followed by an afternoon occupied by handwork. + +But as well as the difficulties attendant on teaching in +special-schools, there are some very real advantages. Foremost, +perhaps, is the opportunity it affords of knowing and understanding +each child in a way that is not possible when the class consists of +sixty children. Very closely allied with this, is the great advantage +of freedom in the preparation of syllabuses, in the choice of subject +matter and the manner of teaching it. Time-tables must be approved by +the proper authorities, and the superintendents and inspectors must +be satisfied as to the character of a teacher's work, but, when those +conditions are fulfilled, originality on the part of teachers is +welcomed, and completely happy relations between teacher and children +are possible. It can be readily understood that with a class numbering +twenty-five, each child can take a much larger and much more active +share in the work, can be free to express his own views, ask his own +questions and work out his own ideas in a way impossible with a class +of sixty. When, in addition, it is remembered that the teacher is +free to frame her plans of work according to the actual needs of +the children, as shown to her through discussions and questions, +the reason why the work attracts women in spite of its obvious +difficulties is apparent. + +The real thought and care spent by the education authorities on these +schools must have struck every one who has worked in them. If we +compare what is now done for these deficient children with what was +done some fifteen years ago, the stage of progress at which we have +arrived is nothing short of wonderful. Yet every one must also be +convinced that things are not well, so long as the supply of children +for these special schools continues to grow; those who work in them +can see two ways in which that supply might be checked. Teachers in +mentally defective schools continually mourn the sad fact that the +children under their care have been guarded from wrong, and guided to +right along happy paths of busy interest until they are sixteen, only +to be turned adrift into the world at an age when, more than ever +before in their lives, they need a kindly and wise influence "to +strengthen or control." For want of some further plan of continued +supervision, the patient work of years is too often rendered nugatory, +and the child slips back into the very slough from which the school +had hoped to save it. It must be remembered that the defect in many +children in these mentally defective schools shows itself as a lack +of self-control, a want of mental balance, a missing sense of moral +values, an incapacity for concentration--the very characteristics +which render their unhappy possessors the easiest prey to the +evil-minded. Teachers who know both the good to which the child can +attain when properly safe-guarded, and also the evil into which it +will too probably fall when left alone, are very anxious to see some +step taken which will ensure that every child who needs continued +control shall have it.[1] + +Teachers in physically defective schools can also see the need for +prevention of defect rather than its mere alleviation. The more usual +forms of defect are missing limbs, tuberculous troubles (notably in +joints), heart cases, paralysis, cases of chorea, and cases of general +debility. The list must not be taken as complete, for there are, of +course, various unusual forms of defect too. It sometimes happens that +after a stay of some time in a physically defective school, a child +becomes so much better that it is able to return to the greater strain +of an ordinary school; on the other hand, it is often apparent, +that if certain children had been admitted earlier to the physically +defective school, their particular trouble might have been greatly +minimised, if not altogether avoided. What then appears to be needed +is an intermediary type of school to which children might be drafted +who are not as yet absolutely defective, but who are liable to become +so. Children of tubercular tendencies, who should be guarded +against falls or blows more carefully than normal children; those +highly-strung nervous children who, if exposed to the strain of +ordinary school life run the risk of chorea; children suffering from +the after-effects of diseases such as rheumatic or scarlet fever, +who need particularly to avoid over-exertion or too violent exercise; +children of such marked general debility that their power of resisting +disease is abnormally low--all these, if neglected, tend to become +qualified candidates for the physically defective schools. If they +could attend a school designed to suit their needs, they would in many +cases be quite able to return, after varying periods, to their places +in the ordinary schools. The open-air schools are an attempt to meet +this need on the very best lines, but there are far too many of these +border-line children for the available accommodation. If the great +expense entailed by new schools of this description be considered, it +seems not unreasonable, while waiting for them, to allow the admission +of these children to the invalid schools already working, by simply +making the term "physically defective" elastic enough to include a +latent as well as a developed defect. Whatever the apparent expense +of such measures may be, any extension of the preventive side of this +work cannot but be a real economy.[2] + +There is just one other point for the consideration of women who think +of taking up work in special schools. They should be thoroughly strong +and healthy, or they will prove unequal to a strain which tells at +times even on the strongest. But to women of good health who possess +the right temperament, these schools offer a field of useful and +congenial work. + + +[Footnote 1: Something in this direction will be achieved by the new +Act, to which, however, there are counterbalancing grave objections +which cannot be considered here. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 2: Open-air schools, and school sleeping camps such as those +established experimentally in various urban slum-districts, are other +efforts to meet the needs of physically defective children. Teachers +in open-air schools in provincial towns, work under approximately +similar conditions to those described by Mrs Thomas. [Editor.]] + + + + + +VI + +THE TEACHING OF GYMNASTICS + + +No school of any importance is considered properly equipped unless +the staff includes a gymnastic and games mistress. Several systems +of gymnastics are practised in England, but the Swedish system is +steadily proving its superiority; so much is this felt that a number +of teachers who have previously taken a two years' course of training +in some other system, are at the present time taking, or have just +completed, a second two years' course in the Swedish system. As long +ago as 1878 the London School Board introduced the Swedish system into +its schools, but it was not till 1885 that the first physical training +college was opened in this country, and this was for women only. In +1903 this system was adopted for the navy, and in 1906 for the army; +it has also been adopted in the Government schools and Training +Colleges, as well as in all the principal private schools and colleges +for girls, and in many boys' schools, including, among others, Eton, +Winchester, Clifton, and Repton. The following remarks, therefore, +apply only to the Swedish system. + +Until 1885, the rationally trained teacher of gymnastics was unknown +in England, and the physical training of the girls in this country was +monopolised by dancing mistresses and drill sergeants, most of whom +were ignorant of the laws which govern the human body. In that +year Madame Osterberg started a Physical Training College for women +students at Hampstead, the college being removed to Dartford Heath, +Kent, in 1895. Since then similar institutions have been opened at +Bedford, Erdington, Chelsea, etc., and there is a growing army of +women qualified to teach gymnastics and games, and in many cases +dancing and swimming. These trained teachers have studied Anatomy, +Physiology, and Hygiene; they have themselves experienced what they +teach others; they have been trained to observe, and deal gently and +carefully with growing girlhood. They have also studied deformities +such as spinal curvature, round shoulders, and flat feet, and are able +to take all such cases under their special care. + +The course of training lasts from two to three years, and the cost +in a residential college, is about £100 a year. To ensure success as +teachers, students should be tactful, observant, and sympathetic; they +should be medically fit, and physically suited to the work, and should +produce evidence of a good general education. The requirements of the +colleges vary as to educational qualification, some being satisfied +with a school-leaving certificate while others demand Matriculation. +This raising of the standard is a step in the right direction and may +hasten the time when the gymnastic teacher will be thought worthy of a +University degree or diploma. + +The training includes theoretical as well as practical work, and the +idea which used to be prevalent, is now practically exploded, that +a girl who could not pass examinations but who was fairly good +at gymnastics or games might make a good gymnastic teacher. The +theoretical subjects include Physiology, Hygiene, Anatomy, Theory of +Movements, Psychology, and a certain amount of Pathology; whilst the +practical side includes Educational Gymnastics and Teaching, Remedial +Gymnastics and Massage, Games (hockey, cricket, lacrosse, lawn tennis, +net-ball, and gymnasium games), Swimming and Dancing. Dancing is +becoming more and more, a necessary part of the equipment for the +successful gymnastic teacher, who must be able to teach the ordinary +ball-room dances as well as Morris and country dances. + +A typical week's work in the second year's course in one of the +colleges includes six hours' Gymnastics; five hours' Remedial +Gymnastics, and five hours' actual treatment under supervision, of +patients in the clinic; six hours' Anatomy, two hours' Physiology, two +hours' Hygiene, two hours' Vaulting, three and a half hours' Dancing. +In addition to this, four afternoons (from 2 to 4 P.M.) are devoted to +games; class singing-lessons are given twice a week for half an hour, +in addition to a quarter of an hour's practice every day, and each +student teaches in the elementary schools three half hours a week, and +also gets some practice in the high school. Add to all this the time +required for private study, and it will be seen that the work is +fairly strenuous and that none but strong, healthy girls should +undertake it. + +After the course of training the gymnastic teacher usually takes a +post in a school, and having had a few years' experience, may then +become an organiser or inspector to an education committee, a trainer +in an elementary training college or physical training college, the +head of the gymnastic department of a school clinic, or she may +prefer to start a private practice, holding classes, treating cases +of deformity, and also acting as visiting gymnastic teacher or +games-coach to schools in the neighbourhood. + +The rate of remuneration varies according to the kind of work +undertaken; the initial salary in schools is usually £60 to £80 +per annum resident, or £100 to £120 non-resident. Organisers and +inspectors command a much higher salary; the three Government +inspectors start at £200 rising to £400 with first-class travelling +expenses, and the four woman-organisers employed by the London County +Council Education Committee start at £175, rising by £10 a year to +£240 plus actual travelling expenses. Some women do well in private +practice, making from £200 to £300 a year. The salaries of the +gymnastic teachers in the London County Council secondary schools are +fixed at £130 a year with no possibility of advancement, and, though +this may compare favourably with the initial salaries of other +teachers on the staff, it must be remembered that the teaching life of +a gymnastic teacher is shorter and there are no headmistress-ships +to which to look forward. The few "plums" of the profession are the +inspectorships of the Government and of the more important education +committees. For the latter, women have often to compete with men, and +even in cases where both men and women inspectors are employed--the +men doing the same work in the boys' schools as the women do in the +girls'--the men's salaries are considerably higher, despite the +fact that most women give up professional work on marriage, either +voluntarily or compulsorily, and have therefore a shorter time in +which to recover the cost of their training, whereas if they do not +marry, they have to make provision for old age and in many cases to +contribute to the support of others besides themselves. + +With regard to this employment of women after marriage, there would +seem to be no reason why the principals or assistants of colleges or +institutes, or the women with private practices should not continue +their work; but in schools, even where the terms of the appointment +do not demand resignation on marriage, it is not customary for married +teachers to be employed. + +Up to the present, the supply of trained gymnastic teachers has +scarcely satisfied the demand, and fresh openings are from time to +time created. When physical exercises were made compulsory in all the +elementary schools, the class teacher had and still has, to give this +instruction to her class, but there has been an increasing demand for +organisers to teach the elementary school teacher and superintend her +work. This has also led to specialist teachers being appointed to all +the elementary training colleges and pupil teachers' centres. Then +came medical inspection, and with it the need for school clinics, +which could not be complete without a department for treating +curvatures, flat feet, etc., and giving breathing exercises, +especially after the removal of adenoids. Though these clinics are +only in the experimental stage they are sure to expand, and it is +expected that a large number of trained gymnastic teachers will be +required for them. Further it is possible, and may be found desirable, +that specialist teachers should be appointed for groups of elementary +schools, so relieving the class teachers of this part of their work. +Large secondary and private schools often appoint two, three, or four +trained teachers who are jointly responsible for gymnastics, games, +dancing, swimming, and the treatment of deformities throughout the +school. Besides all these openings a considerable number of gymnastic +teachers find work in the colonies, especially in South Africa, +Australia, and New Zealand. + +To band together the teachers of Swedish gymnastics and to guard their +interests generally, the Ling Association was founded in 1899. Though +it is open to men and women, very few men have joined, as the number +of men with the necessary qualifications is very small. Members must +have trained for at least two years at a recognised college, and it +was not till 1912 that the first training college for men was opened +in England. + +With a view to standardising the training and diplomas of gymnastic +teachers, the Ling Association in 1904 started a diploma-examination. +Though the syllabus drawn up is practically the same as those used +in the different colleges, most of the colleges still grant their own +diplomas at the end of the course. + +It is hardly possible at present, to specify the usual age of +retirement for gymnastic teachers, but when a woman becomes too old +for regular school teaching she can organise, supervise, and inspect, +or continue to practise remedial work which includes massage. + +Most of the gymnastic teachers who come within the scope of the +Insurance Act have joined the University, Secondary and Technical +Teachers' Provident Society. + + + + +VII + +THE TEACHING OF DOMESTIC SUBJECTS + + +There are several reasons why instruction in the domestic arts and in +the management of a house has not until quite recently formed part of +the curriculum in girls' secondary schools. In the first years of +the existence of these schools, no handicraft was encouraged except +needlework, and this was soon almost crowded out of the time-table. It +was assumed that household management was taught by the mother. There +was a second assumption made even more confidently than the first, +that a well-informed young woman with an active brain would find no +difficulty in arranging her domestic affairs. This theory was founded +on still another assumption--that there would always be on hire a +sufficiency of servants already well trained for their work. + +It is obvious nowadays that the mistresses of the first two decades +of high-school teaching, being the first college-bred women, were +suffering from a reaction against domestic interests, and the manner +in which these had absorbed the old-fashioned woman. Their best pupils +were at once destined for college; they were considered too good +for mere domestic life, and were prepared for careers, mostly for +teaching. This tendency was naturally accentuated by the fact that +all mistresses were single women, with little prospect of any but a +celibate life. + +In the earlier stages of girls' education, then, it was the teacher +who urged the promising girl to have a career; but the more recent +development is that the parents, harassed by increasing economic +pressure, and encouraged by the instances they meet of successful +professional women, press more and more strongly for their girls to +be educated for professions, whether they are exceptionally gifted or +not. It is recognised in almost all grades of the middle class that +the chance of a daughter marrying, and, further, the chance of her +marriage being an assured provision for her maintenance throughout +life, is by no means a certainty. + +These considerations must militate against the appearance of domestic +subjects in the school time-table, but there are others working in +exactly the opposite direction. These are the increase in house rent +and general rise in prices which make economy in domestic affairs, and +good management, more valued; the dearth of servants; and the decay of +the old traditions of housekeeping. Another factor is the new cult +of hygiene, and increased interest in diet, shown especially by +the inhabitants of large towns, who bewail their lack of energy and +fitness. + +If the home is to establish itself as an acknowledged success in +modern conditions, it ought to be run by women with brains. It is +now becoming acknowledged that the work needs the application of the +scientific method of thinking. It may be true that home-making in the +non-material sense is an art, but housekeeping nowadays is a science; +and so much a science that a woman who has the chance of making +herself an expert will be tempted to make housekeeping a career, and +to undertake the job on a much larger scale than is needed in the +ordinary house. + +Thus, while there was practically no teaching of domestic subjects +in girls' secondary schools until about seven years ago, a demand +for teachers of the kind has sprung up very recently, and is rapidly +increasing. + +The headmistress anxious to undertake something of the sort has had +many difficulties to face in the immediate past. The only teachers +of domestic arts whom she could engage had received a very different +education from the other members of her staff. If their whole time +were not taken up with teaching their subject, they had few or +no subsidiary subjects to offer, nor were they prepared for those +curiously mingled clerical and pastoral duties which fall to the +lot of a form mistress. In general education they might, indeed, be +obviously below the girls in the upper forms, whose general culture +had been sedulously cultivated for years. If teachers of this kind +were, nevertheless, not to be kept for selected "stupid girls," it +was possible (1) to introduce domestic work of the simple handicraft +nature into the middle school, leaving it out of the upper school +where there was a greater pressure on the time-table, or (2) to +organise a post-school domestic course for girls who were not +preparing for a profession. + +The type of woman offering herself as a teacher in domestic arts +has meanwhile been changing and developing, owing to the fact that +a marked advance has taken place in the facilities for training. The +minimum qualifications now required by most education authorities +are diplomas for cookery, laundry-work, and housewifery, granted by a +training school recognised by the Board of Education. It is advisable +to take a fuller course which includes needlework and dressmaking. +Most training schools for domestic arts provide a two or three +year-course, according to the subjects taken. The three-year course, +including cookery, laundry-work, housewifery, dressmaking, and +needlework, costs about £75. Scholarships are offered both by the +training schools and by public bodies. These cover the whole normal +period of training, and an extension course for scientific study. +The subjects included are the principles and processes involved in +cookery, laundry-work, and household management, the last comprising +such diverse matters as the selection and furnishing of various types +of houses, repairing furniture, the choice and care of household +linens, simple upholstery, management of income, first-aid, +home-nursing, and the care of infants and young children. Many +training-schools arrange for their students to gain experience in a +crêche or similar institution, and to visit homes of various +types. Practical experience is gained in housekeeping and catering, +superintending the arrangements for meals, ordering stores and keeping +accounts. Voice production and blackboard drawing are also taught, +while science is studied concurrently with the above. The course in +science embraces some Theoretical and Practical Chemistry, Physics, +Physiology, Hygiene (personal and school hygiene and preventive +measures), and the Theory and Practice of Education. Domestic Science +students gain teaching experience not only in the various departments +of the training-school, but also in elementary and secondary schools; +happily the training is the same for those intending to take up either +elementary or secondary teaching. + +Thus it is seen that the present-day teacher of household arts is +much more fitted to train the well-educated girl to organise household +matters, than was her predecessor. Not only is manipulative skill +acquired, but scientific reasons for processes and methods are +outlined, and improvements are suggested. There is, however, still the +danger that the student's training in science has been so subordinated +to the acquirement of manipulative skill that her knowledge of +scientific facts is not sufficiently based on scientific training and +method. + +Much, then, is to be urged in favour of the woman with a science +degree taking courses in domestic arts, but it is essential for her to +attain a high standard of practical work. It has sometimes been found +that a very academic and scientific method of treatment has tended +to lower the standard of manipulative skill. Nevertheless qualified +graduates find themselves, at the moment, greatly in demand. The +economical headmistress must always be on the look out for an +acquisition to her staff who will, like Count Smorltork's politics, +"surprise in herself many branches." If the headmistress can solve her +difficulty about her domestic arts teacher by engaging a college-bred +woman, with a degree to put on the prospectus, all sorts of ordinary +subjects for her odd hours and undertaking to teach cooking as well, +she will jump at the chance, and pay her £10 to £20 more salary than +the ordinary assistant-mistress. She will economise greatly by the +arrangement. If she has some amount of money to back her schemes, +and a large school to administer, she will prefer two people to +one composite one. But she will beg them to collaborate and to work +together. She will not expect the woman with the science degree and a +brief subsequent training in the arts to have the manipulative skill +of the one who has done something like one thousand hours of actual +practice, according to the prescription of the Board of Education. She +will ask the former to show the girls how modern science is connected +with the modern house, and how the scientific way of thinking helps in +keeping a house, as it does in keeping one's own health and fitness. + +During the past five years one secondary school after another has +taken up Domestic Arts as a school subject. The initiative usually +comes from the headmistress, and is a matter of personal judgment, so +that the introduction is still an experiment on trial, and the method +of trial varies. Before giving some indication of the methods tried, +we must return to the demand for teachers. It will be clear from what +has been said, that a science graduate who has studied and practised +household arts and cooking, or a trained teacher of Domestic Arts +who has also some science certificate and a high standard of general +education, will at this moment command a higher salary than the +ordinary secondary schoolmistress, and is practically certain of +a post. But either of these individuals requires an unusually long +period of training, for which most people have neither the time nor +the spare capital. + +One woman's college in London has started courses of its own in "Home +Science and Economics," and awards a three-year certificate to its +students; also a diploma for science graduates who take a year's +course, and a certificate to Domestic Arts teachers who take a closely +related year's course. This is King's College for Women, which has +just obtained the formal approval of London University for its three +years' curriculum. In a very short time arrangements will be made to +grant a University Diploma to the students who have taken this course, +the fee for which amounts to 30 guineas a session. A scholarship, +covering the cost of tuition, is from time to time awarded to +undergraduate students, and there is also a one-year post-graduate +Gilchrist scholarship of 50 guineas. The name of "Household and +Social Science" is recommended by the Royal Commissioners for the new +co-ordination of subjects. Various American universities and colleges +give diplomas of the same kind: and the New Zealand University has +just initiated one. The three-year course at King's College for Women +may possibly be modified by the University authorities: at present it +consists of two years' training in various branches of pure science, +and a third year in which these branches are applied to household +matters of all kinds. For instance, the usual type of academic course +of Inorganic, Organic, and Physical Chemistry gives place in the third +year to the study of food, cooking utensils and cookers, soap and +other cleansing materials, and woven materials. Biology and Physiology +give place to household Bacteriology and Hygiene. Practice in +Housewifery and Cooking occupies one day per week throughout the three +years. A very important feature in this course is the introduction of +Economics. As with the natural sciences, two years' study of ordinary +Economics, chiefly industrial, is followed by a year of Economics +applied to the household, in which an attempt is made to show the +present and past relations of the household to society. King's +College for Women is the first institution in England to see the +great importance of studying the connection of domestic life with +the outside industrial world, instead of treating it as an isolated +phenomenon. + +This is the outline of the three-year course: students are encouraged +to stay a fourth year for special work; the appointments which they +take up at the end of three or four years are not always as teachers, +but in various other vocations which need not be specified here. As +teachers, the holders of these certificates are subject, of course, to +a double fire of criticism. The science specialist thinks they do +not know enough science, and points out that, beyond a few elementary +facts in Chemistry, Physics, and Physiology soon picked up in an +elementary training in these subjects, there stretches a region of +very abstruse science which cannot be attacked except by specialists +in Organic Chemistry, in the Physiology of Nutrition, and so on. +But it is now suggested that many scientific problems connected with +domestic subjects are waiting for solution. If some of these were +solved, they would bridge the gulf between the elementary and the +abstruse, but they must show themselves of sufficient interest to +investigators. Here is a field for work eminently suited to the +scientific woman with a practical turn of mind. Meanwhile, the cookery +diplomée thinks, often justifiably, that the new teachers have not had +sufficient practice in the art of cooking. Criticism of this kind is +inevitable whenever a new co-ordination of subjects is attempted, and +it will keep the new arrangement on its trial until it can justify +itself. The question at issue in this case, as probably readers will +have divined if they are interested in the problem, is whether the +whole method and tradition of teaching housekeeping ought not to be +under revision, so that it may in a few years be a "subject" vastly +different from the traditional handing-on and practising of receipts. +Once the barrier is broken down between the scientifically trained and +the domestic woman, the whole aspect of affairs changes. It is a sign +of the change that the training-colleges and cookery-schools, besides +introducing more Chemistry, Hygiene, and Physiology into their +curricula, are definitely asking that the teachers they employ for +these subjects, shall be women with science degrees as well as some +knowledge of domestic arts. For instance, at the Gloucester School +of Cookery at least one former teacher had taken the Natural Science +Tripos at Girton as well as Domestic Science Certificates: at +Battersea Polytechnic a recent appointment is that of a Domestic +Science diplomée, who subsequently took a science degree at Armstrong +College, while at the National Training School of Cookery, one member +of Staff is at present a science graduate, who subsequently obtained +the King's College for Women Diploma in Home Science and Economics. +Again, the new Government report just issued on handwork in secondary +schools, while in many ways non-committal, distinctly prefers special +training for teachers of Domestic Subjects following on a good general +education--_i.e._, a University degree plus technical qualifications, +rather than a teaching diploma in Domestic Subjects plus a little +science. There is, then, likely to be an increasing number of openings +for women who can afford the double training. Schools of housecraft +to give all-round training to educated women, are springing up in +all parts of the United Kingdom: in those which are attached to +Polytechnics and similar institutions the fullest advantage is +taken of the pure and technical science teaching available in their +laboratories. + +To those who look for a real advance in household science the weak +point of the present situation is the want of proper correlation and +standardisation of the work going on. The Board of Education does not +examine; it accepts the diploma given by any one of a fairly large +number of domestic science schools. In consequence, teachers from +different quarters may be using quite different processes and methods +in laundry work, cooking, or housekeeping. It is time some fundamental +things were agreed upon, and although standardising must not be +allowed to become stereotyping, at present constructive generalisation +is needed, as well as the upsetting of out-grown traditions. In this +context it would be well to discuss a question more properly to be +taken at the end of this paper--the connection between the teaching in +elementary schools and that in secondary schools. There is no reason +to introduce differentiation in the training of the teachers: it +is obvious, for instance, that the recent development of including +economics in that training, is of extraordinary value to the +elementary school teacher. But it is difficult to correlate the +instruction given in the management of a middle-class household, with +from eight to twenty rooms, and from one to a dozen servants, with +that given in the management of a workman's cottage or of a flat +without assistance. The connection which does need systematising and +establishing is between the management of a middle-class house and the +training of domestic servants, which ought naturally to form part of +the trade or technical after-school work for elementary scholars. Here +again, if training is to be followed by certificates, and the +domestic servant is to be in the smallest degree an expert, some +standardisation of training is necessary. We may, of course, find that +domestic service becomes so much a matter of expert work that it is +taken up on a large scale by middle-class girls, but that can +hardly be prophesied yet, although the "lady servant" is an existing +phenomenon. It is, of course, also possible that a modern curriculum +of "Household and Social Science" may attract a certain number of +men of the suitable type of mind. The attitude of the community is +changing so rapidly that one may hope those fears to be groundless +which speak of "relegating women back to the limited sphere of +domesticity," and thereby losing so much that has been gained with +regard to their education. + +We must now return to give a few particulars which have been passed +over. Any information on this subject is, however, liable to be very +soon out of date. A secondary school that elects to teach cooking and +laundry work will want a specially fitted room, which will cost about +as much as a simple science laboratory, and will be arranged in as +close connection with the science laboratory as is convenient. This +means serious expense, and the headmistress is naturally anxious +to have considerable use made of the room. Thus she will be led to +introduce the subject into a large proportion of the classes, instead +of limiting it to one or two middle-school forms, or to a selected +part of the upper-school. She may, however, try to solve the economic +problem by making it a post-school course for which special fees are +charged. Certain schools, notably Clapham and Croydon High Schools and +Cheltenham Ladies' College are able to make a very important feature +of this type of course. To make it a success, the prestige of the +school, its influence over girls and their parents, must be great and +commanding. Otherwise, unless the girls are aiming definitely at some +professional work after the course, there is a tendency to laxness in +attendance, or to the relinquishment of the work in the middle, which +tendency is engendered by the nature of the subject. The mother's +excuse for getting her grown-up girl's company and help will naturally +be, "Gladys can boil the potatoes at home instead of at school." A +valid answer will be that Gladys is being taught to free her mind +from the eternal English boiled potato by learning many other ways of +treating it, and at the same time learning its proper place in a diet. + +Failing the post-school course, the admittance of domestic subjects to +a notable place in the general school curriculum leads to great stress +being laid on the teaching of the elements of Physical Science. The +eminently "feminine" subject, Botany, gives place to Physics and +Chemistry in the middle-school, followed by Physiology and Hygiene +in the upper-school. The subjects are to be illustrated whenever +convenient, by reference to home life. A student choosing her science +subjects at College should bear these in mind as likely to be at +present of the best market value. Though it is very true that a +practical woman who is a good teacher will nowadays connect any +science subject with home life, still a parallel course of domestic +arts will draw chiefly on the lessons given in these four. + +Another fact worthy of notice is that a married woman who is anxious +to continue her former profession of science teaching will not as a +rule have to suffer the usual unfavourable handicap. That a married +woman should teach the domestic subjects is quite a reasonable +proposition to many who would exclude her from most professions: +if she be also a mother it may even count as an asset instead of a +disadvantage. + +The Delegacy for Oxford Local Examinations has been the first, as far +as we know, to set a paper in domestic science to senior candidates. +There has been a demand for it in the London Matriculation, but +objection has been raised on the score of its being a smattering and +a soft option. The Oxford Delegacy has introduced two new +headings--Domestic Science and Hygiene--and sets two papers under +each, without any practical work. The first paper is the same under +both headings--Elementary Physics and Chemistry, and the preparation +for this is intended to be made at least one school year before the +preparation for the second paper. It should be noted that the Hygiene +paper is for boys and girls; it includes a little Physiology, Personal +Hygiene, and Hygiene of Buildings. The Domestic Science paper is for +girls only; it has several details in common with that in Hygiene, but +its main features are the simple outlines of the chemistry of foods +and of cleansing substances. In a few years the suitability of these +subjects for both sexes may have impressed the community. + +We may notice, lastly, the arrangements made for instruction in +Domestic Subjects in elementary schools.[1] This is given in a +specially equipped Centre attached to a public elementary school, the +girls from that and other schools attending either for a half or whole +day weekly during their last two years at school. In some cases for +about fifteen weeks before they leave school, girls give half the week +to Domestic Subjects. This experiment has been so successful, that it +is likely to be extended in the future. A carefully graded syllabus is +followed; due proportion of time is given to theory and demonstration +as well as to practical work. Each girl is required to do a certain +amount of work by herself, and much thought has been expended in order +to make the lessons as useful as possible. The care of infants and +young children is receiving increased attention, and it is hoped that +much may be done to mitigate evils of wrong feeding and treatment. As +far as possible, the teaching in the Centres is correlated with that +in the schools. Where there are science laboratories the experiments +are made on food-stuffs, changes wrought by application of heat in +various ways, the chemistry of common objects, and so on. + +The opportunity for definite science training in connection with +Domestic Subjects teaching in elementary schools is still very small, +and will probably remain so while the school-leaving age is fourteen. +The problem before the teacher in some instances is to combat not only +an entire ignorance of the home arts, but also, in poor districts, an +active experience of household mismanagement and vicious habits. The +teaching in these cases has to be intensely practical, and to aim +chiefly at character-building; the manual work of the subject has been +found of the greatest educational value in this respect. Though the +training of all Domestic Subjects' teachers should reach the same +standard of scientific knowledge, yet the actual work to be done +in different types of schools is thus seen to be necessarily widely +divergent in character. + +In higher elementary or "central" schools, where the pupils normally +remain until the end of the school year in which they reach the age of +fifteen, Domestic Subjects' teaching may have a much wider scope than +at the ordinary Centre, as the pupils are at a very intelligent age, +and represent the best of the elementary scholars. A special syllabus +is prepared according to the individual need of each school, by the +Domestic Subjects' teacher and the headmistress; the instruction is a +very definite part of the curriculum, and the teacher a member of the +school staff. + +In London and other large towns, and with certain County Councils, +the Centre is under the general supervision of the headmistress of the +school to which it is attached, but technical details are entirely +in the hands of the teacher of Domestic Subjects and of the +superintendent who visits periodically. In some rural areas, the +conditions are not so satisfactory. Frequently one teacher has to +serve several villages, visiting them for instruction on certain days. +The accommodation in such places is often sadly deficient, and much +ingenuity and resource are needed to overcome difficulties which do +not occur when the Centre is well-equipped and in continuous use, and +the teacher, as she should be, a regular member of the school staff. + +On leaving school, there are many scholarships open to the girls for +further training, (_a_)for a home course, (_b_) for domestic service, +(_c_) for the trades of laundress, needlewoman, dressmaker, and cook. +These scholarships are held at Technical Institutes, or Trade Schools, +and the training given is admirable in kind. + +A qualified teacher who wishes to take up elementary school work will +have no difficulty, if physically fit, in obtaining a post under a +County Council or other educational authority at a salary of £80 per +annum, usually rising by annual increments to £120. The maximum is not +so high as that for teachers of ordinary subjects, and pensions are +not universal, though most councils make fairly adequate provision for +retirement, breakdown, and ill-health. + +There is at present very little direct promotion open to the +Domestic Subjects' teacher in elementary schools. In London there are +practising-centres for students in training, and training centres for +teachers during the probationary period, the managers of which hold +very responsible posts that carry extra salary. The inspecting staff +is usually chosen from teachers of experience, but this is necessarily +limited in numbers, vacancies occurring only rarely. The salary +attached to these posts is from £150 to £300. Many good posts in +the Colonies have been obtained by Domestic Subjects' teachers in +elementary schools. Some teachers have become foreign missionaries, +Children's Care Committee visitors, or home mission workers and +visitors. Some have established model laundries, others have taken +charge of students' hostels and boarding-houses; while many have +been successful in the needle-trades, luncheon and tea-rooms, and in +lecturing and demonstrating for gas and electric companies. + +Several organisations for self-protection and the advancement of the +profession are open to teachers of Domestic Subjects. The Association +of Teachers of Domestic Subjects was founded in 1896, and has done +valuable work for the members. It is affiliated to the Association of +Teachers in Technical Institutes, and is thus enabled to obtain +good legal advice. A representative has been appointed to sit on the +Council for the Registration of Teachers. The Association is helping +to educate public opinion, and to review and consider the pedagogy +of domestic subjects in all classes of schools. Domestic Subjects' +teachers are also admitted to membership of other Teachers' +Associations, which safeguard the interest of their members and offer +advantages for training and travelling. Members of the Association of +Teachers of Domestic Subjects have the right to join for the purposes +of the Insurance Act the "Approved" section of the Secondary, +Technical and University Teachers' Provident Society. The London +County Council has secured "exception" from the Act for their Domestic +Subjects' teachers, their allowance for sick leave being better than +the provisions of the Act. The Association of Teachers of Domestic +Subjects has obtained special terms for members from two assurance +companies for deferred annuities or endowment assurances. The London +Teachers' Association has also a provident section. + +We have seen that Domestic Arts may now claim a position of importance +in both the elementary and secondary school curricula, and that the +teaching of these subjects may rank as a profession in which there is +a great deal of scope. The attitude of mind towards these subjects has +much changed during the last few years, largely owing to the efforts +of those who have taken them up as subjects of scientific study. +Much, however, remains to be done, both in organising the teaching in +schools, and in the training of teachers in domestic subjects. Only +those who have had scientific training, are competent to put the work +on a sound scientific basis. + + +[Footnote 1: An interesting sidelight on economic conditions is +afforded by the instructions issued by the London County Council for +the guidance of teachers of Domestic Subjects (Syllabus of Instruction +in Domestic Economy. Revised, March 1912). The girls are to be taught +account-keeping in order to "cultivate a well-balanced sense of +proportion in spending and saving. ... Weekly incomes suitable for +consideration in London, to begin with, are 35s., £3, and 28s. taken +in that order." The number in family is supposed to be six, _i.e.,_ +parents and four children. + +The obvious inference is that experts do not find it possible to deal +satisfactorily with cases in which there are, say, six children and +an income of 25s. An income of £1 a week is not even mentioned, though +many a London school-girl must know "in the last three years of +her school-life" that her mother has not more than this to spend. +Translated into concrete quantities of food, clothing, and rent, +this "living wage" is found insufficient for daily needs. The teacher +therefore is encouraged to ignore the economic conditions of most of +her pupils. [EDITOR]. ] + + + +TABLE I. + + +Cost and duration of courses for the first degree in the Faculties +of Arts and Science, together with Scholarships in those Faculties +available for Women at the Universities and University Colleges[1] of +the United Kingdom. + +_NOTES_. + +1. Scholarships, etc., printed in _italics_ are available for Women only. + +2. Scholarships, etc., printed in #black type# are not restricted to + graduates of any one University. + +3. County Council and Borough Scholarships are included only when tenable + at a specified University or College. Particulars of others should in + each case be obtained from the respective Director or Secretary of the + Education Committee. + +4. No scholarship or prize is included of which the value is less than £15. + + +[Footnote 1: University Colleges are those in receipt of a Government Grant +and doing work of a University standard. Thus the Polytechnics and Colleges +such as the Albert Memorial College, Exeter, are not included, although +they prepare students for degree examinations.] + + +#ENGLAND#. + +UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honours (M.A., M.Sc.) in Arts or Science: 4 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: 54 guineas for the course. +Cost of Tuition in Science: From 47 guineas to £186, 2s. for + the course, according to subjects chosen. +Cost of Residence (optional): From 40 to 55 guineas per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Entrance(2) Not more than £25 + 1 year +Fentham's Trust £75 3 years Awarded on to candidates + who have resided for 5 + years in the City of + Birmingham +University(2) £30 1 year Science +University(2) £30 1 year Arts +University(15) Free tuition and not + more than £30 + maintenance 4 years +Theodore Mander £24 2-3 years Open to sons and daughters + of burgesses of + Wolverhampton, and + awarded to those + intending to take Degree + Courses in the Faculties + of Science of Commerce +Polytechnic(2) £45 _circa_ 3 years +Ascough £36 _circa_ 1 year Chemistry + (renewable) +George Henry £45 3 years Classics + Marshall +German £50 -- Offered each year for 5 + years from 1913. +Education Committee £50 3 years + Major(5) +Corbett £28 _circa_ 1 year For 2nd year students. + Mathematics. + +#Post-Graduate# +University(4) £50 1 year Arts and Science +Research(4) £50 1 year Arts and Science +Priestley(3) £96 _circa_ 1 year Chemistry Research + (renewable) +1851 Exhibition £150 2 years Scientific Research + + + + +UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass or Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: 18 guineas per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: 20 guineas per annum. +Cost of Residence (optional) at Clifton Hill House: 40 guineas per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Bursaries, variable Tuition fees and + in number maintenance grant + 1 year Awarded (to children of + Bristol ratepayers only) + according to + qualification +Vincent Stuckey Lean Interest on Science + Scholarship £1,000 1 year + +#Post-Graduate.# +_Catherine Winkworth_ £30 1 year Arts +_Catherine Winkworth_ £30 1 year Science +Capper Pass Scholarship £25 1 year Metallurgy +Hugh Conway Scholarship £20 1 year English Literature + + + +UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. + +The only University Scholarships for which women are eligible +are the Arnold Gerstenberg Studentship (income of £2,000) for +Philosophical Research and the Benn W. Levy Studentship for +Research in Biological Chemistry (£100 a year). Scholarships at +Girton and Newnham are for women only. + +The University does not grant degrees to women. + + +GIRTON COLLEGE. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. (Pass candidates + are not accepted.) + +Cost of Course: £105 per annum, including tuition, examinations, + and residence. For out-students the fees are £12 a term. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +_Jane Agnes Chessar_ Not less than + £88 4 years Classics +_Russell Gurney_ £40 3 years History +_Sir Francis Goldsmid_ £45 3 years +_Mary Anne Leighton_ About £16 3 years +_Barbara Leigh Smith_ About £44 3 years + _Bodichon_ +_Todd Memorial_ About £35 3 years + _Higgins_ £40 3 years +_Henry Tomkinson_ At least £20 3 years +_Clothworkers_ £60 3 years +_Skinners_ £50 3 years +_Gilchrist_ £50 3 years Also tenable at Newnham +_Queen's School,_ £30 3 years + _Chester_ +_Dove_ £20 3 years For girls from St. + Leonard's School, St. + Andrew's. Classics + +#For Certified Students# +_Gilchrist Studentship_ £100 1 year For Professionals. Open to + Students at Newnham and + Girton +_Old Girtonians'_ Not less than + _Studentship_ £48 1 year +_John Elliot Cairnes_ Not less than + £58 1 year For research in Political + Economy or Economic + History +_Sir Arthur Arnold_ £30 1 year +_Harkness_ About £70 1 year Geology. Also tenable at + Newnham. Awarded + biennially + +#Fellowships.# +_Pfeiffer_ £120 2 years +#Girton College# £300 Various Open to students of all + Universities + +#Prizes.# +_Gamble_ Interest on £500 +_Therese Montifiore_ Interest on £1,700 + + +NEWNHAM COLLEGE. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science: 3 years (Pass candidates + are not accepted). + +Cost of Course: From £90 to £105 per annum, including tuition, + examinations, and residence. For out-students the fees are + £12 a term. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +_College_(2) £50 3 years +_Clothworhers_ £50 3 years +_College_(1 or more) £35 3 years +_Classical_ £50 3 years Also tenable at Girton +_Modern Languages_ £50 3 years Also tenable at Girton +_Liverpool Clough_ £50 2-3 years For those entering the + teaching profession, only +_Gilchrist_ £50 3 years Also tenable at Girton +_Mary Ewart_ £100 3 years For students who have been + in residence three terms +_Harkness_ £70 1 year Geology. Also tenable at + Girton. Awarded + biennially + +#Certificated Students# +_Arthur Hugh Clough_ £40 1 year +_Mary Ewart_ £150 1 year Travelling scholarship +_Gilchrist_ £100 1 year Tenable only by those + entering a profession. + Held alternate years at + Newnham and Girton +#Bathurst# £75 or under 1 year Awarded from time to time + for proficiency in + Natural Science. Not + restricted to Newnham + students +_Marion Kennedy_ £80 1 year Holder eligible for 2nd + _Studentship_ year + +#Fellowships.# +_Associates_(2) £100 1 year Awarded alternate years +_Mary Bateson_ £100 1 year +_"N"_ £100 1 year + +#Prizes.# +_Creighton_ £15 Awarded for an essay on + _Memorial_ History or Archaeology + + +UNIVERSITY OF DURHAM. + +DURHAM COLLEGE. + +Duration of Course in Arts: Pass 2 years; Honours, 3 years. +Duration of Course in Science: Pass and Honours, 3 years. +Cost of Tuition, Arts and Science: £21 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Abbey House (optional): From £12 to £16 a term. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# + +Foundation Scholarships £70 1 year May be renewed. Arts +Foundation Scholarships £40 1 year May be renewed +Foundation Scholarships £30 1 year May be renewed +Entrance Exhibitions(2) £20 1 year May be renewed +Pears Scholarship £50 3 years Arts +_Scholarships_(2) £70 1 year +_Scholarships_(2) £30 1 year +Exhibitions(2) £20 2 years Persons of limited means + +#Undergraduate.# +Scholarships(2) £30 1 year 2nd year students +Scholarships(2) £30 1 year 2nd year students +Gisborne Scholarship £30 1 year 2nd year students +University Classical £30 1 year + Scholarship +University Mathematical £30 1 year + Scholarship +University Hebrew £20 1 year + Scholarship +Thorp Scholarship £20 1 year +Newby Scholarship £18 2 or 3 yrs. Arts +Scholarships(3) £20 1 year Modern B.A. + +#Prizes.# +Gibson £20 Essay + + +ARMSTRONG COLLEGE, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. +Cost of Tuition: £20 per annum. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Exhibition £20 1-2 years Science +Exhibition £15 1-2 years Science +Exhibitions(2) £15 1-2 years Arts +Newcastle-upon-Tyne Free admission to a Open to candidates + Corporation degree course resident in Newcastle. + Exhibitions(10) 2 years Arts + (renewable) +Newcastle-upon-Tyne Free admission to a Open to candidates + Corporation degree course resident in Newcastle. + Exhibitions(10) 2 years Arts + (renewable) +Newcastle-upon-Tyne Free admission to a Open to candidates + Corporation degree course resident in Newcastle. + Exhibitions(10) 2 years Science + (renewable) +Gateshead Corporation Free admission to a Open to candidates + Exhibitions(10) degree course resident in Gateshead. + 2 years + (renewable) + +#Undergraduate.# + +Junior Pemberton £30 and remission of Awarded on the results of + two-thirds of the the first B.Sc. + class fees 1 year examination +Thomas Young Hall £20 with remission of Awarded on the results + two-thirds of the of the first B.Sc. + class fees 3 years examination +Nathaniel Clerk £15 1 year Awarded on the results + of the first B.Sc. + examination +Senior Pemberton £40 and fees 1 year Candidates must have + passed the first B.Sc. + examination + +#Post-Graduate.# +Research Studentships(2) £62, 10s 1 year +1851 Exhibition £150 2 years Science +1851 Exhibition + Probationary Bursaries £70 1 year Science Research + +Johnston Chemical £60 1 year Open to Bachelors of + Science of any British + University of not more + than 3 years' standing + +#Fellowships.# +College £125 1 year +Pemberton £120 3 years Open to graduates in + Science of Durham + University of not more + than 6 years' standing + from their first degree + + +UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS. + +Duration of Pass Course, Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course, Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £19 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £27 per annum. +Cost of Residence at University Hall (optional): From £32 to £41 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Emsley £20 2 years +Edward Baines £20 2 years +Charles Wheatley £25 3 years Arts +William Summers £35 3 years Arts +Brown £40 2 years Science + (renewable) +Senior City(14) £50 3 years Open to candidates of not + (renewable) less than 17 and not more + than 30 years of age +County Major £55 _circa_ 3 years Open to candidates of not + (West Riding)(14) less than 16 and not + more than 30 years of + age +Free Studentships Tuition Fees 3 years + (West Riding) +Major (North Riding)(4) £60 1-3 years Open to women of not less + than 16 and not more than + 20 years of age +Scholarships (East £60 1-3 years + Riding) +Salt £20 2 years Arts +City Council Not specified + +#Post-Graduate.# +1851 Exhibition £150 2 years Science +University (limited £25 1-2 years Awarded ordinarily on + number) Final Honours Examinations +Gilchrist £80 1 year Modern Languages +John Rutson £70 1 year Arts + (renewable) + +#Fellowships.# +University £100 1 year + + +UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Arts: 3 to 4 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Science: 4 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £19 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £25 per annum. +Cost of Residence in University Hall (optional): From 35 to 50 guineas a + session. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Bibby(2) £20 3 years Open to candidates of not + more than 18 years of age +Morris Ranger £20 3 years +_Ladies' Educational £30 3 years Open to women of not less +Association_ than 16 and not more than + 19 years of age +Elizabeth James £40 3 years Arts or Law +Tate (Arts) £35 3 years Open to candidates who + have been educated in one + of the schools of + Liverpool or the + neighbourhood and who are + not more than 18 years of + age +Tate (Science)(3) £35 3 years +Senior City(8) £30 and free admission Open to candidates of not + to lectures less than 16 and not more + 3 years than 19 years of age +Senior City Technical(2) £50 and free admission Open to candidates of not + to lectures less than 16 and not more + than 25 years of age + 3 years +Derby(2) £35 3 years One without limit of age, + one for candidates of not + more than 18 years of age +Canning £28 3 years} +Iliff £20 3 years} Arts including + Mathematics, or B.Sc. + Honours in Mathematics +William Rathbone £20 3 years} +Gossage £70 _circa_ 3 years Open to pupils of schools + in the Borough of Widnes +Lundie Memorial £15 3 years +Wallasey Borough £35 3 years Open to candidates under + Council 19 years of age +W.P. Sinclair Interest on £1,000 Arts or Honour School of + 3 years Mathematics +Henry Deacon £50 3 years Open to candidates of not + more than 19 years of age + who intend studying in + the Honour School of + Chemistry +Sheridan Muspratt £50 2 years Chemistry +Thomas Hornby £20 1 year Greek + (renewable) +Korbach £20 1 year Undergraduates reading + (renewable) German in the Honour + School of Modern + Languages or graduates + wishing to proceed with + German study or research +Henry Warren Meade-King Interest on £1,000 Economics + 2 years +Holt Travelling £50 1 year Architecture +Isaac Roberts(2) £50 1 year Science. Open to graduates + (renewable) and under-graduates +Sir John Willox £50 2 years Chemistry + +#Post-Graduate# +Korbach £20 1 year __See above, undergraduate_ + (renewable) _scholarship of same name_ +Gilchrist £80 1 year Modern Languages +Isaac Roberts(2) £50 1 year _See above, undergraduate_ + _scholarship of same name_ +1851 Exhibition £150 2 years Tenable at any University + in England and abroad, + and to be used for + Science Research work +University(2) £25 1 year +1851 Exhibition Bursary £70 1 year +Derby £45 _circa_ 1 year Mathematics + (renewable) +Owen-Templeman Interest on £450 + 1 year + (renewable) Celtic +Stanley Jones Interest on £1,300 Economics +#Fellowships.# +University -- 1 year +Charles Beard £75 1 year History +Oliver Lodge Interest on £2,650 Physics + 1 year + + +UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. + +The duration of the Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours, +is 3 years. (_See_ under separate Colleges for Fees.) + +All students of the University are eligible for University Scholarships, +Exhibitions, and Prizes in accordance with the regulations +laid down in each case. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#University Undergraduate.# +Exhibitions(5) £40 2 years Arts and Science +Scholarships(19) £50 1 year Arts and Science +Mitchell Exhibitions(4) 2 of £25} 1 year For candidates from the + 2 of £20}(renewable) city of London +_Si Dunstan Exhibitions_ £60 3 years For residents in London of + _for Women_(3) restricted means +_Gilchrist_ £40 2 years One in Arts, one in + _Scholarships, for_ Science (the latter may + _Women_(2) be increased by £10) + +#University Post-Graduate.# +The Lindley Studentship £100 For research in Physiology + (awarded every 3rd year) +The University £50 For research + Studentship in (undergraduates are also + Physiology eligible) +George Smith Studentship £100 + £5 worth Awarded to the best + of books Internal Candidate for + B.A. Honours in English + on condition of + preparation for M.A. +_Gilchrist Studentship_ £100 For graduates in Honours + _for Women_ who undertake to prepare + for and practise some + profession +Gilchrist Studentship in £80 For internal graduates in + Modern Languages Honours (French or + German) who undertake to + follow abroad a course of + preparation for the + profession of Modern + Language Teacher +Carpenter Medal (or its £20 Awarded every 3 years for + pecuniary equivalent) a Thesis in experimental + Psychology presented for + a Doctor's Degree +Ouseley Memorial £50 Oriental Languages, not + Scholarships(3) restricted to graduates +Gilchrist Scholarships(2)£50 Oriental Languages, not + restricted to graduates + + +Grants are also made from the Dixon Fund in aid of scientific +investigations. + + +BEDFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: 27 guineas per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: From 27 to 38 guineas per annum. +Cost of Residence in College (optional): From 58 to 68 guineas per annum. +All Scholarships at Bedford College are open to women only. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Undergraduate.# +_Reid Scholarships_(2) £30 3 years Arts +_Clift Scholarship_ £30 3 years Arts +_Courtauld Scholarship_ £30 3 years Arts +_Henry Tate Scholarship_ £50 3 years Science +_Arnott Scholarship_ £50 3 years Science +_Pfeiffer_ + _Scholarships_(2) £50 3 years +_Reid Scholarship_ £60 3 years +_Jane Benson_ + _Scholarship_ £60 2 years Awarded biennially to a + student of Bedford High + School + +#Post-Graduate# +_Reid Fellowship_ £50 2 years Awarded biennially either + to an Arts or a Science + graduate + + + +EAST LONDON COLLEGE. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts or Science: £10, 10s. per annum. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. + #Entrance.# +Drapers' Company(2) £40 3 years Arts. Candidates must not + exceed 19 years of age +Drapers' Company(2) £40 3 years Science. Candidates must + not exceed 19 years of + age + +#Post-Graduate.# +Research Studentship Conditions not yet + published + + +UNIVERSITY OF LONDON KING'S COLLEGE FOR WOMEN. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £25, 4s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £31, 10s. per annum. +Cost of Residence in King's Hall (optional): From £17, 10s. to £26, 5s. + per term. +All Scholarships, etc., except the three which are specified, are open to + both men and women, and are tenable by the former at King's College, + Strand. + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +_Skinners' Company_ £40 3 years Arts + _Scholarship_ +_Merchant Taylors'_ £40 3 years Arts or Science + _Scholarship_ +Sambrooke Scholarship £25 2 years Classics +Sambrooke Scholarship £25 2 years Science + +#Undergraduate.# +Inglis Scholarship £30 1 year English or History in + alternate years +Sambrooke Exhibition £50 1 year Classics + +#Post-Graduate.# +Inglis Studentship £100 1 year Awarded on the result + of the B.A. Honours + Examination in English + and in History in + alternate years. The + selected Student is + required to prepare for + M.A. and to give some + assistance in teaching +Layton Research £150 2 years Science + Studentship +Gilchrist Scholarship £52, 10S 1 year For graduates intending to + in Home Science take the Post-Graduate + Diploma in Home Science + and Economics. For women + only + +#Prizes.# +Carter Prize £15 in books and gold English Verse + medal +Carter Prize £15 in books and gold Botany + medal + + +ROYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE. + +Cost of Residence and Tuition: £100 per annum. +Cost of Tuition for out-students: £12 per term. +All Scholarships at Royal Holloway College are for women only. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +_Founder's_ £60 3 years + _Scholarships_(4) +_Entrance_ £50 3 years +_Scholarships_(8) +_Martin Holloway_ £35 3 years +_Several Bursaries_ Not exceeding + £30 3 years + +#Undergraduate.# +_Driver_(3) £30 3 years For students who have been + at least three terms in + residence +_Christie_ £60 2 years For History + +#Post-Graduate.# +_Several_ Varying 1 year For students wishing to + _Studentships_ in amount take up post-graduate + work +#Prizes.# +_R.C._ +_Christie, Esq._ £21 French literature +_Martin Holloway._ £15, 15s. +------------------------------------------------------------- + + +UNIVERSITY OF LONDON, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: From £24, 3s. to £42 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £35 per annum. +Cost of Residence in College Hall (optional): From £53 to £82 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Andrews Entrance £30 1 year Arts and Science. Age + Scholarships(3) limit, 18 +Campbell Clarke £40 3 years English Language and + Entrance Scholarship Literature. Age limit, 18 +Goldsmid £30 3 years Science. Age limit, 18 +Rosa Morison £30 3 years Arts. Age limit, 18 +Member's Scholarship £30 3 years Classics +West £30 1 year English and English + History +Morris £16 2 years +St Pancras College fees for Limited to candidates born + 3 years in St Pancras +Campbell Clarke £40 2 or 3 years English Language and + Literature + +#Undergraduate.# +Andrews Scholarships £30 1 year Arts and Science +Derby Zoological £60 2 years +Ellen Watson Memorial £15 1 year Science. Candidates must + be under 21 +Fielden Research £50 1 or 2 years Research in German +_Eleanor Grove_ £30 1 year Research in German + (may be renewed) +John Oliver Hobbes £20 1 year Modern English Literature +Hollier £60 1 year Greek and Hebrew +Jews' Commemoration £15 2 years Arts or Science +Joseph Hume £20 1 year Jurisprudence and + Political Economy +Malden Medal and £20 1 year Proficiency in Greek + Scholarship +Mayer de Rothschild £40 1 year Pure Mathematics +John Stuart Mill £20 1 or 2 years Philosophy of Mind or + Logic +_Rosa Morison_ £30 1 year English Language and + Literature +Ricardo £20 3 years Awarded every third year + for Political Economy +Tuffnell £100 2 years Science. Candidates must + be under 24 + +#Post-Graduate.# +George Jessel £50 1 year Research in Mathematics + Studentship +Jevons Memorial £35 1 or 2 years Research in Political + Economy +Physics Research £60} 1 year + Studentships(2) £40} +Quain £150 3 years English. Awarded every + third year +Quain £100 3 years Biology. Awarded every + third year + +#Prizes.# +Quain £50 English Essay + + +WESTFIELD COLLEGE. + +Cost of Residence and Tuition: £35 a term. +Cost of Tuition for Out-students: £15 a term. +All Scholarships at Westfield College are for women only. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +_Draper's Company_(2) £50 3 years Candidates must be under + age of 20 +_Amy Sanders Stephens_ £50 3 years +_College Scholarships_ £35 to £50 3 years + (2 or more) + + +UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £18 per session. +Cost of Tuition in Science: Pass, from £20 to £30 per annum. + Honours, from £12, 12S. to £45 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Ashburne Hall or Langdale Hall (optional): + From £40 to £52, 10S. per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Rogers £40 2 years Biennial. Classics +Seaton £40 2 years Biennial. Mathematics +Dalton £40 2 years Mathematics +Hulme £35 3 years English and History +Jones £35 2 years History +James Gaskill £35 2 years Mathematics and Chemistry +John Buckley £30 3 years Mathematics and Science +Grace Calvert £30 2 years Science. Biennial +Bleackley £15 3 years Science (not till 1915) +Theodores £15 1 year French and German +_Dora Muir_ £30 3 years +_Alice Fay_ £25 Not more than 3 years +_Ashburne Hall_ £60 3 years +_Marjory Lees_ £40 3 years +_Old Ashburnians_ £30 1-3 years +Jevons £70 1 year Economic Science (once in + six years) +Russian £60 1st year} 2 years + £25 2nd year} +Bishop Fraser £40 2 years Classics +Oliver Heywood £50 2 years Classics +Dieschfield £30 1 year +Robert Platt £50 1-2 years Zoology and Botany +Robert Platt £50 2 years Physiology +Education(2) £50 1 year Intending Teachers +Faulkner (Arts) and £100 1 year + Beyer (Science)(3) +Victoria £40 1 year Classics +Wellington £30 1 year Greek. Biennial +Walters £30 1 year French. German +Bradford £35 1 year History +Shuttleworth £45 1 year Political Economy +Dalton £35 1 year Mathematics +Derby £30 1 year Mathematics +Heginbottom £15 1 year Physics +Dalton £50 2 years Chemical +Mercer £30 1 year Chemistry + +#Post-Graduate.# +Roscoe £50 1 year History + (renewable) +Gilchrist £80 1 year Modern Languages +Graduate £25 1 year One in each Honours School + in Arts and Science +Travelling £60 for 1st year, Russian + and £75 for 2nd year +#1851 Exhibition# £150 2 years Science +Schuster £50 1 year Engineering or Chemistry + +#Fellowships.# +John Harling £125 1-2 years Physics, English +Honorary Schunk £100 1 year Chemistry +Jones £150 2 years History +John Bright £100 2 years +Public Health(2) £50 1 year + +#Prizes.# +Lee Greek Testament £15 + Senior +Warburton £30 + + +UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. (Pass + candidates are not accepted at the Women's Colleges.) + +Women are not eligible for any University Scholarships or Prizes. + All Scholarships at the Women's Colleges are for women only. + The University does not grant degrees to women. + + +SOMERVILLE COLLEGE. + +Combination Fee: From £84 to £105 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +_Entrance £40-£60 3 years + Scholarships_(3) +_Entrance £20-£30 3 years + Exhibitions_(2) +_Shaw Lefevre_ £50 Awarded only to students + in residence + +#Certificated Students.# +#Mary Ewart Travelling# + #Scholarship# £100-£200 Awarded occasionally, and + open to women graduates + of Durham and Dublin, + as well as to all + certificated students of + the Women's Colleges at + Oxford and Cambridge + + +LADY MARGARET HALL. + +Cost of Tuition: £27 per annum. +Cost of Residence (obligatory): From £65 to £75 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +_Jephson Scholarship_ £50 3 years +_College Scholarship_ £40 3 years +_College Scholarship_ £35 3 years + + + +ST HILDA'S HALL. + +Cost of Tuition: £26, 5s. per annum. +Cost of Residence (obligatory): £75 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +_College Scholarship_ £50 3 years +_College Scholarship_ £30 3 years +_Hay Scholarship_ £25-£45 3 years +_Cheltenham Scholarship_ varies in amount Open only to pupils of + 3 years Cheltenham Ladies College + + +ST HUGH'S COLLEGE. + +Combination Fee: From £70 to £95 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +__Old Students'_ £30 3 years + _Scholarship_ +_College Scholarship_ £30 3 years +_College Scholarship_ £25 3 years +_Clara Evelyn Mordan_ + _Scholarship_ £40 3 years Awarded every third year + + +SOCIETY OF HOME STUDENTS. + +Cost of Tuition: From £24 to £30 per annum. + +The Society of Home Students provides for the education of +students who are not in residence at any College. It undertakes +to prepare students for pass as well as honours examinations. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +_Ottley Scholarship_ £40 3 years Open only to pupils of + Worcester High School. +_Gilchrist Travelling_ £100 1 year Open to certificated women + students at Oxford + + + +UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Tuition varies according to subjects chosen. +Cost of Residence in the University Hostel (optional): From +29 to 43 guineas per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Fifth £30 3 years Arts, Science +Corporation £30 3 years Arts, Science +Town Trustees(2) £50 3-4 years Tenable at Sheffield, + Oxford and Cambridge +Education Committee £15, 1st year} + £20, 2nd year}3 years + £25, 3rd year} +Town Trustees(4) £50 3 years Open only to candidates + under 19 years of age + educated in Sheffield +Education Committee £50 3 years Applied Science +Earnshaw[1] £50 at least 1 year Open to inhabitants of the + or more City of Sheffield, and + tenable at any University + in the United Kingdom. + Awarded for Mathematics + or Classics. +Mechanics' Institute £50 and free admission + to lectures 1-2 years +Whitworth Exhibitions(30)£50 3 years Awarded on the results of + Examinations of the Board + of Education +Whitworth(4) £25 3 years Awarded on the results of + Examinations of the Board + of Education +Technical £20, 1st year; £25, 2nd + year; £30, 3rd year; + and free admission to + lectures 3 years +Education Committee £50 3 years Arts +Education Committee(4) £50 3 years Pure or Applied Science + +#Post-Graduate# +Frederick Clifford £50 _circa_ 2 years Open to graduates residing + within a radium of 40 + miles of the University +#1851 Exhibition# £150 2 years Science + +#Fellowships.# +Sorby Interest on £15,503, Chemistry. Next award 1914 + 16s. 6d. 5 years +Town Trustees £75 1 year + + +[Footnote 1: This does not appear to come under either of the categories of +County and Borough Scholarship alluded to in Note 3, p. 28. The Editor +therefore includes it here.] + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, NOTTINGHAM. + +Students read for the external degrees of the University of London. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £12, 12s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £18 per annum. +Cost of Residence at Hylton House (optional): £30 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Scholarships(3) £30 1 year Arts and Science. For + (renewable) students not over 19 + years of age +Studentships Remission of fees + 1 year + (renewable) +_Parker Senior_ £25-£50 3 years For daughters of residents + _Exhibitions_ in Nottingham +County Council College and travelling Open to candidates under + Scholarships fees, and books 19, ordinarily resident + in the County + +#Undergraduate.# +Weinberg Scholarship £15 1 year For students in need of + pecuniary assistance +College Studentships £10 to £18 1 year For students in need of + pecuniary assistance + +#Post-Graduate.# +Science Research(2) £50 and free admission + 1 year +Heymann Research £35 1 year May be divided between two + candidates. Preference + given to students in the + Faculty of Arts +#1851 Exhibition# £150 2 years For Research work in + #Scholarship# Science. Tenable at any + University. + + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, READING. + +Students read for the external degrees of the University of London. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £20. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: From £20 to £24 per annum. + (There is a reduction for local students.) +Cost of Residence in St Andrew's Hall, Wessex Hall and St + George's Hostel (obligatory for students not residing with + parents or guardians): From £32 to £42 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Open Scholarships-- £69} 2 years Science + Major(2) £65} (renewable) Arts + Minor(2) Remission of College + fees 2 years + (renewable) +County Borough of + Reading-- + Minor Scholarships(2) Remission of College For candidates educated + fees. 1 year in Borough of Reading + (renewable) +_St Andrew's Hall._ £40 2 years + (renewable) + +_St Andrew's Hall_ Amount variable Students in need of + _Bursaries_ pecuniary assistance +_Exhibition_ Remission of College For graduates, whether + fees 1 year already students of the + College of not. Secondary + Education Course + + + +HARTLEY UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, SOUTHAMPTON. + +Students read principally for the external degrees of the University of +London. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £20 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £24 per annum. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +College(2) £26, 8s., 1st year} + £34, 8s., 2nd year} 3 + £36, 8s., 3rd year}years +College(2) £26, 8s., 1st year} 2 + £34, 8s., 2nd year}years +Exhibitions(4) £15 and £18 3 years Open to candidates between + the ages of 16 and 19 +Thomas Godolphin £23 1 year Open to candidates who + Rooper have been educated for at + least 2 years at a Public + Elementary School in the + late Mr. Rooper's + Inspectorial District + + + + +#IRELAND.# + + +UNIVERSITY OF DUBLIN. + + +TRINITY COLLEGE. + + +Duration of Arts Course, Pass and Honours, 4 years. +Duration of Science Course: Pass, 4 years; Honours, 5 years. +Cost of Tuition: £16. 16s. per annum. +Cost of Residence in Trinity Hall (for women not residing with + their parents or guardians): From £11 to £15 a term. + + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Exhibitions(12) £20 (6)} 2 years Examination results + £15 (6)} of Irish Board of + Intermediate Education +Junior Exhibitions(16) £20 (12)} 2 years Candidates under 19 + £15 (4) } +Sizarships(10) College fees Students in need of + pecuniary assistance +Non-foundation £30 5 years Arts or Science + Scholarship +James Patrick Kidd £80 4 years Arts or Science +_Irish Society_ £60 3 years Open only to pupils of an + _Scholarship_ Intermediate School in + Londonderry or Coleraine + +#Undergraduate.# +Senior Exhibitions(16) £20} 2 years Arts or Science + £15} +Lloyd Exhibition £16 2 years Mathematics +Mullins Exhibition £17 3 years Classics +Ekenhead Scholarship £32 3 years Science. Open only to + natives of Antrim +FitzGerald Memorial £50 1 year Research in Science + Scholarship +Blake National History £85 4 years + Scholarship + +#Prizes.# +Bishop Law's Mathematics £20 Algebra and Trigonometry +McCullogh £30 and £20 Mathematics +Townsend Memorial £22 Mathematics +Vice Chancellor's £20 Classics +Ferrar Memorial £18 Classics +Marshal Porter Memorial Interest on £500 Classics +Wray Prize £30 Mental and Moral + Philosophy +Cobden Prize £20 Essay on Political Economy +Hebrew Chaldee and £40 + Syriac +Ferguson Memorial £20 Celtic Literature + + +M'CREA MAGEE COLLEGE LONDONDERRY. + +(In connection with the University of Dublin.) + +Duration of Course in Arts: Pass, 3 years 9 months to 4 years; + Honours 4 years. +Duration of Course in Science, Pass and Honours: 4 years. +Cost of Course in Arts or Science: From £32, 12s. to £50. 8s. + for the course. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Bigger £30 1 year +Grocers' Company £25 1 year +M'Crea Science £25 1 year Mathematics and Physics +Adams' Bursary £15 1 year +M'Crea Science £30 1 year Mathematics and Physics +Grocers' Company £25 1 year +Findlater £25 1 year +Irish Society £20 1 year +Mabel £20 1 year Modern Literature + + +NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF IRELAND. + +All students of the University are eligible for University +Scholarships in accordance with the regulations laid + down in each case. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#University Undergraduate.# +Dr Henry Hutchinson £30 3 years Awarded on results of + Stewart Literary First Examination in Arts + Scholarship +Tipperary County £50 3 years + Council + +#University Post-Graduate.# +Coyne Memorial £32 1 year Awarded in alternate years + Scholarship for Essay on Political + Science +University Travelling £200 2 years In Arts and Science + Studentships(3) subjects in rotation + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Arts Course: £28, 10s. +Cost of Science Course: Variable, according to subjects chosen. +Cost of Residence in Loreto Hall or St Mary's Dominican Hall + (optional): From £30 to £40 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance#. +Scholarships(4) £50 1 year +Scholarships(4) £40 1 year +Scholarships(4) £30 1 year +Scholarships(4) £20 1 year + +#Undergraduate.# +Scholarships(4) £50 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd + year students +Scholarships(4) £40 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd + year students +Scholarships(4) £30 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd + year students +Scholarships(4) £20 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd + year students +First Class Exhibitions £20 1 year Result of Examination in + (4) 2nd year + +#Post-Graduate.# +Scholarships(5) £60 1 year Result of B.A. and B.Sc. + Honours Examination +Scholarship £30 1 year +Scholarships(2) £15 1 year +First Class Exhibitions £20 1 year Result of B.A. and B.Sc. + (3) Examination + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, GALWAY. + + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £10 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £15 per annum. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance#. +College(4) £30 1 year +College(8) £25 1 year + +#Under-Graduate#. +College, 2nd year £30 1 year Arts +College, 2nd year(3) £25 1 year Arts +College, 2nd year £30 1 year Science +College, 2nd year(2) £25 1 year Science +Blayney £30 1 year Scholars must attend + Honours Courses +Dr and Mrs W.A. Browne £32 1 year Modern Languages + +#Post-Graduate.# +College(4) £60 1 year + +#Prizes.# +Irish £15 + + + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, CORK. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £9 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science varies according to subjects chosen. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate# +College Scholarships(12) £20-£40 1 year +Honan Scholarships(3) £50 3-5 years To candidates born in + one of the counties of + Munster other than Clare +Cork County Council(10) £24 3 years +Kerry County Council(2) £50 3 years Open to candidates of not + more than 19 years of age +Kerry County Council(3) £30 -- Open to candidates of not + more than 19 years of age +Waterford County £50 3 years Open to candidates of not + Council(3) more than 19 years of age +Waterford County £50 3 years Open to candidates of not + Borough(2) more than 19 years of age +College Scholarships(8) £20-£40 2-3 years Open to 2nd year students + +#Post-Graduate Scholarships.# +Studentships (2) £150 3 years + + + +QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY, BELFAST. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Tuition varies according to subjects chosen, but does +not exceed £11, 11s. per annum for the Arts Course. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate# +Entrance(12) £40 1 year Arts, Science, and + Medicine +Second and Third Year £40 2 years Arts and Science +Porter £20 1-3 years +Porter £40 1 year +Sullivan £40 _circa_ 1 year Open to pupils of the + Royal Belfast Academical + Institution +Sullivan(2) £40 _circa_ 3 years Open to teachers in Irish + National Schools +Sir Hercules Pakenham £20 1 year Science +Emily Lady Pakenham £20 1 year Arts +Reid-Harwood £40 _circa_ 1 year Modern Languages +Andrews Studentship £36, 10s. 2 years Awarded alternate years + for Chemical and Physical + Science +Blayney £27 1 year Arts +County Borough(4) £40 3 years Arts, Science, Medicine, + Law, Commerce +Antrim(2) £40 3 years Tenable at any University + in Ireland +Donegal(2) £45 3 years Tenable at any University + in Ireland +Kildare(4) £50 3 years Tenable at any University + in Ireland by non-Roman + Catholic students +King's County £50 3 years Tenable by non-Roman + Catholics +Monaghan(3) £50 3 years Tenable at any University + in Ireland by a non-Roman + Catholic student +Monaghan Bursaries(2) £25 3 years Tenable at any University + in Ireland by a non-Roman + Catholic student +Westmeath(3) £50 3 years Tenable in the National + University of Ireland or + in Queen's University, + Belfast +Wexford(3) £50 3 years Tenable in any University + or College in Ireland by + a non-Roman Catholic + student +Wexford Bursaries(2) £25 3 years Tenable in any University + or College in Ireland by + a non-Roman Catholic + student + +#Post-Graduate#. +Studentships(5) £50 1 year Arts +Studentships(4) £50 1 year Science +Dunville Studentships(2) £50 1st year } + £100 2nd year}2 years Physical Science and + Biological Science +Purser £108 1 year Mathematics +Studentship £80 1 year Arts + + +ALEXANDRA COLLEGE, DUBLIN. + +Students read for the Examinations of the University of Dublin, the + National University of Ireland, and Queen's University, Belfast. +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 to 4 years. +Cost of Tuition: From £17 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Alexandra Hall: From £58 to £68 per annum. +Alexandra College is for women only. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate#. +_Skinners' Entrance_ £22 total value Candidates must be under + _Scholarship_ 17 on 1st. Jan. +_Governess Association_ £42 total value Candidates must be under + _Scholarship_ 17 on 1st. Jan. +_Pfeiffer Entrance_ £30 total value Candidates must be under + _Scholarship_ 17 on 1st. Jan. +_Stearne Scholarships(2)_£20 total value Candidates must be under + 17 on 1st. Jan. +_Wilson Suffern_ £15 Candidates must be under + 17 +_Skinners' Senior_ £27 total value Awarded in alternate years + _Scholarship_ +_Pfeiffer Senior_ £30 total value + _Scholarship_ +_Pfeiffer Literature_ £30 total value +_Jellicoe Memorial_ £24 total value + _Scholarship (Governess_ + _Association)_ +_Jellicoe Memorial_ £25 total value +_Trench Memorial_ £15 total value + _(Senior)_ +_Trench Memorial_ £15 total value Candidates must be under + _(Junior)_ 17 +_R.P. Graves Memorial_ £15 total value + + + + + +#SCOTLAND#. + +SCHOLARSHIPS TENABLE _AT ANY_ SCOTTISH UNIVERSITY. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +David Anderson(2) £30 4 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Duart £32 3 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Maclean £25 4 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +James Stewart £35 3 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Strang-Steel £30 4 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Glenbuck £27 3 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Ferguson Bursaries £25 to £30 4 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Louson £20 4 years +Dumfries £30 3 years +Spence(2) £30 1st year} 2 years For 2nd year Arts students + £40 2nd year} +Menzies £45 4 years Tenable at St Andrews, + Glasgow, or Edinburgh +Patrick A. Lowson £70 2 years Tenable at any University + in the United Kingdom +Cowan £30 for 2 years } Tenable alternately at + £20 for 3rd year} Edinburgh and Glasgow + 3 years + + +SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., OPEN TO STUDENTS _OF ANY_ SCOTTISH +UNIVERSITY. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Undergraduate#. +Franco-Scottish Society £15 1 year For students wishing to + Travelling Scholarships study in France +Spence Bursaries -- -- _See above,_ Scholarships + tenable at any Scottish + University +James Stewart Bursary -- -- _See ante,_ Scholarships + tenable at any Scottish + University + +#Post-Graduate#. +Ferguson Scholarships(3) £80 2 years Arts and Science. Open to + Masters of Arts +Carnegie Research £150 2 years Arts, Science, Medicine + Fellowships +Carnegie Research £100 1 year Arts, Science, Medicine + Scholarships +1851 Science Scholarship £150 2 years Tenable at any approved + institution +Shaw Philosophical £150 5 years Mental Philosophy. Open to + Fellowship Arts Graduates +_George Heriot_ £30 1 year Open to graduates of +_Bursary for Women_ the United Kingdom for + training as teachers. + Tenable at St. George's + Training College, + Edinburgh + + + +UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honours Course in Arts or Science: 5 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts : £10, 10s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science : £21 per annum. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate.# +Adam(9) £20 (3)} Arts + £15 (6)} 4 years +Campbell(6) £18 4 years Arts +Cargill(8) £20 4 years Arts +Crombie(8) £15 4 years Arts +Fullerton(9) £15 4 years Arts +Gammie £35 2 years French and German +Gordon and Cuming £20 4 years +Hutton(7) £29 (2) } Competitors must not be + £20 (3) } 4 years under 14 + £18 (2) } +Macpherson(3) £20 4 years Arts. Gaelic-speaking + candidates. +Mather(4) £15 4 years Arts +Melvill(2) £15 4 years Arts +Milne and Fraser £20 4 years Arts +Moir(14) £20 (4) } 4 years Arts + £15 (10) } +Red Hyth, Smith and £25 4 years Arts or Science + Short +Reid and Cruden £20 4 years Arts +Rolland £25 4 years Arts +Rose £20 4 years Arts +Simpson(5) £30 4 years Arts +Highland Society of £15 3 years Gaelic-speaking candidates + London + +#Post-Graduate#. +Robert Fletcher £30 2 years Mathematics +Fullerton, Moir, and £100 (4) } 2 years Arts + Gray(7) £75 (3) } 3 years +Fullerton £100 2 years Science +Knox Income on £2,000 Arts + 1 year +Reid Scholarships --- 1 year Amount not specified. Arts + or Science +Croom Robertson £200 3 years Arts + Fellowship +James Day Scholarship £100 1 year Graduate in Arts intending + to take up teaching +Fullerton Scholarship £100 2 years Science + +#Prizes# +Arnott Interest on £1,000 Natural Philosophy +Dr Black £28 Latin +Blackwell £20 English Essay +Caithness £20 History +Greig £30 Natural Philosophy +Simpson and Boxill £65 and £28 Mathematics +Simpson £65 Greek + + + +UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Arts: 4 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Science: 5 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £10, 10s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £15, 15s. per annum for 5 years + for M.A. and B.Sc. £21 per annum for B.Sc. only. +Cost of Residence in Muir Hall (optional): From £10 to £13, 10s. + a term. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Bursaries.# +George Heriot Bursary £20 3 years Arts or Science +Heriot High School £30 3 years + University +R. Johnstone Bursary £19, 13s. 4 years +Chrystie Bursary £18 4 years +Pringle and Wardrop £19, 4s. 4 years + Bursary +Mitchell and Shortt £27, 5s. 4 years +Dundas £36 4 years +Fraser £22, 4s. 7 years Arts +Grant £45 4 years Arts +Stuart £17, 12S 3 years Arts or Science +Jardine £42, 12S. 6d. 4 years Arts or Science. Limited + to natives of Scotland +Bruce(4) £40 (1) } 4 years + £30 (3) } +Patrick £45 4 years +Ayrshire Club £30 2 years +Peebleshire Society £20 4 years Arts or Science +Rhind £20 4 years +Bruce of Grangehill and £35 (3) } 3 years Arts. 1st and 2nd year + Falklands Bursaries £20 (2) } 3 years Students +Horsliehill Scott £39, 16s 2 years 3rd year Arts Students +Harrison £25, 18s. 6d. 2 years 3rd year Arts Students +Border Counties and £30 (1) } 4 years Arts or Science. For + Walter Scott £20 (1) } students having attended + schools in certain + specified counties. + Natives of Argyllshire, + Bute, or Western Islands +Argyllshire £20 3 years Arts or Science. For + students having attended + schools in certain + specified counties. + Natives of Argyllshire, + Bute, or Western Islands +Ardvorlich £15, 13s 4 years Arts. Students must come + from certain specified + parishes +Sibbald £30 3 years Arts and Science. + Specified parishes +Edinburgh Angus Club-- £25 4 years Preference given to + Dalhousie Bursary candidates from the + County +Orkney and Zetland £40 3 years For natives of Orkney and + Zetland + Grierson(5) £20(4) } 4 years Preference given to + £24(1) } natives of parishes of + Cranford or Leadhills +Lanarkshire £20(4) 4 years +Johnstone of Harthope £17,2s. 4 years Natives of Moffat, + Bursary Peebles, and students of + name of Alexander or + Johnstone preferred +Marshall £36,18s. 4 years Restricted +Fothringham and Forrest £24 4 years Restricted +Marquess of Zetland £40 3 years Arts. For natives of + County of Orkney and + Zetland +Thomson £25 4 years +Patterson £16 2 years In Anglo-Saxon Grammar or + Literature +John Welsh(8) £20 4 years Mathematics and Classics +Mackinnon(3) £22,4s.6d. 3 years Arts. Gaelic-speaking + students +Whitelaw(3) £24,12s. 3 years Arts +Renton £19,11s. 1 year Student must be between + age of 16 and 21. Arts + and Science +Newton £23,5s. 2 years Natural Philosophy and + Mathematics +Mann £29,6s.6d. 3 years Candidates must reside in + Nairn +Allan £30 3 years Arts or Science +James Fairbairn £33,4s.6d. 4 years +Jardine or Thorlieshope £40,10s. 4 years Open to natives of + Roxburghshire and + Dumfriesshire +Mackenzie £22 4 years +Maclaurin £91,12s.8d. 4 years Restricted to students + of name of founder +Bailie Cousin's £32,15s. 3 years +Maule £21,2s. 6 years +Donald Fraser £50 1 year For Science Research work +Baxter of Balgavies £30 3 years For students educated at + High School, Dundee +Masterton Memorial £30 3 years For sons and daughters of + ministers of United Free + Church +London Inverness-shire £18 3 years Preference to students of + Association County of Inverness +Lanfine £35 2 years +Auchairne £53,15s.4d. 3 years Natives of County of Ayr +Edinburgh Morayshire £20 3 years Arts or Science. Natives + Club of County of Moray + +#Undergraduate#. +Vans Dunlop £100 3 years Arts and Science +Fettes Exhibition(2) £60 4 years +Skirving £50 3 years +Mackay Smith £27 2 years Natural Philosophy +Nichol Foundation £50 1 year Laboratory Work +Hope Prize £30 1 year Chemistry +Misses Baxter of £40 1 or 2 years Men and women educated in + Balgavies High School of Dundee + +#Fellowships.# +Guthrie £86 4 years Classical Literature +Hamilton £100 3 years Philosophy +Edmonstonne Aytoun £85 3 years English Literature +Falconer Memorial £123 2 years Science + +#Post-Graduate.# +Pitt Club Classical £76 4 years +Mackenzie Club Classical £118 4 years +Sir David Baxter £68 4 years + Mathematical +Sir David Baxter £68 4 years + Philosophical +John Edward Baxter £100 3 years Arts and Science +Drummond Mathematical £103 3 years +Bruce of Grangehill and £100 3 years Classical + Falklands +Bruce of Grangehill and £100 3 years Mental Philosophy + Falklands +Bruce of Grangehill and £100 3 years Mathematics + Falklands +Gray £97 2 years Arts or Science +Rhind £95 2 years Graduates and + undergraduates of not + more than 3 years + standing. Arts +Charles Maclaren £110 3 years Mathematics and Natural + Philosophy +Neil Arnott £40 1 year Experimental Physics +George Scott(Travelling) £40 1 year To enable graduates to + travel for purpose of + Research +Macpherson £85 1 year For study of Celtic +Kirk Patrick £64 1 year History +C.B. Black £74 2 years Greek. Open to graduates + and undergraduates +George Heriot's £100 1 year To graduates intending to + Travelling become teachers of Modern + Languages +Baxter Physical Science £80 2 years +Baxter Natural Science £80 2 years + +#Prizes.# +Ellis £30 Physiology +Lord Rector's £26.5s. Essay +Bruce of Grangehill and £20 Logic and Metaphysics + Falkland +Scott and Dunbar £15 Greek +Cousin £15 Essay +Blackie Celtic £60 + + +UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW. + + +QUEEN MARGARET COLLEGE. + +Duration of Arts Course: Pass, 3 years; Honours, 4 years. +Duration of Science Course, Pass and Honours: 3-4 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £10, 10s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £63 the course of 3 or 4 years. +Cost of Residence at Queen Margaret Hall (optional): From + 17s. to 25s. a week without lunch. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Barbour (Kilbarchan)(1) £25 3 years Arts. Candidates must not + be over 18 +John Clark(24) £30 4 years Arts +Crawford and Brown(1) £19, 13s. 4d 4 years Arts +Forfar(5) £58 4 years Arts +Forrester(1) £20 3 years Arts +Foundation(2) £20 4 years Arts +Gartmore(1) £22 3 years Arts +General Council(5) £20 2 or 3 years Arts +Glasgow City Education £25 4 or 2 years Arts +Endowments(10) £50 +George Grant(1) £40 3 or 4 years Arts +George Grant Junior(1) £40 4 years Arts +Hamilton Educational £20 3 years Arts. Competitors to + Trust(3) pupils from public or + State-aided schools in + burgh and parish of + Hamilton. +Hastie(1) £27 4 years +Highland Society, £20 3 years + Glasgow (12) +Hill(6) £20 3 years Arts. For pupils in School + Board district of Govan +James Laing(8) £25 4 years Arts. For candidates + educated at least 3 years + in schools in County of + Stirling +Lanfine(6) £27 2 years +Lorimer(4) £25 and £17 3 years Mathematics +Alexander Manderson(1) £15 3 years Arts. Natives of the Lower + Ward of Renfrewshire +Marshall Trust(20) £30 4 years Arts. Pupils from public + or State-aided schools in + Lanarkshire or + Stirlingshire +Sir Walter Scott £25 4 years +A. and B. Stewart(13) £20 3 years Arts +Stewart(3) £15 4 years Arts +King Williams(2) £15 3 years Arts +Ayrshire Society(4) £15 3 years Arts or Science. For + descendants of Society or + natives of Aryshire and + Glasgow +Denny(4) £30 4 years Arts or Science. Students + over 14 who have been 2 + years at Dumbarton Burgh + Academy +Dumfriesshire Society(2) £15 4 years Arts or Science +Hart(2) £30 5 years Arts or Science. + Preference to students + born in Ayrshire +Pratt(2) £20 4 years Arts or Science + +#Undergraduate.# +Will. Houldsworth £150 2 years Research in Science +Mackay Smith £48 2 years Natural Philosophy and + Chemistry +MacKinnin £60 1 year Science and Modern + Languages +Thomson Experimental £20 1 year Science + +#Post-Graduate.# +Breadalbane (2) £56 3 years Arts or Science +George A. Clark £170 4 years Arts or Science +John Clark £50 4 years Arts +Alexander Donaldson £44 2 years Chemistry +Robert Donaldson £66 2 years Science +Eglinton £65 2 years Arts +William Euing £80 5 years Arts +Luke £95 3 years Arts +Metcalfe £120 3 years Arts +Reid Stuart £60 3 years Arts +Walter Scott £80 2 years Arts +Mackinnon £60 1 year Geology, Natural History, + Modern Languages + Examination as for Final + Hons. Degree + +#Prizes# +Arnott £25 and £15 Examination +Cobden £20 Essay +Findlater £38 Examination +Gladstone Historical £25 Examination +Henderson £21 Essay +William Jack £35 Thesis for D.Sc. +Kelvin £35 Thesis for D.Sc. +Macfarlan and Cook £21 Examination +MacKenzie £25 Essay +Reid £25 Original Research +Watson £50 Examination + + +UNIVERSITY OF ST ANDREWS. + + +UNITED COLLEGES. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Arts: 4 years. +Duration of Pass and Honour Courses in Science: 4 to 5 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £10, 10S. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £15, 15s. per annum. +Cost of Residence in University Hall (optional): From £45 to + £75 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate.# +Foundation Bursaries(4) £20 4 years +Foundation Bursary(1) £50 4 years +Patrick Kidd £32 3 years +William Byers £39 3 or 4 years Preference given to + students of Mairs and + Strathmartine. Arts +Russell(6) £30 (5) } 3 years Arts and Science + £40 (1) } +Simson(6) £20 (5) } 3 years + £30 (1) } +_Valentine_ £25 3 years Restricted to women + residing in the County + of Fife, Ross or + Cromarty, or in village + of Findhorn, Morayhire +Fife, Clackmannan, and £5 3 or 4 years Restricted to students + Kinross Bursary coming from the above + counties +Wilkie £19 4 years +Henry £15 4 years +Madras £20 4 years +Fairweather £25 3 years Arts or Science. For + pupils from any school in + Dundee +Blyth(2) £20 3 years +George Scott £27 3 or 4 years Arts. Restricted to + applicants who are + natives of the Parishes + of Dull, Weem, Logierait + in Perthshire +Wood of Orkie £20 3 or 4 years Restricted to pupils who + have attended public or + state-aided schools in + the Parishes of Newburn, + Kilconquhar, Scoonie, + Largo, Kennoway, Elie, + Largoward +_Lumsden_ £35 1 to 3 years For women students + educated at St Leonard's + School, St Andrews +Ramsay £40 4 years +Baxter(2) £21 2 years For 2nd year students +Cheape(2) £23 3 years For 2nd year students +Thomas Thow £50 1 year Arts. For 2nd year + students natives of and + resident in Dundee or + the County of Forfar +Stephen Williamson £47 1 year For 4th year Honours + students +Smeaton £20 1 year For 4th year Honours + students + +#Post-Graduate.# + +Bruce and Falkland £50 2 years +Berry £80 1 year May be continued for 2nd + year. Arts or Science +Grants(6) £20 1 year For students entering on + Course of Training for + Secondary Teachers + +#Prizes.# +Miller(2) £30 Arts and Science +Arnott(2) £20 and £10 +Chancellor's £21 Essay + + +DUNDEE COLLEGE. + +Duration of Course in Arts: Pass, 3 years; Honours, 4 years. +Duration of Course in Science: Pass or Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £10, 10s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £21 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Mayfield Hostel (optional): £1 per week. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Armitstead £20-£15 1 year +David Myles -- -- +Entrance Scholarships(9) £15 1 year +Educational Endowment £25 3 years + +#Undergraduate.# +Bursaries(11) £15 to £20 1 year For second and third year +Bursaries(8) £15 to £20 1 year For fourth and subsequent + years +Bute Bursary Income of £1,000 + 3 years + +#Post-Graduate.# +William Strong(2 Income of £3,240 + or more) 1 year + +#Prizes.# +Gladstone Memorial £20 (in books) Essay + + + + +WALES + + +UNIVERSITY OF WALES + +Scholarships, etc., not connected exclusively with one College. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Undergraduate#. +Price Davies £30 2 years Tenable at Aberystwyth or + Scholarship(2) Bangor + +#Post-Graduate#. +University £125 2 years + Fellowships(3) +University £65 2 years Awarded on nomination by + Studentships(6) the Colleges +Eyton Williams £65 2 years + Studentships(6) +#Isaac Roberts# £150 1 year Open to graduates of any + #Scholarship# (renewable) University in the United + Kingdom. Science. Tenable + at Cardiff +1851 Science Scholarship £150 2 years Tenable at any approved + institution +Gilchrist Modern £80 1 year Open to graduates + Language Studentship intending to teach + Modern Languages. + Tenable abroad + + + +ABERYSTWYTH UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £12 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £16 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Alexandra Hall (optional): From £11,11s. + to £17, 17s. per annum. + + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate#. +David Davies £40 1 year Entrance + (renewable) +Open £40 1 year Entrance + (renewable) +Visitor's £15 1 year Entrance + (renewable) + +Commercial Travellers of £20 1 year Entrance + North Wales (renewable) + +Scholarship(1) £20 1 year Confined to students + (renewable) intending to proceed to + the Degree of B.Sc. in + Agriculture and Rural + Economy +Brereton £15 1 year Entrance + (renewable) +_Elizabeth Davies_ £20 1 year Entrance. + (renewable) Limited to women natives + of Cardiganshire or + Carmarthenshire +Cynddelw Welsh £20 1 year For students undertaking + Scholarship to pursue a course of + Welsh study +Humphreys Owen £20 1 year + (renewable) For natives of + Montgomeryshire + +#Post-Graduate.# +Keeling Resewell £40 1 year + Scholarship + +Thomas Davies £54 1 year For Research work in + Chemistry or Agriculture + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF NORTH WALES (BANGOR). + +Cost of Tuition in Arts or Science: £12 per annum. +Cost of Residence in University Hall (optional): £25 to £42 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate.# +Eyton Williams £40 3 years +Eyton Williams £30 3 years +Eyton Williams £20 3 years + Exhibition +Piercey £30 3 years Confined to candidates + from Flintshire or + Denbighshire +Richard Hughes £50 1 year +Isaac Roberts(2) £50 Not less + than 1 yr. + +#Post-Graduate.# +Osborne Morgan £40 Not more Open to past and present + than 3 years students + + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SOUTH WALES AND MONMOUTHSHIRE +(CARDIFF). + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: £10 to £12 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: £10 to £16 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Aberdare Hall (optional): £34 to £43, 10s. per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Under-graduate.# +Drapers' Company £35 1 year Science + (renewable) +Sir Alfred Thomas £20 3 years +_Caroline Williams_ £25 3 years +College £25 3 years +Craddock Wells(5) £20 and 1 year Open to candidates under + fees 19 years of age +Studentships Fees and Open only to natives of + maintenance Glamorgan and Monmouth, + grant 3 years the City of Cardiff and + the County Borough of + Newport + +#Post-Graduate.# +Catherine Buckton £40 1 year + + + + + +TABLE II. + +In addition to the University Post-Graduate Studentships mentioned +in the above table, the following Research Scholarships in Arts and +Science, not restricted to graduates of any one University, are open +to women:-- + +TABLE II. + +In addition to the University Post-Graduate Studentships mentioned +in the above table, the following Research Scholarships in Arts and +Science, not restricted to graduates of any one University, are open +to women:-- + +Subject. Title. By whom awarded. Restrictions (if any). Annual Value and + Duration + +Subject not fixed. A.K. Travelling A Board of Trustees who receive nominations British Subjects who are £600 and £60 for + Fellowship from Vice-Chancellors of Universities in the University graduates books; 2 awarded + United Kingdom, the President of the Royal annually for 1 year + Society, and the President of the British + Academy + +Physical Science McKinnon Research Royal Society -- £150 for 2 years + Fellowship + +Biological Science McKinnon Research Royal Society -- £150 for 2 years + Fellowship + +Bio-Chemistry -- Lister Institute of Preventive Medecine -- £150 for 1 year, renewable + for a 2nd year. + +Bacteriology -- Lister Institute of Preventive Medecine -- £150 for 1 year, renewable + for a 2nd year. + +Physiology George Henry Lewes Special Trustees; application to Professor Investigator must be in need £200 for 3 years (renewable) + Scholarship Langley, Cambridge of pecuniary help to prosecute + research + +Philosophy George Henry Lewes University of Toronto Graduates who have specialised £50 for 1 year + Scholarship in Philosophy + + +Subject not fixed. _Price Fellowship_ Federation of University Women Women graduates who have £120 for 1 year + already published the results + of independent research + +Natural Science Research Studentship Board of Agriculture and Fisheries Science graduates who are £150 for 3 years, part + prepared to research in of which must be spent + subjects under the purview abroad, and all 3 at + of the Board, and afterwards approved institutions + to adopt a career in + agricultural science + +Economics _Shaw Research_ London School of Economics -- £105 for 2 years + +Economics Hutchinson Research London School of Economics -- £105 for 1 year + +Natural Sciences _The Ellen Richards_ American Association for Advancement of Thesis 1,000 dollars + _Research Prize_ Research Work by Women. Hon. Sec., (£204, 10s.) + Mrs A.D. Mead, 283 Wayland Avenue, + Providence, R.I. + + + + + +SECTION II + +THE MEDICAL PROFESSION INCLUDING DENTISTRY + +I + +MEDICINE AND SURGERY + + +It may be safely claimed that, although there is still much to be +done, in medicine women have gained as good a position as in any other +branch of labour. + +One of the most important considerations in discussing any branch of +women's work is what sort of women are suited for it. The following +are the chief requisites for the medical profession:-- + +(1) The first and most important qualification is enthusiasm. It is +impossible to follow this profession with success, unless it is +work for which one has not only aptitude but also natural taste. It +necessitates a very strenuous life, and many unpleasant details of +work, which are unimportant to a person to whom the occupation +is acceptable as a whole, but which would be quite insuperably +disagreeable to any one to whom the total idea of life embodied in it +was unattractive. + +(2) Another very important qualification is a knowledge of men and +things. A doctor must never forget that she is dealing primarily with +human nature; certainly human nature which may be for a time +unhinged, or the mechanism of which may not be working smoothly, but +nevertheless with the human individual as a whole. + +The so-called "bedside" manner which is the butt for so much ridicule +is not so purely ridiculous as one might be tempted to think. Its +basis is to be found in this very knowledge of human nature which is +so essential, although the superstructure is often nothing more than +vapid futility. In addition to this the ideal doctor should possess a +trained scientific mind, and, of the two, the former is infinitely +the more important, although the latter is very valuable, not only for +itself, but for the training which it gives in "tidy" thinking. + +(3) Good health. A sick doctor is an anomaly and many people prefer +to be indifferently treated by some one who is cheerful and healthy, +rather than have the most expert advice from a woeful person. + +(4) A good general education is essential. This should include a +certain amount of Latin, which is needed throughout medical work. +The student must also possess the necessary capacity for acquiring +knowledge. It is very usual to find among the general public--women in +particular--an idea that a tremendous amount of a vague quality which +they describe as "cleverness" is necessary in order to follow one of +the learned professions. Certainly this is not so in medicine. It is, +however, necessary to be possessed of average intelligence and a +good memory, and it is difficult for people to pass the qualifying +examinations if they have for many years given up "school +work"--_i.e._, the habit of learning large numbers of new facts. + +(5) Money. For three reasons: (i.) The training is expensive, (ii.) +It is also strenuous, making a certain amount of margin for suitable +recreation very desirable, (iii.) Earning capacity, although +ultimately high, so far as women are concerned, is much delayed, and +the work itself is one of considerable nerve-strain. It is, therefore, +very important that economic worry should, if possible, be avoided. + +Medicine is one of the few professions in which women receive as high +remuneration as men. A very strenuous battle was fought between the +public authorities and medical women on the subject of equal pay for +equal work. All sorts of dodges have been used to get cheap woman +labour, but, so far, the victory has been almost completely on the +side of medical women. By the word "almost" is meant the fact, that +if two or three posts of varying grades and remunerations are created +under a health authority the woman nearly always gets the lowest, +whatever her qualifications and experience. With this exception the +victory has been complete, and this has been entirely due to two +things:-- + +(1) The very able support given by the British Medical Association, +which practically served as a Trade Union for doctors, stated the +lowest rate of remuneration to be accepted, and kept a black list +of posts which were advertised at salaries below this rate. The +Association has throughout supported with absolute consistency, the +principle of equal pay for equal work for the two sexes, and has +helped us as medical women to fight many battles. + +(2) The other factor has been the public spirit of the medical women +concerned, without which nothing could have been done. One of the +forms of public service most essential at the present day and for +which the individual gets neither honour nor even thanks, is that of +refusing "black leg" labour. It is generally admitted by those who +have to deal with the question of salaries and conditions of work +under public authorities, that medical women, as a whole, have shown +at least as great public spirit as men in refusing unsatisfactory +terms. To lose a post which would give one enough for one's own +needs and which would mean so much more in the way of experience and +adequate scope for one's energies, and to refuse it simply because +it would lower the market rate of pay, is a very fine thing to do. +Unless, however, this high tone is maintained the position of medical +women will become as bad as that of some other working women. If, on +the other hand, it can be maintained, the position already gained may +be used as a very powerful lever in raising the rate of pay in other +departments of women's work. There is sufficient support for +us amongst medical men. Everything, therefore, depends upon the +_personnel_ of the women doctors, and, as things become easier for +the students, it becomes more and more difficult to convince the new +recruits of the strenuousness of the fight in earlier years and of the +need for constant vigilance and self-sacrifice at the present time. + +Those who fought so nobly in the past have earned the lasting respect +and gratitude of those who come after them. An account of their +labours has been written by Mrs Isabel Thorne, and is called a "Sketch +of the Foundation and Development of the London School of Medicine +for Women."[1] It reads like a romance and shows the absolute +determination and pluck which were needed by the women in order to +gain their point. As one learns of the rebuffs and indignities which +they endured, it reminds one of the struggle which is at the present +time going on for the parliamentary vote. There is one thing which +makes one inclined to "back the women every time," and that is their +stupendous patience. A very short _résumé_ of the facts may not be out +of place here. Miss Elizabeth Blackwell, English by birth but resident +in America, succeeded in 1858 after much difficulty in obtaining the +degree of M.D. of the University of Geneva, United States of America. +She then applied to have her name placed upon the register of duly +qualified medical practitioners of the General Medical Council of +Great Britain and Ireland, and it was discovered to the dismay of the +authorities that she could not be refused. The next step was taken by +Miss Garrett, now Dr Garrett Anderson. She decided to qualify herself +for the medical examinations of the Society of Apothecaries, London, +who also, owing to the wording of their charter, were unable to refuse +her, and in 1865 she successfully passed the required tests. In order, +however, to prevent a recurrence of such "regrettable incidents," the +society made a rule that in future no candidates should be admitted to +their examinations unless they came from a recognised medical school, +and, as no such school would admit women, this closed their doors. + +In the meantime Miss Jex-Blake had applied to Edinburgh University +for medical education, but had been refused on the score that it was +impossible to make such alterations "in the interests of one lady." +Mrs Thorne, Miss Chaplin, Miss Pechey, and Mrs de Lacy Evans then +decided to join Miss Jex-Blake, thus making five instead of one. They +were allowed to matriculate, but forced to form separate classes +and to guarantee 100 guineas for each class. They were not, however, +allowed to receive scholarships, to which their work would have +entitled them, on the score that they were women. Mrs Thorne states +that their "success in the examination lists was their undoing," as, +owing to this, and to the fact that they were unjustly debarred from +receiving the distinctions that they had gained, a great deal of bad +feeling was aroused. + +As the agitation increased, the efforts of these pioneers to obtain +a qualifying course for women in Edinburgh, were supported by a +committee of sympathisers, which speedily rose to five hundred +members, and, after a severe struggle, the question of clinical +teaching in the Infirmary was settled partially in the women's +favour in 1872. Later, the question of the validity of the original +resolutions admitting women to the University was raised and decided +against them. They had, therefore, been four years at the University +and were finally excluded. This, however, proved to be only temporary +as, in later years, the University reopened its medical degrees to +women; but not in time to allow of the return of these courageous +pioneers. + +In the meantime Dr Garrett Anderson, having taken her degree in +Paris, had been steadily working in London, forming the nucleus of the +present New Hospital for Women, and the pioneers from Edinburgh came +to London and helped her to start a school of medicine for women. + +This was successfully accomplished owing to the kind help of many +people, both within and without the profession, but no clinical +teaching could be obtained, as all the big London hospitals were +closed to women students. Finally, however, arrangements were made +with the Royal Free Hospital in Gray's Inn Road. It had no men's +medical school attached to it, and the admission of women to +the hospital was due to the kind intervention of the Rt. Hon. J. +Stansfeld, M.P., who met the Chairman of the hospital, Mr James +Hopgood, while away on a holiday, and induced him to persuade the +hospital authorities to give the dangerous experiment a trial. So +seriously was it regarded, that the women students had to guarantee an +indemnity to the hospital of 300 guineas annually in addition to their +fees, as it was felt that the general support might decrease by, +at least, this amount when the public became aware that there were +medical women studying at the hospital! This was soon found not to +be the case, and the yearly indemnity was generously remitted by the +hospital authorities, the students simply paying the usual fees for +instruction. In connection with this subject, it may be of interest +to note that to-day the presence of medical women at the hospital is +evidently found by the authorities to be an important means of +gaining the sympathy of the general public, for appeals for funds may +frequently be seen in London omnibuses stating, as the ground for +an appeal, the fact that this is the only general hospital in London +where women medical students are trained. + +The medical school which began in a small Georgian house has now a +fine block of buildings with all modern appliances, and the hospital +is, at the time that this book goes to press, undergoing extensive +alterations and additions, including enlargement of the students' +quarters. + +The success of this pioneer work has been sufficiently amazing, but +it is most important that every one should realise that the fight is +still going on. Not a day passes but somebody tries to get medical +women to work either for less pay or under less honourable conditions +than those required by their medical brethren, and one of the most +trying parts of work in this profession at the present time is the +constant alertness required both for detecting and defeating these +attempts. That they should be made is not surprising, when we remember +the lower market value attached to women's work in almost every other +occupation. Practical examples of the sort of attempts made, may be of +service. + +_Example 1._--A medical woman went as _locum tenens_ for a +practitioner in a country town during the South African War. The +practitioner himself was at the time absolutely incapacitated by a +severe form of influenza, complicated by ocular neuralgia which made +work absolutely impossible. Owing to the War, he was quite unable to +get a man to act as _locum tenens_. A woman consented to help him in +his extremity, at considerable inconvenience both to herself and to +the people with whom she was working at the time. She carried on the +practice during the depth of the winter, having on some occasions to +go out in the snow-sleigh and frequently to drive in an open trap +at night in the deadly cold. She carried on the work with such +conspicuous success that her "chief" asked her to stay on as his +assistant when he was convalescent. For this he offered her £85 a +year, living in, saying, without any shame, that he knew that this was +not the price that any man would command, but that it was plenty for a +woman. He was bound to admit that he had lost no patient through her, +that he charged no lower fees when she went to a case than when he +did, that she did half the work while acting as his assistant, and +that she had kept his practice together for him while he was ill. +Fortunately, owing to the fact that she had behind her means +of subsistence without her salary, she was able to refuse his +unsatisfactory offer, although at considerable violence to her +feelings, for she had made many friends in the neighbourhood. + +_Example 2_.--A husband and wife, both medical, went to settle in a +town in the north of England. They both practised, the qualifications +of both were excellent, but the woman was the more brilliant of the +two, having better degrees and more distinctions. Both applied to +be admitted to the local medical society. The man was, of course, +accepted, the woman refused on the score of her sex, this meaning that +she would be cut off from all opportunity of hearing medical papers +and discussing medical subjects with her colleagues. During the next +few months a local friendly society was anxious to obtain a medical +officer and was offering terms regarded as insufficient by the local +doctors. Among others approached by this society was the medical woman +in question. Directly the officials of the medical society, which had +banned her when her own benefit was concerned, heard that she had been +approached by the friendly society, they elected her without asking +her consent to the very society from which they had previously +excluded her, in order that she might be unable to take the post in +question, whereby they might have financially suffered. + +_Example 3_.--The exclusion from medical societies referred to under +Example 2, like many similar actions in life, tends to recoil on its +instigators. For instance, a medical woman in another northern town +applied for and accepted a post which the local men had decided was +unsatisfactory in some particulars, and for which therefore none of +them had applied. They were loud in their denunciations of the woman +in question, but owing to the fact that her men colleagues had not +recognised her professionally in other ways, she was quite unaware of +her offence for several months after undertaking her new duties. + +_Example 4_.--Men and women are sometimes appointed on apparently +equal terms and conditions to posts which are not, however, really +equal, in that there is a chance of promotion for the men but none for +the women. + +_Example 5_.--In another town in the north of England men and women +appointed to do the work of school medical inspection on equal terms +recently considered that they were not sufficiently remunerated. They +met and decided that they would together apply for better terms. A +rumour was then set abroad that the authority under whom they worked +would certainly not consider such an increase in expenditure. In this +crisis the men on the staff, although they had so far joined with +their women colleagues in sending up their petition, sent up another +of their own, without informing or consulting the women at all, in +which they said that they considered it was time that this equality of +remuneration for both sexes should cease. They begged the authority +to neglect their public appeal, but to grant instead increased +remuneration to the men, and the men only. One of the reasons given +for this suggestion on the part of the men was that their liabilities +were greater. The result of enquiry, however, proved that of the three +men, one only was engaged to be married, the other two had no one +dependent upon them; whereas of the three women, two were supporting +other people--one being a married woman separated from her husband and +with two children to support and educate. + +_Example 6_.--The following is an instance of the way in which the +Government is sometimes responsible for encouraging women's "black +leg" labour. Dr Leslie Mackenzie in his evidence given recently before +the Civil Service Commission said that the Treasury refused to allow +the Scottish Local Government Board to have a woman medical inspector +at a medical inspector's salary, but permitted them to engage a woman +with medical qualifications at a woman inspector's salary, which was, +of course, much less. Sad to relate a woman was found to accept this +post. + +These examples have been given because it is necessary that a woman +intending to adopt the profession of medicine should know the sort +of work, quite apart from the treatment of her cases, which a medical +woman, worth her salt, has to do. It may be asked how it is, if these +difficulties are still constantly arising, that our pioneers were so +successful? For several reasons: first, because they were in the best +sense women of the world: they understood when to be firm and when +to give way. They understood mankind. Secondly, they had an assured +position. This is probably the most essential condition of all for +success. Before decent terms and conditions of work can be demanded, +the worker must be in such a position financially that she can, if +necessary, refuse the work in question, and if possible the employer +must be aware of this fact. So often women enter the labour market +only when driven by stark necessity, that it is unfortunately the +easiest thing in the world to exploit them. People of either sex faced +by starvation for themselves or those dependent on them must take the +first thing that offers if the conditions be in any way bearable. In +my opinion, next to the parliamentary vote, the most powerful lever +in raising the condition of women will be the entrance into the labour +market of a considerable number of women so trained in Economics that +they will always "play the game," and at the same time sufficiently +remote from want to be able to resist the sweating employer. + +Some people discourage women of independent means from entering the +labour market through the mistaken idea that if such women work they +are taking away the chance of some other women who are in need. In +case any reader may be in doubt on this question, I should like +to point out that it is the groups of workers among whom no such +economically independent individuals are to be found, that are always +exploited by the unscrupulous employer; they are such easy prey. + +What really makes women workers afraid of their independent sisters is +that extremely pernicious system of payment euphemistically known as +"pocket-money." This should be swept off the face of the earth. Even +the richer woman has some rights, notably the right to work, and +I would suggest that she has this particular, and certainly not +unimportant function of raising the rate of remuneration. From my +knowledge of her, I consider that she is most anxious to do nothing +but good to her fellows. The only thing she needs in order to become +a help instead of a menace to her poorer sisters is knowledge of the +rules that govern the economic labour market. + +Owing to the necessary expense and prolonged training for the medical +profession it has probably attracted a larger proportion of working +women who were not subject to immediate economic stress than most +other branches of work, and it is, in my opinion, due to the +presence of such women, that the conditions in it as a whole are so +satisfactory. + +Having discussed the sort of woman suitable for the medical +profession, I now pass on to a consideration of the course of training +which must be taken in order to fit her for the work. + +Before beginning her training, the student has to decide what medical +qualification she will take. Her choice lies between + + (1) A degree of one of the universities, and + (2) A diploma. + +It is essential to go to some University or Examining Board which +admits women and not to one, such as Oxford or Cambridge, where women +are denied the degree to which their work entitles them. As a matter +of fact, women medical students are not accepted at Oxford and +Cambridge. It is not possible to practise medicine, in a satisfactory +way unless one is actually in possession of the qualification. Any +one who does so, however well trained, ranks as a quack, and is not +legally entitled to sign death certificates nor to recover fees. + +The degrees open to women in medicine, as in other branches of +learning, are those of London, Glasgow, Trinity College, Dublin, and, +in fact, of all the Universities of the United Kingdom except the two +just mentioned. + +Qualifying diplomas other than degrees are those granted by:-- + + (1) The Conjoint Examining Board of the + Royal Colleges of Physicians and + Surgeons of England. + (2) The Royal Colleges of Scotland. + (3) The Royal Colleges of Ireland. + (4) The Society of Apothecaries of London. + +The authorities at the Women's Medical School strongly advise students +to take a degree, and that the best open to them, namely, in Great +Britain, that of London for the south, or one of the good Scottish +Universities for the north. Their reason for this advice is that they +feel that it is extremely important that medical women should rank as +high as possible in their profession. + +At London University there are no sex restrictions. A woman is +eligible not only to take the examinations on equal terms with a man, +but all the rights and honours (except, of course, the Parliamentary +vote) are also open to her. Women may vote for and sit upon the +Senate, become members of Convocation and take any of the exhibitions, +medals, or scholarships which are offered to candidates at +examinations. For this reason women feel attached and like to belong +to the London University, and to do it honour. + +Having decided which qualification she wishes to take, the candidate +applies to be entered as a medical student at a definite school. If +she elects to work in _London_ she must follow the course of study +at the Royal Free Hospital School of Medicine for Women at 8 Hunter +Street, Brunswick Square. + +At _Glasgow_ the students are all entered at the Women's College +(Queen Margaret's). The medical course is taken in conjunction with +men students. At the Royal Infirmary some wards are open to women for +clinical instruction. + +At _Dublin_ the students are admitted to the degrees and diplomas +in medicine, surgery, and midwifery on the same conditions as men. +A special anatomical department with dissecting room, etc., has been +erected by the Board of Trinity College for them. + +At _Edinburgh_ the arrangements for women students are largely +separate from those for the men. The degrees are open to them. + +At _Durham_ the degrees are open to women, and most of their work is +done with the men. + +The same applies to _Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham,_ and +_Sheffield_. + +The course takes from five to six years, but it is wise to allow the +longer time. The preliminary examination in general subjects is taken +before admission to the medical school. After this, the first year +at the medical school is spent in scientific study, such as Biology, +Inorganic Chemistry, etc. Having passed her first scientific +examination, the student proceeds to the study of the human +individual, and deals for the next two years with Anatomy, which +includes dissection, Physiology, the study of drugs in Materia Medica +and Pharmacology, and Organic Chemistry. When the examination in these +subjects has been satisfactorily negotiated, she passes on to medical +work proper, the study of disease and the result of accident in the +living person--in other words, she walks the wards of the hospital and +undertakes duties as clerk to physicians and dresser to surgeons, from +whom she receives instruction in medicine, surgery, and pathology. +Special branches are also studied, such as midwifery, women's +diseases, and affections of the throat, ear, eye, and skin. The +treatment of minor accidents also receives special attention. During +the whole of this time the student also attends regular courses of +lectures on these subjects, and she then takes her final examination. +If this be a degree examination, she becomes, on passing it, Bachelor +of Medicine, or M.B., and Bachelor of Surgery, Ch.B. or B.S. Having +obtained a diploma, she is generally entitled to style herself a +Member or Licentiate of the college of which she has passed the +qualifying examination, for example, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. or L.S.A. +On application, she is then placed upon the Medical Register, and is +known as a registered medical practitioner. + +The cost of the training is approximately as follows :-- + +_For a London Degree._ + +Fee at the Medical School for Women, if paid as a composition fee in +five yearly instalments of £28, £51, £45, £40, and £15; Total:--£179, +or, if the whole sum is paid on entrance to the school, £160. In +addition there is a fee of three guineas for the special study of +fevers. These fees include everything in the way of material, except +books and instruments for which it is wise to allow another £30. The +examination fees of the university are £25. These amounts make no +allowance for any failures, and consequent revision of work, and +re-entry for examination. In reckoning the expense, the necessary cost +of living for the six years must also be included. For those students +whose homes are not in London there are flats and boarding-houses +where it is possible to live very reasonably. Suitable board and +residence can be obtained from about 25s. a week. + +_For the Diploma of the Conjoint Board._ + +The school fees are the same; the examination fees are, however, +higher, namely £42. + +For other qualifications, the school fees are £20 less for the course. + +Certain scholarships are available for students, of which all +particulars can be obtained from the secretary of each school. + +When a woman becomes a registered medical practitioner, she is for +the first time legally entitled to treat patients herself, and is +entrusted with responsibility. As in most other branches of knowledge +in the world, while she has simply been learning and carrying out her +duties under authority, she has had no opportunity of really testing +her own knowledge. It is, therefore, very generally felt amongst newly +qualified medical practitioners that they need more experience before +undertaking quite independent medical work. This experience is +best gained by taking hospital posts. By this is meant positions of +moderate responsibility, such as that of resident house physician or +resident house surgeon in a hospital, where the newly qualified doctor +is under the authority of an experienced visiting "chief," but is +expected to deal with ordinary incidents as they may arise, to realise +the relative importance of different symptoms, and report those that +matter to the visiting physician or surgeon. + +It is at this stage that the doctor must decide whether she wishes to +become + + (a) a "specialist" in some particular branch + of medicine or surgery, + (b) a general practitioner, or + (c) whether she wishes to work in the public + service. + +(a) If she wishes to be a specialist she must so arrange her future +work as to gain experience in the branch which she selects. For +this purpose it is necessary to take posts at special hospitals, and +ultimately to become a member of the staff of some hospital in the +department chosen. Here women find that they are heavily handicapped. +The only hospital of any size in London of which the members of staff +are all women is the New Hospital, Euston Road, and this admits only +of a small staff, giving opportunities to comparatively few women for +special experience. + +The Royal Free Hospital, where women take their training as students, +has now two women on its staff in the department for gynaecology. It +has also a woman anaesthetist, and some of the minor posts, such as +clinical assistant to the outpatients, pathologist, etc., are open to +them. All the physicians, the surgeons, and the assistant physicians +and surgeons are, however, men. + +Of the hospitals for special ailments in London, none so far admits +women to the staff, and it has only recently become possible for +them even to form part of the medical audience at the outpatients' +department at some of these special hospitals. + + No London Hospital for Diseases of Women + and Midwifery (except that of Dr M'Call), + or for Diseases of Children (except one recently + started by women), + or for Diseases of the Eye, + or for Diseases of the Ear, Nose and Throat, + or for Diseases of the Nervous System, +admits women to its staff, although several of them allow women to +take appointments as clinical assistants, pathologists, anaesthetists, +and other minor posts. Their admission to the full staff is, perhaps, +merely a question of time, and of the naturally slow movement of the +British mind towards admitting women to positions of responsibility. + +There has, however, been of late years a tendency on the part of +medical women themselves to take this matter into their own hands, and +new women's hospitals are being started about London where the staff +is exclusively composed of women. + +(b) If, on the other hand, the newly qualified doctor decides to +become a general practitioner, her course is much simpler. She takes +such posts as are available, which she thinks will aid her general +knowledge of medicine. Then she selects a neighbourhood, puts up a +plate, and waits. + +This course also involves delayed earning capacity, as she must be +prepared to face outlay for several years without much return. During +this time she generally augments the income which she gets from her +private practice by other part-time paid work, notably by giving +lectures in first aid, etc., by school inspection, where part-time +officers are appointed, and other such work. She also generally does +a certain amount of voluntary work on that most pernicious system +of giving her services in order to get known. It is in this way that +doctors are everywhere so terribly exploited. When they are _all_ so +busy doing work which they think will bring them into the public view, +this becomes of no particular use to any of them, and the only people +who benefit, and at the same time scoff, are the members of the +general public, who become so used to getting the doctor to work for +nothing or next to nothing, that it comes as a shock when they have +to pay. It is a healthy sign that the long-suffering doctor is at last +beginning to show symptoms of fight, and in the future it may be +hoped that doctors, like lawyers, will not be required to give their +services free to the community. It may be true that if a man will not +work neither shall he eat, but the converse should also be true, that +if a man works he should eat, and at present it is not by any means +always true of the doctor. + +(c) Should she decide to enter the public service, she will still +require to take a certain number of posts, especially those dealing +with eyes, ears, and skin, and must also obtain the Diploma of Public +Health. To gain this diploma she will need to devote several months +to post-graduate study in that subject before taking the necessary +examination. + +The chief posts at present open in the public service to a woman +are:-- + + (1) School medical officer, or assistant medical + officer of health. + (2) Assistant medical officer in some asylums + and poor law infirmaries. + +There is one woman inspector of prisons who is a medical woman, but +she is not a medical inspector and was not appointed in that capacity. +It is much to be hoped that women prison medical officers will +speedily be appointed on equal terms with their medical colleagues. +The conditions for women prisoners from the standpoint of health are, +at the present time, extremely unsatisfactory. + +The tendency is to employ more and more women in the public service, +and therefore the opportunities are likely rapidly to become more +numerous. + +The Act, under which medical school inspection was made obligatory, +particularly mentioned the suitability of women for much of this work. +It is therefore becoming usual all over the country to have at least +one woman school doctor, and in some districts there are several on +the staff. This work is not extremely arduous, is free from the heavy +strain of private practice, and, if the school medical officer is +allowed reasonable freedom in her work, may be made of much interest. +It is, however, somewhat monotonous, and has the great disadvantage +that at present the stimulus of promotion is largely absent, as the +higher administrative posts are almost universally in the hands of +men. This is a disadvantage which will also be gradually, perhaps +rapidly removed as the prejudice against women in authority dies down. + +After having practised medicine for some years, further degrees +indicating experience are open to the medical practitioner; thus, if +she has taken the Bachelorship of Medicine she may, after the lapse of +three or four years, enter for her Doctorate. This is gained either +by a further examination or by writing a thesis on some subject of +original research. If she has taken the Diploma of the Royal Colleges, +it is open to her to sit for the Fellowship in Surgery or Membership +in Medicine. She is also open to election to the Fellowship in +Medicine. + +It is extremely difficult to give anything like an adequate idea +of the remuneration to be obtained in medicine, as it varies +tremendously. + +The first posts, which are taken soon after qualification, if really +first-rate in the experience which they give, seldom include any +salary at all, though board and lodging are provided. Posts which rank +as slightly inferior to these, but still give a considerable amount of +experience, are often associated with honoraria varying from about £50 +to £150 a year, including board and lodging. + +(a) If we turn again to our three sub-divisions we find that a +specialist or consultant cannot expect to earn her working expenses +for a good many years. She must have one room at least in a certain +specialist quarter of the town, known as the consultants' area, and +there the rents are usually high, in London about £150 a year, in the +provinces slightly less. + +We have already stated that she requires some hospital post; for this +she will receive no remuneration, but if the hospital where she works +has a medical school attached to it, she may expect to get a certain +number of patients through the recommendation of students whom she +teaches at the hospital. There is generally also some teaching at +the hospitals, for which the students pay definite fees. She may also +augment her income by lectures and work of that description. She will +probably find it necessary to write papers on her special branch of +work and on the cases which come under her observation, but for this +she will very seldom be paid. It is, therefore only possible for a +girl with some monetary resources independent of her work, to take up +successfully a special branch of medicine. + +If she elect to become a surgeon, a hospital post is an absolute +necessity, and her income will, as in the case of the medical +specialist, be delayed. Eventually, however, if she is successful, it +is greater than that to be obtained on the medical side. The fees are +high, and therefore money can be made more speedily in this branch of +the work. People, however, hesitate as a rule to trust a very young +surgeon, so she will at first get her work chiefly as assistant to +her seniors and must be content to wait some years for the much bigger +fees which she will get as principal. Ultimately she should make +£1,000 to £2,000 a year. + +(b) If she elect to become a general practitioner, her outlay at first +is probably as great as that of the specialist, if not greater, but +the return is quicker, and a great deal depends upon the choice of a +neighbourhood. If she chooses an upper middle class district she +also, like the specialist, must be content to wait, and in fact she is +ill-advised to choose such a neighbourhood unless she can rely on some +good social introductions. + +If she choose a district partly middle and partly lower middle class +her return will be infinitely quicker. She may expect to cover her +expenses in the course of two or three years. The work is, however, +incessant and rather harassing. If she select a working-class +neighbourhood and have a dispensary, her return will be still quicker, +such places frequently paying their expenses in the first or second +year. The people are nice to deal with, and the work is interesting, +but it is apt to be very distressing for two reasons--(1) that owing +to the poverty of the patients they can so seldom be attended under +conditions in which they have a fair chance of recovery, and (2) there +is apt to be an appreciable amount of dirt. + +The most varying reports are given as to the incomes to be made in +private practice and it is almost impossible to get at the truth, +because it is obviously to everybody's interest to make them appear +as high as possible. A woman's practice also is admittedly rather a +specialist one. She does not get the general local practice of the +ordinary practitioner, but instead certain selected women who want to +consult a member of their own sex. These often live at considerable +distances, thus making the work more difficult to arrange and the +travelling more expensive than in the case of the ordinary medical +man. It is rare for a woman to be able to buy a practice. She must +generally build it up for herself, as it is of little or no use for +her to buy a man's practice, and there are only very few women's +available. + +Generally, it may be stated that a woman covers her expenses by about +the third or fourth year after starting, and she may ultimately make, +according to the district and her success, anything between £400 and +£1,500 a year. Frequently two medical women settle together, which +seems to be a very good arrangement. + +(c) If she elect to enter the public service her outlay is very small. +Beyond equipping herself for this work in certain special branches +already described, all that is necessary is that she should be able to +keep herself until she obtains a suitable post. The salary given for +whole time work in the public service should not be less than £250 a +year rising to £400 or £500 a year. In most cases the school doctor +gets the school holidays, including the whole of every Saturday. + +English women who go to India, do so generally in connection with +either + + (1) a missionary society, or + (2) a hospital under the Dufferin Fund. + +(1) Many missionary societies engage medical women to treat the native +women. Salaries, of course, differ, but are, on the whole, low, as the +aim of a missionary is not supposed, primarily, to be financial gain. +Generally somewhere about £110 in English money is given, with +an allowance for carriage and house including the chief items of +furniture. Leave is also granted with second class return fare every +five years--in some missions every three years. The medical experience +is excellent, the opportunities of doing good professional work are +practically unlimited, and the professional position of the doctor +quite untrammelled. She is assisted, usually, by good nurses, under a +proper scheme, these being Indian girls superintended by fully trained +English sisters. + +(2) Under the Dufferin Fund[2] things are very different. It is +somewhat difficult to speak of this branch of the work, as it is, at +the present time, the subject of enquiry, and it may be legitimately +expected that it will, before long, be put on a more satisfactory +basis. The fund was originally started by Lady Dufferin as the direct +result of a command by the late Queen Victoria, and it was intended +to provide the services of medical women for the Purdah women of India +who, owing to the strictness of their rules, were not infrequently +debarred from the full benefit of medical treatment by men. +Unfortunately, however, the doctor in charge of most of the Dufferin +Hospitals is under the local senior civil surgeon, who is a man. As +he has the right, if he wishes to exercise it, of seeing any of +the patients, and doing any of the operations or other treatment +necessary, it is obvious that the hospitals are of little or no use to +Purdah women, as they have no guarantee against treatment by a man. + +There is also no security of tenure for the doctor who is not allowed +to be present at the meetings of the governing body, and may find +herself dismissed or transferred from a good post to a bad one at +short notice. + +The remuneration varies roughly between £250 and £500 a year, with +house but no carriage allowance. The doctor is entitled to add to her +salary by private practice. In some towns this is a considerable +item, whereas in others it is quite negligible. There is no definite +furlough allowance, and the doctor may be removed from her post and +required to keep herself on very little for a considerable period of +time before being appointed to another hospital. All this causes a +severe drain on the resources of doctors without private means. The +staff is also frequently inefficient, and the nursing is sometimes +very indifferent, being undertaken by Eurasian girls under partly +trained women who have never been "home." + + +In the practice of medicine as in all other branches of women's +labour, the question of the effect of marriage upon work is a very +important and difficult one. In its general aspect it lies at the very +heart of the whole question of the working woman. Its effect on the +medical woman varies according to the branch of her profession which +she selects. If she wishes to become _(a)_ a specialist or _(b)_ a +general practitioner, she has perfect freedom of choice as to what she +will do in the event of marriage; and some women retire while others +continue their work. The latter is a much more desirable course from +the point of view of medical women as a whole. The medical woman who +is married can, better than any one else, render to society certain +services in her profession, and it is desirable that these should not +be lost. In any event no woman need retire from her work on marriage, +though it is, of course, most important that the married medical woman +should not deny to herself and to her husband the normal healthy joy +of having children. To continue in practice, however, while bearing a +child requires a certain amount of expenditure, as such a doctor +will need to retire from practice for at least two or three months, +probably longer, and is therefore put to the expense of engaging a +_locum tenens._ This ought, however, to be possible when both husband +and wife are earning incomes. + +From the point of view of society as a whole, it is waste that any one +who has had such a long and arduous training as that required for +the medical profession should not use it in service to the community. +There is a form of selfishness not sufficiently recognised, which +consists not in acquiring goods but in acquiring knowledge without +rendering it again in service to one's fellow men and women. + +Should the doctor decide _(c)_ to enter the public service, the +question will probably not be in her own control as there is an +ever-increasing tendency on the part of public authorities to insist +on single women or widows only among the medical women whom they +employ. There is a big fight to be waged here--one of the many that +our pioneers have left for us and our successors. The lack of social +instinct which lies behind this edict is amazing. What can be more +anti-social than that a young, healthy, and highly-trained woman +should have to decide between marriage and executing that public work +for which she has with great labour fitted herself? In at least some +cases of which the writer is aware, the demand that a doctor shall +retire on marriage, has led to a decision against matrimony, and this +is not surprising, although very serious as a general problem. The +great need of society at the present day is that the most healthy and +well-trained young men and women should be induced to found families, +and public authorities by this bar put on the trained woman, are doing +their best to hinder marriage. + +Medical women have, for their protection, societies of registered +medical women in London and in the north of England and also in +Scotland, these working more or less in touch with one another. In +common with other medical societies they have meetings at which the +advances in medical science are discussed, and they also act in a +modified way as Trade Unions, Members of these societies can always +gain information from them as to the recognised rate of pay in any +particular branch of the work which they may wish to undertake. + +Reference has already been made to the excellent work which has been +done by the British Medical Association in uniting the men and women +of the profession and helping both to keep up the salary rate. Without +this aid the women's associations would have been comparatively +helpless, as they would have erred in ignorance, though certainly +not by intention. The gratitude of medical women to this association +cannot therefore be overstated, and I think I am justified in saying +that the same is true with regard to medical men. If their chief +"Union" had not admitted women we might unwittingly have become a +danger to our medical colleagues as black-leg labour. This has been +almost universally the case in other work which women have taken up, +and one cannot help wishing that men in other branches of labour might +speedily realise the fact that women cannot be stopped from working, +and that the only wise thing, from the men's point of view as well as +from the women's, is to admit all to their unions that they may fight +shoulder to shoulder for better labour conditions, and not against +each other. An example of a case where this was realised has already +been quoted under Example 2, page 144. + +With regard to the opportunities for post-graduate study:--At first +all the men's medical societies were closed to women, the provincial +societies being among the first to recognise their women medical +colleagues. London, being in this as in all things conservative, took +many years to move, and did so very grudgingly; but now nearly all +the important medical societies admit women, in this falling into line +with the learned professions generally. The Royal Medical Society, +London, at first admitted women to its separate sections only, +while denying them the Fellowship, with which would have gone that +mysterious power which men so deeply resent our possessing--the power +to vote on matters of its internal economy. The authorities of this +society have, however, recently admitted medical women on perfectly +equal terms with men to their Fellowship--a privilege for which we are +deeply grateful, as post-graduate knowledge of recent investigations +is absolutely essential to good work. + +In conclusion, the general position of medical women at present may be +shortly summarised as follows:-- + +Their legal status is _absolutely identical_ with that of men in +every respect, by which is meant that by being placed upon the Medical +Register they have every privilege, duty, and responsibility which +they would have if they were men. In obtaining this and allowing many +other things to be settled by their successors our pioneers showed +their tremendous wisdom. + +We have in the medical profession, what women are now claiming in the +State, the abolition of legal sex disqualification. With this firm +platform upon which to stand, it entirely depends upon medical women +themselves what position they will gain in their profession. All other +disabilities and disqualifications are minor and remediable. + +This absolute equality of medical men and women before the law +includes the rights to + + (1) Practise in any department of medicine in + which their services may be demanded. + + (2) Recover fees if necessary. + + (3) Sign death certificates. + + (4) Sign any certificates for which a medical + signature is essential. + +Under this latter heading a curious anomaly arises. If a man is signed +up as a lunatic, he is, for so long as he remains a lunatic, debarred +from using his Parliamentary vote, and, as may be seen from the above, +a medical woman's signature is as valid as that of a man for this +disfranchising certificate of lunacy. The State, therefore, at the +present time allows that a medical woman may be sufficiently learned +and reliable to disfranchise a man, though she be not sufficiently +learned and reliable to vote herself. + +The Insurance Act concerned medical women only in the same way that +it affected their men colleagues. The sole reason, therefore, for +mentioning it in this paper is that it affords an indication of two +things:-- + +(1)that the Government therein makes no sex distinction in the +profession; + +(2)that the bogey of sex cleavage, so often mentioned by the timorous +in the political world, is here, as always where it is put to the +test, proved to be without foundation. + +Unfortunately, the Insurance Act divided the medical profession into +two parties; women, no more than men, were unanimous on the subject +and some were to be found on either side. + +Women are still debarred from the full use of their medical powers in +the following ways:-- + +(1) The demand for their services from the general public is at +present not so great nor so universal as that for men. This is not +surprising when it is realised for how short a time there have been +medical women; however, the demand on the part of the public is very +rapidly increasing, naturally, of course, amongst their own sex. + +(2) As in other work the tendency is to restrict women to the +lower branches of public work, or to the so-called "blind alley" +occupations. This can only be cured by public demand, and some +improvement is to be noted in this respect. There is, however, no +doubt that general practice affords at present the most unrestricted +field for a medical woman's activity, because there she suffers from +no limitations except those of her own personality in relation to +society. Any patients who are inclined to trust her are absolutely +free to do so, and it is open to her to demand what fees her services +are found to be worth. + +If, on the other hand, she enters the public service she may +admittedly qualify herself in every way by attainments and experience +in the lower ranks for one of the higher administrative posts and be +barred simply by sex disqualification. This also will no doubt in time +improve, and the pioneer work that it implies may attract many, but +the progress is necessarily slower. + +(3) She is still debarred from full opportunity for specialist work. +(See efforts being made by women themselves to obviate this by the +starting of women's hospitals, p. 149.) + +Finally, then, the medical profession should attract women of good +average capacity and general education, good health and certain, even +if moderate, means. Above all do they need public spirit, which will +make them anxious to maintain and improve the excellent position +medical women have so far obtained. It is a very widely interesting +life, bringing those who adopt it out of the study into direct touch +with human affairs. + + +[Footnote 1: Publisher, G. Sharrow, 28A Devonshire Street, Portland +Place, W.] + +[Footnote 2: Quite recently the outline of a new scheme was put +before a meeting at the Women's Medical School in London by the +Director-General of the Indian Medical Service. Under this scheme the +Women's Medical Service in India would not be upon the same footing +as the Indian Medical Service (I.M.S.) for men, but would remain as +at present, a Dufferin Association. It would, however, receive a +Government grant of £10,000 yearly, and proper arrangements would be +made for pay, furlough, promotion, and security of tenure. The scheme +is open to criticism on some points, but, as a whole, it marks a +considerable advance on the previous conditions of service in this +department of women's work, and may be welcomed as a genuine if +somewhat belated attempt on the part of the Government to deal fairly +with an urgent question.] + + + + +II + +DENTAL SURGERY + + +It is not sufficiently well-known that dental surgery as a profession, +opens up a practically unexplored and lucrative work for women. + +The training in the British Isles can be carried out in London, +Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Dublin, each of these cities granting their +Licentiate of Dental Surgery. In London, the National Dental Hospital, +and the London School of Medicine for Women (Royal Free Hospital) have +special facilities for women students, including special bursaries +and scholarships, while dental and medical studies can be carried +on concurrently. The course of study includes the passing of a +Professional Preliminary Examination or Matriculation, followed by two +years' mechanical work, and two years' hospital practice. The student +can be articled to a qualified dental practitioner for mechanics, or +can obtain tuition at the Dental Hospital. This branch includes the +preparation of models, vulcanite and metal dentures, crowns, and +bridges, etc. + +The Dental Hospital course for two years includes lectures on Physics +and Chemistry, Dental Anatomy and Surgery, Metallurgy and Materia +Medica. At the same time practical work is done--extractions, +fillings, crowns, bridges, dentures, and the regulation of children's +teeth. At the medical school and hospital, lectures on Anatomy, +Physiology, Surgery, and Medicine must be attended, and dissections on +the human body, and clinics in the ward must be completed. At the end +of each year examinations in the subjects are taken, the whole course +covering a minimum time of four years. The qualification of the +Licentiate of Dental Surgery of the Royal College of Surgeons of +England is now open to women. The composite fee for training extending +over four years, is about £200, but an additional sum of at least £100 +is required for incidental expenses. Should the woman student desire +to confine herself to dental mechanics this would materially lessen +the expense. The average wage for a good male mechanic is £120 per +annum. Hospitals can be joined at the age of nineteen, and it is +advisable to begin study soon after leaving school or college. + +If it is possible, a woman should obtain a medical qualification as +well as the L.D.S. Much of the work can be taken at the same time as +the dental course. A medical degree enlarges a dentist's sphere of +usefulness and interest and adds to her _locus standi_: on the other +hand, it necessitates two or three years' extra study, and the fees +are increased by several hundred pounds. + +The woman dentist will probably find it necessary to start practice on +her own account as soon as she is qualified, as it is not likely she +will be able to obtain an assistantship with men practitioners, but +there are an increasing number of posts open to women, such as dental +surgeon to school clinics or to factories. These posts offer the same +salaries to men and women. Smaller part-time appointments, with an +honorarium attached, can be obtained, and are especially useful to the +newly qualified practitioner who is building up a practice. + +It is essential for the woman who intends to succeed in this +profession to have excellent physical and mental health, though +great muscular strength is not necessary. During student life and in +practice, every care should be taken of the general health--exercise +in the open air being especially necessary, though this should not be +too energetic in character. It is a well-known fact that male dentists +doing careful and conscientious work, cannot, as a rule, stand the +strain for many hours daily after they have reached middle age, and +the intending student should consider this point. + +The prolonged hours of standing in a cramped position, the confined +space, the exactitude required for minute and painful operations, are +some of the causes of this overstrain. Great self-control and will +power must be exercised as the patients, especially children, are +frequently nervous, and confidence must be imparted to them if the +work is to be well done. + +The British Dental Association and the Odontological Society are both +open to women, and male practitioners have always displayed the utmost +courtesy though some prejudice must be expected. The general public +apparently welcome the advent of women dentists as the few qualified +women in London and the Provinces have excellent practices. It is +curious, however, to note that few Englishwomen have taken up the +profession, there being about twelve practising in the United Kingdom, +though in Germany, Russia, and the United States there are great +numbers of women practitioners. + +With regard to restrictions from which women at present suffer, one +dental hospital only is open to women in London, and, until recently, +no posts could be obtained. But as more women qualify, these +disadvantages will probably be removed. It is also extremely difficult +to obtain mechanical work in private work-rooms. Women should bear in +mind that they require exactly the same facilities for study as men, +and try to get admittance to all hospitals and posts on an equal +basis--_i.e._, the salary should be equal for equal work, and a +smaller fee should not be accepted. + +In deciding whether a practice should be started in London or a +provincial town, the question of capital must be carefully considered, +as it is improbable that the expenses will be met during the first +year of practice. The upkeep necessarily varies with the locality +chosen, and a minimum capital of £150 is desirable. + +Pioneer women must be prepared to do their work conscientiously, and +to the utmost of their ability, and they must always remember that +their work will be very severely criticised. + +This necessitates frequent inspection of both the clothing and persons +of the children. Certain cases which are found to need attention are +also visited in their homes. The school nurse is so much alone in +her work that she requires to be very experienced and her powers of +observation to be highly trained in order to enable her to detect +signs of ill-health in its early stages. Firmness and kindness +are constantly required in dealing with parents, and tact and +consideration in her dealings with all with whom her work brings her +in contact. + +In the London area the salary begins at £80 rising by £2, 10s. +yearly to £85, and then by £5 yearly to £105. Uniform and travelling +expenses, within the county, are provided. The nurse is required to +contribute to the superannuation fund from which she can ultimately +draw a pension if she remains all her working life in the service of +the Council. + +The hours of work are from 9 A.M. to 4.30 P.M. five days weekly, and +from 9 to 12.30 on Saturdays. Clerical work must be done out of school +hours. Holidays are arranged during the school holidays. + +There are 128 nurses working under one Superintendent, +two Assistant-Superintendents, and four Divisional +Assistant-Superintendents. + +_B_. There are 42 nurses attached to schools for the physically +defective whose special duties are concerned with the care of the +crippled and delicate children who attend these schools. Certain +special precautions against injury and strain are necessary for these +children, and the nurse receives instructions concerning these from +the visiting doctor. The salary is the same as that mentioned above, +and the nurses get the school holidays. At open-air schools the +nurse's work is somewhat similar to that in the schools for the +physically defective. + +_C_. There are 8 nurses now working under the Infant Life Protection +Act. + +All women who undertake the care of an infant for payment have to be +registered. Of such children, a large proportion is illegitimate. It +is the duty of the nurses to visit every such case. Each nurse has +an area allotted to her; the work is arduous and responsible as the +visitor has full powers under an Act of Parliament summarily to remove +the child if the conditions required by the Act are not complied +with. The nurse who undertakes this work should have been trained +in maternity work (and if possible have been examined by the Central +Midwives' Board). She should also have her certificate from the +Sanitary Institute as she is expected to report on the sanitation +of the premises as well as on the condition of the child. There is a +considerable amount of clerical work in connection with these posts. + +The salary of these nurses is good, compared with the usual salaries +for nurses--£120 to £150, with a further rise to £200 after ten years +of service. + +The superannuation fund, which is compulsory for all permanent +officers, yields a provision of not less than one-third of the average +rate of pay in a case of complete breakdown in health after ten or +more years in the service of the council. The retiring age, apart from +breakdown, is sixty-five years. + +The conditions of work in the Provinces are much the same in general +outline as those described above, which prevail in London, except that +in the country the nurse often undertakes in addition the work done in +London by Care Committees and Attendance Officers. This, although it +increases her work also increases its variety. + + + + +VIII + +NURSING IN HOSPITALS FOR THE INSANE + + +Mental nursing as a profession for educated women has much to +recommend it. It is of absorbing interest to those of a sympathetic +nature and of a scientific turn of mind, and it develops all the finer +qualities, self-control, patience, tact, and common-sense. It gives +scope for originality and accomplishments of every kind. The work +itself is difficult, and is the one of all the many branches of +nursing which demands the closest personal devotion and service, great +as is the necessity for these in all forms of a nurse's work. + +Mental nurses are employed in (1) county asylums, (2) mental +hospitals, (3) private work. + +(1) _County Asylums_--These may take from 1,000 to 2,000 patients +each. They are usually situated in the country with healthy +surroundings and large grounds, and they are generally placed within +reasonable access to some town. + +Probationer nurses are received for training from twenty-one years +of age. They must be of good health and physique. A nurse who is +successful in this branch of work should be able to obtain her +certificate from the Medico Psychological Board at the end of three +years' training. The salary is £19 the first year, with an annual +increase of £1 up to £35. Free board, lodging, washing, medical +attendance, are also supplied and uniform after three months' trial. +The hours on duty are from 6 A.M. to 8 P.M., with two hours off for +meals. Nurses get leave from 8 P.M. to 10 P.M. daily and one day +weekly; they also have fourteen days' holiday after the first twelve +months, increasing subsequently to three weeks a year. + +The duties of the nurse in an asylum consist of the care of the +patients, the supervision of the cleanliness of the wards and +linen, and also of the work done by the patients in the various +departments--the needleroom, laundry, kitchen, corridors, etc. It is +obvious that in view of the number of patients, individual attention +is practically impossible. Entertainments of all kinds are provided +for the help and amusement of the patients, and nurses are expected to +assist in arranging these. Consequently any one with a gift for music, +acting, singing, or other accomplishment is an acquisition to the +staff. + +(2) _Registered Mental Hospitals_.--These, owing to their different +circumstances, vary much in their conditions of service. Most of them +are training-schools and receive probationers of good education, from +twenty-two years of age, for a course of training. This consists of +lectures by the Medical Staff and Matron, the subjects receiving most +attention being Elementary Anatomy, Physiology, and Psychology; and +there is, of course, practical training in the nursing of mental +cases: in some hospitals a course of Massage and Swedish Drill are +added in the fourth year. + +Salaries are on the whole lower than in the County Asylums, beginning +at anything from £15 rising to £19 in the third year with a bonus of +£3 on passing the final examination of the Medico-Psychological Board. +There must, however, be set against this lower rate of remuneration, +the fact that these mental hospitals are often situated more centrally +than the county asylums, thus making less expenditure necessary for +travelling to and from the hospital when out on leave. The usual free +board, lodging, washing, medical attendance, and uniform are also +given after three months' satisfactory service. + +The hours of duty are from 7 A.M. to 8 P.M. with two hours off for +meals, etc. Leave during a month varies with the different hospitals, +but is usually two whole days, three half days, four evenings from 6 +P.M. to 10 P.M., and four evenings from 8 P.M. to 10 P.M.: there is +also annual leave of fourteen days after the first twelve months, +increasing to three weeks after three years' service. + +The work in a mental hospital is totally different from that in large +asylums. As there are fewer patients, individual treatment is the +rule, and the nurse gets more intimate knowledge of her patients' +condition, which she may thus do much to ameliorate. Owing to the +homelike freedom allowed, nurses need to be specially patient +and tactful. In return for this, however, by their much closer +companionship with their patients they gain the opportunity of +thoroughly knowing and therefore sympathising with and guiding them, +and on this, successful treatment largely depends. The majority of +the patients in these hospitals are suffering from acute forms of +insanity, and this adds both to the strenuousness and to the interest +of the nursing work: the fact that such patients frequently recover, +acts as a great incentive to the work. + +Private asylums are on a different basis and do not as a rule offer +training. + +A trained nurse may hope for promotion to posts as Sister of a ward, +Night Superintendent, Assistant Matron, or Matron. These posts demand +personal attributes in addition to good training--_e.g._, powers of +organisation and administration, a knowledge of housekeeping, laundry +work, etc. For the higher posts, training in general nursing is +essential. In all forms of mental nursing it is undoubtedly a great +advantage if the nurse has had a preliminary general training before +entering on the special branch of the work. + +The conditions for private mental cases are the same as those +described under private nursing for general work (see page 184). The +fees, however, compare very favourably with those obtained for general +work, being almost universally higher. The great disadvantage is that +the hours are very long and the work necessarily exhausting. + +Much has been done of recent years to improve the conditions of +service for workers in institutions, and there is still room for +amelioration. Particularly is this so with regard to the long hours +on duty and insufficient leave, due, chiefly, to shortage of staff. +Increase is also urgently needed in the salaries in every department +so that the nurses may be able to make provision for old age. When, as +now, so many of them are dependent on a pension as the only provision +for their old age, they are bound to stay at one institution for the +whole or nearly the whole of their lives--an arrangement which is not +to the benefit of either party, for "change is necessary to progress, +and the tendency is, from long years of service in one place, to +narrow and lose the adaptability of earlier years." + +More arrangements are needed for the recreation of the nurses when +off duty, especially in institutions situated in the country. Swimming +baths would be a real boon; the beneficial effects of this form +of exercise upon both nerves and body being too well known to need +further comment. Its value also in promoting mutual helpfulness is +by no means negligible. Reading-rooms, apart from the general +common-room, are very valuable, as are also tennis courts where they +can be arranged. All these, of course, mean expense, but, if the +better class woman is to be attracted to the work, her interests +must be considered. Moreover, healthful recreations, apart from their +benefit to the nurse herself, must re-act favourably on the patients. + + + + +IX + +NURSING IN THE COLONIES + + +Colonial nursing is usually undertaken by those who possess the spirit +of adventure, and do not mind the prospect of pioneering work. Love of +novelty, strong interest in fresh scenes and peoples, a desire to make +more money than can in most cases be made in England, help a nurse in +colonial work, provided that work really means her life, and she loves +it. But let it be emphatically stated that the nurses who are _not_ +wanted in the colonies, in any capacity, are those who are failures +in their work in England, or who simply leave the dull work of the old +country with the object of having a good time abroad. Such women may +do immense harm in countries where it is essential to the Empire that +English people should be looked up to with respect and admiration, +and where almost the most important part of an English nurse's work +(_quite_ the most important _if_ she is working in a hospital), is to +make the native nurses, of whatever race they may happen to be, see +the dignity and possibilities of their profession, and be stirred with +the desire to become proficient themselves. + +No special training is required for colonial work. A thorough +all-round training, including midwifery, a high standard of nursing +ethics, a knowledge of hospital organisation, and good business +abilities are needed. The rest is chiefly a matter of temperament +and constitution. It goes without saying that a nurse for foreign +climates, whether tropical, as in the majority of colonial posts, +or subject to extremes of heat and cold, such as in Canada, must +be physically strong; she should also be of an even temper and +philosophical disposition, easily adaptable to climate, conditions, +circumstances, and racial peculiarities. + +The nature of the work will vary greatly with the locality and the +kind of post undertaken. The colonial nurse who does private work will +find patients and their needs much the same all the world over; she +must, however, be prepared for anything, and ready to make the best of +all things in emergencies. + +In tropical hospitals it is altogether another matter. If the nurse +taking a Matron's post in such a hospital is the first European +to have occupied that post, she will probably have every detail to +organise and put in order, from providing dusters for use in the +wards, to arranging off-duty time for the nurses. She will mostly +likely see at once that everything wants altering, and yet she +will have to "make haste slowly," _very_ slowly, or she will have +everything in a ferment, and every one in open rebellion against her. + +If she is working in the East, she will have the endless complications +of caste and race and religion to deal with, and will have for some +time, to learn vastly more than she teaches. Her success or failure +will depend very largely upon how she gets on with the medical +department--in other words, upon her own tact and common-sense, and +whether she can so approve herself to the various medical officers +that they will loyally back her up in her attempts at reform. Once +things are established in working order, it is a question of constant +supervision, day by day, for in no tropical hospital is it possible to +expect that native nurses will do their work well and conscientiously, +without the constant example and supervision of their trained Matron +and Sisters. + +Colonial posts are chiefly to be obtained through the Colonial Nursing +Association, of which offices are at the Imperial Institute, South +Kensington. + +Salaries vary considerably, according to climate and the nature of the +work. In very unhealthy climates, such as the west coast of Africa, +the salary is high, and the risks proportionately so. + +Private nurses, and those holding subordinate posts in hospitals get +salaries varying from £60, which is the minimum, to £120 a year. An +Assistant Matron may in some few cases get a salary increasing to +£150 or £200. In a large hospital there is the ordinary chance of +promotion--a Sister may be made Assistant Matron, or an Assistant +Matron become Matron; but most colonial posts are simply for a certain +term of years, at the expiration of which the nurse seeks fresh +fields, her passage, both out and home, being paid. If, however, there +should be a desire on both sides for a renewal of the engagement, the +nurse can usually obtain an increase of salary. + +A Matron's salary will vary from £100 to £250, in large Government +hospitals in the Colonies where, it must be borne in mind, leave +entails a journey to England, and a very expensive passage. In +colonial posts there is usually six weeks leave yearly (which may be +taken as three months together in the second year), but in most places +there is no bracing climate within a reasonable distance. This, of +course, does not apply to India and Ceylon, where the hills are easily +accessible. + +Each Government has its own arrangements with regard to pensions; some +posts include pensions, but not all. The retiring age is usually +sixty years. There is, unfortunately, no pension obtainable from the +Colonial Nursing Association itself. This is certainly one respect +in which it would be well if an alteration could be made; it is +a question of funds and has already been brought forward for +consideration. There would be vastly more inducement for really +capable nurses, no longer very young (the age limit for joining is +thirty-five) to join the Colonial Nursing Association, and serve their +country in foreign dependencies, if they were assured of even a small +pension after ten years' hard work in trying climates. + + + + +X + +NURSING IN THE ARMY AND NAVY + + +The training required by Army and Navy nurses is that for general +work. Additional experience according to the branch of the service +which the nurse wishes to enter is also useful. Only fully trained +nurses are appointed. Some of the tending of the sick is done by the +men themselves, under supervision. + +In the _Military Service_ the salaries are as follows: +Matron-in-Chief, £305; ordinary Matron, from £75 to £150; Sister, from +£50 to £65; Staff Nurse, from £40 to £45, with allowance for board, +washing, etc., and arrangements for leave and pension after twenty +years' service. + +In the _Naval Service _the arrangements are slightly different, +but the salaries work out at about the same. Foreign service is +obligatory. + +There is also a small Army Nursing Reserve, but this is quite +inadequate for purposes of defence, and great efforts have recently +been made to supplement it by voluntary organisations, such as the +British Red Cross Society. + + + + +XI + +PRISON NURSING + + +This is, at the present time, carried out by the ordinary staff of +prison warders. There are all over England not more than two or three +trained nurses among them, and it is most desirable that properly +trained women should be in charge of prison infirmary wards, just as +much as in the infirmary wards of workhouses. Prisoners are just as +likely to suffer from disease as other people, and they surely do not +forfeit all claim to expert care, simply because they have, perhaps +in a moment of weakness, yielded to temptation. To one form of illness +needing specially expert nursing, they are peculiarly liable--mental +disease. It is almost impossible to gauge the amount of good which +might be done both for the individual and for society by providing +trained nurses to attend to these unfortunate people. + + + + +XII + +MIDWIFERY AS A PROFESSION FOR WOMEN (OTHER THAN DOCTORS) + + +This is not a paper to discuss the suitability of women for midwifery. +All through the ages it has been done by women, until early in the +nineteenth century in England and its colonies, it gradually became +customary for men-doctors to attend such cases; apart from this, the +work of midwifery has never been in the hands of men, except when +abnormal cases have required the assistance of a doctor with knowledge +of anatomy and skilled in instrumental delivery. Even before +the passing of the Midwives Act in 1902, statistics proved that +three-quarters of all confinements in this country were attended by +women. + +Continental countries have been alive to the need for training the +women who did this work. For instance, in the great General Hospital +in Vienna with its 3,000 beds, 550 beds were kept apart for maternity +wards, and of these, 200 were reserved for the State training of +midwives--a course of _one_ year's duration being obligatory, with +_daily_ lectures on every detail in midwifery from the Professor of +Obstetrics. The present writer attended these lectures daily for six +months in 1885, and was made to feel the importance in teaching of +"hammering" at essentials and of questioning, so that the lecturer +might discover whether he were talking above the head of the least +clever of the audience. + +England's population increased so steadily and rapidly during the +nineteenth century, that it seemed to trouble no one that countless +lives of mothers and babies were lost during the perils of +child-birth; it remained the only civilised country of Europe where a +woman could practise as a midwife without any training at all. + +For nearly twenty years before the passing of the Midwives Act in +1902, a small band of devoted women laboured in season and out of +season urging on Parliament the need of a bill requiring a _minimum_ +of three months' theoretical and practical training and an examination +before trusting a woman with the lives of mother and child. + +This historical fact alone is a sufficiently cogent reason for the +now ever-increasing demand on the part of women for the parliamentary +vote. + +The Central Midwives Board (C.M.B.), a body of eight members (experts +elected by various bodies, such as the Royal Colleges of Physicians +and Surgeons, the British Nurses' Association, the Midwives' +Institute, etc.), now exercises supervision over the midwives of the +whole of England and Wales, though local supervising authorities also +take cognisance of midwives' work and investigate cases of malpractice +and the like. The address of the Central Midwives' Board is Caxton +House, Westminster. + +The training for the examination of the Central Midwives' Board is +based on the method pursued in medical education in English-speaking +countries, viz., there is not one uniform course, but each of the +training schools attached to hospitals follows out its own plan of +training, each hospital having been approved by the Central Midwives' +Board as giving an adequate training for its examination. There are +now seven maternity hospitals in London, where women students may +train in midwifery. Of these, only one--the Clapham Maternity Hospital +(with its training school founded by Mrs Meredith in 1885)--is, and +always has been, entirely officered by women. Here the course advised +is six months, viz., three months in the hospital (Monthly Nursing), +and three months in the hospital and district doing Midwifery proper. +During this time over 200 cases may be seen, and nearly 100 cases +attended personally. The cost of this training is £35 to £40, which +includes board and residence for twenty-six weeks. Students previously +trained elsewhere may take one months' extra training at a cost of +ten guineas. Private doctors and midwives may also take pupils if +recognised as teachers by the Board. + +Midwifery training is now required not only by those who are going +to act as midwives, but also by most missionaries, all fully trained +nurses (for matrons' posts or colonial posts) and by health visitors +and inspectors before obtaining appointments. + +But it should be borne in mind, especially in considering the present +condition and future prospects of Midwifery as a profession, that even +now a large though ever-decreasing proportion of registered midwives +are still ignorant women who have never passed the Central Midwives' +Board or any other examination, and have had no teaching from any +one more experienced or better informed than themselves. For when +the Midwives' Act came into force in 1903, it was necessary to move +slowly, and so a clause was inserted, permitting women who had been +in _bonâ-fide_ practice for more than one year before 1902 to continue +their work under inspection and supervision (with many attempts at +teaching them by means of simple lectures and demonstrations). This +plan, or some similar one, was necessary, not only in the interests +of the midwives themselves, a set of decent and kindly, if ignorant +women, who would have been ruined by too sudden a change, but also +because a large number of mothers in England would have been left with +no one to help them in their time of need unless they were prepared +to run the risk of breaking the law. This, until recently, respectable +English women disliked to do. + +It is important to remember this fact, when considering the present +and future prospects of the midwife. The untrained woman used to +charge 5s. or 7s. 6d. for her services, and the fact that her name had +been enrolled on the Government Register, that she was subject to +the supervision of an inspector, without having spent anything on her +change of status beyond the 10s. registration fee, did not suggest the +need of any particular change in her scale of charges. Thus 7s. +6d. per case, unfortunately still remains the very common fee for +midwifery, though this now involves, under the rules of the Midwives' +Board, not only the long hours of watchful care at the birth, but ten +days of daily visits to supervise both mother and baby, with careful +records of pulse and temperature, etc., kept in a register. Naturally, +the general public who employ midwives--viz., the poorer classes--do +not differentiate between the trained certificated midwife and the +untrained _bonâ-fide_ midwife whose name is on the register, and thus +the scale of charges remains very low and the profession, as one for +educated women, is thereby greatly injured. + +Granted an intelligent woman is willing to give six months' work and +study and £35 to £40 for her training, what chance has she of earning +a decent living? If she could command 15s. or 17s. 6d. per case +afterwards, she could make a decent living, given fairly hard work and +the acceptance of real responsibility. If she had 100 cases a year, +she would earn £75 at 15s. per case, and so on. This rise in the +fees payable to midwives has just been made possible by the National +Insurance Act of 1911, the framers of which appear to have recognised +the necessary result of the Midwives' Act of 1902. As the _bonâ-fide_ +midwife, who has received no training, gradually dies out, it becomes +necessary to provide the means of paying trained midwives, whom the +people are obliged to employ in place of the old ones, but who would +soon be non-existent were the means of paying them not also provided +by the State. + +A 30s. maternity benefit is now given for every confinement of an +insured person or the wife of an insured person. As the patient may +have free choice of doctor or midwife, it seems possible, now that it +has been established that the benefit shall go direct to the mother or +her nominee, that hereafter the greater part of it may be paid over to +the person who can supply that most necessary item of the treatment, +i.e., good and intelligent midwifery with nursing care of mother and +child. Therefore, it is the right moment for the careful, well-trained +popular midwife definitely to raise her fees to all "insured" +patients, being still willing to help the poor at a low fee as before. +It should be remembered that in about one-tenth of all her cases, +medical help will be required, but this case could probably be guarded +against by an insurance fund, if properly organised. + +We frankly admit that as things now stand--apart from the possibility +of the maternity benefit being made to help her--midwifery is +financially but a poor profession. But to an enthusiastic lover of +her kind, who has other means or prospects for her future than the +proceeds of her profession, there is much that is attractive in this +most useful calling. + +Now let us turn to a consideration of the poor mother. Dr Matthews +Duncan in 1870 put the puerperal mortality at 1 in 100 for in-patients +and 1 in 120 for patients in their own homes--shocking figures for +a physiological event! Miss Wilson, a member of the Central Midwives +Board, stated in 1907 that the average mortality of English women, +from puerperal fever, a preventable disease, is 47 in 10,000 or _1 in +213_, but that in three of the best lying-in hospitals this figure has +been reduced to less than _1 in 3,000_. To quote Miss Alice Gregory +in her article on this subject in _The Nineteenth Century_ for January +1908: "We feel there is something hopelessly wrong somewhere. It +becomes indeed a burning question: By what means have the Maternity +Hospitals so marvellously reduced their death rate?" + +The answer is not now far to seek in the opinion of the writer, +who has worked continuously at Midwifery since 1st May 1884. It is +probably wholly contained in the three following points:-- + + (1) All that makes for scrupulous asepsis in + every detail for the surroundings of the + mother. + + (2) The absence of "Meddlesome Midwifery." + + (3) Pre-maternity treatment, a factor which + the writer considers to be of great importance, + and of which she would like + to have much more experience. + +By this is meant the building up of the future mother's health by +improved hygiene and careful, wise dieting and exercising and bathing +during the last three months of pregnancy, which enables many a +stumbling-block to be removed out of the way. Hence, the utility of +pre-maternity wards wisely used. This is, one knows, a "counsel of +perfection"; but every expectant mother should and could be taught how +to treat herself wisely at this time. + +These three points are all in favour of the well-trained midwife. + +(1) _Scrupulous Asepsis_, if intelligently taught, can be learned in +six months' training, though one feels bound to add it requires moral +"grit" in the character to make one unswervingly faithful in observing +it. The midwife, too, should run no risk of carrying infection from +others, as a doctor might do. + +(2) "Meddlesome Midwifery" is not so much a temptation for the midwife +as the doctor, though she also may want to do too much. Patience +combined with accurate knowledge when interference is urgently needed, +is part of her training. + +(3) The midwife who becomes a wise friend to her patients will be just +the one to whom the mother will gladly apply early, and who will know +if it is advisable to send for skilled medical advice. Contracted +pelvis, threatened eclampsia, and antepartum haemorrhage are typical +cases, which lose half their terror if diagnosed and treated early. + +If ever it is recognised that good midwifery is at the root of the +health of the nation and the new maternity benefit is made to help +in obtaining it, it will at once become worth while for educated and +intelligent women to take to the profession seriously. A practice +could then be worked by sets of two or three midwives in co-operation, +and with proper organisation as regards an insurance fund for securing +operative midwifery from medical practitioners when necessary. + +There is ample room for a much larger body of trained midwives than +exists at present, if the health and welfare of the nation are to be +secured, while the women themselves could, under these conditions, +earn a sufficient livelihood. + +Trained nurses also specialise in midwifery. They take the full course +of training described above, completing this by passing the Central +Midwives' Board Examination. They do not practise for themselves, +but work only under doctors, thus replacing the monthly nurse. The +improvement in health and comfort of both mother and child, when +nursed by some one thoroughly competent, is very marked. + +The fees which they receive for this work are usually 12 to 14 guineas +for the month, and in some cases may rise to 18 guineas. + + + + +XIII + +MASSAGE + + +This work demands a healthy body and cheerful mind, a love of the +work, endurance, and much tact in dealing with the nervous cases for +which this form of treatment is found to be beneficial. + +It may be undertaken either + +(1) As a separate profession, or + +(2) As an additional qualification by trained nurses. + +The training must be good and adequate to ensure any success as a +masseuse, so great care should be exercised in the choice of a +school. The many training schools advertised are of varying degrees +of efficiency, and those prepared to train in a few weeks, or by +correspondence only, are obviously unsatisfactory. + +On application to the secretary of the Incorporated Society of Trained +Masseuses, information can be obtained with regard to the training +schools in London and the Provinces where a course of instruction in +massage is given, which is accepted by the society as adequate. + +The society itself is an independent examining body which insists on +a satisfactory standard for massage workers. It holds two examinations +yearly and grants a certificate to successful candidates. No one may +enter for the examination unless she can show that she has received +her training at one of the schools approved by the society. + +Adequate training in massage includes a course of not less than six +months in Elementary Anatomy and Physiology, the Theory and Practice +of Massage and a course of bandaging. Students usually attend the +classes from 10 A.M. to 4 P.M., lectures being given in the morning, +demonstrations and practical work on "model patients" in the afternoon +hours. + +Sufficiently advanced students are allowed to attend at hospitals or +infirmaries to see--and themselves to carry out under the teacher's +supervision--the treatment ordered for the patients by the doctor. In +this way all students have opportunity during their training of seeing +and giving treatment to the various cases which they may have to deal +with as qualified masseuses when working under private doctors. + +Some training schools give their own certificate after training, +and this is useful as a guarantee of the training taken. It is not, +however, such an assurance of efficiency to the medical profession or +the general public as the certificate gained after examination by an +independent examining body. + +There is also a further examination held by the society once yearly +in Medical Gymnastics. The minimum time to expend on this is a further +six months after qualifying as a masseuse, so that it takes a year to +gain the double qualification. + +In addition to supplying the independent examination in these +subjects, the society watches over the interests of the masseuses. All +its members are bound to observe the rules of the society. The result +of this is threefold. + + (1) The doctor is assured that the masseuse + will not undertake cases on her own + diagnosis, but work only under qualified + direction. + + (2) The public is assured that the masseuse + is a trustworthy woman as well as an + efficient worker. + + (3) The masseuse herself is protected from + undesirable engagements. This is of + considerable importance. + + The training for the examination previously + mentioned is from 10 to 15 guineas for those taking + the course. There is generally some reduction + made for nurses. The further course in Medical + Gymnastics costs from 20 guineas. + +From this it will be seen that the whole training is comparatively +inexpensive; it is, however, not a profession to be entered lightly. +London is already overstocked and the better openings at the present +time are to be found in the Provinces, in Scotland and the Colonies. +It is well to start, if possible, in a town where the masseuse is +already known either to the doctors, or to some influential residents. +Much depends on the individuality of the masseuse, and one who is +prepared to give all her time to the work, taking every call that +comes, may reasonably expect to make in her first year from £50 to +£100. By the third year a steady connection should be formed, bringing +in an income of £150 to £250. This cannot, however, be expected unless +the masseuse has some introductions to start her in her work. + +Fees in the country vary from 3s. 6d. to 7s. a visit, and in London +and some other places they rise to 10s. 6d. for an hour or less. + +Hospital and nursing-home appointments are most useful as experience +for the masseuse in her first year; they should be tried before +she finally decides where to start work. Such appointments are +residential, and the salaries offered vary from £30 to £70 a year. + + It must not be forgotten that, owing to the short and comparatively + inexpensive training, very many women take up this work, + so that the above excellent results are not realised unless the + masseuse has good introductions. The value of a thoroughly reliable + society such as that mentioned cannot be over-estimated, not only + for its certificate, but also on account of the information it can + give as to the respectability of posts advertised for masseuses. + Many of these are unfortunately merely blinds for undesirable houses. + [SUB-EDITOR.] + + + + +SECTION IV + +WOMEN AS SANITARY INSPECTORS AND HEALTH VISITORS + + +The introduction of women into the public health service is a modern +development, although they have been engaged in it longer than is +usually known. + +Women who are employed in Public Health Work hold office under Local +Sanitary Authorities, and their work must not be confused with that +of the Women Home Office Officials, who were first appointed in 1895; +these inspect factories and workshops, but their powers and duties +are of a different character. For instance, the Women Home Office +Inspectors deal, amongst other things, with the cleanliness of +factories, but not with the cleanliness of workshops, and with the +heating of workshops, while the ventilation of the same workshops is +under the control of the local sanitary officials. + +Glasgow was the first county borough to utilise the services of Women +Health Officials, for in May 1870 four "Female Visitors," afterwards +known as Assistant Sanitary Inspectors, were appointed in connection +with the Public Health Department. Their duties were: "by persuasion +principally, to induce the women householders to keep the interiors +of their dwellings in a clean and sanitary condition, and to advise +generally how best this can be maintained." They possessed the same +right of entry to premises as the men inspectors, and were required +to hold the certificate of the Incorporated Sanitary Association of +Scotland. They reported certain nuisances, but themselves dealt +with others, such as "dirty homes or dirty bedding, clothing, and +furnishing." + +The work of Women Health Officials in England, dates from the passing +of the Factory and Workshops Act of 1891, when certain duties with +regard to workshops, which had previously been performed by the Home +Office Inspectors, were laid upon Sanitary Authorities. + +In the opinion of Dr Orme Dudfield, late Medical Officer of Health +for Kensington: "It soon became apparent that, not only was systematic +inspection necessary, but also that many of the duties involved +were of so special and delicate a nature that they could not +be satisfactorily discharged by male inspectors." He therefore +recommended the appointment of two Women Inspectors of Workshops in +Kensington. In the meantime the city of Nottingham had appointed a +Woman Inspector of Workshops in May 1892, and in accordance with +Dr Dudfield's recommendation two Women Inspectors were appointed in +Kensington in 1893. + +These ladies were appointed as inspectors of workshops _only_. +They did not hold Sanitary Certificates, nor had they the status of +Sanitary Inspectors. In practice, this entailed a visit by a male +inspector every time it was necessary to serve a legal notice for +the abatement of any contravention of the Factory and Workshops' +Act. Therefore, when these ladies resigned upon their appointment as +Factory Inspectors, it was decided to appoint the in-coming ladies as +Sanitary Inspectors, with power to deal with these matters themselves. +It was, however, Islington which appointed the first woman with the +legal status of Sanitary Inspector in 1895. + +By 1901, eleven women had been appointed in the Metropolitan area as +Sanitary Inspectors, nearly all of them exclusively engaged in the +inspection of workshops. Since that time the number of women appointed +by Local Sanitary Authorities has increased considerably, both in +London and the Provinces. The exact number outside London is only +known approximately, as no register exists which is available to the +public. It is to be hoped that this information may be obtainable +from the last census returns. The figures with regard to London are +published annually by the London County Council, and there are now +forty-one Women Sanitary Inspectors in the Metropolitan area. + +Sanitary inspectors in London, whether men or women, are required to +hold the certificate of the Sanitary Inspectors' Examination Board, +the examination for which is the same for men and women.[1] Outside +London no definite qualification is required by the Local Government +Board, but it is usual in county and municipal boroughs for a sanitary +certificate to be demanded from candidates for the position of +Inspector of Nuisances (the term used outside London for Sanitary +Officials). Men and Women Sanitary Inspectors possess equal rights of +entry to premises and equal statutory powers for enforcing compliance +with the law. + +The duties of Women Sanitary Inspectors have become very varied and +numerous during the past ten years; they differ considerably according +to locality and to the opinions of the local Medical Officer of +Health. Broadly speaking, before 1905 women in London were mainly +engaged in the inspection of workshops, whereas in the Provinces (with +the exception of Nottingham, Leicester, and Manchester) they were +engaged in house-to-house visitation in the poorer parts of the towns, +with a view to the promotion of cleanliness, giving advice to mothers +concerning the feeding and care of infants and young children, and +the detection of sanitary defects. The inspection of workshops in the +Provinces was a later development. + +These varied duties have called for special qualifications, and, in +addition to certificates in sanitation, Women Sanitary Inspectors +usually hold qualifications in nursing or midwifery. The general +education of the women who take up this profession is, on the whole, +superior to that of the men. Most of the women have had a high school +education, and many are University graduates, while the men, as a +rule, come from the elementary schools. + +The duties of a Woman Sanitary Inspector are sufficiently varied to +avoid monotony, and may comprise any or all of the following:-- + + _A_. (1) The inspection of factories in order to + see that suitable and sufficient sanitary + accommodation is provided for women, + in accordance with the requirements of + the Public Health Acts. + + (2) The carrying out of the provisions of + the Public Health and Factory and + Workshops Acts, with regard to the + registration and inspection of + + _(a)_ laundries, workshops, and workplaces + (including kitchens of + hotels and restaurants) where + women are employed; + + _(b)_ Outworkers' premises. + + (3) The inspection of tenement houses and + houses let in lodgings, and the enforcement + of the bye-laws of the Sanitary + Authority affecting these. + + (4) House-to-house inspection in the poorer + parts of the district. + + (5) The inspection of public lavatories for + women. + + (6) The carrying out of duties and inspection + concerning + + (_a_) Notifiable infectious diseases, + such as scarlet fever. + + (_b_) Non-notifiable infectious diseases + such as measles. + + (_c_) The notification of consumption. + + (7) Taking samples under the Food and + Drugs Acts. (This work is rarely + given to women.) + +For many of the above duties, women are obviously better fitted than +men, but for the following most important group of duties men are +practically disqualified by reason of their sex:-- + + _B_. Health visiting. Work in connection with + the reduction of infantile mortality :-- + + (1) Notification of Births Act, 1907. Visiting + infants and giving advice to mothers + about the feeding and general management + of young children. + + (2) Advising expectant mothers on the + management of their health and as + to the influence of ante-natal conditions + on their infants. + + (3) Work in connection with milk depôts and + infant consultations. + + (4) Promotion of general cleanliness in the + home and discovery of sanitary defects + + remediable under the Public Health + Acts. + + (5) Investigation of deaths of infants under one year of age. + + (6) Lecturing at mothers' meetings. + + (7) Organisation of voluntary Health + Workers in the district and arrangement + of their work. + + _C._ The following duties may also be required + in the Provinces:-- + + (1) Work relating to the administration of + the Midwives' Act, 1902 (where the + County Council have delegated their + powers to the District Council). + + (2) The inspection of shops under the Shop + Hours Act, 1892-94, and the Seats for + Shop-Assistants Act, 1899. + +The work described under _C._ 1 and 2, is performed in London (except +in the City) by special inspectors appointed by the London County +Council, who also inspect employment agencies where sleeping +accommodation is provided and carry out certain duties under the +Children's Act. + + (3) Work in connection with the medical + inspection of school children (performed + in London by the London + County Council school nurses). + +The duties of Men Sanitary Inspectors are very clearly defined, and +differ considerably from those of the women. Men are mainly engaged +in the inspection and reconstruction of drains, the detection of +structural defects in the houses of the working classes, the carrying +out of bye-laws with regard to tenement houses, the investigation of +cases of notifiable infectious diseases, the inspection of workshops +and factories, the enforcement of the law with regard to the sale of +foods and drugs and the abatement of smoke nuisances. + +As will be seen from the duties enumerated above, Women Inspectors, as +a general rule, are brought into very close and intimate contact with +the homes of the people, and this necessitates the exercise of much +tact and patience. The large demands thus made upon their powers of +persuasion and teaching capacity, involve a considerable strain upon +their nervous energy as well as their physical strength. The work +of the Men Inspectors, on the other hand, being of a more official +character, does not involve the same strain. + +There is no uniformity of practice with regard to hours of work, +holidays, remuneration or superannuation, either within or without the +metropolitan area. Each Local Authority makes its own arrangements. +Many have no superannuation scheme and give no pensions. Men and women +working for the same Authority usually work under the same conditions +as to hours and holidays: the rate of remuneration, however, is by no +means the same. The salaries of Women Sanitary Inspectors within the +Metropolitan area range from £100 to £200 per annum, the latter figure +being reached only in two boroughs and in the City of London: whilst +the salaries of the men range from £150 to £350. The average maximum +salary of the women is £150, and the average maximum salary of the men +is £205. Outside London, the salaries of both men and women are lower, +those of the women ranging from £65 to £100, a few rising to £150. +Payments are made monthly, and a month's notice can be demanded +on leaving, though it is frequently not enforced. Another unjust +distinction frequently made between men and women is that the latter +are generally compelled to retire upon marriage, thus enforcing +celibacy on some of our most capable women. + +The hours of work are usually from 9 A.M. to 5 or 6 P.M. and to 1 +P.M. on Saturdays. If we consider the nature of the work, the holidays +appear most inadequate--viz.: only from two to three weeks per +annum are allowed in London, and from ten to fourteen days in many +provincial towns. + +The Health Visitor, as a public official, was not known until 1899, +when several were appointed by the City Council of Birmingham. The +name "Health Visitor" was thought to be more feminine and suitable +than that of Inspector, and it was imagined that she would in +consequence be better received in the homes of the people. As a +private society in Manchester had previously engaged women of an +inferior class and education with the title of "Health Visitor," this +designation was deprecated by women already in the profession. Many +smaller provincial towns, however, followed the example of Birmingham, +and appointed Health Visitors instead of Women Sanitary Inspectors. +It was not until later that the Health Visitor was introduced into +London, and in the following way:-- + +In the Metropolitan area (exclusive of the City) half of the salary +of all Sanitary Inspectors is paid out of the County Rate, and their +duties are defined in Sections 107 and 108 of the Public Health +(London) Act, 1891. As Medical Officers of Health and the public +generally became more and more interested in the question of infant +mortality, Women Inspectors were employed to investigate infant +deaths, to visit houses where a birth had taken place and advise +mothers on infant care, to manage milk depôts, to weigh babies, and to +assist at infant consultations, and to do a great deal of work which +hitherto had not been considered the work of a Sanitary Inspector. +There was never any question as to the value of the work done nor of +the efficiency with which it was performed, but the Local Government +Board Auditor took the view that it did not come within the scope of +the order of 1891, defining the duties of a Sanitary Inspector, and +he refused to sanction the payment out of the County Rate of half the +salary of those women who were engaged in Health Visiting work. In +March 1905, the borough of Kensington solved the difficulty for itself +by appointing a Health Visitor and paying the whole of her salary out +of the Local Rate; but less wealthy boroughs felt unable to do this. +It was work which the Sanitary Authorities wanted to undertake; it was +work which the London County Council and the Local Government Board +were desirous of seeing performed, but this technical difficulty stood +in the way. It was overcome by the inclusion in the London County +Council General Powers' Act of 1908, of Section 7, which empowered +Sanitary Authorities in the Metropolitan area to appoint Health +Visitors, and this enabled the London County Council to contribute +half their salaries out of the County Rate. As a matter of fact, at +the present time (November 1913) the whole of the salary of Health +Visitors in London is being paid out of the Local Rate, as the +Exchequer contribution account is completely depleted by the payment +of the moiety of the salary of Sanitary Inspectors. + +The essential difference between a Woman Sanitary Inspector and a +Health Visitor is that the Woman Sanitary Inspector is a statutory +officer with a legal position, having definite rights of entry and +certain statutory powers for enforcing the Public Health Acts, while +a Health Visitor is a purely advisory officer, with no legal status +or right of entry or power to carry out any of the provisions of the +Public Health Acts. + +In actual practice, the title of Inspector has in no way proved an +obstacle to successful health visiting, as may be demonstrated by +an enquiry into the work now being carried on by Women Sanitary +Inspectors in Sheffield, Leeds, Liverpool, Bradford, London, and other +places. On the contrary, it has enabled officials to obtain an entry +into dirty and insanitary places and to expose cases of neglect, which +might otherwise have remained undiscovered. + +The Health Visitor is usually paid a lower salary than the Woman +Sanitary Inspector; this ranges in London from £100 to £120; in the +provinces it may be as low as £65 per annum, and rarely rises above +£100. The hours of work and holidays are, as a rule, the same as for +Women Sanitary Inspectors. The difference in salary has proved a great +temptation to Local Authorities in London to appoint Health Visitors +when Women Sanitary Inspectors would have been more useful and +efficient officers. Indeed, it is to be deplored that very few members +of Local Authorities understood the advantages to be gained by the +appointment of the more highly qualified official. The immediate +effect of Section 7 was that several boroughs, having no women +officials, proceeded to appoint Health Visitors; other boroughs, which +possessed Women Sanitary Inspectors, also appointed Health Visitors. +Seven or eight boroughs re-appointed their women officials in the dual +capacity of Sanitary Inspector and Health Visitor so that the work in +those cases went on as before. An indirect effect has been the almost +complete cessation of the appointment of Women Sanitary Inspectors +and the diminution in their number in some boroughs by the lapse of +appointments on resignation or marriage. The inspection of workshops +where women are employed has, in several instances, fallen back into +the hands of Men Inspectors, whose unsuitability for this work first +called women in England into the Public Health Service. + +In September 1909 the Local Government Board issued the following +order with regard to Health Visitors in London:-- + +"Art. 1. Qualifications. A woman shall be qualified to be appointed a +Health Visitor if she + +(_a_) is a duly qualified medical practitioner ; or + +(_b_) is a duly qualified nurse with three years' training in a +hospital or infirmary, being a training school for nurses and having a +resident physician or surgeon; or + +(_c_) is certified under the Midwives' Act, 1902; or + +(_d_) has had six months' nursing experience in a hospital receiving +children as well as adults, and holds the certificate of the Royal +Sanitary Institute for Health Visitors and School Nurses, or the +Diploma of the National Health Society; or + +(_e_) has discharged duties similar to those presented in the +regulations in the services of a Sanitary Authority and produces such +evidence as suffices to prove her competency; or + +(_f_) has a competent knowledge and experience of the theory and +practice of nurture, and the care and management of young children, +of attendance on women in and immediately after child-birth, and of +nursing attendance in cases of sickness or other mental or bodily +infirmity. + +"Art. 2. Every appointment must be confirmed by the Board. + +"Art. 6. Enables a Sanitary Authority to determine the appointment of +a Health Visitor by giving her three months' notice, and no woman may +be appointed unless she agrees to give three months' notice previous +to resigning the office or to forfeit a sum to be agreed. + +"Art. 8. Outlines the duties of the Health Visitor but prohibits +her from discharging duties pertaining to the position of a Sanitary +Inspector (unless with the consent of the Board she holds the dual +appointment). + +"Art. 9. The Board's approval is required to the salary to be paid +to the Health Visitor, and an allowance in respect of clothing, where +uniform or other distinctive dress is required, may be made." + +The Board in their circular letter state that they consider that, +in consideration of the importance of the duties and of the salaries +often paid to Women Sanitary Inspectors in London, the salary ought +not to be less than £100 per annum. + +It will be seen from the above that it is quite possible for a Health +Visitor to be appointed practically without any qualification for the +position, and with absolutely no knowledge of Public Health Law and +sanitation. + +It is, therefore, apparent that there are two classes of women +officials in connection with Public Health Departments, one on the +same footing as the men, with equal powers and responsibilities, but +remunerated at a much lower rate, and another with a lower status and +a still lower rate of remuneration. The duties of the second class may +be performed equally well by the first, but the duties of the first +cannot be performed by the second. The introduction of the Health +Visitor has therefore lowered the status of the Public Health Service. + +The remedy for this state of affairs is for competent woman officials +in the future to be appointed in the dual capacity of Sanitary +Inspector and Health Visitor at an adequate remuneration, and for +the order of 1891 defining the duties of a Sanitary Inspector to be +expanded to meet the developments which have been taking place in the +Public Health Acts since that date. + +There are two organisations which Women Sanitary Inspectors may +join:-- + +(1) The Women Sanitary Inspectors' Association, which includes +as members Women Sanitary Inspectors and Health Visitors holding +recognised certificates in sanitation. (Health Visitors holding +official appointments but without these recognised certificates in +sanitation may become associates.) + +(2) The Sanitary Inspectors' Association, which is composed of a large +number of Men Sanitary Inspectors and a few Women Sanitary Inspectors. +This is not open to Health Visitors. + +There is no approved society for Sanitary Inspectors under the +Insurance Act. The income of the majority of Men Inspectors exempts +them from the operation of the Act, but a large number of Men and +Women Inspectors receiving less than £160 per annum, have joined +the approved society of the National Association of Local Government +Officers. + +To sum up, we may say that on the whole the life of a Health Official +is a healthy and suitable one for a woman of average physique; it +demands great activity, with many hours spent out of doors, and +whoever undertakes it must be prepared for surprises and difficulties. +She may find herself in an office staffed entirely by men, with chief, +committee, and council composed entirely of men--indeed everything +looked at from the male standpoint. She either works singly or in +small groups of two or three, except in a few large towns where the +women officials may number from ten to twenty. Thus isolated and +scattered, it is extremely difficult for the Women Health Officials +to form an effective organisation. What is accomplished under one +Authority may have little or no effect upon another. + +One condition which presses heavily on many women is the shortness +of the holidays. The work is always arduous, particularly in poor +districts where one is brought face to face with poverty, disease, and +suffering, and from two to three weeks is not sufficient for rest and +recuperation, particularly as the years pass on. + +The creation of public opinion and the advent of a greater number of +women on Municipal Councils and Health Committees is greatly needed +to improve the conditions under which women officials work, and to +support their reasonable demands.[2] + + +[Footnote 1: Full particulars of this can be obtained from the +Secretary, Sanitary Inspectors' Examination Board, Adelaide Buildings, +London Bridge.] + +[Footnote 2: The above article considers under the term "Health +Visitors" such women only as are serving under public Municipal +Authorities. Unfortunately, since it gives rise to confusion, the +name is also used in connection with officials privately appointed by +various charitable institutions. These have no universally recognised +standard of attainments: some of the so-called "Health Visitors" are +without any qualifications, others, _e.g._, those employed by the +Jewish Board of Guardians, are fully trained and do excellent work, +comparable with that performed by Hospital Almoners. We hope, in a +later volume of this series, to publish an article on their duties and +position.[EDITOR.]] + + + + +SECTION V + +WOMEN IN THE CIVIL SERVICE + +I + +THE HIGHER GRADES: PRESENT POSITION AND PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE + + +The claim that women should be allowed to enter not only the lower but +the higher branches of the Civil Service is being freely made at the +present time. It is very generally felt that posts in which the holder +has to execute judgment and to decide on administrative matters should +be open to women as well as to men. + +Many reasons are urged for admitting women more freely to a share in +the responsible work of the Service, but the true basis of their claim +lies in this--that the most successful form of government and the +happiest condition for the governed can only be attained, in the +State as in the family, when masculine and feminine influences work in +harmony. + +It is not, perhaps, widely known that women have already made their +way into many branches of the Service and have done invaluable work +therein. Perhaps the strongest argument that can be urged in favour of +their admission into yet other branches of the Service will be found +in the following brief survey of the appointments held and the work +already done by them in various directions. + +_The Local Government Boards_ + +The credit of being the first Government Department to appoint a Woman +Inspector belongs to the English Local Government Board. As far +back as 1873, yielding to the pressure of public opinion, that Board +appointed a Woman Inspector, with full powers to inspect workhouses, +and district schools. During the short period of her appointment, this +lady did excellent work, and called attention to much needed reforms +in the education of girls in Poor Law Schools. Unfortunately, owing +to a breakdown in health, she was obliged to resign her appointment in +November 1874, and the Local Government Board, either repenting of +its enlightened action, or not appreciating the aid of a woman even +in matters concerning the welfare of women and girls, refrained from +appointing a woman to succeed her. It was not until 1885 that another +Woman Inspector was appointed, and then her work was restricted to the +inspection of Poor Law Children boarded out beyond the Union to which +they belonged. In 1896, once more by reason of the pressure of public +opinion, a woman was appointed as an Assistant Inspector of Poor +Law Institutions in the Metropolis. In 1898 a second Inspector +of Boarded-out Children was appointed, and in 1903 the number of +Inspectors was increased to three, each Inspector having a district +assigned to her. + +Four years ago the total number of Women Inspectors was increased to +seven, and the scope of their duties somewhat widened, as will be seen +below. There is now one Superintendent Inspector at a salary of £400 +to £450, and six Inspectors at £250 to £350. Candidates for these +inspectorships must have had considerable administrative experience. +They must hold a certificate of three years' training as a Nurse, and +the Central Midwives' Board's certificate is considered desirable. +These qualifications have only been required since 1910. + +The duties assigned to the Women Inspectors include (1) the inspection +of boarded-out children, both within and beyond the Poor Law Unions +to which they belong; and (2) the inspection of Poor Law +Institutions--_i.e._, infirmaries, sick wards of workhouses, maternity +wards, and workhouse nurseries: also of Certified Homes, Cottage +Homes, and Scattered Homes. + +The duties of the Women Inspectors in connection with the boarding-out +of Poor Law Children include the visiting of officials of Boarding-Out +Committees, and of homes in which children are boarded out; the +Inspector visits a sufficient number of children and homes to enable +her to satisfy herself that the duties of the Boarding-Out Committee +are carried out in a satisfactory manner, and makes a report to the +Board thereon. Women Inspectors arrange their own inspections of +boarded-out children within a prescribed district. + +Each of the fourteen districts into which the country is divided for +Poor Law purposes is placed under the care of a General Inspector +(male), whilst the half dozen Women Inspectors are available for +duty in these districts, but only at the invitation of the General +Inspector. If an Inspector omits to arrange for these visits it is +possible for his district to remain unvisited by a Woman Inspector for +an indefinite period. When it is remembered that there are still +194 Unions without a woman on the Board of Guardians, the present +arrangement, by which the Women Inspectors can only inspect Poor Law +Institutions on sufferance, is seen to be indefensible and the need +for reform in this direction urgent. + +There is one Assistant Woman Inspector, who is a highly qualified +medical woman, in the Public Health Department of the Board. She has +been in office only a few months, but it has been remarked in more +than one quarter that the enhanced value of the recent report of +the Board's Medical Officer on Infant Mortality is due to her +co-operation. + +The jurisdiction of the Local Government Board in London is confined +to England and Wales--Scotland and Ireland having their own Boards in +Edinburgh and Dublin respectively. + +The Local Government Board for Scotland appointed a Woman Inspector +for the first time about three years ago, at a salary of £200 a year. +She is a fully qualified medical woman. Her duties include both Poor +Law Work (_e.g._ the inspection of children in poor-houses or boarded +out, enquiries into complaints of inadequate relief to widows) and +Public Health Work (_e.g._ enquiries into any special incidence of +disease). + +The Local Government Board for Ireland employs two Women Inspectors, +one at a salary of £200-10-£300 and the other at a salary of £200, to +inspect boarded-out children. + +There are no prescribed qualifications for these posts; but they +have always been, and still are, held by highly qualified +women--distinguished graduates and experienced in social work; one is +a doctor of medicine. + +Sir Henry Robinson, Vice-President of the Local Government Board for +Ireland, said in his evidence before the Royal Commission on the Civil +Service that he would like to have one or two women doctors to go +round the work-houses and to visit the female wards, but the salaries +offered by the Treasury to women doctors seemed to him too low to +attract well qualified women. + +_The Home Office_ + +It was about twenty years ago that the Home Office began to realise +that the ever-increasing number of women and girl workers in factories +and workshops made it imperative that women as well as men inspectors +should be appointed if the Factory Acts intended for the protection of +workers were to be effectually enforced. There was no doubt even from +the first about the usefulness of these Women Inspectors, but in ten +years' time the number appointed for the whole of the United Kingdom +had only increased to eight. At the beginning of the present year, +1913, they numbered eighteen, and only within the last few months has +this number been increased to twenty. + +There is one Woman Inspector of Prisons at a salary of £300-15-£400. +(The lowest salary received by Men Inspectors is £600-20-£700.) + +There is also one Woman Assistant Inspector of Reformatories and +Industrial Schools. Her salary is £200-10-£300, whilst that of Men +Assistant Inspectors is £250-15-£400. + +Women Factory Inspectors are appointed in the same way as men. A +register of candidates is kept in the office, in which the name of +every applicant is entered. When a vacancy occurs a selection is made +from the list, and the best qualified candidates are interviewed by +a Committee of Selection, consisting of the Parliamentary +Under-Secretary, the Private Secretary, the Chief Inspector of +Factories and the Chief Woman Inspector. Generally speaking, about +one half of the candidates interviewed are selected to sit for an +examination in general subjects. At the end of two years' probation +a qualifying examination in Factory Law and Sanitary Science must be +passed. + +The Principal Woman Inspector is responsible to the Chief Inspector +of Factories for the administration of the Women Inspectors' work +throughout the United Kingdom. Women Inspectors are stationed at +Manchester, Birmingham, Glasgow, and Belfast. The work of the Women +Inspectors is so organised as to be entirely separate from that of the +Men Inspectors, although they cover the same ground. The nature and +scope of the women's work is so generally known that it is perhaps +unnecessary to describe it in much detail. Investigations into cases +of accident affecting women and girl workers or into complaints as to +the conditions under which they work are promptly made by the Women +Inspectors. Women Inspectors (equally with men) have power to enter +and inspect all factory and workshop premises where women and girls +are employed. They are empowered to enforce the provisions of the +Factory and Truck Acts and to prosecute in cases of breach of the law. +They conduct their own prosecutions. + +The reports of the Women Inspectors evoked much appreciative comment +during a recent debate in the House of Commons. Some interesting +remarks on their work are also to be found in the evidence given +before the Royal Commission on the Civil Service by Sir Edward Troup, +K.C.B., Permanent Under-Secretary of the Home Office. + +The number of Women Inspectors at present employed is not nearly +large enough to cope with the work that needs to be done. It must +be remembered that the staff enumerated above is responsible for the +inspection of factories and workshops in Scotland and Ireland as well +as in England, and that the number of women engaged in industrial work +has increased during the last five years from about one and a half +millions to two millions. The necessity of increasing the number of +Women Inspectors has frequently been urged upon the Government in +the House of Commons and in the press, and it seems probable that the +Government must soon yield to this pressure. + +The following extract from the _Women's Trade Union League Quarterly +Review_, July 1913, may be of interest in this connection:-- + +"That the Women Inspectors' staff in particular is far below the +numerical strength which would enable it to cope adequately--we do not +say completely--with the task presented to it, has long been patent +to every one who knows anything of the industrial world and the +part taken in it by the woman worker. But in 1912 promotions and +resignations left gaps in the already meagre ranks which for some time +were not filled even by recruits, with the result that the number +of inspections was necessarily reduced in proportion. To those who +realise, as we do, the importance of the women inspectors' visits, +both in detecting infringements of the law and in making clear its +provisions and their value to the employer and worker alike, this +decrease, even for a time, of the opportunities which Miss Anderson's +staff enjoy of exercising their beneficent and educative influence +seems altogether deplorable. The recent promise of the Home Secretary +to increase that staff by two is very welcome, but we cannot pretend +to think that such an increase will meet the need which these pages +reveal." + +There is one Woman Inspector of Prisons, a qualified medical woman, +who acts also as Assistant Inspector of State and Certified Inebriate +Reformatories. Her salary is £300-15-£400, whilst the lowest salary +received by Men Inspectors is £600-20-£700. + +There is one Woman Assistant Inspector of Reformatories and Industrial +Schools in Great Britain. Her salary is £200-10-£300, whilst that of +Men Assistant Inspectors is £250-15-£400. + +_The Board of Trade_ + +The first woman to be admitted to the higher branches of the Board +of Trade was appointed as a Labour Correspondent in 1893. In 1903 she +became the Senior Investigator for Women's Industries, the salary of +the post being fixed at £450. A Senior Investigator's Assistant was +also appointed at a salary of £120-10-£200, but the salary has now +been increased to £200-£300. These posts are open only to University +women with high honours. + +The Senior Investigator, with the help of her Assistant, undertakes +special enquiries into the conditions in women's industries. Perhaps +her most important function is to originate investigations concerning +women, which will yield information likely to be useful to the +Department in the future, when some particular question comes up for +discussion or decision. For instance, when the question of bringing +laundries within the scope of the Trade Boards Act was under +discussion, the investigations previously made by the Women +Investigators into wages and conditions proved invaluable. + +There are also three Women Investigators appointed in connection +with the Trade Boards. Their duty is to assist in the collection of +information relating to the scheduled trades, in all of which a large +number of women is employed. They may be called upon to help in the +preliminary work involved in setting up new Trade Boards. They explain +as far as necessary the provisions of the Act to the working women +concerned get nominations of workers to sit on those Boards and +otherwise assist the Boards in carrying out their functions. They also +conduct inspections to see that the law is carried out. + +All these appointments are made by the President of the Board of Trade +on the recommendation of the Civil Service Commissioners. + +_Labour Exchanges_ + +The establishment of Labour Exchanges under the Board of Trade some +years ago gave occasion for the appointment of a considerable number +of women to responsible posts. On the organising staff at the Central +Office there is a Principal Woman Officer at £400-15-£450, who is +responsible for the organisation of the women's work in all the Labour +Exchanges. She has an Assistant at £150-£7, 10s.--£200. A woman also +acts as Secretary to the large London Juvenile Advisory Committee. She +has the acting rank of an Assistant Divisional Officer, although her +salary (£300-15-£400) is less than that received by men Assistant +Divisional Officers. + +There are nine Senior Organising Officers with salaries of +£250-10-£350, six of whom are women. The three men holding these +appointments deal with Juvenile work only, whereas some of the women +are in charge of both Women's and Juvenile work. Of the five Junior +Organising Officers at £200--£7, 10s.--£250, three are women. The nine +Assistant Organising Officers at £150--£7, 10s.--£200 are all women. +All these officers are engaged in organising the work of the Juvenile +and Women's Departments all over the country, and inspecting local +offices. There are also twenty secretaries to Juvenile Advisory +Committees, who may be either men or women. The salary for these posts +is £150-5--£200. + +In the Divisional Offices there are some staff posts open to women +at a salary of £200 to £300. Their work is purely clerical, and is +concerned with Unemployment Insurance. + +The original appointments in this branch of the Board of Trade were +made by a Selection Committee on which the Civil Service Commissioners +were represented. Applications were invited by advertisement, and +a large number of candidates was interviewed. The more recent +appointments have been filled by candidates who have first appeared +before a Board, and have then passed a qualifying examination, +conducted by the Civil Service Commission. + +_Board of Education_ + +The Board of Education (or the Education Department, as it was +then called) was established in consequence of the passing of the +Elementary Education Act of 1870. Its jurisdiction was and still is +limited to England and Wales. + +Notwithstanding that it was responsible to Parliament for regulating +the conduct of public elementary education all over the country, +and that in those schools there were hundreds of women teachers and +thousands of little girl pupils, it seems not to have occurred to +the Department to call in the aid of women either as inspectors +or administrators until the appointment in 1884 of a Directress of +Needlework. A Directress of Cookery was added in 1891, and laundry +work was brought under her supervision in 1893. It was only when +the passing of the Education Act of 1893 had brought other forms of +education--secondary, technical, and scientific--more completely under +the supervision of the Department that the need for Women Inspectors +began to be felt. In justice to the Department it must be said that +having once realised the need, they did not meet it grudgingly. The +first Women Inspectors were appointed in 1904, and by the spring of +1905 there were no less than twelve, one of whom was appointed as +Chief. Since then the number has been steadily increasing, and there +are now 45--a much more satisfactory rate of progress than that of the +Women Factory Inspectors. + +_Educational Inspectors._--There are now 1 Chief Woman Inspector, at +a salary of £650; 45 Inspectors, 8 at £400-10-£500, and 35 at +£200-15-£400. + +The method of appointment of Women Inspectors' is similar to that of +men--_i.e._, by nomination of the President of the Board of Education. +The Chief Woman Inspector first interviews candidates, weighs their +qualifications, and reports upon them to the Secretary. There is no +examination on appointment. Besides academic qualifications, which +are the same as those of men, many of the Inspectors have special +qualifications, as well as having had practical experience in +teaching. + +A special class of work is allotted to each Inspector: about 17 of +them are occupied in inspecting Girls' and Infants' Public Elementary +Schools: 15 are responsible for Domestic Subject Centres in Elementary +Schools: 4 for Girls' and Mixed Secondary Schools: 3 for Training +Colleges (women's and mixed): and 3 again for Domestic and Trade +Courses and Girls' Clubs. + +In the case of secondary schools, the Women Inspectors pay special +attention to women's subjects, but they also take part in full +inspections. They are not in charge of districts, and therefore do +not carry on the miscellaneous correspondence with the Local Education +Authorities which falls to the lot of a District Inspector. In +relation to domestic subjects, however, the Women Inspectors are +practically in charge of districts, and deal directly with Local +Education Authorities. They inspect the work done by girls, and +look into the organisation of the schools with regard to health, +suitability of curricula, etc. + +In the case of elementary schools, the Women Inspectors are attached +to the various districts and are directed by the District Inspectors +(men) as occasion requires, to deal with infants' and mixed schools, +and to carry out routine inspections of public elementary schools. + +_Medical Inspectors._--There are one Senior Medical Officer at +£600-£800; one Junior Medical Officer at £400-20-£500; and also three +Inspectors of Physical Exercises at £200-15-£400. + +The Women Medical Inspectors take part in the work of the medical +branch in the same way as men; Physical Exercises come under their +jurisdiction. + +The Board of Education also employs three women on the permanent staff +of the Department of Special Enquiries and Reports. The salaries are +£100-£7, 10s-£180, and the posts are pensionable. The duties consist +partly of library work and partly of giving assistance in the general +intelligence work of the office. + +The Right Hon. A.H. Dyke Acland said in his evidence before the Royal +Commission on the Civil Service that he did not see why at the Board +of Education the same sort of women who become good inspectors and +headmistresses should not take part in the administrative work of the +office. + +_Scotch Education Department_ + +The first Woman Inspector was appointed by the Scotch Education +Department in 1902, and two others were appointed in 1910. Their scale +of salary is £200-15-£400. They are strictly specialist inspectors for +domestic economy subjects, cookery, laundry, etc., for which they have +qualifications including experience in teaching and inspecting such +subjects. + +Specially qualified women are occasionally employed by the Department +to inspect girls' schools, and are paid a fee according to the time +occupied. + +_National Education Board, Ireland_ + +Two Women Inspectors are employed by the Irish National Education +Board. Their salary is £150-10-£300, the same as that of Men Junior +Inspectors; Men Senior Inspectors receive £300-20-£700. + +There are two Women Organisers, whose duty it is to organise weak +schools. + +There are also 14 Organisers of Domestic Economy; their work is +similar to that of Inspectors; they travel about and have authority +in the schools; they do not inspect general subjects, but confine +themselves to cookery, laundry and domestic science. + +There are also six Women Organisers of Kindergarten. + +_The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries._ + +This Department has recently employed a few women upon various kinds +of scientific work. Three women are appointed as Assistant Naturalists +in the Fishery Branch, at a salary of £150 per annum, and two as +Junior Assistant Naturalists at £2 per week. They are appointed on +the nomination of the President, without examination, but they must +possess the necessary scientific qualifications and have taken a +recognised course of study. These posts are non-pensionable. The +Fishery Branch deals with questions relating to the natural history +and diseases of fish, fish-hatcheries and laboratories, the protection +of undersized fish, the effect of methods of capture, international +investigations, and grants in aid of fishery research. The women +are engaged upon the same work as men, except that they do not write +technical reports and are not liable to be called upon for sea duty. + +In the Herbarium and Library of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew there +are two Women Assistants at £150-10-£300 (the Men Assistants' scale is +£150-15-£300). Scientific qualifications are required for these posts, +and there is an examination by the Civil Service Commission. The +Library is maintained for official consultative work, to supply the +basis of an accurate nomenclature throughout the establishment and +as an aid to research. The Herbarium aims at representing the entire +vegetation of the earth with especial regard to that of British +possessions. A scheme for preparing a complete series of floras of +India and the Colonies was sanctioned by the Government in 1856, and +has been steadily prosecuted ever since. The principle work of the +staff is the correct identification of the specimens which reach +Kew from every part of the world, and their incorporation in the +Herbarium. It is visited for the purposes of study and research by +botanists from every country. + +The scientific work in the various branches of the Board of +Agriculture and Fisheries would seem to afford some scope for women of +scientific attainment. Sir T. Elliott, formerly Permanent Secretary +to the Board, in his evidence before the Royal Commission on the Civil +Service, said he considered that women could do good work in many +directions, and that their help might be especially valuable in +entomology. + +_The Public Trustee's Office._ + +The Public Trustee's office was established in 1908, under the Act of +1906. Two Women Inspectors--or more correctly speaking, Visitors--are +now employed, one of whom receives a salary of £200 and the other +£180. + +These Visitors are attached to the special Department set up to take +charge of children (1) left by will to the guardianship of the Public +Trustee, or (2) who have been awarded damages in the High Court either +for injury or for the loss of parents or guardians. + +As regards the first-named, the Public Trustee has express powers +under his rules to act either as sole guardian or co-trustee. In these +cases the Women Visitors assist the Public Trustee in discharging his +trust. They visit the children, go thoroughly into the circumstances +of each case, consulting with relatives and family solicitors. Schools +are chosen, holidays arranged, careers decided upon, apprenticeship or +training provided for; medical attendance is secured and even clothing +attended to. + +In all cases concerning children in which an action for damages has +been brought under the Common Law or under Lord Campbell's Act, the +money awarded as compensation is paid over to the Public Trustee, +unless the judge otherwise directs. A large part of the Women +Visitors' work consists of supervising these compensation cases. It is +important to see that the money is spent upon the children, and in +the manner most likely to promote their future welfare--_e.g._, +in providing education or special training. In the case of injured +children, proper medical attention is secured and any instruments or +artificial limbs which may be necessary. + +It is becoming increasingly the practice, when funds are raised +locally to help special cases, to place the money collected in the +hands of the Public Trustee, instead of appointing local trustees. +Where the beneficiaries of such funds are women or children--very +often they are widows--it becomes the duty of the Women Visitors to +find out on the spot how the money can best be applied, and to advise +the Public Trustee accordingly. + +In all cases the supervision is continued as long as it is required, +but where relatives are found to be competent and willing to take +charge of children the responsibility is left to them. + +Such work, concerned as it is with the young and the helpless, seems +peculiarly suited to women. The Public Trustee in his evidence before +the Royal Commission on the Civil Service, stated that the women +already appointed had proved themselves "most efficient." + + +_The National Health Insurance Commissions._ + +The Inspectors appointed by the National Health Insurance Commissions +are so recent an institution that it is not yet possible to say +whether the work to be performed by this Department will afford scope +for the employment of a large number of educated women. + +It is satisfactory to note, however, that the salaries of men and +women more nearly approximate to equality than in any previous +appointments. The salaries of the Women Commissioners in all four +countries are the same as those of the men, viz., £1,000 per annum. + +The English Commission has 10, the Scotch 1, and the Irish 1 Woman +Inspector at £300-10-£400. Men Inspectors begin at the same salary but +rise to £500. + +The English Commission has 25, the Welsh 3, the Scotch 5, and the +Irish 4 Assistant Women Inspectors at £100-10-£300. Men Assistant +Inspectors begin at the same salary, but after two years they rise by +£15 to £350. + +The English Commission has 19, the Welsh 1, the Scotch 5, and +the Irish 5 Women Health Insurance Officers, on a scale of salary +£80-5-£110, after two years rising by £7, 10s. to £150. This scale is +precisely the same as that of Men Health Insurance Officers. + +The duties of Men and Women Inspectors and Officers under the National +Health Insurance Commission are identical in character and scope. + +The primary function of these officers is to impose upon the whole +adult population the new conditions created by the Act--_i.e._, they +have to ensure the proper payment of contributions in respect of all +persons liable to be insured. + +Trades are assigned to Men or Women Inspectors according as a trade +employs men or women in greater numbers. + +The Insurance Commissioners work through the Inspectors in all matters +that are more susceptible to local treatment than to treatment by +correspondence. The Inspectors obtain information and make local +enquiries as to the facts in cases submitted to the Commissioners for +determination under various sections of the Act. + +An interesting account of the very varied duties which fall to the +lot of these Officers will be found in the first "Report on the +Administration of the National Insurance Act," Part I., which has +recently been published. The following extract from that Report will +give some idea of the work done by the Women Inspectors, and the +estimate which has been formed of it. + +"Inasmuch as the Insurance Commission is the first Government +Department in which a woman staff has been appointed from the outset, +special mention may be made of one portion of the work carried out +by the women inspectors during the past year. The enquiry held in the +autumn by Mr Pope on the objections raised to the inclusion of +married women outworkers within the provisions of Part I. of the Act +necessitated much careful investigation among employers and outworkers +in a large number of trades all over the country, such as tailoring, +glove-making, lace manufacture, carding of hooks and eyes, pins and +needles, buttons and fish-hooks at Birmingham, net-making at +Bridport, chain-making at Cradley Heath, straw hat-making at Luton, +chair-making, box-making, and boot, shoe, and hosiery manufacture. +This investigation was undertaken by the women staff. The enquiry +entailed hundreds of visits, both in the poorest parts of industrial +towns and in remote country districts, and in interviews with +employers and workers great tact and patience were required. Of the +evidence given by the women inspectors, Mr Pope reports that they +'one and all gave evidence with extreme moderation, impartiality and +discretion. The conspicuous fairness and the success with which they +had collected information were frequently a matter of commendation +from employers, who informed me that the enquiry had afforded them +information about their own trades which years of work in it had not +made known to them.'" + +_The General Post Office_ + +This paper would not be complete without some reference to the large +number--now nearly 3,000--of women clerks employed by the General Post +Office, all of whom enter the service by open competition, either +as girl clerks between sixteen and eighteen years of age or as women +clerks between eighteen and twenty. Their duties are necessarily of a +clerical nature, and in their earlier years at least they can hardly, +perhaps, be included in the "higher grades." Yet the supervisory posts +which become necessary wherever large numbers of workers are employed +call for considerable administrative ability and are proportionately +better remunerated. All women clerks are eligible for these posts, and +indeed they are never filled in any other way. + +The highest post open to a woman clerk in the General Post Office is +that of Superintendent at the _Savings Bank,_ the present holder +of which is on a scale of £350-20-£600. There are 4 Deputy +Superintendents at £270-15-£330; 13 Assistant Superintendents at +£210-10-£260; and 53 Principal Clerks at £150-10-£200. The Savings +Bank has the largest group of women clerks--numbering 1,210--of any +department, and of these 150 are in the first class. + +The next largest group of Women Clerks is in the _Money Order +Department;_ in this office the women outnumber the men in the +proportion of 5 to 1. They number 592, of whom 67 are in the +first class. There is one Superintendent at £350-20-£500; 1 Deputy +Superintendent at £270-15-£330; 5 Assistant Superintendents at +£210-10-£260; and 24 Principal Clerks at £150-10-£200. + +The _Accountant General's Department_ has 1 Superintendent at +£280-15-£400; 3 Assistant Superintendents at £210-10-£260; and 3 +Principal Clerks at £150-10-£200. The staff of clerks numbers 416, of +whom 57 are in the first class. + +The _London Telephone Service_ has 1 Assistant Superintendent at +£210-10-£260 and 5 Principal Clerks at £150-10-£200, with a staff of +278 clerks, of whom 21 are in the first class. + +The _Accountants Offices_ are the only ones in Edinburgh and Dublin +which employ women as Clerks. In Dublin there is 1 Superintendent at +£210-10-£250 and 2 Assistant Superintendents at £150-10-£170. Of +the staff of 61 clerks, 7 are first class. In Edinburgh there is 1 +Superintendent at £200-10-£250, and 1 Assistant Superintendent at +£150-10-£190. Of the staff of 69, 8 are in the first class. + +In consequence of the employment of so large a number of women, the +General Post Office found it necessary many years ago to employ a +Woman Medical Officer. The present holder of this office receives +a salary of £350-20-£500. She has the help of two Assistants, whose +salary is £180-15-£300. + +A few posts which may properly be deemed "higher" are also open to +Women Counter Clerks and Telegraphists. In the London Postal District +there are 3 Supervisors at £180-10-£250, 50 Assistant Supervisors +(first class) at £140-6-£170 and 61 Assistant Supervisors (second +class) at £115-5-£130. + +In the _Central Telegraph Office_ the Chief Supervisor of Women +Telegraphists receives a salary of £180-10-£300 (not a large salary +for supervising a staff numbering nearly 1,000), the 13 Supervisors +receive £180-10-£250, and the 35 Assistant Supervisors £140-6-£170. + +The _Postal District and Telegraph Offices_ in Dublin and Edinburgh +have each one Woman Supervisor of Counter and Telegraph Clerks at +£140-6-£875. In Dublin there are 12 and in Edinburgh 6 Assistants at +£110-5-£135. There are also a number of Supervisors in the provinces +whose rates of pay vary from £149-6-£175 to £115-5-£135, according to +the size of the district. + +The _Telephone Service_ also offers a few important posts to women. +In the London Telephone Service a Woman Superintendent is appointed +at £200-10-£300, 9 Supervisors at £159-6-£190, and 40 Assistant +Supervisors at £110-5-£145. There are about 3,600 Women Telephonists +employed within the London postal area. The salaries of Supervisors in +the provinces vary from £125-5-£150 to £105-5-£120, according to the +size of the district. + +The variety of work, which is now efficiently performed by women in +the various departments above enumerated, seems to prove conclusively +that when other branches are opened to them they will be equally +successful. + +In the statements recently submitted to the Royal Commission of the +Civil Service on behalf of various women's organisations, the reasons +for throwing open to women the more highly paid and responsible posts +were admirably set forth. + +On behalf of the Association of Headmistresses it was stated by Miss +R. Oldham:-- + + "In asking that in future some of the more highly paid + and responsible posts in the Civil Service should be thrown + open to women, the Headmistresses are conscious of the + fact that modern economic conditions have evolved the + woman who must of necessity, as well as by choice, + become self-supporting. The professions of teaching, + medicine, art, and literature offer openings with adequate + remuneration for the highly educated young woman of + to-day. Those lower branches of the Civil Service which, + with a few exceptions, alone are open to women do not + supply posts of enough responsibility and administrative + power to prove attractive to able women of secondary + school and university education, many of whom, in the + opinion of the Headmistresses are fitted, both by their + education and by their natural ability, to fill positions + of equal responsibility with their brothers. + + "They desire to submit the following reasons why + women should be considered eligible for positions of + administrative responsibility in the service of the + State :-- + + "(1) Women have shown by their success in positions + of great responsibility that they are capable of + undertaking high administrative work. + + "(2) Women have special gifts for social investigation + and inquiry, and special knowledge in many + important subjects, which ought to be used + in the service of the State. + + "(3) Under present conditions of women's employment + in the Service, the ablest and most + highly qualified women do not enter it. + + "(4) The presence of a large number of women in + the lower branches of the Civil Service makes + it desirable that there should be women + employed in higher and more responsible + posts. This would have the effect of ensuring + good discipline and judicious promotion. + + "(5) The present almost total exclusion of women + from high and responsible posts has the effect + of discrediting them as applicants for such + posts outside the Service. Private employers + when asked to give women opportunities for + rising to posts of responsibility, are able to + point to the failure of the Government to + do so." + + In the statement submitted by Mrs W.L. + Courtney on behalf of the Council on Women's + Employment in the Civil Service the claim was + made:-- + + "That women should be eligible for first division + appointments, or equivalent appointments, in suitable + offices, such as the Education Office, the Local Government + Board, the Home Office, the Insurance Commission, + and the Board of Trade. It has already been found + necessary to appoint women to responsible posts in the + Inspectorate of each of these offices, and the same + reasons which justify those appointments point also to + the desirability of appointing women to positions in the + corresponding internal administrative service." + +There is another point to be remembered in this connection; it is +important that the recommendations made by Women Inspectors should +have the chance of being considered and acted upon by women in an +administrative capacity, as well as by men. Otherwise there is danger +that the women's point of view put forward by an Inspector may be +overlooked or her recommendations brushed aside. + +Miss Penrose, Principal of Somerville College, Oxford, in her +statement for the Royal Commission, said: + + "In branches of the Service, such as the Home Office, + the Local Government Board, and the Board of Trade, in + which a good deal of work is done, or should be done, by + women because it is concerned with women, I think it + would be an advantage to have one or more women on + the general administrative staff, which deals with the + work of the departments as a whole. + + "If a board which deals with human beings, does not + employ women except to carry out the policy of the + Board, after that policy has been initiated, shaped and + embodied in regulations, it may not infrequently be found + that regulations unsuitable in some respects to be applied + to women have been drafted, or that unnecessary differences + of treatment have been created. Just as in so far + as women look at things from a different angle it is + important that their point of view should be at the service + of a department at as early a stage as possible." + +An illustration of this may be found in the draft Order for the +regulation of Poor Law Institutions which is now before the public. +This draft has been drawn up by a departmental committee of the Local +Government Board, composed entirely of men, notwithstanding that it +will regulate the administration of institutions staffed by women +and having large numbers of women and children as inmates. It is not +surprising to find that the draft Order meets with the disapproval of +many women engaged in poor law work. + +The Council on Women's Employment also claimed:-- + + "That women should be made eligible or considered + for appointment-- + + "As scientific specialists, especially museum assistants + and keepers. The area of choice would thus be enlarged + in cases where there is sometimes a very small number of + suitable candidates. Women have been notably successful + in original work in various departments of botany, and + have done valuable original work in bacteriology and + archaeology. They are already employed as scientific + specialists in certain departments and in temporary work + for the British Museum, though hitherto excluded from + its permanent service. + + "As librarians, keepers of records and papers, and + assistants to the holders of these offices, and to positions + requiring qualifications for statistical work and historical + knowledge, such as those in the Public Record Office. + + "That appointments in suitable offices should be opened + to women between the ages of 19 and 24, who have either + passed or can pass an examination equivalent to that of + male second division clerks, or clerks of the intermediate + class, according to the practice of the department in + filling its appointments. It seems desirable that the + abilities of women who would otherwise be occupied in + business, teaching, secretarial and clerical, and other work, + much of which is closely comparable with that of second + division and intermediate clerks, should be available for + the work of the Civil Service, especially in the offices + already mentioned in connection with the first division + appointments." + +These claims, pertinent as they are, and strongly as they should be +urged, need to be extended still further. + +Women claim to be admitted to share in the administrative work, not +only of those departments directly concerned with women, but also +in those in which the work concerns equally men and women as +citizens--_e.g._, the Treasury, the Foreign Office, the Colonial +Office, the Inland Revenue. No one could argue that the work of these +departments is unsuitable for women, any more than is the work of the +General Post Office, in which they have so conspicuously succeeded. +Even the War Office, with the charge of so many soldiers' wives and +children living in barracks, removed from the jurisdiction of all +civic services, and the control of so large a number of Army Nurses, +needs women amongst its administrators. + +The claim must also be made quite clearly, that in throwing open these +posts to women, the same method of recruiting must be employed as +for men, and the remuneration must be at the same rate. In asking for +these opportunities women are simply asking that the sex disability +which at present bars them from the majority of posts in the service, +may be removed. They do not seek admission in some special way, nor do +they wish to undercut men by accepting lower salaries. They ask that +the sex barrier may be removed in the case of both Class I. and Class +II. appointments--in other words, that these appointments may be open +to them on the same conditions as they are or may be open to men. + +In the case of the majority of the appointments hitherto held by +women, some care has been taken to put them on a different footing +from those of men; in these instances it is not easy to compare the +work of women with that of men, or to urge the claim of women to +be paid at the same rate as men for work of equal value. There are, +however, some conspicuous instances--_e.g._, of the Factory Inspectors +and Inspectors of Schools--in which no such differentiation is +possible and in which the only reason for paying the women less than +the men seems to be that given by the ex-Permanent Secretary of the +Treasury in his evidence before the Royal Commission on the Civil +Service, "that women ought to be got as cheaply as possible, and that +if they can be got for less, they ought not to be paid the same as +men." + +There seems some ground for believing that official opinion in +this matter is undergoing modification, since in the case of later +appointments--_e.g._, in the Labour Exchanges and in the National +Health Insurance Commission--the tendency has been to approximate the +salaries of women much more closely to those of men and even in some +instances to make them identical. It is therefore reasonable to hope +that the principle of equal pay for equal work will, before long, be +extended to appointments of longer standing, in which its application +would be no less just than in the case of new appointments. + + + + +II + +THE LOWER GRADES AND THE PRESENT POSITION + + +So far as the position of its women workers is concerned, the State is +very far from being the model employer it sometimes professes to +be. When one considers the very wide disparity existing between the +salaries for similar work of women and of men, one realises to what +an enormous extent the Exchequer, and, consequently, the taxpayer, has +benefited by the economies practised at the expense of the women Civil +Servants ever since their introduction in the early seventies. +There is not a shadow of doubt that economy was the motive for their +employment, but even economy would not have justified the continued +increase in their numbers, had they not exhibited what has been +called by a high official, "remarkable efficiency," and also the very +desirable qualities of docility, patience, and conscientiousness. + +When the Government first took over the telegraphs from the private +companies, it found women in their employ, and decided to retain them +in the service. Women Telegraphists and Counter Clerks are now a very +large body numbering in London about 2,000, and in the Provinces about +5,000,--a total of 7,000 women as compared with 16,000 men. The duties +of men and women telegraphists are more closely comparable than their +respective work in any other class in the Civil Service, practically +the only differentiation being that women are debarred from night +duty. They are also generally exempt from Sunday duty, excessive late +duty, and special duties in connection with race meetings, although +the Hobhouse Committee in 1907 recommended that women should do the +Sunday work if required. (As, however, payment for this is made at a +higher rate, there is usually no lack of volunteers.) Their scale +of salary in the Central Telegraph Office is 18s. a week at eighteen +years of age, rising to a maximum of 40s. The men's scale is 20s. +rising to 65s. When the necessary technical qualifications are +acquired, an allowance of 3s. a week carried beyond the maximum and +pensionable, is now given to both sexes alike. Formerly the technical +allowance for women was 1s. 6d. per week only, and this would appear +to account for the lower proportion of women who have qualified for +the technical increment. + +There appears to be a tendency to stereotype certain kinds of work for +men only, in order to justify the differentiation in pay, but in +point of fact, most of the work now exclusively allotted to male +telegraphists was at one time done by women. The work done by men and +women Counter Clerks is identical. The women in the Telegraph Service +have no separate organisation, but combine with the men in the Postal +Telegraph Clerks' Association, which has a large number of branches, +and carries on a very active campaign for improvement in pay and +conditions of service. Equal pay for equal work is one of the planks +in its platform, and formed part of the case put forward before the +Select Committee on Post Office Servants last year. + +Women Clerks are employed in the great financial Services of the +General Post Office, the Savings Bank Department, Money Order +Department (including the Postal Order Branch), Accountant-General's +Department, and the Controller's Office of the London Telephone +Service, as well as in the Accountant's Departments of the General +Post Offices in Edinburgh and Dublin. In all, they number nearly +3,000. It may, perhaps, be of interest to go into the history of this +class. + +Women Clerks were first introduced into the General Post Office +in 1871 by Mr Scudamore, who considered that as women were more +"fault-finding" than men, they might well be used as "a check on the +somewhat illiterate postmasters of the United Kingdom in the +interests of a somewhat long-suffering public." Entry was at first +by nomination, but in 1881 the appointment of Women Clerks was thrown +open to the public by competitive examination by Mr Fawcett, who was +then Postmaster General. This step met with some opposition, and Queen +Victoria even caused a letter to be written to Mr Fawcett expressing +her strong disapproval of the change. The Postmaster-General, however, +carried his point, and fixed the scale of salary at £65, rising by £3 +per annum to £80. When the working day was increased from six to seven +hours, the maximum was raised to £100. The revisions of the Tweedmouth +Inter-Departmental Committee came into force in 1897, involving many +concessions to the male staff, and simultaneously the minimum salary +of the Women Clerks was, without any warning, reduced for new entrants +to £55 per annum, and the increment for the first six years was +reduced to £2, 10s. + +Realising the defencelessness of their position, the Women Clerks +formed an Association in 1901, and so strong was the case for +improvement which they were able to bring before the Hobhouse +Parliamentary Committee of 1906, that in spite of considerable +misrepresentation of their work in the evidence given by Heads of +Departments, they were able not only to get back the 1881 minimum of +£65, but were awarded further an increased increment of £5 throughout +the scale and a rise of £10 in the maximum. This was the position +until December 1911, when a tentative scheme was introduced in the +Money Order Department to hand over all the simpler duties to a new +class of Assistant Women Clerks with an eight-hour day and a wage +of 18s. rising to 34s. a week. The Association of Post Office Women +Clerks, the basis of which is "equal pay and opportunities for women +with men in the Civil Service," and which therefore necessarily +stands for simplification of the classes of employment, regarded +the restriction of a fresh grade of women to yet another water-tight +compartment at a low wage as in itself an evil. But apart from this, +they looked upon the scheme as a deliberate evasion of the Hobhouse +Committee's recommendations. So strong was the criticism levelled at +the new scheme, both by Members of Parliament and the Press, that the +Postmaster-General, Mr Herbert Samuel, consented to refer the +matter to the Select Committee on the Post Office (known as the Holt +Committee)[1], which was appointed in the early part of 1912, and +he gave an undertaking that no more appointments to the new grade +should be made in the Money Order Department until the Committee had +reported, The value of this concession was considerably lessened by +its limited application, and the fact that many Assistant Women Clerks +were subsequently appointed to the London Telephone Service, clearly +indicated the intention of the authorities to proceed with the +development of the scheme in a Department which provided an easier +field of operation in the shape of new work and a new staff taken over +from the National Telephone Company. + +In 1897 the class of Girl Clerks was created, to undertake some of the +simpler duties in the Savings Bank Department, hitherto performed by +Women Clerks. They were subsequently introduced into the Money +Order Department and the Controller's Office of the London Telephone +Service, and there are approximately 250 now employed. They take +the same examination as Women Clerks, but at a lower age--sixteen +to eighteen--and are grouped apart for the purpose of marking. Their +hours of duty are seven daily, and their salary £42, raising by £3 per +annum, to £48. They are in reality a probationary class, and become +Women Clerks automatically after two years' service. The introduction +of this class was not considered by the Department to be an +administrative success, as the obligation to make them Women Clerks in +two years prevented their being employed in sufficiently large numbers +to effect any appreciable economy. The scheme for the introduction of +the grade of Assistant Woman Clerk involved the abolition of the Girl +Clerk. + +The Women Clerks are an analogous grade to the Male Clerks of the +Second Division who are common to the whole Civil Service, and they +do practically the same class of work. The examinations for the +two classes are somewhat severe in character and are roughly +comparable.[2] There is, however, a wide disparity in the salaries +paid, as will be seen from the following comparison:-- + + SECOND DIVISION CLERKS. + + £70 by £7, 10s. per an. to £130 + thence by £10 per an. to £200 + thence by £10 per an. to £300 + (Efficiency Bar at £130 and + £200) + + Above the salary of £300 advancement + to higher posts by promotion. + + + WOMEN CLERKS. + + _Second Class_-- + £65 by £5 per an. to £100 + (No Efficiency Bar) + + _First Class _(by promotion)-- + £115 by £5 to £140 + + Above the rank of First Class + Clerk there are certain higher + posts which constitute a percentage + of 4.6 of the total + number of First and Second + Class Clerks. + +The existence of this double standard of payment for the same kind +of work is not only an injustice to the women concerned, but is a +standing menace to the men, who rightly consider that the presence +of women as a blackleg class keeps down their wages and reduces their +prospect of promotion. A sense of irritation and dissatisfaction is +thus engendered between the two sexes. The maintenance of separate +staffs of similar status but with different rates of remuneration, +enables the department to play off one against the other, for the +existence of a lower paid class makes it increasingly difficult for +the Men Clerks to substantiate a claim for better pay themselves. The +standard of their work is raised by the "moving-down" or "degrading" +of duties, without any improvement in pay such as they would probably +be able to obtain if women were not involuntarily undercutting them. +Women fully sympathise with their male colleagues, whose prospects +are injured in this way, but they insist that the only solution of +the difficulty is equal treatment and fair and open competition. +The Association of Clerks of the Second Division supported the Women +Clerks' claim for equal pay for equal work in their evidence before +the Royal Commission on the Civil Service, and it is gratifying that, +in spite of the determined policy of the department to adhere as far +as possible to the absurd segregation of the sexes, the two organised +bodies of Men and Women Clerks are on excellent terms. + +In 1883 the class of Women Sorters was instituted, its original scale +of pay ranging from 12s. per week, increasing by annual increments of +1s. to 20s. per week. In 1885 a first class was created with a maximum +of 30s. per week. The Tweedmouth Committee of 1897 abolished the +classification, and substituted therefor an efficiency bar at 21s., +so that, unless incompetent, all the Women Sorters have a right to +proceed to the maximum of 30s. Since the salary was fixed at that +figure, the work of the Sorters has greatly improved in character. +Originally introduced for the purpose of sorting, arranging, and +filing the multitudinous kinds of official documents and papers, +they have by degrees taken over more and more of the simpler duties +formerly performed by the Women Clerks, until, at the present day, +it is no exaggeration to say that nearly one-half of their duties +consists of elementary clerical work. The Women Sorters are recruited +from an examination of the same standard as that hitherto applied +to Telegraphists, and the Women Sorters' Association claims that the +principle of equality between Sorters and Telegraphists, which was +recommended to the department by the Tweedmouth Committee in 1897, +should be applied to the Women Sorters. Prior to 1900, vacancies +occurring in the female staff at the Returned Letter Office were +filled by transferred Women Telegraphists, but since that date, +vacancies have been filled by successful candidates at the Women +Sorters' examinations, who are awarded the Women Telegraphists' scale +of pay. There is, therefore, the anomaly of two different scales +of pay being given to successful candidates in the Women Sorters' +examinations. The Women Sorters also claim some outlet, or prospect of +advancement, other than that provided by the "Senior Sorterships," +of which there are a few in each department, carrying a supervising +allowance of 3s. a week; this claim has been partly met by the +apportionment of the new posts of Assistant Women Clerks previously +mentioned. + +Women Telephone Operators are a large and rapidly growing class, +recruited entirely by nomination followed by a qualifying examination. +They number at the present time about 4,000, including Supervisors. +The growing use of the telephone is replacing the telegraph, and +is likely to make of this class a serious rival to the grade of +Telegraphist. In this connection, it is important to recognise that +the change is likely to entail an enormous increase in the use of +cheap labour. The maximum salary of the Telephonist in London is only +28s. per week. The work is extremely exacting and exhausting to the +nervous system, so much so, that it is an absolute necessity for the +maintenance of health that proper and adequate rest-room accommodation +should be provided, and that the operators should be equipped with +apparatus of the proper type. + +The classes already mentioned have, until the present year (1913), +been recruited solely for the Post Office, but the class of Women +Typists, numbering about 600, are a Treasury Class, and are common to +the whole Civil Service, the conditions of entry varying according +to the Department. In the Post Office alone, are Typists recruited +by open competitive examination. The scale of salary is 20s. a week, +rising in three years to 26s.: they then have the option of qualifying +in shorthand, after which they can rise to 31s. per week. In the Post +Office, however, the number allowed to qualify in this way is +limited to 50 per cent. of the staff. The supervising posts are: +Superintendent, 35s. a week, and Chief Superintendent, 40s. a week. +No higher positions are open to Typists anywhere, no matter how good +their qualifications and educational equipment. The Association of +Civil Service Typists claim some avenue of promotion to clerical work +in the Departments in which they serve. + +There are also about 650 women employed by the Board of Trade in the +Labour Exchange Service. With the exception of about 180, who were +transferred from the Post Office for Unemployment Insurance Work under +Part II. of the National Insurance Act, these women were admitted +by the new method of recruitment adopted by the Civil Service +Commissioner under Clause VII. of the Order in Council of January +1910. Under this system, applications are invited, and a certain +number of apparently suitable candidates are interviewed by a +committee of selection, and those chosen for appointment are +subsequently required to pass a qualifying examination. The +educational standard of this examination, for both men and women, +is so low that it appears to be designed, not for the purpose +of selecting candidates of good general education, but merely to +eliminate the illiterate. + +The scale of salary for these posts is the same for women as for men, +and is as follows:-- + + Lower Grade £60, rising by increments of £5 + per annum to £105. + Higher Grade £110, rising by increments of + £5 per annum to £150. + +There are also a few higher appointments. Women are, however, under +a particular disability in that they must wait for a vacancy in the +Higher Grade before passing on beyond £105, whilst in the case of +the Men Clerks there is no such stoppage, officers being allowed to +proceed straight on, if certified efficient. + +It will, no doubt, have been observed that the post of Women Clerk is +the highest in the Service open to women by competitive examination, +and with the exception of some sixteen or eighteen appointments in the +Board of Education, Women Clerks have hitherto been recruited for the +Post Office alone. They are now being recruited from this examination +for the National Health Insurance Commissions. The exclusion of Women +Clerks from the numerous State Departments such as the Home Office, +Local Government Board, Inland Revenue, etc., is mainly traditional, +as they are not excluded by the wording of the Order in Council of +10th January 1910 (paragraph 5, Part I.) which states that + + "all appointments ... shall be made by means of competitive + examinations according to regulations framed, or + to be from time to time framed by the Commissioners, + and approved by the Treasury, _open to all persons_(of the + requisite age, health, character, and other qualifications + prescribed in the said regulations) who may be desirous + of attending the same...." + +In this passage the word "persons" is interpreted to mean men only, +but as other professions are yielding to the pressure of modern +economic conditions and are opening their doors to women, it is +time that the State considered the advisability of profiting by the +services of women eminently fitted to perform clerical, organising, +and administrative duties, many of whom may possess the special +qualifications needed for the work in various Government Departments. + +The present limitation of the employment of women, and their lack of +prospects of advancement constitutes a serious grievance. Whilst many +avenues are open to men to improve their condition in the early years +of service, if they possess the necessary ability and enterprise, +women have no such opportunities, and have practically no chance of +advancement except by way of supervision in their own grade. Moreover, +if we look at this question from the point of view of advantage to the +community, we find that the present mode of staffing the higher posts +of the service from the male sex narrows the field of selection. It is +in the interests of the public that the best type of officer should be +secured, and not merely the best male available, and the unrestricted +admission of women to the higher classes in the Civil Service, and +their payment on the same terms as men would make for the greater +efficiency of the Department, by securing the services of highly +qualified women, who at present are not attracted by the small +salaries and the meagre prospects offered. It must also be realised by +heads of families that they have a right to expect that the service of +the State--a dignified, secure, and independent profession--should be +open to their daughters as well as to their sons. Furthermore, as +the revenue, out of which the salaries of Civil Servants are paid, is +collected from women as well as from men, women should have an equal +right to earn those salaries. + +Economy in working and simplification of administration would be +attained by abolishing the separate examinations, and allowing men and +women to enter for the same examinations on equal terms. + +There are certain advantages attached to service under the State, +which are taken into account when salaries are fixed, but the value +of these privileges to the staff is frequently over-estimated by +the outsider. For instance, security of tenure and the prospect of +a pension at retirement, often act as a deterrent to clever and +enterprising officers who, but for the sacrifice involved, would +throw up their appointment and seek more remunerative and promising +employment outside. Again, the medical attendance provided by the +Post Office is, in the case of the women employed in the Headquarters +Departments, only available in practice when they are well enough to +attend at the office to wait on the Medical Officer there. In theory, +every employée is entitled to the services of a Medical Officer at her +own home in case of serious illness, but, in fact, the Women Medical +Officers are too few to be able to give the necessary individual +attention. As an instance of this, it may be stated that to one +Department, numbering 1,800 women, the part time of one doctor only, +is allotted. + +Other advantages are a steadily progressing scale of salary, +provided that efficient service is rendered; annual leave with pay; +a reasonable working day--seven hours for the clerical force and the +typists, and eight hours for the other classes; in most Departments +payment is made for overtime; a pension on compulsory retirement after +ten years' service, except in the case of women retired on marriage, +when a gratuity is given after six years' service, amounting to +one month's salary for every year of service up to twelve years. +A compassionate allowance is also given on the same basis for both +sexes, in cases where an officer is compelled to retire through +ill-health before completing ten years' service. Sick pay is granted +up to a maximum of six months on full pay and six months on half +pay. The full period of leave is not, however, always allowed before +retirement. It is given only at the discretion of the Department, +if there is a chance of complete recovery; officers have no definite +claim to it. Although these are distinct advantages to the staff, it +must not be overlooked that it is essential for the State to offer +some inducements of this kind, in order to obtain a staff more or less +permanent who will regard their employment as a career. It is most +important for the proper conduct of a Government office that the +officials should have a lasting interest in their work, and a share in +the successful administration of the Department. + +Women Civil Servants are under the Superannuation Act of 1859 as +regards their pensions, and receive an amount equal to one-sixtieth +of their annual salary at retirement, for every year of service. Under +the Courtney Scheme of 1909, the basis of calculation is one-eightieth +instead of one-sixtieth, and the reduction in the pension is +compensated by a cash payment at retirement, or, in the event of +death occurring whilst in harness, a cash payment is made to the +next-of-kin. Women secured their exclusion from the provisions of the +latter scheme at their own request, as it was felt that the larger +pension was of more value to them than the cash payment at death or +retirement; moreover their pensions were already too small to admit of +further diminution. + +It is a general rule throughout the Service that a woman must retire +on marriage; as already mentioned, a compensating-bonus is granted in +respect of the loss of pension thereby sustained. A married woman has +no definite claim to return to her employment, should she again desire +to earn her own living, and only if widowed is she allowed, in certain +circumstances, to return to the Service. Should any other misfortune +overtake her, or should she for any other reason wish to become +economically independent, she is not allowed to earn her living by +means of her own profession of Civil Servant. This rule of the Service +undoubtedly acts as a deterrent to marriage for, according to the +statistics published, only about 3 per cent. of the whole female staff +annually leave to be married. It need hardly be pointed out that +in the present state of the law of the land, when no portion of a +husband's income is secured to his wife as a right, a woman will not +lightly throw up her means of livelihood with no prospect of returning +to it should she so desire, in order to take her chance of happiness +with a man whom the law permits to hold her in subjection body and +soul. There is another aspect of the question: Women Civil Servants +have to pass a strict medical examination before entering the Service; +they have to furnish satisfactory evidence of respectability, of the +health of their antecedents, and of a certain standard of education. +They are therefore what is known as "selected lives": if these women +are forced to remain celibate as a condition of their employment, +it is a distinct loss to the nation of a specially selected class +of potential mothers. In these days, when the declining birthrate is +causing some concern to our statesmen, it would surely be worth their +while to consider how far they are themselves contributing to the +condition of affairs which they deplore, by maintaining this rigid +regulation for the sake of a worn-out sentiment. The compulsory +resignation on marriage is a definite wrong both to the women +concerned and to the community at large, for women of selected health +and intellect are discouraged from marriage by this regulation. +Pending the final settlement of this question which is likely to be a +very controversial one, the difficulty might be met by a modification +of the existing rule allowing married women who have been Civil +Servants to return to their employment should they again desire to +earn their own living by means of the only profession for which they +have qualified. + +Women in the Civil Service are in a peculiar position with regard +to their rights as citizens. They are handicapped by all the rules +governing the political action of men, while they are without the +means of maintaining their status as wage-earners. Although they +are prohibited by reason of their sex, from taking part in any +Parliamentary election as voters, they are nevertheless bound by the +rules of the Civil Service which were drawn up when Civil Servants +were first enfranchised. These rules state that "now officers have +been relieved of the electoral disabilities to which they were +formerly subject, they are eligible to be placed on the Parliamentary +Register and to vote at a parliamentary election. Nevertheless, it +is expected of them as Public Servants that they should maintain a +certain reserve in political matters and not put themselves forward +on one side or the other." This rule has been interpreted by the +Department to mean that no Woman Civil Servant may take an active part +in any Suffrage Society which interferes in party politics. Thus women +are forced to accept a subservient position, and are also prevented +from taking direct steps to raise their status. The principle of equal +pay for equal work, if conceded without equal opportunities, is liable +to be evaded, and must be safeguarded by statute, and there is no +guarantee that any improvement gained will be permanent until women +have political power to enforce their demands, for the masculine +point of view dominates every Government Department and colours all +administration. + +Moreover, it should be borne in mind that women are handicapped by +being, to a large degree, dependent on reports of their work emanating +from male Heads of Departments who are in many cases prejudiced, +sometimes unconsciously, against their employment. Heads of +Departments do not as a rule take the same amount of personal interest +as a private employer in the women under their control, and so these +are frequently the victims of caprice. If the person in authority at +a particular office happens to object to employing women, he actually +opposes their appointment in that office, and deprives them of the +chance of displaying their ability. Whilst they have more than their +fair share of routine work, and are excluded from practically all the +higher posts, they are on that account actually accused of possessing +less initiative, less administrative ability, and less power of acting +in sudden emergencies than men. It is indeed a vicious circle. They +are prevented by their sex from acquiring these qualities in the +ordinary course of their duties and excluded from the examinations for +admission to those posts in which such qualities would be of use. It +is then seriously urged by responsible officials of the Civil Service +as an argument against their admittance to superior appointments, that +they are lacking in the necessary qualifications. + +Such unreasonable and unfair criticism creates bitterness in the minds +of the women, who find themselves, in a large number of cases, saddled +with domestic responsibilities as great or greater than those of the +officials who would seek to drive them back into the home, and who +endeavour to prevent them from rising to any decent positions in their +profession. An encouraging sign, however, is the enlightened attitude +shown by some of the members of the Royal Commission on the Civil +Service; the pertinent enquiries made of the Heads of Departments +regarding the position of women tend to show that the question will, +at least, receive consideration, and that the evidence placed before +the Commission by the women's organisations will not be without its +effect on the administration of the Civil Service in the future. + +The recognition by the male staff in the Civil Service of the +importance of the principle of equal pay for equal work is a sign of +advance which should be welcomed by all who have the cause of women +at heart. This increased enlightenment was evidenced at the Annual +Conference of the Civil Service Federation held at the Guildhall +on the 11th October last. Delegates were present, representing +approximately 100,000 Civil Servants, and the following resolution, +which is important enough to be quoted in full, was passed by a +majority of 31 votes to 10. + + "That this Council expresses its conviction that equal + pay for equal work is the only solution of the problem + of male and female labour in the Civil Service, and + considers that the establishment of this principle is the + only alternative to the competition of cheapness which + is the result of the existing double standard of payment, + and is affecting so injuriously the conditions of service + of both men and women. It therefore pledges itself to + endeavour to obtain the abolition of the sex disability." + +Women in the Service are realising more and more that their strength +lies in effective combination. A new organisation has recently sprung +into being as a result of the introduction of Women Clerks into +the Board of Trade and the National Health Insurance Service, the +Federation of Civil Service Women Clerks having been formed for +the purpose of working for the larger interests of the women in the +various clerical departments of the Civil Service. The general policy +of the Federation will be to afford a ready means of communication +between various sections of the Service for the purpose of taking +joint action when necessary in the interests of the whole body of +Women Clerks, and to enable them to concentrate more effectively on +the larger issues connected with the claim for equality of opportunity +for women with men in the Civil Service. + + * * * * * + +This article will not be complete without some reference to the +Report of the Holt Committee which is engaging the attention of the +Postmaster General at the present time. + +When the Report was published in August last, it was generally agreed +that the women had been badly treated. The demand for equality of +remuneration with the male staff which was put forward by the Women +Telegraphists and the Women Clerks has been completely ignored. The +Women Sorters are awarded an increase of 2s. a week in the maximum +salary, and, as a set off, it is proposed that they shall undertake +a larger portion of the minor clerical duties now performed by Women +Clerks. The immediate supervision of the Women Sorters is to be met +by the establishment of the Senior Sorters (who at present receive a +supervising allowance of 3s. a week) as a regular supervising class +with a fixed scale of salary, viz., 32s. per week rising by 1s. 6d. +to 38s. The ultimate supervision remains in the hands of the Women +Clerks. The Committee recommended the abandonment of the tentative new +grade of Female Assistant Clerks on the ground that there is no need +for a class intermediate between the Women Sorters and the Girl +and Women Clerks. A further recommendation, causing widespread +dissatisfaction, is that the hours of duty shall be increased by three +and a half hours per week. The eight-hour day for manipulative +work and the seven-hour day for clerical work has hitherto been the +standard working day in the Post Office, and the suggested increase +with no compensating rise in salary apart from an immediate increment, +not to be carried above the maximum of the scale, has been rejected by +all classes with indignation.[3] The Women Telegraphists get nothing, +the Women Telephonists nothing, the Women Clerks of the First +and Second classes, £10 and £5 increase in the maximum salary +respectively. The Women Counter Clerks and Telegraphists in the +provinces get nothing, although the men of the same class get 2s. a +week increase in the maximum. + +It is understood from a reliable source that the higher officials of +the Post Office admit that the women on the whole have been scurvily +treated, and it is confidently expected that the Postmaster General +will modify and improve some of the proposals when the final revision +of the Report is undertaken. Apart from the various class interests, +the only recommendation that can be regarded as in any way +satisfactory to women is the abolition of the grade of Assistant Women +Clerks as at present constituted. The only form in which the new grade +could be at all acceptable would be in substitution for the grades of +Girl Clerk and Women Sorter with a scale of salary comparable to the +Male Assistant Clerk, in accordance with the claim placed before the +Holt Commission and before the Royal Commission on the Civil Service. +The insertion of a new water-tight compartment such as the Department +proposed, between the Women Sorters and Women Clerks would be +dangerous to the interests, and detrimental to the expansion of +both, while the present restriction of women to rank and file work +continues. It would press the Sorters still further down in the scale +by depriving them of all opportunity of succeeding to clerical work, +as the recruitment of the Assistant Clerks from their ranks would +inevitably be very small; and it would also injure the prospects +of promotion of the Women Clerks by decreasing their numbers and by +depriving them of higher posts due to growth of work and increase of +staff. This latter result was clearly foreseen by the Department when +the scheme was first promulgated. Moreover, it would be a blow to the +general status of women in the Post Office by depreciating the value +of their work and lowering the standard of their employment. It is a +matter for congratulation, therefore, that the Select Committee have +advised the abolition of the new grade, and the Postmaster General, +having agreed in the House of Commons to refer the matter to the +arbitrament of the Parliamentary Committee, can hardly repudiate their +decision. + + +[Footnote 1: See the end of the article for the Report of the Holt +Committee.] + +[Footnote 2: The women are pressing for identical examinations. +[EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 3: The Postmaster General has recently (December 1913), +conceded the point, and has promised that there shall be no increase +in the hours of duty in the Post Office Service; concessions about pay +have been refused. [EDITOR.]] + + + + +SECTION VI + +WOMEN CLERKS AND SECRETARIES + + +The salary of the woman secretary of the best class, whether working +privately or for a firm, seems to be £100 to £150 a year. Generally +speaking, this is exactly what it was twenty years ago. It would seem +that the highest salaries are those given by City men to confidential +clerks (sometimes relatives), who are either good accountants or good +linguists. The head of an influential typing office and registry in +London informed me that the highly paid posts of translators to City +firms are usually filled by German girls. The woman receiving £200 to +£250 is a very rare person. I know only of one who receives £5 a +week, and that is from an American firm in London. She does +private secretarial work, but has no book-keeping and no foreign +correspondence. Some years ago I knew of another woman, private +secretary to the head of a large publishing firm, who had £200 a year. +She was an efficient French correspondent, an able, all-round woman, +and had been with the firm for twenty years. There are now two clerks +in her place at much lower salaries. There seems to be a tendency to +employ two cheap clerks in place of one expensive one. + +People unacquainted with the facts, seldom realise how small is the +remuneration of capable secretaries. I am acquainted with the work of +a woman who has the following qualifications: verbatim shorthand, neat +typing and sound knowledge of secretarial and business work, including +book-keeping; she is methodical and conscientious in her work, has had +some years' City Experience, three years in the shorthand and typing +offices in the Houses of Parliament and with peers and members. She is +asking 45s. a week, and would take 40s. "with prospects." + +Well-paid posts seem to be exceptional. A woman with an intimate +knowledge of City conditions, who was chief accountant to an important +firm for sixteen years, informs me that £175 is the highest salary she +has ever known a woman clerk to receive. The lowest on record seems +to be 5s. a week. There is a woman running a typing office in the City +who hires out shorthand typists at this figure to business firms. +She employs a staff of from fifteen to twenty girls. Similarly, an +industrial insurance company, nine months ago, opened a new department +to deal with the work of the new Act. They engaged fifty girl clerks +at 10s. with a superintendent, also a woman, at 30s. a week. + +There is sometimes difficulty in getting accurate information with +regard to payments. The heads of typing schools and colleges are apt +to give too rosy a picture, and the individual clerk has usually a +somewhat narrow experience and is inclined to be pessimistic. A man +whom I interviewed (in place of the manager, who was engaged), at +one of the biggest schools for training clerks, informed me that +everything depended on the clerk. He said the girls who were getting +10s. a week were not worth more, and that there were "many" women +clerks getting from £300 to £350. I said I was delighted to hear this +as I had had difficulty in running to earth the woman clerk with +£200, and had not before heard of the higher salaries. I took out my +notebook and begged for particulars. He then said he knew of "one" of +their diplomées working for a firm of florists, who had a salary +of £300: she was able to correspond in English, French, German, and +Spanish. I asked if he would kindly give me her name and address that +I might interview her, but he said he could not possibly do that, as +any woman clerk who allowed herself to be interviewed would be certain +to lose her post. + +The manager of a business in Manchester, who employs five shorthand +typists, pays them from 15s. to 30s. He admits that it is impossible +for the girls to live on their salaries unless they are at home with +their parents, as is the case with all of them. But he says that it +is unreasonable to expect him to give more than the market rates, and +that for 30s. he gets excellent service. He suggests that the only way +to raise wages is for the clerks to organise. + +The principal of a high class typing office in the City, a woman of +experience, who trains only a select number of educated girls, never +allows a pupil from her school to begin at less than 25s. a week with +a prospect of speedy increase. She pays her own translator £3, 5s. +a week, and four members of her staff are paid at the rate of £160 a +year. + +Mr Elvin, Secretary of the Union of Clerks, tries to enforce a minimum +wage of 35s. a week as the beginning salary for an expert shorthand +typist, and this may be regarded as the present Trade Union rate. Mr +Elvin's difficulty is chiefly with the girls themselves. They are so +accustomed to the idea of women being paid less than men that it is +not easy to get them to insist on equal pay. In one case he was asked +to supply a woman secretary for a certain post. He agreed to find a +suitable person if the firm would guarantee a commencing salary of +35s. a week. After some demur this was conceded, and he sent to a +well-known school for three competent clerks that he might examine +them and recommend the best of the three. After the test he asked +them, in turn, what salary they expected. They were all over +twenty-one years of age and all competent. One mentioned 25s., the +second 23s., and the third £1 a week. On being asked, they said they +knew they were worth more, but they thought that, as they were women, +they would not get it. + +Where there is no one to safeguard the interests of the clerk, an +employer, on the look-out for cheap labour, finds it easily enough. +The head of a big firm offered a French girl, an expert shorthand +writer in three languages, 15s. a week, with a possible rise after +three months. She finally accepted a post at 30s. a week as she could +get nothing better through registries or by advertisement. + +Unless a girl has a claim on a school where she has trained, or has +influential friends, it is very difficult for her to get a post suited +to her needs in London. The whole profession seems to be in a chaotic +condition, and the chances through advertisement are haphazard and +unsatisfactory. Employment bureaux maintain that there are more good +posts than there are qualified women to fill them, but individual +secretaries are timid about giving up unsatisfactory posts as they do +not know how to get better. + +Take the case of a private secretary to a Member of Parliament. +He loses his seat, retires to the country, and gives up his London +secretary. He gives her a number of introductions. These lead to +nothing, and she is forced into the competition of the City. Her +particular training is of no use in a commercial office, and her value +falls to 30s. a week. + +A woman with an intimate knowledge of women clerks and secretaries +in the City for the past twenty years, says that it is difficult to +overestimate the poverty of a vast number of girls. Many of them are +the chief breadwinners of the family. She knows of half a dozen cases +of men of forty and a little older who are living on the earnings of +their daughters; there may be two girls in the family, one getting +12s. and the other 25s. a week. + +The private secretary who lives in, has usually excellent food and +pleasant surroundings, but in some cases the life is a solitary +one. Unless there is a governess or other educated employeé in the +household, she has no companionship. The salary varies from £30 to +£120 and sometimes more. There is apparently no fixed rate. One lady +writes: + +"For two years I lived in the house of Sir----, the most hopelessly +isolated and uninteresting existence, within the four walls of his +study. A secretary should certainly stick out for a free week-end once +a month when living in. Isolation is horribly bad for one." + +The secretary living in with congenial literary or medical people, +where she is made one of the family circle, has a happier time, but +the payment is not high. + +Apart from salary, the conditions in which the woman clerk works are +by no means ideal. + +Twenty years ago, in a far northern city, there was a flourishing new +school where over thirty girls of from fifteen to twenty were being +taught shorthand, typewriting, book-keeping, and all that goes to the +making of a fully-equipped clerk. This school was the first experiment +of the kind in an enterprising community. As the pupils qualified, +with Pitman certificates of varying degrees of speed, at the end of +six months or longer, the way in which old-fashioned lawyers accepted +the innovation of attractive young women on their clerical staff, +seemed almost magical. Decorum relegated the young women to separate +rooms from the rest of the employeés, and the formality in the bearing +of heads of departments towards these pioneer females must have been +gratifying to Mrs Grundy. So superior to human exigencies seemed these +dignified men, that the subject of lavatory accommodation for young +women, mewed up from 9 to 1 and from 2 to 5.30, was not mentioned. +Woman's modesty, if it were to reach the high standard made for her by +man, had to come before her health or comfort. Although typists of +all grades have multiplied by thousands[1] during the past twenty +years--in London alone there are over 25,000 women clerks and +secretaries--there is still need for adequate inspection of sanitary +accommodation for women workers of this class. Apart altogether from +sanitary accommodation, common sense would seem to suggest that, +in the case of any one who has to turn out decent typing, a regular +supply of hot water is a necessity for washing hands that may have to +change a ribbon or do the many little messy jobs that typing involves. + +In a lecture before the Fabian Women's Group in February 1912, Miss +Florence, of the Association of Women Clerks and Secretaries, said: + +"With regard to the sanitary conditions--these as a rule are bad, +especially where there is only one woman. The difficulty has been +shirked by the women themselves in a great many cases.... I do not see +how these can be altered except by improving the status and position +of women, so that they may become strong enough to say they will not +have it if it is too bad." + +Who is to dictate what is "too bad"? Surely the only remedy is to +have a proper standard of decency enforced by law. Women as a rule are +fools on this subject, and will endure almost any discomfort, rather +than complain. + +In giving evidence before the Royal Commission, in May last year, +concerning the conditions of employment and their effect on the +health of Civil Service female typists and shorthand writers, Miss +Charlesworth, Honorary Secretary of the Civil Service Typists' +Association, said: + +"The statistics as regards sickness relating to our class are almost +too small to be of very much use.... I may say from experience that +they are greatly influenced by the conditions under which the work +is done. In my own department (Local Government Board) our average +absence from sickness in the old office, where we were much +overcrowded, varied between ten and fourteen days a year, while in +our new office the average has steadily gone down from twelve to a +fraction over six last year.... It is very striking that there has +been that reduction in the average number of days' absence per year +from sickness, from twelve to six in four years while we have been +working under better conditions ... that means a less number of typing +machines in one room, more light to work by and more air--better rooms +to work in." + +This evidence is interesting, as the worst conditions that could +possibly exist in the lofty rooms of a Government office, where +everything is on a big scale and there is a certain standard of +comfort, must be superior to the majority of commercial offices, +especially in London, where space is so expensive. Think of four girls +taking shorthand notes by telephone in a room with thirty typewriting +machines working at once! + +There are no figures available with regard to the health of women +clerks generally. The common ailments are neuritis, anaemia, and +nervous breakdown. Typing is also a strain on the eyesight and +hearing. Miss Charlesworth says that in her experience it is the girls +who are not suited for the work who suffer most from ill-health. + +One typing office and school, of high repute for excellence of work, +had rooms so dark that electric light was always used in one or other +of them during part of the day. No sun ever entered the work-rooms. +The salaries were good, but overtime was paid at only 6d. an hour. +There was a sort of compulsion, too, to work overtime; some of the +best typists, occasionally even stayed all night during excessive +rushes of work. No holidays were paid for, and it was regarded as +disloyalty on the part of a clerk to stay away for sickness. There +was an instance of a girl being dismissed because she stayed away a +fortnight owing to influenza. This particular firm recently moved into +bigger, brighter rooms, not out of humanity to its staff, but because +the lease had run out. + +Where competition is as keen as in the typing business, it is often +the case that the comfort of employeés is considered as little as is +compatible with running the place at a profit. There seems to be no +inspection, and there is no law to say how many typists may be worked +together, or what limit of noise shall be endured by them. Everything +is ruled by the individual standard of decency of the employer. Many +well-educated girls enter typing offices for the excellent practical +training to be had, and for the short time they remain they are +willing to put up with severe discipline and some personal discomfort. +There are, of course, typing offices with as high a level of comfort +and decency as the most exacting law would prescribe. Many of the +big engineering firms and City houses have most comfortable and even +luxurious quarters for their women clerks. + +In old days in the above-mentioned northern school, it was possible +to get complete teaching as a clerk--excellent teaching, too--for a +guinea a term. There were some shorthand typists whose training cost +them only that initial guinea and the fees of the supplementary course +of evening classes, 5s. and 10s. according to the number of subjects. +In London at that time a year's course in the same subjects cost +as much as 60 guineas at some of the chief typing schools. The fee +nowadays, at one of the foremost London schools for a secretarial +course for six months only, is 60 guineas; a year's course is £100.[2] +This includes book-keeping and shorthand correspondence in one foreign +language, besides shorthand and typing, etc. + +The best testimony shows that a year is altogether too long for +an intelligent well-educated girl of eighteen or more to spend on +technical training.[3] Mr James Oliphant, writing in _The School +World_ for July 1913 on the subject of secretarial training for girls, +says: + +".... It is to be noted that the curriculum in girls' schools is of +a much more reasonable character than that which is commonly provided +for boys, and that the more completely it is fitted to supply a good +general education, the better it would be adapted to the special +needs of those who wish to become clerks or secretaries. It would +seem eminently desirable that such aspirants should continue at the +secondary school between the ages of sixteen and eighteen, being +provided with a specialised course of study ... but whenever it is +possible it would be well to insist that no subject should be included +which is not generally educative in the widest sense. The acquisition +of such mechanical arts as stenography and typewriting should be +relegated to technical colleges where, according to general testimony, +proficiency can be gained by well-educated girls in a period +varying from six to nine months. 'Commercial correspondence' is +an abomination; a sufficient knowledge of the ordinary forms +of letter-writing should be imparted in every course of English +composition ... while the special jargon of each business or office +can be readily acquired by any intelligent girl when it becomes +necessary." + +There is every variety of price at the various technical training +schools all over the country, from a guinea to £100. With regard to +the training given in non-technical schools, the capable head of a +well-equipped West End typing office writes: + +"It is a pity the ordinary schools are taking it up. I know of at +least one so-called secondary school which makes a speciality of +'Commercial Training.' The girls who take up the subject are quite +the wrong kind, with absolutely no real education,... and are ready +to accept anything in the way of salary. The really good schools where +the girls remain till they are 18 or 19 give a better training, of +course.... But I do not think the schools have any right to undertake +a specialised vocational training; it must lower the standard. +Every other profession has its special training after a good general +education has been acquired." + +The best-known societies for protecting the interests of women clerks +and secretaries are, the Association of Women Clerks and Secretaries +at 12 Buckingham Street, Strand, and the National Union of Clerks +at 186-188 Bishopsgate Street. These are the only approved societies +under the National Insurance Act. + +The Association of Women Clerks and Secretaries has been in existence +for eight years, and during the last year has more than trebled its +members, the clerks' attitude towards combination having recently +changed somewhat, in London at any rate. The Association has a devoted +secretary and does excellent work. Its aims are: + + (1) To raise the status of women clerks and secretaries, + and to encourage a higher standard of + practical training. + + (2) To secure a just remuneration for all grades. + + (3) To render legal aid and give advice to members, + and to benefit generally the clerical and secretarial + profession for women. + + (4) To maintain a registry for women clerks and secretaries, + and to watch for openings for members of + the Association. + + (5) To establish and maintain an Approved Society + under the National Insurance Act, 1911, for the + benefit of Women Clerks and Secretaries. + +The Association is not yet, however, strong enough to form a +recognised union able to fix a minimum education qualification for +membership. An important conference was held by this Association in +May last at the University of London. Every speaker emphasised the +need for better and wider education before taking up the profession, +and there was unanimity of opinion that no girl should be allowed to +start the technical part until she was at least sixteen. A remark of +Mrs W.L. Courtney, who was one of the speakers, is well worth quoting: +"One of the cleverest women I ever knew, who was an amateur indexer, +said to me one day, 'It does not matter in doing this work about being +clever; what matters is to have lived.'" There is not much chance then +for the school-girl of sixteen.[4] + +The National Union of Clerks is conducted with energy and +enlightenment. It has increased its membership by nearly 8,000 in the +last twelve months, and one of the best reasons it offers women clerks +for joining, is that it is the only National Society for Clerks that +has always accepted women as members on equal terms as men. There are +1,000 women in a membership of 10,000. Notwithstanding the hard work +these two societies are doing, there is nothing like the response +there should be from women clerks. It is only the exceptional woman +clerk who has yet developed anything like a corporate conscience. The +reason is partly that she is often an isolated being. Where there is a +large number of clerks together, as in the Civil Service, there is no +lack of the right spirit. + +Here are a few of the causes of the overstocking of the clerical +market by women. Almost any one can be a clerk of a kind. The training +is cheap and easily obtainable. Many parents want their children to +bring in money early, and this seems an easy way. A large percentage +of young girls (in 1907-1909, 87 per cent.) who fail to pass Civil +Service examinations, try to become clerks. Some time ago there was +an article in a daily newspaper entitled "The Passing of the +15s.-a-week-Girl." She is with us in larger numbers than ever, +however, and she has added to her numbers a 10s.-a-week-girl and even +a cheaper girl, as we have seen. We meet her daily in Tube and 'bus, +looking remarkably attractive, in spite of foolish shoes and a bad +habit of eating four-penny lunches. The chief charge some of her +fellow clerks have against her, apart from her inferior work, is that +she only makes use of typing as a road to marriage. The other class of +offender is the daughter of well-to-do parents. Typing is regarded +as a ladylike employment, and parents, who would never expect their +daughters to be self-supporting, are glad for them to earn pocket +money or just enough for dress. + +According to Mr Elvin of the National Union of Clerks, even in +prosperous times there are always 3 per cent. of unemployed clerks. In +bad times the percentage must be greater. Whether the times are good +or bad, young girls with the most elementary education are being +turned out by hundreds from typing schools. + +The only remedy is that the output of clerks should be restricted; no +one should be allowed to become a clerk who has not reached a certain +standard of efficiency. The parents are the chief offenders. Many of +them do not seem to have the necessary energy or intelligence to find +out for what their daughters are best fitted. Advisory Committees are +wanted in connection with all elementary and secondary schools. Of the +girl typists and shorthand writers who resigned from the Civil Service +from 1894 to 1906 for various causes, 17 per cent. left to take up +other work. The lady superintendent in one of the Civil Service typing +rooms pointed out a girl and said: "That girl would have made an +excellent milliner or a kindergarten teacher, but she is not at all +suited for this work." + +The chief grievance of the really efficient woman clerk and secretary +is that she has not enough scope. One woman writes: + +"If the various firms and professions who employ girls as typists were +to give them an insight into the business, whatever it might be, it +would add enormously to the enthusiasm of the worker. In America +they do this very often. The wonderful Miss Alice Duckin, the lady +skyscraper builder, was once a typist. When she entered the firm they +allowed her full scope to develop, and she mastered the building trade +and is now the chief partner of Messrs Duckin and Lass. There is one +firm of lawyers in London who allow their typists to attend the Law +Courts, and give them work to do which is usually reserved for men. +Only under such conditions can the profession expand." + +There is often a chance for a secretary in a newspaper office to +develop into a journalist. But there are instances when the private +secretary, who begins writing for the paper on which she is employed, +is told that she was engaged not as a contributor but as an efficient +secretary. + +One girl who had been for ten years private secretary to a literary +man in London, horrified her relatives, and gave her employer a shock, +by suddenly throwing up her much-envied post and entering herself at +a hospital for a particularly strenuous kind of nursing. Her salary +as secretary was 35s. a week; she had a comfortable room of her own +to work in, a good annual holiday, and other blessings. Her chief said +"good morning" and "good evening" to her, but she saw no one else, and +frequently she had technical German translations in the evenings, +for which she got nothing extra. Her chief did not know German, and +thought she did the translations as easily as she wrote shorthand. Her +whole work was moderately interesting, but the dullness of her life +became insupportable. Another private secretary at the end of fifteen +years in an excellent post, opened a tea-shop. + +An Edinburgh woman sends the following interesting statement:-- + +"Secretarial work seems to me one of the most congenial for educated +women. In Edinburgh the prospects are excellent. The headmasters and +mistresses of all the large schools, medical men, dentists, university +professors, managing editors of our great printing and publishing +houses, several of whom are editing encylopaedias, need a fair number +of women secretaries. And there is not a sufficient supply for the law +offices of which Edinburgh has such a large number. + +"The conditions are in need of some kind of organised supervision, +particularly where everything depends on an individual employer. In my +first post with a medical specialist, for instance, my time was never +my own; my work began at 9 and often did not end at midnight. Sunday +work was quite common; there were no Saturday afternoons off, but I +had free hours here and there which it was impossible to utilise. + +"Another post I had was ideal. I worked for two men, for one of whom I +spent the morning in a pathological laboratory. Here I did nothing +but research work and writing. In the afternoon I did general +correspondence and assistant editing of one of the medical journals. I +had free evenings and Saturday afternoons. It is an excellent plan +to work for two men, as it gives variety and may often be more +remunerative, although for myself I never had more than £100 a year. +There is lack of organisation in this profession, and posts are +difficult to get by registry or advertisement. I have never found a +Women's Employment Bureau of any use whatever. I have got everything +by personal recommendation." + +A common grievance seems to be the amount of overtime imposed on many +clerks, sometimes paid for, but often obligatory whether paid for +or not. There is a naive arrangement in the Civil Service Typing +Department. It seems that the typists are allowed 9d. or 10d. an hour +for overtime up to a limit of fifteen hours a month, but any overtime +beyond that is not paid for. In the Minutes of Evidence before the +Royal Commission we read:-- + +"_Commissioner_. Is any other time beyond that (15 hours a month) ever +exacted? + +"_Superintendent_. Yes. + +"_Commissioner_. Are they ever required to work longer than that? + +"_Superintendent_. Yes. + +"_Commissioner_. And are they not paid for it? + +"_Superintendent_. No. + +"_Commissioner_. What is the reason for that? + +"_Superintendent_. The Treasury laid it down in their minute. + +"_Commissioner_. Have you questioned it? + +"_Superintendent_. Yes, we have many times asked the Treasury to allow +the department to pay for more, but so far as I know, in no case has +it been allowed, and at this present time (May 1912), in the +London Telephone Service all shorthand-typists and typists and +superintendents are doing a great deal of overtime, but only 15 hours +in a month of 4 weeks is paid for. Superintendents are not paid at all +for overtime. The only reason, apparently, for the limitation is that +the salaries are so close that if shorthand-typists were paid for +more overtime than 15 hours they would be earning more than the +superintendents." + +It seems impossible to tell as yet how the working of the National +Insurance Act will affect women clerks. The secretary of the +Information Bureau of the Woman's Institute says that, as far as she +knows, good offices continue to pay their clerks their salaries in +cases of illness, only making a deduction of the 7s. 6d. paid as +insurance money. + +To sum up, there is urgent need for better organisation among clerks +and secretaries. They should be graded in some way, so that the +efficient who are out of work may easily be brought in touch with +employers. The societies reach only a small proportion of the +workers, many of whom do not even know of their existence. It must +be remembered that a difficulty in the way of men and women clerks +combining, is that women of good education, sometimes in possession of +degrees, find themselves in competition with men of an inferior social +class. A large proportion of the best secretaries are the daughters +of professional men. The average woman clerk is invariably a person of +better education and manners than the male clerk at the same salary. + +In the next place, better sanitation and better working conditions +must be secured. Only last year, a firm employing hundreds of men and +a dozen women, had no separate lavatory for the women. It is to the +interest of the employer of women clerks to look after their health +and to provide rest rooms. Anti-feminists are positive as to women's +"inferior physique," but their practice as employers is too often +inconsistent with their opinions. + +Most important of all, women clerks and secretaries want more scope. +After ten years of clerking and secretarying they find that they are +up against a dead wall. There is no prospect of advancement, and no +call on their initiative. In private secretarial work this is not +always the fault of the employer; it is often inherent in the nature +of the work. Unless the secretary has, say, literary or journalistic +ability and develops in that way, she is worth little more to her +chief, if he is a literary man, after fifteen years than she was at +the end of ten. There may be progress from a less desirable to a more +desirable post, but there can be no advancement in the work itself. +As a training, however, a private post is incomparable. With the woman +who works for a commercial firm, it is a different matter. Women of +the best type who do this work, have a right to complain when they are +without chance of promotion. They feel that they should be given the +same opportunity of rising in the business, whatever it may be, as is +open to any intelligent office boy. The reply of the employer is, that +while the office boy, if promoted and given increasing pay, may be +expected to stay with the firm for a lifetime, there is not the same +certainty of continuity of service from women clerks, who may at any +time leave to get married. There are cases, however, where women have +stayed on after marriage when it has been made worth their while. +One woman who entered a firm as a young girl, continued with the +firm after marriage, and is now, as a widow, working for the same +employers. There is no reason why such cases should be exceptional. + +The calling, the conditions of which we have been considering, suffers +from its accessibility to the half trained and undisciplined of +various social grades. When, however, the righteous complaint of the +employer against the incompetent and scatter-brained has been heard, +the fact remains that among women clerks and secretaries there is an +exceptionally large proportion who give, for a moderate return and +limited prospects of advancement, conscientious, loyal, and skilful +service. + + +[Footnote 1: See Appendix II., p. 317.] + +[Footnote 2: Satisfactory secretarial training may be obtained in +London from reliable teachers for a fee of 25 guineas for a year's +course. It is, however, necessary to make searching enquiries before +arranging to enter any school, as some of these neither give a sound +training, nor obtain posts for their pupils as their advertisements +promise. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 3: First rate secretarial preparation includes more than +merely technical instruction. It gives a sound business training as +well, and, in addition, insists on one or more foreign languages. A +girl who hopes to become something more than a shorthand-typist ought +not to scamp her professional training: this should, of course, +follow her school-course--_i.e._, not begin until she is seventeen or +eighteen. Graduates, who have specialised in foreign languages, +may also advantageously prepare for the better secretarial posts. +[EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 4: Apart from monetary prospects altogether, no girl should +be allowed to enter the profession until she is old enough and wise +enough to protect herself, should need arise, from the undesirable +employer, who may insult her with unwelcome attentions. The +possibility of such annoyance is an additional reason for all clerks +to join a Trade Union, which helps individuals to insist on proper +conditions of work. [EDITOR.]] + + + + +SECTION VII + +ACTING AS A PROFESSION FOR WOMEN + + +I do not know that the first actress who ever faced the public told +her friends that _the_ profession was not all paint and glitter, +because being a pioneer, and so treading on the corns of custom, she +was held as an unwomanly creature, and had unpleasant things thrown at +her, as well as words. So her impressions are not recorded. But when +women had settled down into the work, and were allowed to represent +themselves in the theatre (a privilege not as yet accorded to them +elsewhere), they announced practically and forcibly that all that +glittered was not gold, and that a successful, much-loved heroine +did not invariably tread the rosy path without finding the proverbial +thorns. + +The word "hardship" often repeated by successful artists, is accepted +by the public as a truism, which affects their attitude towards the +stage as a career about as much as the statement that the world is +round, when in their eyes it appears disappointingly flat. Yet the +word "hardship" has a meaning which most hurts those who have most +capacity for pain, and who are specially sensitive to humiliations, +disappointments, and discomforts--artists. + +But there are compensations, urges the outsider: good pay, congenial +work, and fame. If there are hardships what a glittering prize +compensates for the suffering! + +Let us at once grant the compensations which the few achieve. The few +make world-wide reputations, large salaries, and many devoted friends: +their life is full of interesting and successful work. But the average +individual is in the great majority, and the many spend all and obtain +nothing, trying to obtain a bargain which is no bargain: a bargain in +which there is something to sell and no one to buy--even our average +actress has something to sell, something worth buying--composed of +talent, ambition, long study, and application. There are, of course, +many more successful women in the theatre than there used to be, owing +to the tremendous opening up of this means of livelihood; but though +the successful are more abundant, there is, alas! no doubt a growing +number of unsuccessful workers in this very much over-crowded market. +In fact, it is becoming a profession in which it is only possible +to survive if the worker has some private means, or a supplementary +trade. + +I believe that this question of a supplementary trade requires +consideration, and am, myself, at present working on the subject, in +the hope that a scheme may be evolved to ensure those willing to +work an opportunity of gaining a livelihood during the long "resting" +periods. This waiting for work is almost universally the largest part +of an actress's life; and any satisfaction in the magnitude of the +wages which may be obtained must always be balanced by the knowledge +that an enormous number of weeks must be taken into consideration, +when work is quite unattainable. + +Here is one of the gravest disabilities of the profession. Only +continuous work can develop the powers of any artist, and this +is particularly true of the art of the theatre. Under the present +conditions an artist is, with an entire want of reason, raised to a +pinnacle of importance when playing a good part in a successful play; +but she may with equal suddenness be dashed into a gulf of failure and +non-productiveness, also without reason. + +There have been many artists, who at the end of a brilliant run of +a successful play, to the success of which they have largely +contributed, have found themselves forgotten by the powers that be, +and have discovered with bitter disappointment that a successful run +may result in being left utterly ignored, without a single offer of +work. + +The Christmas pantomime and the summer season cut down the actor's +year to forty weeks. From information which I was able to obtain from +the Actor's Association, the average yearly income of an actor is £70. +From this, £37 may be deducted for travelling and other expenses. For +though the actual railway fare is usually paid, no allowance is made +for conveyance of luggage from station to lodgings, and the constant +change of quarters naturally makes the weekly expenditure on a higher +scale. On these figures the average weekly earnings of an actor would +be 12s. 6d., or 1s. 9d. per day. + +This is the average income of an actor when working, but under present +conditions, the average day for an average actress is one in which she +looks for work. So let us take the average day of the average actress, +and see how she spends it. + +After leaving her tiny, grubby back room in Bloomsbury (time and fares +prohibit a bigger, better room in the suburbs), where she has cleaned +her own shoes, ironed her blouse and sewn in frilling before starting, +she walks down to an agent. The waiting-room there has a couple +of forms, which are already filled, and groups of girls have been +standing for some time. They have all had insufficient breakfasts, +badly served and ill-cooked; they all wear cheap and uncomfortable +shoes, too thin for wet pavements; they are all obliged to put on a +desperately photographic pose and expression, in case the agent's eyes +light on them. One or two, better dressed and more self-possessed, +secure interviews and pass out by another door. No information about +the part is to be procured, they are all there "on the chance." At +half past one the agent comes out for lunch, saying, as he passes +through the room, "No use waiting, ladies; no one else wanted to-day." +Our average friend has stayed for three hours, knowing no one to speak +to, and leaves no nearer her goal for her morning's congenial work. +She lunches on sandwiches and tea, re-arranges her hat and veil, and +starts out with fresh hope to use her one letter of introduction to +the manager of a West End theatre. + +She hands it to a door-keeper, who may possibly be considerate, but +cannot offer her a chair. There is no waiting-room; she waits in a +draughty, tiny passage, stage hands constantly squeezing by her. There +is a rehearsal; she must wait, or come back in an hour's time. She +walks round and looks into the shops in Leicester Square, and returns +thoroughly fatigued and a little pale, at four o'clock. She is shown +into an office, and by virtue of her letter of introduction is asked +to sit down. A few questions are put to her about her past work: she +does not know what part the manager has in mind, and puts forward +inept qualifications. In two or three minutes the important man has +formed his opinion of her face, carriage, expression, and has decided +if he will remember her or not. Her name being average, the odds are +that he will not; but he murmurs, "If anything turns up, I will let +you know," and her big chance is over. There is nothing approaching an +audition, such as a singer gets. It is the only opportunity afforded +her, this poor and hopeless method of proving her capacity as an +actress. It leaves her poorer for the day's outlay in food. She walks +back to the little room, her foothold in London--the great art market. + +This is a "congenial" day's work, which may be repeated for weeks, +and it occurs on an average in every three months. The adventure of it +stales very quickly. + +Let there be no mistake in the mind of the reader. This is not only +the experience of a would-be actress, a well-trained, medal-laden +aspirant from one of the good dramatic schools, but is one of the +bitter and frequent experiences of the thoroughly capable, trained, +and occasionally well-salaried actress, who has failed to arrive, +during her eighteen to twenty years of experience, at the much +coveted, and supposedly safe position at the top of the theatrical +ladder. + +Suppose our average actress is lucky, and her letter of introduction +gains her a small part in the London production. Into her three lines +she tries to crowd all she can of what she has learned from teachers +and experience. It is her opportunity. She has stepped forward amongst +those fortunate ones whose names are mentioned in the programme. +She starts for rehearsal happily enough from the little room in +Bloomsbury, passes the door-keeper without question, and takes up her +stand in the wings. There she stays three hours. She has companionship +in hushed whispers, and the right to exist. At two o'clock her act has +not yet been reached, and the artists are allowed to leave the theatre +for half an hour to get lunch. As she is not paid for rehearsals, +she cannot afford more than sixpence for a meal; so her repast is +necessarily a light one. At five, rehearsal is dismissed, and she +has gone through her part twice. Five minutes would cover her actual +acting for the day; and having stood about for nearly six hours she +walks back home to her room. + +As the play nears production, the rehearsal hours lengthen, and the +lunch times shorten. Her own hoard of savings offer her less and less +to spend on food, and when finally the play is produced--let us face +the worst--it not infrequently occurs that the run of the piece may +end in three weeks. She has rehearsed for four weeks, has been glad +to accept £2 for her tiny part, and out of that short run, which +represents £6, she must save enough to tide her over the next few +weeks, or perhaps months, until she gets her next engagement, more +unpaid rehearsals, and perhaps another short run. There is always +wearing anxiety, and the unpleasing, thankless, humiliating searching +for work, under the most distasteful conditions possible. + +There is now an effort being made by a few of the London managers to +pay a percentage on salaries for rehearsing. The movement, I think, is +partially due to the Insurance Act, which, of course, touches all +the low paid labour in the theatre. This effort, though obviously of +importance, can hardly as yet be considered as quite satisfactory. The +payments for five weeks' rehearsals are 6s. on the £1, 1s. salaries, +which include dancers, walkers-on, etc.: and 12s. 6d. a week on +salaries of £3. In each case, of course, the threepence insurance has +to be deducted, and it must be quite clear that no woman can live on +5s. 9d., much less make a good appearance, unless she has other means +of support. + +She may get an engagement to tour for a limited number of weeks. If +so, she gazes in despair at her small wardrobe, trying to puzzle out +three costumes to be used in the play, for actresses going on tour +have usually to provide their own dresses. + +A friend of mine played the leading part on the tour of a West +End production. She had to find all her own dresses, hats, +shoes, stockings, etc., and her salary was £3, 10s. a week. In a +"boiled-down" version she played twice nightly for £5 a week, and +found four dresses, two hats, an evening cloak, besides the shoes, +stockings, gloves, etc., incidental to a well dressed part. Another +soubrette on a salary of £2, 5s. paid her fare both on joining and +leaving the company, and was obliged to provide two dresses, one +evening dress and cloak, shoes, stockings, etc. + +The average salaries in melodrama are £4 a week, out of which must +be provided many dresses. The "heavy lead" or "adventuress" type, +generally magnificently attired, gets about £3 a week. In London, of +course, in the West End productions, dresses are provided, but the +engagement is not for a definite period as it would be on a tour, +and a curious difficulty arises through this arrangement, since the +actress who has once been beautifully dressed has a natural and +very comprehensible predilection thenceforward to continue to be so +delightfully gowned. Her own opinion as to what a dress should cost +almost invariably, after a London engagement, ceases to be on a level +with what her yearly income should permit. Clothes assume a horrible +importance not known in other trades, since her appearance may mean +her livelihood as a worker; for do we not know of engagements which +have been made when the angle of a hat has exactly coincided with the +mood of the manager who is engaging his company? + +So our little average actress, starting off on tour, patches and +manoeuvres to have a satisfactory appearance, and is painfully +self-conscious of deficiencies when the eyes of the manager, or the +more well-to-do sharers of the dressing-room, appear to enquire too +closely into details. One of my first successes was a triumphant one +for my sister; since an evening blouse, ingeniously concocted from a +table-centre, received some long notices in the Press. + +Theatrical lodgings, when one's salary is 25s. a week, are not always +the most pleasing in the town. Rheumatic fever and other unpleasant +illnesses have been contracted from damp beds, when the landlady, in +her desire to live up to the degree of cleanliness expected of her, +returns the sheets too quickly to the so-lately vacated bed; because, +with one company leaving in the morning, and another arriving at +tea-time, there are not many hours to clean out a room, and wash and +iron the only pair. + +The lodgings are usually extremely bad and dirty, and generally in the +least attractive and most unsavoury quarters of the town. The food is +generally unappetising and cooked with very little intelligence. +There have been many cases of women finding themselves in disreputable +houses; and even recommended lodgings have been found empty on +arrival, the police having raided them. I feel very strongly that the +only comfortable and dignified way to meet this difficulty is to have +a regular chain of clubs, on the principle of the Three Arts Club. + +Recently, in the correspondence of a leading "Daily," I read a letter +in which a man wrote that actresses on tour were able to perfect +themselves as wives and housekeepers. This throws a curious side-light +on the ignorance of people in general with regard to the theatre. +Actresses may, and do, become admirable workers, wives, and +housekeepers; but this is rather from the hardships of their lives +than from any possibility of developing a natural aptitude for +housekeeping whilst travelling week after week from town to town, +and living in rooms where the cleaning and cooking are done by the +landlady. As all domestic work is undertaken by the people who let the +rooms, the days go slowly, and there is absolutely nothing of +interest to do. If our average actress is with a successful play, her +engagement may be a long one; and she lives through the discomforts, +buoyed up by the hope of further opportunities, and a swelling account +at the Post Office. + +The happiest of all existences, for an actress, despite hard work and +much study, is in a repertory theatre. The opportunities are great; +ambition is not thwarted at every step; the day is filled with hard +study, but the nights result in greater or smaller achievement. +Everybody with whom she comes in contact is working as hard and +earnestly as she is. Life invigorating, progressive, uplifting, is +hers. To-night she is conscious she was not quite her best, but next +week, when the play is done again, she will work to make that point +real, she will laugh more naturally, cry more movingly, progress a +little further on the way to realise her dream of perfect expression, +free from worry and anxiety, free to work. + +Having achieved a certain amount of experience on tour and in London, +and being more or less proficient in her profession, does not, +however, ensure an increase in the actor's value. A domestic servant +receives a character, which is, if satisfactory, a sure means of +employment; a teacher, inspector, etc., has a certificate which is a +pronouncement of efficiency; but however great the achievement of +the theatre there is no lasting sign of your work, and the want of +definite aim is mentally demoralising. I have heard men say, and I +think not unjustly, that as many of these women are practically "on +the rocks," they will do anything for money; and this brings one to +a question which looms largely when considering unskilled trades. The +unskilled, pleasure-loving, short-sighted but ambitious girl, is apt +to lose her sense of values, and to be an easy and sometimes very +willing victim. If she be attractive, the eye of a powerful person may +alight upon her, and several shades of temptations are placed before +her. Not only money, and the advantages which an outward show of +prosperity may bring with it; not only amusements and luxuries; but a +much more dangerous and difficult temptation, which is not possible +in other trades, is placed before the worker--the offer of greater +opportunities in her work, the opportunities which an "understudy" may +bring in its train; the opportunity of a small part; the gratification +of ambition. There is no more immorality than in other trades, but +there is an amount of humiliating and degrading philandering, a +mauling sensuality which is more degrading than any violent abduction. +To be immoral a certain amount of courage is required; but the curse +of modern theatrical conditions is this corrupt debauchery. Many girls +have come to me explaining their difficulties, and many in asking my +advice ended up with the persistent cry of the modern woman, "I do so +want to get on!" This is a transitional stage in the world, as well as +in the theatre. When women are more intelligent and independent, there +will not be the same amount of selling themselves for the necessities +of existence. They will be able to secure the necessities, and a large +number of the luxuries, for themselves--one of the reasons, doubtless, +why the reactionaries cry out so loudly against the woman's movement. + +People love power over others; they love to control their destinies; +and there is a very large number of men who drift towards the theatre, +and like to consider the poor little butterflies as creatures of a +different species from their wives and daughters--a species provided +by a material Providence, who supplies their other appetites. The +poor little butterflies are glad, for a short time, to put up with +stupidity and egoism for the sake of a temporary relief from sordid +discomfort and gloom. Of course, I am not speaking of the women who, +without economic pressure, lead an illicit life. There are a few +of these women who are more than able to protect themselves, and +occasionally avenge their sisters. + +Of course, there are also theatres which are obviously dependent +for their great success upon this "oldest profession in the world": +theatres where a fairly good salary is offered with the suggestion +that it is as well to sup at some well-known restaurant, at least +three times a week; to drive to the theatre in a motor car, and to be +dressed by one of the famous dressmakers, whose names are given with +the salary. There are theatres where an eye is kept on the number of +stalls which are filled by the employed. But on the tours of these +successes, the managers are often very strict in their regulations, +and do everything to prevent those employed from supplementing their +incomes in this manner. + +There are, unfortunately, too many women who still believe in +dependence, so the supply is quite as great as the demand. To the real +artist who is deeply centred in her work, this particular evil is +of practically little importance. A great belief in her own powers +enables her to push aside opportunities which are not genuine. Men are +also human, and if met frankly and straightforwardly in work, or +for that matter, out of it, are as capable of honest, helpful good +fellowship as any woman. In fact, the work of the theatre, which +employs men and women, on more or less equal terms, is a splendid +place to find out that humanity is not limited to sexual problems, and +that the spirit of work removes these limitations, and gives place +to a healthy, invigorating atmosphere of _camaraderie_. It is quite a +false idea that a move in the wrong direction is in any way necessary +to success. + +Something must be said with regard to the sanitation and ventilation +of the theatre. Though there has been latterly a great effort to +improve the dressing-rooms in the new buildings, there is still a +great deal to be remedied. Here is a description of a dressing-room +used by a young artist in a modern West End theatre. + +"We were seven in a room which just held seven small toilet tables on +a shelf running round the wall, and a narrow walking space from the +door to the window in between. This dressing-room was two floors +below the level of the street, and the one window opened on a passage +covered with thick glass, so that there was no direct air channel. +Next door was a man's urinal used by about forty men--actors, stage +hands, and scene shifters. A pipe from this place came through +the dressing-room; the smell sometimes, even in the winter, was +overpowering; and we ourselves bought Sanitas and kept sprinkling it +on the floor of the room and the passage. Added to this was the fact +that the stairs from the stage led straight down facing the entrance +of this men's urinal, and not infrequently the door would be open and +shut as we came down, and it was altogether very objectionable." + +The report of a young artist who toured for some time with a comedy +sketch in the music halls shows equally bad conditions. This sketch +was sent out by a first rate London management, and the halls visited +were on the first-class tours. She told me that in one of the largest +towns in England the Music Hall had only one ladies' lavatory, which +was on the stage exactly behind the back-drop. A horse was necessary +for an Indian sketch on the same bill in which the comedy sketch was +played, and the recess by the lavatory was found to be the only +safe place to stable the horse. The door of the ladies' lavatory was +therefore nailed up for the week. Should anyone wish, she could, on +explaining to the ushers in the front of the house, receive a pass +of admission to the ladies' cloakroom, but to reach the front of the +house meant a walk of four minutes round a complete block, and, +even if it had not been winter time, it is almost impossible for any +actress, when once dressed for her part, to go into the street without +attracting a great deal of notice, and also very likely entirely +spoiling her appearance, as theatrical "make-up" is only meant for the +dry atmosphere of the theatre. + +On this same tour, in a famous south coast resort, this lady had to +dress in an underground dressing-room with twelve others, and the only +lavatory for women's use was opposite the stage-door box, where all +letters were called for, and the stage hands lounged about the whole +evening. In the most important town on this tour the dressing-room +in which she was directed to dress had, for its sole ventilation, the +door by which one entered, exactly facing the one general lavatory. +The aperture, high up in the wall, opened into another room where, +during this week, fifty cocks and hens, used in an animal turn, were +kept. It would be quite impossible to describe the sickening smell +which all this meant. The only thoroughly clean, sanitary hall which +she visited, was in Scotland. + +In almost all the theatres, even where the conditions are considered +above criticism, the lavatories reserved for the ladies are, by a +curious arrangement, generally on the floor where most of the actors +dress. They are almost invariably difficult to use, for as the +dressing-rooms are usually allotted by men, there is little +consideration of women's comfort in this matter. It is a curious +side-light on the intelligence of men that they almost universally +seem to think that women, by a special Providence, are exempt from +these natural laws; and almost all women are still too Early Victorian +to insist upon some change. Many of the old theatres in London and the +provinces suffer from want of proper ventilation; and many of them +are appallingly, incredibly dirty. In the provinces dressing-rooms are +sometimes dripping with damp; and it is not an uncommon experience to +share the room with mice and other vermin. + +It is only possible for me to touch very lightly on employment by the +cinematograph firms; but from the enquiries I have made, the usual +payment seems to be roughly from 5s. to 7s. 6d. a day, the workers +finding their own clothes: 10s. 6d. if the workers can ride and swim: +3s. a day for walking on, when light meals are provided. There is +a form of application to be filled in, which demands the following +particulars:-- + + Height. + Bust measurement. + Waist measurement. + Skirt length. + Age. + Line of work. + Remarks. + Ride horseback. Cycle. Swim. + +The pictures take about ten days to prepare, and as a supplementary +trade, undoubtedly this work is of value to the actress. + +An evil which attacks the theatre of the present day is the horrible +mantle of respectability which has settled on the profession. +Respectability in Art is a blight which undermines, and the moment +any worker or profession of workers is accepted on equal terms by +the non-workers of the community, misery invariably ensues. It is +impossible for a non-worker to comprehend the life of a worker, or +to make any margin for the work, which, if we judge by the example of +their own lives, they evidently despise. The restrictions which all +honest work brings, along with its compensations, are annoying to +ornamental parasites; and the contempt for restrictions is apt subtly +to undermine the mind of the worker. + +There is no doubt that for the average actress, when such an enormous +number of people are rushing into the theatrical profession, there is +little security. The life of a successful actress is undoubtedly one +of the very best, so far, open to women. It is not a fact that the +best and greatest actresses are always the successful ones: but it is +a truth that all the successful ones have some natural qualifications +which have enabled them to gain that position. + +Then what is the matter with the theatre? and why has it become such +a miserable life for the average worker? It is an unskilled trade, +and the people who have control of the trade have a contempt for the +average worker. They believe they can teach in a few weeks, what they +have not, in years, succeeded in mastering themselves. The unfortunate +worker is taught like a parrot, used for a short time, and then thrown +on the scrap-heap of the unfit for the theatre, when the theatre has +unfitted them for more honourable work. + +The employer is at the present moment a man, and a man will offer a +salary of 30s. a week to a woman, because she will take 30s.: but he +will not offer that sum to an actor. There is a subtle assumption that +because women will take less, they are not entirely dependent on their +work; and a manager will sometimes offer a large salary to a woman who +drives up in a motor car, magnificently dressed, most obviously not +dependent on her earnings; whilst the accomplished actress, without +these powerful assets, and obviously dependent on her work, is paid +practically a third of that salary. + +Let us sincerely hope that this transitional stage from the days when +each town had its own theatre, and engagements were always for the +season, to the waste and despair of the present conditions of the mass +of the workers in the theatre of this country, may give place to +some system which will select the fit from the unfit, and give them +a permanent engagement with a proper clause of notice on either side, +such as that to which workers in other trades are entitled. More care +in selection; more belief that an actress, if she be of any use, can +represent a diversity of types; a shutting of the doors on those who +are obviously unfitted, however cheap their labour may be, would +be salvation to the women who are trying to earn their bread in the +theatre. For it is time we ceased to grovel before this misused word +"Art," which covers the wasteful cruelty the present conditions in the +theatre permit. + + + + +APPENDIX I + +SCHEME OF WORK OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP + + +The Group was formed by some women members of the Fabian Society +in 1908, chiefly with the object of studying the problem of women's +economic independence in relation to socialism. The work was mapped +out on the following lines, to which the Group has adhered:-- + +_Part I.--Differences in Ability for Productive Work Involved in +Difference of Sex Function._ + +Division 1.--Natural disabilities of women when not actively engaged +in childbearing. + +Division 2.--Natural disabilities of women when actively so engaged. + +_Part II.--Women's Economic Independence in Relation to Social +Conditions._ + +Division 1.--Women as productive workers and as consumers in the past. + +Division 2.--Women as productive workers and as consumers in the +present. + +_Part III.--Practical Steps towards such Modification of Social +Conditions as will enable Women:_ + +(_a_) Freely to use and develop their physical and mental capacities +in productive work, while remaining free and fully able to exercise +their special function of childbearing. + +(_b_) Each personally to receive her individual share of the social +wealth. + +Two Summaries of the lectures and discussions arising out of Part I. +were issued for private circulation in 1910. Copies, 1d. each, can now +be procured through the Fabian Office, 3 Clement's Inn, W.C. + +Fifteen papers of the Historical Series, Part II., Division I, have +already been given, and the subjects considered in them have nearly +covered the field of material at present available for the rough +preliminary enquiry, in which the Group has led the way. When the +series is finished, it is hoped to shape the material into essay form +for publication. + +The present volume is the outcome of lectures and discussions arising +out of Part II., Division 2. It is hoped that it may prove to be +the first of a Series dealing with this part of the investigations +undertaken by the Women's Group. + + + + +APPENDIX II + +LATEST CENSUS RETURNS[1] OF WOMEN WORKERS IN THE SEVEN PROFESSIONS +CONSIDERED IN THIS BOOK + + + Total. Unmarried. Married. Widowed. + + I. Teachers 187,283 171,480 11,798 4,005 + + II. Physicians, Surgeons 477 382 76 19 + and Registered Practitioners + + III. Midwives, Sick Nurses, 83,662 55,288 11,867 16,507 + Invalid Attendants + + IV. Poor Law, Municipal, 19,437 14,439 2,514 2,484 + Parish, etc., Officers + + V. National Government 31,538 25,843 3,410 2,285 + Employeés + + VI. Commercial or Business 117,057 114,429 1,733 895 + Clerks + + VII. Actresses 9,171 5,259 3,540 372 + +In a volume which may be issued by the Census Office in February, some +sub-divisions of the above headings will be made. Thus (1) teachers +employed by Local Authorities will be separated from those in other +schools; (2) the number of dentists (not included above) will be +given; (3) the number of midwives will be shown separately; (4) Poor +Law will be distinguished from other Local Government Service; (5) +Post Office Servants will be distinguished from other Civil Servants; +(6) clerks will, as far as possible, be classified according to the +industry with which they are connected; (7) actresses in music-halls +will, as far as possible, be distinguished from those in theatres. + + +[Footnote 1: In connection with these returns of 1911, it must be +remembered that a large number of women workers resisted the census in +that year as a protest against their exclusion from citizenship. +The above figures are, therefore, though official, unavoidably an +understatement.] + + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Women Workers in Seven Professions +by Edith J. 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For +example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at: + + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/2/3/10234 + +or filename 24689 would be found at: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/6/8/24689 + +An alternative method of locating eBooks: + https://www.gutenberg.org/GUTINDEX.ALL + + diff --git a/old/12171-8.zip b/old/12171-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..c62bbc2 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/12171-8.zip diff --git a/old/12171.txt b/old/12171.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..4ebe3a0 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/12171.txt @@ -0,0 +1,10497 @@ +Project Gutenberg's Women Workers in Seven Professions, by Edith J. Morley + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Women Workers in Seven Professions + +Author: Edith J. Morley + +Release Date: April 27, 2004 [EBook #12171] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK WOMEN WORKERS IN SEVEN PROFESSIONS *** + + + + +Produced by Curtis Weyant, Leah Moser and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team. + + + + + + +WOMEN WORKERS IN SEVEN PROFESSIONS + +A SURVEY OF THEIR ECONOMIC CONDITIONS AND PROSPECTS + +EDITED FOR THE STUDIES COMMITTEE OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP + +BY + +EDITH J. MORLEY + +1914 + + + + +PREFATORY NOTE + + +The task of collecting and editing the various essays of which this +book is comprised, has not been altogether easy. Some literary defects +and absence of unity are, by the nature of the scheme, inevitable: +we hope these are counterbalanced by the collection of first-hand +evidence from those in a position to speak authoritatively of the +professions which they follow. _Experientia docet_, and those who +desire to investigate the conditions of women's public work in various +directions, as well as those who are hesitating in their choice of a +career, may like carefully to weigh these opinions formed as a result +of personal experience. + +For other defects in selection, arrangement, proportion and the like, +I am alone responsible. I have, from the first, been conscious +that many people were better suited to the editorial task than +myself--women with more knowledge of social and economic problems, +and, perhaps, with more leisure. But at the moment no one seemed to +be available, and I was persuaded to do what I could to carry out the +wishes of the Studies Committee of the Fabian Women's Group. If I +have in any measure succeeded, it is owing to the generous help and +unvarying kindness I have received in all directions. In the first +place, I would express my gratitude to the members of the Studies +Committee, and more particularly to Mrs Charlotte Wilson, the fount +and inspiration of the whole scheme, to Mrs Pember Reeves, and to +Mrs Bernard Shaw. My indebtedness to all the contributors for their +promptitude, patience, and courtesy, it is impossible to exaggerate. +I hope it will not be thought invidious if I say that without Dr +Murrell's sub-editorship of the Medical and Nursing Sections, and the +unstinted and continual help of Dr O'Brien Harris, the book could +not have appeared at all. The latter's paper on "Secondary School +Teaching" has had the benefit of criticism and suggestions from one +of the most notable Head-Mistresses of her day--Mrs Woodhouse, whose +experience of work in the schools of the Girls' Public Day School +Trust was kindly placed at the author's disposal. Similarly, some of +the details mentioned in the section on "Acting," were kindly supplied +by Mrs St John Ervine. Lastly--for it is impossible to mention all +who have assisted--I wish to thank Miss Ellen Smith for her unsparing +secretarial labours, and Miss M.G. Spencer and Miss Craig, of the +Central Bureau for the Employment of Women, for the Table which +appears at the end of Section I. This is unique as an exhaustive +summary of a mass of information, hitherto not easily accessible to +the general public. + +EDITH J. MORLEY. + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, READING, _December_ 1913. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +PREFATORY NOTE. By the Editor + +FOREWORDS. ON BEHALF OF THE STUDIES COMMITTEE OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S +GROUP + +I. THE TEACHING PROFESSION + + I. INTRODUCTION. By EDITH J. MORLEY, Oxford Honour + School of English Language and Literature. Professor + of English Language, University College, Reading. + Fellow and Lecturer of University of London + King's College for Women + + II. WOMEN AT THE UNIVERSITIES AND UNIVERSITY + TEACHING AS A PROFESSION. By EDITH J. MORLEY + + III. SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHING. By (Mrs) M. O'BRIEN + HARRIS, D.Sc., London, Hon. Member of Somerville + College, Oxford. Headmistress of the County + Secondary School, South Hackney + + IV. ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHING. By (Mrs) KATE + DICE, C.T., Class Teacher in the service of the London + County Council, Hon. Sec. of the Fabian Education + Group + + V. TEACHING IN SCHOOLS FOR THE MENTALLY AND + PHYSICALLY DEFECTIVE. By (Mrs) JESSIE E. + THOMAS, C.T., Class Teacher at the London County + Council School for Physically Defective Children, + Turney Road, Dulwich + + VI. THE TEACHING OF GYMNASTICS. By MARY HANKINSON, + Hon. Sec. of the Ling Association. Diploma of the + Dartford Physical Training College + + VII. THE TEACHING OF DOMESTIC SUBJECTS. By (Mrs) + MARGARET M'KILLOP, M.A. (Dublin). Oxford + Honour Schools of Natural Science and of Mathematics + Fellow and Tutor of University of London King's + College for Women; + and + E. BEATRICE HOGG, first-class Diploma, National + Training School of Cookery. Instructress, London + County Council Probationary and Training Centres, + Examiner in Domestic Subjects to the City and + Guilds of London Institute, the Nautical School + of Cookery, etc. Some time Hon. Sec. London + Branch, Assistant Teachers of Domestic Subjects + + TABLE I. SHOWING THE COST AND DURATION OF + EDUCATION IN ARTS AND SCIENCE, AND THE + SCHOLARSHIPS AVAILABLE FOR WOMEN STUDENTS + AT THE VARIOUS BRITISH UNIVERSITIES. Reprinted + (with additions), by special permission, from the + pamphlet, "Openings for University Women," published + by the Central Bureau for the Employment of + Women for the Students' Careers Association + + TABLE II. SHOWING SOME ADDITIONAL POST-GRADUATE + RESEARCH SCHOLARSHIPS IN ARTS AND SCIENCE + AVAILABLE FOR WOMEN STUDENTS, AWARDED BY + BODIES OTHER THAN UNIVERSITIES OF THE UNITED + KINGDOM. Compiled (with additions) by special permission, + from the "Report on the Opportunities for + Post-Graduate Work open to Women" published by + the Federation of University Women + +II. THE MEDICAL PROFESSION INCLUDING DENTISTRY. Sub-Editor: CHRISTINE +M. MURRELL, M.D., B.S., London, Assistant Medical Officer of Health +(Special Schools) London County Council; Lecturer and Examiner on +Adolescence, Health, First Aid, Infant Care, etc., London County +Council and Battersea Polytechnic, Honorary Medical Officer, +Paddington Creche, and for Infant Consultations, North Marylebone; +late Medical Registrar and Electrician and late Resident House +Physician, Royal Free Hospital + + I. MEDICINE AND SURGERY. By the Sub-Editor + + II. DENTAL SURGERY. By (Mrs) Eva M. HANDLEY + READ, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P., L.S.A., L.D.S. Dental + Surgeon to the Royal Free Hospital, the Margaret + M'Donald Baby Clinic, and the Cripple Hostel + Camberwell + +III. THE NURSING PROFESSION TOGETHER WITH MIDWIFERY AND MASSAGE. +Sub-Editor: CHRISTINE M. MURRELL + + PREFACE. By the Sub-Editor + I. GENERAL SURVEY AND INTRODUCTION. By E.M. + Musson. Matron of the General Hospital, Birmingham + + II. NURSING IN GENERAL HOSPITALS. By E.M. + MUSSON + + III. NURSING IN PRIVATE HOMES AND Co--OPERATIONS. + By GERTRUDE TOWNEND, Sister in her own Nursing + Home; late Deputy-Sister, St. Bartholomew's + Hospital; late Matron, Royal Ear Hospital, Dean + Street + + IV. NURSING IN POOR LAW INFIRMARIES. By ELEANOR + C. BARTON, President of the Poor Law Infirmary + Matrons' Association + + V. NURSING IN FEVER HOSPITALS. By S.G. VILLIERS, + Matron of the South-West Fever Hospital + + VI. DISTRICT NURSING. By AMY HUGHES, General Superintendent + of the Queen Victoria Jubilee Institute for + Nurses + + VII. NURSING IN SCHOOLS AND NURSES AS INSPECTORS. + By H.L. PEARSE + + VIII. NURSING IN HOSPITALS FOR THE INSANE. By a + Matron of one of them + + IX. NURSING IN THE COLONIES. By A. FRICKER, Matron + of the Colonial Hospital, Trinidad, under the Colonial + Nursing Association + + X. NURSING IN THE ARMY AND NAVY. By the Sub-Editor + + XI. PRISON NURSING. By the Sub-Editor + + XII. MIDWIFERY AS A PROFESSION FOR WOMEN (OTHER + THAN DOCTORS). By ANNIE M'CALL, M.D., Senior + Medical Officer and Lecturer, Clapham Maternity + Hospital and School of Midwifery; late Lecturer in + and Demonstrator of Operative Midwifery, London + School of Medicine for Women; Examiner, Central + Midwives' Board; Vice-Chairman of the Committee of + the London County Council for the Supervision of + Midwives in the County of London + + XIII. MASSAGE. By EDITH M. TEMPLETON, Secretary of the + Incorporated Society of Trained Masseuses + +IV. WOMEN AS SANITARY INSPECTORS AND HEALTH VISITORS. By (Mrs) F.J. +GREENWOOD, Sanitary Inspector, Metropolitan Borough of Finsbury, late +Chief Woman Inspector, Sheffield; Associate Royal Sanitary Institute; +Certificate, Central Midwives' Board; Diploma, National Health Society + +V. WOMEN IN THE CIVIL SERVICE + + I. THE HIGHER GRADES: PRESENT POSITION AND + PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE. By a Woman Civil + Servant + + II. THE LOWER GRADES AND THE PRESENT POSITION. + By Another Woman Civil Servant + +VI. WOMEN CLERKS AND SECRETARIES. By (Mrs) ELSPETH KEITH ROBERTSON +SCOTT + +VII. ACTING AS A PROFESSION FOR WOMEN. By LENA ASHWELL + +APPENDIX I. SCHEME OF WORK OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP + +APPENDIX II. LATEST CENSUS RETURNS OF WOMEN WORKERS IN THE SEVEN +PROFESSIONS CONSIDERED IN THIS BOOK + + + + +FOREWORDS + +ON BEHALF OF THE STUDIES COMMITTEE OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP + + +The present economic position of women bristles with anomalies. It +is the outcome of long ages of semi-serfdom, when women toiled +continuously to produce wealth, which, if they were married, they +could enjoy only at the good pleasure of their lords,--ages when the +work of most women was conditioned and subordinated by male dominance. +Yet in those days the working housewife commanded the consideration +always conceded to a bread-winner--even when dependent. In modern +times women's economic position has been undermined by the helpless +dependence engendered amongst the well-to-do by "parasitism" resulting +from nineteenth-century luxury--to quote the striking word of Olive +Schreiner. Similarly, dependence has been forced upon large sections +of women-folk amongst the manual workers by the loss of their hold +upon land and by the decay of home industries. Now a new force is at +work: the revolt of the modern woman against parasitism and dependence +in all their forms; her demand for freedom to work and to choose her +sphere of work, as well as for the right to dispose of what she gains. + +Six years ago some women of the Fabian Society, deeply stirred by the +tremendous social import of this movement, banded themselves together +to unravel the tangled skein of women's economic subjection and to +discover how its knots were tied. The first step was to get women to +speak out, to analyse their own difficulties and hindrances as matters +boldly to be faced. Whatever the truth may turn out to be with regard +to natural and inevitable differences of faculty between men and +women, it is at least certain that difference of sex, like any other +persistent condition of individual existence, implies some difference +of outlook. The woman's own standpoint--that is the first essential in +understanding her position, economic or other: the trouble is that +she has but recently begun to realise that she inevitably has a +standpoint, which is not that of her husband, or her brother, or of +the men with whom she works, or even that which these persons imagine +must naturally be hers. Her point of view is her own, and it is +essential to social progress that she shall both recognise this fact +and make it understood. + +The aim of the Fabian Women's Group was to elicit women's own thoughts +and feelings on their economic position, and to this end we invited +women of experience and expert knowledge, from various quarters and +of many types of thought, to discourse of what they best knew to +audiences of women. After the lectures, the questions raised were +discussed in all their bearings by women speaking amongst women +without diffidence or prejudice. In this manner the physical +disabilities of women as workers have been explained clearly by women +doctors, and carefully and frankly weighed and considered; the part +taken by women in producing the wealth of this country in past times +has been set forth by students of economic history, and much scattered +material of great value unearthed, and for the first time brought +together concerning a subject hitherto deemed negligible by the male +historian. Lastly, women employed in or closely connected with +each leading occupation or group of occupations to-day--from the +professions to the sweated industries--are being asked to describe +and to discuss with us the economic conditions they have directly +experienced or observed.[1] + +It is hoped in time to complete and shape for publication all the +material accumulated during these six years. We make a beginning with +this book of essays on the economic position of women in seven of the +leading professions at present open to them. Some of the papers appear +almost in the form in which they were first read to the group and its +women visitors: when the original lectures did not fully cover the +ground, they have been revised, altered, expanded, or re-written, +or essays by new writers have been substituted for those originally +presented. Thus the papers on "Teaching in Secondary Schools" by Dr +O'Brien Harris and that on "Teaching in Elementary Schools" by Mrs +Dice, take the place of an address on "The Life of a Teacher," by +Miss Drummond, President of the Incorporated Association of Assistant +Mistresses. This paper was withdrawn at the writer's request, but many +valuable points from her lecture, which she generously placed at the +disposal of the Editor, have been embodied. The other papers in the +Education Section are all new. Similarly, in the section which +deals with the profession of Nursing, Miss Hughes' paper on +"District-Nursing" is the only one which is based on a lecture given +to the group; the other articles are all supplementary. Together, we +believe they form a unique and almost exhaustive description of the +profession. + +That the volume might be made as useful as possible, the same method +has been followed throughout. The paper and discussion at the group +meeting have formed the nucleus from which a thorough treatment of the +subject has been developed. + +We hope and believe that this book may help to arouse deeper interest +in the vigour and energy with which professional women are now +striving to make good their economic position; that it may serve +to enlist active sympathy with their struggle against the special +difficulties and hindrances which beset them, and make plain the +value to society of the work they can do. We also believe that the +information here brought together may be useful in helping young women +to choose and prepare for their life-work. + +No pains have been spared to make the book as accurate as possible, +and to bring it in every case up to date. + +It should be clearly emphasised that each contributor to this volume +has expressed her own opinions freely and independently, and that the +writers have been selected because they are leading members of their +respective professions, not because they represent a particular school +of thought. We have endeavoured to get our material from the most +authoritative quarters, irrespective of the personal views of those +who have supplied it. All the writers have given generously of +their time and labour in order that they might contribute to an +investigation of profound social and national importance--the clear +presentation of the economic position of women as it appears to women +themselves. Widely different as are the professional interests and +divergent the opinions of the writers of these essays, no one can, as +we think, read consecutively the various sections of the book without +arriving at the conclusion that, on certain fundamental questions, +there is substantial agreement among them. Almost all, as a result of +their professional experience, definitely express the conviction that +women need economic independence and political emancipation: nowhere +is there any hint of opposition to either of these ideals. The writers +are unanimous in their insistence upon the importance--to men as +well as to women--of equal pay for equal work, irrespective of +sex. Wherever the subject of the employment of married women is +mentioned--and it crops up in most of the papers--there is adverse +comment on the economically unsound, unjust, and racially dangerous +tendency in many salaried professions to enforce upon women +resignation on marriage. It is clear that professional women are +beginning to show resentment at the attempt to force celibacy upon +them: they feel themselves insulted and wronged as human beings when, +being physically and mentally fit, they are not permitted to judge for +themselves in this matter. Apart from their righteous indignation, it +may be suggested that, even from the ratepayers' point of view, +the normal disabilities of motherhood, with the consequent leave of +absence, would probably in the long run be less expensive than the +dismissal, at the zenith of their powers, of experienced workers, +who have to be replaced by younger and less efficient women. It +is, moreover, a truism that the best work is produced by the +most contented worker. A fundamentally happy woman, continually +strengthened and refreshed by affectionate companionship, is obviously +better able to endure the strain of professional work than her +unmarried sister, who at best, is deprived of the normal joys +of fully--developed womanhood. The action of Central and Local +Authorities and of other employers who make marriage a disability +for their women employees, is alluded to by our contributors with an +indignation, the more striking for the studied calm with which it is +expressed.[2] + +The future as foreshadowed in these papers seems to us bright with +hope. In spite of difficulties, opposition, rebuffs, and prejudice, +professional women workers are slowly but surely advancing in status +and in recognition. They are gaining courage to train themselves +to claim positions of responsibility and command, and to refuse, if +occasion arises, to be subordinated, on the ground of their +womanhood, to men less able than themselves. They are learning by +experience,--many have already learned,--the need for co-operation and +loyalty to one another. While they are thus gaining new and valuable +qualities, they have never lost, in spite of many hardships, the +peculiar joy and lofty idealism in work which are, in part, a reaction +from ages of economic and personal dependence. + + +[Footnote 1: For an analysis of the whole scheme of work of the Fabian +Women's Group, _see_ Appendix I.] + +[Footnote 2: In Western Australia the following Amendment, 340A., +to the Criminal Code has passed the third reading in the Legislative +Assembly, and is expected to pass the Legislative Council before this +book appears:-- + +(1) Any person, who, either as principal or agent--_(a)_ Makes +or enters into or enforces or seeks to enforce any rule, order, +regulation, contract, agreement or arrangement in restraint of or +with intent to restrain, prevent or hinder the marriage of _any person +(N.B._ A woman is a "person" in Western Australia) who is in his +employment or in the employment of his principal, and is of the age of +twenty-one years or upwards; or + +_(b)_ Dismisses or threatens to dismiss any person from his employment +or the employment of his principal, or alters or threatens to alter, +any such person's position to the prejudice of such person by reason +of the fact that such person has married or intends to marry, or +with a view to restrain, prevent, or hinder such person from getting +married; + +is guilty of an offence, and is liable to imprisonment for three +months, or to a fine not exceeding five hundred pounds. + +(2) The provisions of this section shall apply to corporations so far +as they are capable of being applied.] + + + + +WOMEN WORKERS IN SEVEN PROFESSIONS + +SECTION I + +THE TEACHING PROFESSION + + "All stood thus far + Upon equal ground: that we were brothers all + In honour, as in one community." + +I + +INTRODUCTION + + +Until recently, girls who desired to earn their livelihood drifted +naturally into teaching, which was often the last refuge of the +destitute. Even nowadays, it is taken too much for granted that some +form of teaching is the obvious opening for educated women, who +aspire to economic independence. But, thanks to various causes and +developments, it is now almost universally recognised that teaching is +a profession, and one which can be entered only by candidates, who are +properly equipped and trained. In a book such as this, it may then +be assumed that the elderly governess, driven to teach by poverty and +lack of friends, with no qualifications but gentility, good manners, +good principles, and a humble mind, is a figure which is mercifully +becoming less and less common. It is still necessary, however, to +insist on the fact that brains and education and training are not +by themselves sufficient to produce a successful teacher. Quite +literally, teaching is a "calling" as well as a profession: the true +candidate must have a vocation; she must mount her rostrum or enter +her class-room with a full conviction of the importance of her +mission, and of her desire to undertake it. This earnest purpose +should not, however, destroy her sense of humour and of proportion; +it is possible to take oneself and one's daily routine of work too +seriously, a fault which does not tend to impress their importance on +a scoffing world. No girl should become a teacher because she does +not know how else to gain her living. The profession is lamentably +overstocked with mediocrities, lacking enthusiasm and vigour, drifting +more and more hopelessly from one post to another. But there is plenty +of room for keen and competent women, eager to learn and to teach, and +this is true of all branches of the profession. No work can well be +more thankless, more full of drudgery and of disappointment than that +of a teacher who has missed her vocation. Few lives can be more full +of happy work and wide interests than those of teachers who rejoice in +their calling. + +Yet there is need to call attention to certain drawbacks which are +common to all branches of the profession. As a class, teachers are +badly paid, and many are overworked. The physical and mental strain +is inevitably severe: in many cases this is unnecessarily increased +by red-tape regulations that involve loss of time and temper and an +amount of clerical work, which serves no useful purpose. Teachers +need to concentrate their energies on essentials: of these the life +intellectual is the most important, and this, however elementary the +standard of work demanded in class. No one can teach freshly unless +she is at the same time learning, and widening her own mental horizon. +Too many forms to fill up, too many complicated registers to keep, too +many meetings to attend--these things stultify the mind and crush the +spirit. They are not a necessary accompaniment of State or municipal +control, though sometimes under present conditions it is hard to +believe that they are not the inevitable concomitants of official +regulations. Anything which tends to make teachers' lives more narrow, +is opposed to the cause of education. This truth should be instilled +into all official bosoms. Wherever the State or the local authority +intervenes, wherever public money has been granted, there regular +inspection obviously becomes inevitable, but the multiplication of +inspectors, each representing a different authority, is not necessary +or sensible. At present, in all grant-aided institutions, whatever +their status, inspectors do not cease from troubling, and teachers as +well as administrative officers, though weary, find no rest.[1] This +is as detrimental to the pupil as to the teacher, for it lowers the +intellectual standard by substituting form for matter and the letter +for the spirit. Thus the inspector of an art-school who enquires only +about what are officially termed "student-hours," and not at all about +the work therein accomplished, does not make for artistic efficiency +either in teacher or taught. Yet this instance is of very recent +occurrence, and there are countless parallel cases. No wonder the +Universities demand freedom from State control; no wonder Training +Colleges and subsidised secondary as well as elementary schools groan +under its tender mercies. The present forms taken by this control are +mostly obnoxious to all practical educationists. They arise from lack +of trust in the teaching profession on the part of administrators--a +mistrust which it is of primary importance to allay by increased +efficiency, independence, and organisation. Nationalisation of +the schools is necessary, if a real highway of education is to be +established: it must be obtained without irritating conditions which +make freedom, experiment, and progress too often impossible. The task +before the teaching profession is to retain full scope for initiative +and experiment, whilst working loyally under a public body. This +should be specially the work of the socialist teacher, while the +socialist administrator and legislator must see that their side of the +work leaves full room for individuality. + +In the following section it is obviously impossible adequately to +consider all branches of the teaching profession, and it has therefore +been thought the wisest course to select the leading varieties of work +in which women teachers are engaged and to treat them in some detail. +The writers of the various articles express their own points of view, +gained by practical first-hand experience of the work they describe. +Allowance must, perhaps, in some cases be made for personal +enthusiasm, or for the depression that arises from thwarted efforts +and unfulfilled ideals. At any rate no attempt has been made to +co-ordinate the papers or to give them any particular tendency. As +a result, certain deductions may be made with some confidence. Women +teachers of experience are convinced of the manifold attractions of +their profession, and at the same time are alive to its disadvantages +as well as to its possibilities. Alike in University, secondary +school, and elementary school there is the joy of service, and the +power to train, + + "To riper growth the mind and will. + + "And what delights can equal those + That stir the spirit's inner deeps, + When one that loves, but knows not, reaps + A truth from one that loves and knows?" + +Of all teachers, perhaps she who elects to work in an elementary +school is in this respect most fortunate and most rich in +opportunities, since, to many of her children, she is the one bright +spot in their lives, the one person who endeavours to understand and +to stimulate them to the effort which all normal children enjoy. For +her, too, particularly if her work lies in a poor district, there +is the opportunity, if she care to take it, for all kinds of social +interests. There will, of course, be much to sadden her in such +experiences, but at least they will add a sense of reality to her +teaching which will keep her in close touch with life. She will find +that there are compensations for hard work and red-tape regulations, +even for low remuneration and slowness of promotion. Nor must it +be forgotten that, inadequate as is her salary, it contrasts not +unfavourably with that of other occupations for women, _e.g._ +clerkships and the Civil Service, in which the work is in itself less +attractive. As compared with the assistant mistress in a secondary +school, her lot is not altogether unenviable. If she has shorter +holidays, larger classes, and at the worst, but by no means +inevitably, a lower stipend, these facts must be counterbalanced by +remembering that she has comparatively few corrections, much less +homework, and no pressure of external examining bodies, that her +tenure is far less insecure, and that her training and education +have been to a very large extent borne by the State or by local +authorities. + +The following table gives the approximate cost of College education +for elementary teachers-in-training. If it be compared with the +expenses that have to be met by other students from private sources +(_vide_ p. 7, or, in greater detail, pp. 82 _et seq_.), it will be +seen that the elementary teacher begins her career with a substantial +subsidy from the State. + +_Elementary Teachers_. + +The following is a typical table of annual cost at a University +College which provides for two-year and for three-year students. The +training is obtainable at slightly lower cost to students in some +other colleges. + + Grants by Board of Fees payable by students + Education to College. to College. + + Tuition. Maintenance. Tuition. Maintenance. + + Women students L13 L20 L12 From L12 to + in residence L22 according + to accommodation. + (It is to be noted that the Government maintenance grant + for men students in residence is L40, which can be + made practically to cover expenses.) + + Women students L13 L20 L12 ... + living at home (paid to student) + + Men students receive _L25 _maintenance grant. + +Apparently the Government policy, as evidenced by its maintenance +grants, is to discourage women students from entering residential +colleges. Yet it is a well-known fact that the wear and tear involved +in living at home is far greater than at college--especially for +women--and the educational advantages correspondingly fewer than those +resulting from residence. + +County Councils frequently provide "free places" at local colleges, +together, in some cases, with supplementary bursaries for +maintenance. Non-resident students--_e.g._, in London--seldom have +any out-of-pocket expenses for their actual education. Nor must it be +forgotten that education up to college age is free to junior county +scholars and to bursars, who also receive small grants towards +maintenance. + +_College Fees for other than Elementary Teachers-in-Training_[2] + + Oxford and Cambridge Colleges From L90 to L105 a year for a + minimum of 3 years (of 24 weeks). + + Other Residential Universities + and Colleges From L52 to L90 or L110 a + year for a minimum of 3 + years (of 30 to 35 weeks). + + Non-residential Colleges From L20 to L55 a year for a + minimum of 3 years. (The + cost of maintenance must be + reckoned at about L40 a + year, as a minimum.) + +Students who desire to do advanced work will need at least one, and +probably two, additional years at the University, while all women who +intend to teach in schools ought also to spend one year in training. + +A large number of County Councils provide "senior" scholarships to +cover or partially to cover college fees. In some counties only one +or two such scholarships are given annually, and there is severe +competition: in others they are comparatively easy to obtain, though +there are never enough for all candidates who desire a University +education. Most of these scholarships are not renewable for a fourth +year of training--an extremely short-sighted policy on the part of the +authorities. + +At practically every University, entrance or other scholarships and +exhibitions are awarded annually. Competition for these is usually +very severe, and they are extremely difficult to gain. At Oxford +and Cambridge only quite exceptional candidates can hope to secure +scholarships at the women's colleges. Moreover, scholarships seldom +cover the complete cost of maintenance and tuition; at Oxford and +Cambridge they never do so. + +Most secondary teachers, then, must incur liabilities varying from +L60 to L350, apart from school, holiday, and personal expenses, before +they obtain their first degree. On the other hand, a graduate with +good testimonials can very often obtain her professional training at +comparatively small cost by means of a bursary: with luck, she may get +maintenance as well as free tuition. Every year, however, as training +is more widely recognised as essential, the proportion of scholarships +available becomes smaller. With the advent of the new Teachers' +Register, which makes training indispensable after 1918, girls will +more and more often be obliged to find means to pay for their own +training. At present it is often possible to borrow for this purpose +from loan societies specially formed to meet the needs of women +preparing to enter professions. + +The training for kindergarten and lower-form mistresses is less +expensive, arduous, and lengthy. Students are required to give +evidence of having received a good secondary education; they can then +take their First Froebel Certificate after one year, and their Higher +Froebel Certificate after about two years' training. The cost of such +training varies from L30 to L58 non-resident; L120 to L150 resident. +If they elect to go to the House of Education at Ambleside, the +training is for two years, and is specially suited to those who +wish to teach in private families. The cost amounts to L90 a year, +including residence, which is obligatory. + +Kindergarten assistant-mistresses usually obtain from L90 to L100 +salary for part-day work, while for whole-day work the rate is the +same as that of their colleagues. Mistresses in charge of a large +kindergarten department often receive additions to their stipend if +they are willing to train student-mistresses for Froebel examinations. + +The Ambleside students usually teach small private classes, or accept +posts as resident governesses in families. Their remuneration varies +in accordance with the work done, but it is usually about the same as +that received by kindergarten and lower-form mistresses. + +The stipends of other secondary teachers are considered in the article +by Dr O'Brien Harris (see p. 32). It should be noted that in good +private schools where the standard of teaching is equally high, the +salaries are approximately on the same scale as in public schools. But +private schools vary enormously in standing. When they are inferior, +the teachers are paid miserable pittances, and are often worth no more +than they receive. Such schools, however, are rapidly decreasing in +number, since they cannot survive competition with public State-aided +schools. The best private schools, on the other hand, supply a real +need, and, as a large proportion of their pupils do not enter +for public examinations, it is possible in them, to make valuable +experiments which could not easily be tried in larger subsidised +institutions. + +In boarding-schools, the conditions do not markedly differ from those +obtaining in day-schools. The chief danger is lest the teachers should +suffer from the strain of supervision-duties in addition to their +work in school. But in the better schools this is avoided by the +appointment of house-mistresses, the teaching staff living apart from +the girls, either in lodgings or in a hostel of their own. When they +"live in," the value of their board for the school terms is usually +reckoned at about L40 a year, which is deducted from the ordinary +salary of an assistant. The cost of living in a mistresses' house is +usually higher, but there are many counterbalancing advantages, the +chief of which is complete freedom when school duties are over. + +It would not be surprising if all women who have incurred the heavy +expenses of preparation for a teaching career, were dissatisfied with +the very small return they may expect by way of salary. Certainly if +we judged by the standard of payment, the profession might well appear +unimportant. Men and women alike receive inadequate remuneration in +all its branches, but, as in other callings, women are worse paid than +men. One might imagine that the training of girls was less arduous +or less important than that of boys, since no one suggests that women +teachers are less conscientious or less competent than their male +colleagues. Now that at every stage co-education of the sexes is +becoming less unusual, it is wise policy in the interests of men as +well as of women, to make the standard of remuneration depend, not on +the sex of the worker, but on the quality of the work. Otherwise +men will gradually be driven from the profession, as is already the +tendency in the United States of America and, to some extent, in +elementary teaching in this country. Needless to say, the women's +salaries need levelling up: it would be hopeless policy to reduce the +men's maxima to those of the women. In many secondary schools and in +at any rate some elementary ones, there is too great a discrepancy +between the salary of the head and that of the assistants. Here +again, teachers might endeavour to arrive at some united expression +of opinion. All would probably agree that the profession should be +entered for the sake of the work itself, and not on the remote chance +of becoming a head-mistress. But while the difference in salary is +very great, it is inevitable that ambitious teachers must aspire to +headships, even though they be better suited to class work. + +Finally, it may be repeated, that with all its drawbacks, the teaching +profession has much to recommend it to those who desire to make +it their life-work. It is not suited to all comers: it makes heavy +demands on mind and body and heart; it gives little material return. +But it gives other returns in generous measure. For teachers it is +less difficult than for most people to preserve their faith in human +nature, less impossible, even in the midst of daily routine, to +believe in the dignity of labour, and to illuminate it with the light +of enthusiasm and aspiration. + + "... whether we be young or old + Our destiny, our being's heart and home, + Is with infinitude, and only there; + With hope it is, hope that can never die, + Effort, and expectation and desire, + And something evermore about to be." + + +[Footnote 1: The ideal inspector is, of course, a help and not a +hindrance to the teacher, acting as a propagator of new ideas +and bringing into touch with one another, workers who are widely +separated. But the reach of most inspectors far exceeds their grasp.] + +[Footnote 2: See table at end of section, p. 82.] + + + + +II + +WOMEN AT THE UNIVERSITIES AND UNIVERSITY TEACHING AS A PROFESSION + + +When a girl is about to leave school at the age of seventeen or +eighteen, she is often as little able to determine what profession +she wishes to adopt, as is her brother in similar case. If she is +intelligent, well-trained and eager to study, her natural impulse is +to go to college, and to get there, it is still usually the line of +least resistance to say that she wishes to become a teacher. When +there are pecuniary difficulties in the way, the decision must be +taken still earlier. The unfortunate child in the elementary school +used to be compelled to make her choice at the age of twelve +or thirteen, often to find later on, when the first barriers of +pupil-teaching and King's Scholarship were surmounted, that she +was not really suited to her profession or that continued study +was uncongenial. Even now, when the system is different and better, +children are bound too early by a contract they find it hard to break. +It cannot be too often insisted that every intelligent child who +is worthy of a junior or senior scholarship, is not therefore of +necessity predestined to the profession of teaching--a profession so +arduous, so full of drudgery and of disappointment that it should be +entered by those only who are sure of their mission, and full of the +spirit that makes learning and teaching a lasting joy. + +There should be other paths from elementary and secondary school to +the University than that which leads to the teacher's platform. + +Moreover, granted that the desire to teach is a real one, and that +the girl has aptitude, it ought still to be unnecessary to choose +a particular branch of the profession before she has become an +under-graduate. A University career means, among other things, the +discovery of new powers, new interests, and opportunities; sometimes +it brings with it the painful conviction that aspiration has +outstripped capacity. The bright girl who has excelled at school, +may find that she is unfitted for independent honour work: she is not +necessarily worse on that account, but she must substitute some other +plan for her ambition to become a "specialist." The slow plodder who +could never trust her memory at school, may, at College, discover +unsuspected powers of investigation and co-ordination which mark her +out for some branch of higher study. The University, the first contact +with a more independent and larger life, is the "testing-place for +young souls": students should enter its portals as free women, the +world all before them where to choose. In many cases not until the +first degree is taken, has the proper time come to determine finally +the profession which is to be adopted. This is the ideal--for most +people admittedly a far away one at present. But even now, the +would-be teacher should not be asked to decide earlier than this on +the particular branch of the profession which she is to enter. The +average pass graduate will do best to fit herself as an all-round +form mistress: there should be no reason to determine in what type of +school, elementary or secondary. The training required should be the +same if the classes were, as they ought to be, of manageable size, and +the equipment in both types of institution equally good. Teachers +in both kinds of school would benefit if the present absurd division +between them ceased to exist. Children under fourteen require similar +discipline whatever their social status: even if the subjects taught +are to differ somewhat--a matter which is controversial and need not +be discussed here--the teachers need similar training and the same +kind and amount of academic education. Until these are secured, there +can be no real equality of opportunity for the elementary school +child: only the very best intellects in the class of 60 can hope to +compete with the average individually educated child in the form of +20 or 30--and this is true whatever the merits and enthusiasm of the +teacher. + +Some girls will welcome the larger opportunities for social service +which are open to the elementary school-teacher: others will prefer +and be better suited to the conditions of the secondary school. +Clearly, the student, whose expenses have been defrayed by the +Government on condition that she enters its service, must fulfil her +undertaking: but that should not in itself limit her to one type of +school in these days of grant-aided institutions.[1] The new four-year +course makes it possible for her, as for independent students, to +train in the year subsequent to taking a degree--an essential reform +if the old over-strain and rush are to be avoided. It is generally +accepted, and in girls' secondary schools commonly acted upon, that +professional training for one year after graduation, is indispensable. +The teacher is born, not made, but she needs help if she is to avoid +mistakes equally disastrous to herself and her pupils: she requires +some knowledge of child-character, some acquaintance with the history +and theory of education, some leisure to formulate, some opportunity +to consider the aims as well as the methods of her teaching. We have, +perhaps, passed beyond the stage when it is necessary further to +discuss the value and effect of training. It is still desirable +to emphasise the fact that the untrained woman teacher finds it +increasingly difficult to obtain satisfactory and well-paid school +posts.[2] Girls should endeavour by every means in their power to +secure this fourth year at college, which is essential to their +competency and to security of employment. It would also be well to +impress on county councils that their work is but half done if they +continue to refuse a renewal of scholarships for training to those who +have taken a degree. + +Students who have graduated with honours will have to decide before +they begin to train, whether they wish to become specialist teachers +and whether they have sufficient intellectual capacity to do so. +Generally speaking, a student who has obtained third-class honours +will do better to prepare herself for ordinary form work; she is +not likely to obtain control of the teaching of her own subject in a +first-rate school, though doubtless she will often get the opportunity +to take some classes under the direction of the specialists. Graduates +in high honours will usually desire to devote themselves mainly to the +subject in which they have proved their ability, and their training +must be adapted to their end. Modern language or English specialists +will need practical training in phonetics, for example: mathematicians +require to study modern methods of teaching their subject, and so +forth. The best training colleges, of course, provide for such cases; +in this respect, University training-departments have the advantage +over others, since they can secure the services of experts for the +discussion of their own subjects. + +There remains, lastly, the case of the student who, while definitely +desiring to teach, wishes at the same time to go on with her own work, +to undertake research or advanced or independent study. Such an +one will aim at a University or College appointment, in the hope +of pursuing her own work under congenial conditions. At Oxford and +Cambridge a woman is, at this stage and always, definitely at a +disadvantage by reason of her sex. For her there are scarcely any +fellowships or post-graduate scholarships, and too often the promising +scholar is caught up in the whirl of teaching for her daily bread at +the very moment when it is most necessary for her to have leisure and +ease of mind. Few things are more required in women's education at +the moment than liberal endowments for post-graduate study. The +comparatively new Federation of University Women Graduates has done +good work by making a list[3] of the opportunities available for women +graduates, either by open competition or otherwise, at the various +Universities and elsewhere: it has also founded, and twice awarded, +an annual fellowship for a woman who has already published a +distinguished contribution to learning. But much more is needed in +this direction if women are to have the same chances as men to qualify +themselves for the higher university appointments. At almost all the +new Universities men and women are nominally alike eligible for every +teaching post. In practice, women are rarely if ever selected for the +higher positions. Sex prejudice undoubtedly counts for something in +this result. It may be assumed that, with two candidates of equal +merit, preference will certainly be given to the man: indeed, it is +certain that a woman must be exceptionally qualified and far more +distinguished than her male competitors to stand a chance of a +professorial appointment even in the most liberal of co-education +universities--Manchester, for example, where the conditions are +exceptionally good. This fact should not deter _fully qualified_ women +from applying for professorial chairs. The power of suggestion is +very great, and it is well to accustom appointment committees to the +consideration of women's claims: in time it may appear less strange to +choose a strong woman candidate than to reject her in favour of a less +qualified male applicant. + +It must be confessed, however, that the case does not at present often +arise. The girl who has had a brilliant undergraduate career, and who +has real capacity for advanced study, exists in her hundreds. But in +almost every case when she is not financially independent, at best +after an interval of preparation for her M.A., she accepts a junior +lectureship or demonstratorship, and from that time onwards is +swallowed up in the vortex of teaching and routine work. Often she +makes heroic efforts and succeeds in producing independent results, +but, so far, to nothing like the extent that would be commensurate +with the promise of her undergraduate achievement. Generally she +is too conscientious about detail, too interested in her students +individually and collectively, to secure sufficient time for her own +studies. + +If a lecturer be known to teach between twenty and thirty hours a +week, it is tolerably, though not entirely, safe to assume that it is +a woman who is so foolish. In so doing, she is destroying her chances +of advancement--intellectual and professional--and is laying her whole +sex open to the charge of being unsuited to university work except in +its lower branches. + +It is certain that the number of University appointments open to women +is on the increase, and that there is no present likelihood that the +demand for qualified women will remain stationary. On the other hand, +the necessary qualifications, personal as well as intellectual, are +high; the work is hard, though attractive, and it is in every respect +undesirable that those whose talents can better be exerted in other +branches of the profession should endeavour to obtain College posts. +Roughly speaking such openings are of four kinds :-- + +(1) Administrative posts. These are usually the reward of long and +successful service in junior appointments. The heads of the various +women's University Colleges are often, but by no means invariably, +well paid, and may look forward to a salary ranging from L400 to +L1,000. Such posts are obviously few in number and entail hard work +and grave responsibility. They necessarily preclude much time for +research, or even for teaching. The corresponding, but much less +responsible, influential, and well-paid position in a co-educational +University is that of Dean or Tutor of Women Students. This post +is usually, and should always be held by a woman of senior academic +standing, whose position in the class-room or laboratory commands +as much respect as her authority outside. The Dean or Tutor is +responsible for the welfare and discipline of all women students, and +is nowadays usually a member of the Senate or academic governing +body. Sometimes she is also Warden of a Women's Hostel, but this is +obviously undesirable if there be more than one Hall of Residence, +lest she may appear to favour her own students at the expense of the +others. + +(2) Professorial posts and Staff Lectureships.[4] These are almost +entirely confined to Women's Colleges, though there are a very few +exceptions to this rule. The University of London has established +University Professorships and Readerships at the various constituent +Women's Colleges.[5] One of the former and several of the latter +are held by women who have been appointed after open competition. In +addition, a woman, Mrs Knowles, holds a University Readership at the +co-educational London School of Economics. There are also one or two +women professors at the newer Universities, but these as a rule retain +their positions by right of past service in a struggling institution, +not as a result of open competition, when University status had been +attained and reasonable stipends were offered to new-comers. The +National University of Ireland has, however, appointed several women +professors at its various constituent Colleges. + +Salaries probably range from L300 to L700, the better paid posts as +yet very seldom falling to women. + +(3) Lectureships, assistant lectureships, and demonstratorships. These +are usually open to women in practice as well as in theory, though +much depends on the personal idiosyncrasy of the head of the +department, and on the importance of the post and the salary offered. +But since it is, unhappily, often easy to secure an able woman for the +same stipend as that which must be offered to an inexperienced man, +fresh from college, difficulties are not, as a rule, placed in the +way of such appointments. The salary begins at about L150 (sometimes +less), and rises normally to about L200 or L250. A few senior and +independent lectureships are better remunerated. + +(4) Closely allied with University work is the work of training +teachers. In Training-Colleges, and in University training-departments +there is a constant demand for lecturers and mistresses of method. +These posts, which are remunerated on about the same scale as other +University lectureships, are well suited to those whose interest lies +mainly in purely educational matters. Girls who have obtained +good degrees, but who do not wish to devote themselves entirely to +scholarship, will find here an attractive and ever-extending sphere of +influence. Lecturers in Training-Colleges must, of course, themselves +hold a University teaching-diploma: they should have school experience +of various kinds, and they must be enthusiastic in the cause of +training and of teaching. For competent and broad-minded women there +are many openings in this branch of the profession, and there is +much scope for independent and original work in many directions. The +training of teachers, as well as actual teaching, is of the nature +of scientific, experimental, and observational work. Lecturers in +Training-Colleges most of all, but to a large extent teachers of every +degree, must be students of psychology and of human nature. Mistresses +of Method are well aware that the ideal type of training has not yet +been evolved: they are seeking new ways of carrying on their work and +experimenting with new methods at the same time as they are guiding +others along paths already familiar to themselves. This absence of +finality, characteristic of the teaching profession as a whole, and +constituting one of its chief attractions, is especially noticeable in +all work connected with the training of teachers. + +Senior appointments at all properly constituted Universities are of +life tenure--nominally until the age of sixty-five, though probably +earlier retirement will be made possible. They are made by the +Council, which usually entrusts the election either to the Senate or +to a committee, on which are representatives of both the Council and +the Senate. Unfortunately this procedure is not universal, and the +teachers are not invariably consulted in their official capacity. +Junior appointments, while subject to ratification by the Council, +are usually made in the first instance by the head of the department +concerned, usually, but not invariably, after consultation with the +Dean of the Faculty or the Vice-Chancellor. They are sometimes of +three years' tenure with or without possible extension, sometimes +subject merely to terminal notice on either side. + +In the last four or five years contributory pension schemes for +the professorial body and for permanent assistants in receipt of +a specified income (usually L250 or L200 and upwards) have been +compulsorily established at all British Universities in receipt of +a Government grant. In June 1913, the Advisory Committee on the +Distribution of Exchequer Grants to Universities and University +Colleges laid on the table of the House of Commons a scheme which came +into force on 29th September, and is compulsory on every member of +the staff entering a University after that date at a salary of L300 or +upwards. Members appointed at salaries of between L200 and L300 have +the option of joining the scheme, while those appointed at salaries +of between L160 and L200 may join with the consent of the institution. +Members of existing schemes are entitled to join under similar +conditions. Special facilities are given for the transference of +policies from one University to another, since the view is taken +that the teachers in all the Universities constitute a profession +comparable with the Civil Service, and that transference from one +University to another should not be accompanied by a financial penalty +any more than is transference from one Government office to another. + +A competent girl who can bide her time can usually get a footing in +some University. Her future advancement will depend on her value to +the institution, on her original writing and research even more than +on her teaching, work on committees and influence with the students. +Largely, too, it will depend on her tact and popularity with her +colleagues: to a very considerable extent it still rests also on +conditions over which she has no control, and which are part and +parcel of the slow recognition of a woman's right to compete on equal +terms with men. + +It seems, as far as can be judged, that future opportunities are +likely to occur when the right candidates for posts are there in +sufficient numbers to make their exclusion on the ground of sex, +already seldom explicitly stated, impossible or inexpedient. Meanwhile +it is probable that individual women will continue, in some cases, to +suffer injustice, while in others, by virtue of their unquestionable +attainments and strength of personality, they may attain the positions +they desire. Slow progress is not altogether bad for the ultimate +cause of women at the Universities: nothing could injure that cause so +much as mistakes at the initial stage. An important appointment +given to the wrong woman, or to one in any respect inferior to her +colleagues, would be used as an argument against further experiment +for many years. + +University women teachers can best help to secure equality of +opportunity by rendering themselves indispensable members of the body +corporate. In their case much is required of those to whom little is +given. Above all they must avoid the temptation to live entirely in +the absorbing interests of the present: they must remember that it is +the business of a University to make contributions to learning as well +as to teach. Secondly, they must insist on equality of payment and +status when there is any disposition, overt or acknowledged, to +differentiate on the score of sex. It is not right to yield on these +points, for an important principle is at stake. On the other hand the +time and place for insistence must be wisely selected, and any +claim made must be incontrovertible on the score of justice and +practicability. Lastly, women on committees and elsewhere are +not justified in keeping unduly in the background. When they have +something worth contributing to the discussion, it is not modesty but +lack of business capacity, which makes them silent. "Mauvaise honte" +is as much out of place as undue pertinacity. Women who are unwilling +or unable to assert themselves when necessary, are not in place at +a co-educational University. Most women, however, will derive +intellectual stimulus from the free interchange of opinion, possible +only when both sexes are working happily together, with common +interests and common aims. + +If relatively too much space in this article has been given to women's +work at mixed Universities, the excuse lies ready to hand. In Women's +Colleges there is, of course, no sex bar, and the way lies clear +from the bottom to the top of the ladder. Conditions of appointment, +tenure, and work do not greatly differ from those described, except +in so far as the stipends tend to be lower, especially for more +responsible posts, when these are ordinarily occupied by women. It is +a sign of the times that in at least one Women's College in a mixed +University, it has been recently necessary to rule that posts are +open to men as well as to women, unless it is specially stated to the +contrary. Thus, when the power is theirs, women also may be unwisely +tempted to erect a new form of sex barrier. To do so would be to +play into the hands of those enemies who are always raising the voice +against equal pay for equal work. The most suitable candidate for a +post is the one who should be selected, irrespective of sex. It is +this principle that women are endeavouring to establish. They must +do so by scrupulous fairness when the power is theirs: by making +themselves indisputably most fitted, when they are knocking at the +closed door. + +One further topic needs discussion in this section--the continued +employment of married women in University posts. At present there +is no universal rule, and every case has to be judged on its merits. +Every lecturer who marries, can and ought to help to form the +precedent that continuance of professional work is a matter for her +own decision and is not one that concerns governing bodies. Already a +good many women, mothers as well as wives, have set the good example +and have established their own position, sometimes without question, +sometimes as the result of a difficult struggle. It is clear that +Universities, with their long vacations, and with their established +recognition of long absences for specified purposes, have less ground +than most employers to raise difficulties for married women. Thus the +holder of an A.K. scholarship may travel for a year, in order, by the +wise provision of the founder, to enlarge his or her mind and +bring back new experience to University organisation, research, +and teaching. The woman who fulfils the claims of sex, and to do so +journeys into the realm where life and death struggle for victory, +cannot thereby be unfitted for the profession for which she has +qualified. Enlargement of mind and new experience will help her too, +in the daily routine. It is for her alone to decide whether new claims +and old can be reconciled. If in practice in an individual case they +cannot, then and only then has the University or College a right to +interfere, and on no other ground than that the work suffers. Since +women workers are as a rule only too conscientious, this contingency +is unlikely often to arise. + + +[Footnote 1: Her local authority may, however, have claims upon her, +if she has promised to teach in an elementary school.] + +[Footnote 2: Trained teachers only, men and women, will be admitted to +the new Register.] + +[Footnote 3: See tables at the end of this section, pp. 82 to 136.] + +[Footnote 4: On the Continent even in Germany, and in the U.S.A. +several women have been elected to University chairs.] + +[Footnote 5: Dr Benson, Staff Lecturer at Royal Holloway College, was +raised to the status of University Professor of Botany in 1912 without +open competition; Dr Spurgeon was appointed to the new University +Chair of English Literature, tenable at Bedford College as from 1st +September 1913, after open competition. These professorships are +the only two held by women at the University of London but there are +several women Readers.] + + + + + +III + +SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHING + + +The girls' secondary day schools of this country, largely built up in +the first place by the individual pioneer work of broad-minded women +during the last thirty years of the nineteenth century, are now in +most cases coming, if not under State control, at least into the +sphere of State influence. These women educationists in some cases +worked on old foundations, in others obtained from guilds or governors +a share for girls' education of funds previously allocated to various +benefactions or to the education of boys only. Private enterprise, +individual or, as in the case of the Girls' Public Day School Company, +collective, added schools in most important towns. + +Thus by the beginning of the twentieth century there was provision for +a large number of girls of the middle class up to eighteen years of +age, in schools which as High Schools were analogous to the Grammar +Schools for boys dating to a corresponding burst of educational +activity rather more than three centuries earlier. Dependent on the +fees of their pupils or on special funds or endowments, these schools +could not, for the classes unable to pay a fee, adequately supplement +the elementary schools of the country, which provide for such +children education at most up to fourteen or fifteen years of age. The +Education Act of 1902, therefore, placed education beyond this age in +the hands of local authorities, the Board of Education supplementing +the rates by grants for secondary education--so that publicly owned +schools have been started by municipalities and County Councils, while +other institutions receive grants on certain conditions. + +Schools of all the types mentioned and a few others, providing +education at least from ten to sixteen (or eighteen) years of age, +are known as secondary schools, and it is to work in them that this +article refers.[1] Various as may be their origins, and different +their aims, the teachers in them form a fairly homogeneous group, +with definite points in common, resulting from the requirements of the +Board of Education for the earning of the grant now paid to most of +these schools, or for the register in force for a short time--as +well as from the co-ordinating influence of membership of the +Headmistresses' or the Assistant Mistresses' Associations and other +professional and educational bodies, and of educational literature +from the publications of the Board of Education downwards. + +It would be well if for this, as for other parts of educational work, +people of middle age, or in fact all whose school days lie in the +past, would dismiss their ideas gained from schools of even the end +of the nineteenth century, and realise that the daily life of a school +to-day is, in most cases, very different from that which they have +in their minds. The time-table and the class-room work may not +appear dissimilar to the casual observer, but a difference there +is, nevertheless. The chief alteration, however, is that a girl's +education is increasingly carried on by many agencies other than +these. In the school society rather than in the class-room lesson, +at net-ball and hockey rather than in the drill lesson, on the school +stage or in the school choir she learns, rather than is taught, her +most valuable lessons. Examinations still exist, it is true; but these +come later in a girl's school life, and are more frequently based on +the school curriculum and held in the school than used to be the case. + +What does all this new life mean in the work of the teacher and her +preparation for it? + +Miss Drummond, President of the Incorporated Association of Assistant +Mistresses, spoke thus on the subject[2]:-- + + "In a lesson in a good school there is most often a + happy give and take between the teacher and the class. + The teacher guides, but every girl is called on to take her + part and put forward individual effort. The homework is + no longer mere memorizing from some dry little manual, + but requires thought and gives scope for originality. The + whole results in a rigorous mental discipline, real stimulus + to power of original thought, eager enthusiasm in learning.... It + means an enormously increased demand upon the teacher." Again, "it + must not be thought, however, that the work of the school is limited + to lesson hours. We aim not only at giving a definite intellectual + equipment but at producing independence and self-reliance together with + that public spirit which enables a girl quite simply and without + self-consciousness to take her part in the life of a community." + +Besides games, which may be organised by a special mistress (see p. +59) or by ordinary members of the school staff, + + "there are nearly always several societies, run again by + the girls as far as possible, but almost always with the + inspiration and sympathy of some mistress at the back of + them. Thus there are social guilds of various kinds. + These vary from mere working parties for philanthropic + purposes to large organisations which embrace a number + of activities.... Of something the same kind are the + archaeological and scientific, the literary and debating + societies.... These societies are among the most interesting + and important parts of the work of a teacher, as they are + also among the most exacting. Games and societies together + tend to lengthen the hours of a school day, but even on + leaving school, her work is not finished. There are always + corrections to be done.... Still this is not all if lessons + are to be kept as alive and stimulating as they should be. + First and foremost, it is absolutely essential that the + teacher should not be jaded. She must get relaxation, + she must mix with other people and exchange ideas, she + must go about and keep in touch with all kinds of + activities. But at the same time she has to read in her + own subject, she has to keep up with modern methods of + teaching, she has to think out her various lessons."[3] + +Just as the headmaster of a public school often seeks for a cricketer +rather than a classical scholar for his staff, so the headmistress +thinks not only of academic attainments but seeks for an assistant who +can keep going a school society or a magazine (while leaving it in the +hands of the girls), who enjoys acting and stage management, who can +take responsibility for a dozen girls on a week's school journey (the +nearest approach to camping out--and experience of this would perhaps +be a recommendation!). She wants some one not merely to teach or +manage or discipline girls, but a woman who can share the life of the +girls, or at least understand it well enough to let them live it. + +Not that the intellectual side is unimportant. A University degree is +normally required in an assistant and this involves a three or four +years' course of considerable expense (see p. 7). An honours degree +is often essential--always, nowadays, in the case of a headmistress. +Whilst well-trained foreigners hold an important place in some +schools, modern languages are more frequently taught by an +Englishwoman who has lived abroad rather than by a foreign governess; +even English, happily, is no longer entrusted to any one not specially +qualified. As will be seen from the article on domestic work, the +graduate in chemistry has in this a promising field, while the +botanist or zoologist and the geologist have the basis on which to +specialise in nature-study or geography. This, however, usually comes +after the preliminary general academic training. It is well to keep up +a many-sided interest apart from bread-and-butter subjects, not +only in view of demands that may be made on one, but because the +intellectual woman will best qualify by developing her own powers as +far as possible. If of the right calibre, she can afterwards readily +take up even a new subject and make it her own. A good secondary +school needs that some of its mistresses should have the habits and +tastes of the scholar who loves work for its own sake, or rather for +the sake of truth. A woman with strong well-trained intellectual power +need not fear the competition of even the capable woman of action +indicated in the preceding paragraph. Both qualifications may, in +fact, exist in the same person. + +The woman with brains is indeed needed in the schools. The work of +women's education was but begun by the illustrious pioneers to whom +reference has already been made. There are to-day many new problems +to solve, new difficulties caused by the very success of the older +generation. On the one hand it was necessary that women should at +first, by following the same lines as men, prove their powers on +common ground; now they must find whether there are special fields for +them, and how, if these exist, they may best be occupied. They need +no longer be afraid to emphasise what was good in the old-fashioned +education of girls. Might not, for example, elocution and caligraphy +with advantage re-appear as good reading aloud and beautiful +penmanship? just as physical training carries on the lessons of +deportment and the Domestic Science course revives the lessons of the +still-room, the kitchen, and the store. On the other hand, under the +existing pressure to relieve the burden of childhood, women must see +to it that the mothers of the coming generation are not sacrificed to +the earliest stages of the lives of their children that are to be. +The motherhood of women and their home-making powers are indeed to +be developed, but not at the expense of their own lives and their +citizenship. Women educators, then, must take what is good in boys' +education, what has been good in girls', and must utilise both. This +work is great, and it is specially difficult because legislation and +administration are almost entirely in the hands of men. Now men are +apt to take for granted either that girls should be treated just like +boys, or that they are entirely different and are to be brought up on +different lines; and women who see the truth there is in both of these +propositions are hindered alike by the men who hold the one and those +who hold the other. + +The pioneer girls' schools of the nineteenth century did much +experimental work and established the right of individual initiative +and a distinct line of work for each school. Perhaps special gratitude +is due in respect of this to the governing body of the Girls' Public +Day School Trust, since its schools were numerous enough soon to +create a tradition requiring for their Headmistresses great initiatory +power and considerable freedom. + + "This freedom," writes a recently retired Headmistress + of thirty-six years' standing (Mrs Woodhouse, late of + Clapham High School), "was of the greatest value as leading + to differentiation of type and character of school. It + ensured a spirit of joy in work for the whole staff; for the + Headmistress and her band of like-minded colleagues were + co-workers in experiments towards development and + sharers in the realisation of ideals. The vitality thus + secured has been appreciated at its true value by His + Majesty's Inspectors when in recent years they have + come into touch with these schools, and as far as my + experience goes, they have left such initiative untouched." + +The danger resulting from the progress made in education during the +twentieth century is that secondary schools, coming as nearly all now +do under the cognizance if not the control of the Board of Education, +may become too much office-managed and State-regulated, thus losing +life in routine. The task of resisting this, of working loyally with +local and central government departments, and yet of keeping the +school a living organism and not merely a moving machine is one +requiring by no means ordinary ability. Is there not here a call to +women of the highest power and academic standing? + +It is true that the direct facing of these wider problems does not +fall to the lot of the assistant mistress in her earlier years. But +the ambitious aspirant to a profession looks to the possibility of a +judgeship or bishopric in choosing his life-work. The capable woman +then will look at all the possibilities in the teaching profession. +Long before she is Headmistress she will have made her mark in her +school--for not only the numerous activities mentioned but also +the organisation of ordinary school work require initiative and +self-reliance. The head of a large school is only too glad to hand +over to a competent assistant the organisation of her own department +and its co-ordination with other school activities. + +Just because there are now openings in other branches of work for +women of the highest power, those of this type should give teaching +some consideration. Since it has ceased to be the only avenue for +trained and educated women, it is no longer so crowded with them, and +as in other callings, there is plenty of room at the top. + +In addition to a degree, the qualification of training is a strong +recommendation.[4] It involves, as a rule, a year after graduation, in +special colleges such as exist in Oxford, Cambridge, or London, or +in the Secondary Training Department of one or other of the local +Universities. The expense varies, usually meaning a fee of about L10 +to L30 in addition to cost of living; so that a fairly expensive +year intervenes between graduation and the commencement of a salary. +Alternatives to a training-college course have been recently suggested +by the Board of Education, and may shortly be available. During the +training period the intending teacher must, if this is not already +determined, decide on the special branch for which she wishes to +prepare, according to her qualifications and the needs of schools. +If actual teaching experience can first be obtained for two or three +years, it enables earning to begin at once and greatly increases the +value of the training taken subsequently. + +The secondary teacher thus spends from three to five years in academic +and professional training; and in accordance with current economic +ideas should receive a salary proportionate to the outlay involved. +The scheme of salaries approved by the Assistant Mistresses' +Association in January 1912 suggests L120 as the initial minimum +salary (non-residential) for a mistress with degree and training, +rising in ten years to L220 in ordinary cases, to L250 where +"positions of special responsibility" are occupied. L100 to L180 is +suggested for non-graduates. "These salaries are higher than those +provided by the Girls' Public Day School Trust, and other governing +bodies outside the London County Council. In most cases L120 to L130 +a year may be taken as a fair average for an assistant mistress."[5] +Headmistresses' salaries vary from L200 to, at least in one +exceptional case, L1,500. They often depend in part on capitation +fees. The Headmistresses' Association considers that the minimum +should be L300. + +In secondary schools as in other grades of educational work the +salaries of women are lower than those of men, as may be illustrated +by the London County Council scale of salaries. + + Men: Assistants . . L150-L300 (or L350) + Heads . . L400-L600 (or L800) + + Women: Assistants . . L120-L220 (or L250) + Heads . . L300-L450 (or L600) + +The difference between the salaries of heads and assistants is in many +cases greater than is desirable. Things being as they are, it is +well that there should be some prizes to attract ability into the +profession. On the other hand, a woman, whose best work is that of +an assistant, should not be tempted to give it up for the salary of +a headmistress. The assistant has the opportunity for closer and more +personal touch with her girls, being intimately responsible for a +smaller number; she has also better opportunities for working out the +teaching of her subject and improving its technique. Education would +gain if more of the ablest teachers, specially successful in one or +other of these directions, were left in a position to continue this +work, instead of feeling obliged to substitute for it the perhaps +uncongenial task of organisation on a large scale, and that contact +with visitors, organisers, inspectors, committees, and the public, +which occupies the time of the heads of schools. The truth of this is, +I am told, better appreciated in Germany than in this country. + +Since local authorities took over the work, secondary teachers have +gained considerably both as regards salaries and tenure. They are now, +as a rule, better paid than elementary teachers, which was not always +the case before 1902. + +The tenure of the teacher varies in different schools. It is now less +common than formerly for the appointment and dismissal of the staff to +be entirely in the hands of the Headmistress; and assistants are +thus safe-guarded against possible unfair and arbitrary action. The +Headmistress,[6] however, has almost invariably a preponderating voice +in the selection of her staff--as is right if the school is to be +a living organism, not merely one of a series of machines with +interchangeable parts; but the power of dismissal, if in her hands, +is usually safe-guarded by the right of appeal to the appointing +body--local authority or board of governors as the case may be. This +right of appeal should be universal, and formal agreements should in +all cases be made. (A model form of agreement has been drawn up by the +Association of Assistant Mistresses.) + +Pensions are not generally provided for secondary teachers; but a +national pension scheme for them is under consideration, and there is +hope that it will not be long delayed. + +The poorer members of the teaching profession come under the National +Health Insurance Act and are provided for by the University, Secondary +and Technical Teachers' Insurance Society which already numbers eleven +thousand members. This society also offers, in its Dividend Section, +to those not compulsorily insured the opportunity for voluntary +insurance against sickness. Association among secondary teachers has +been considerably furthered by the desire to qualify for membership in +the Insurance Society. + +The distinctive associations for secondary mistresses are the +Headmistresses' Association and the Association of Assistant +Mistresses in Public Secondary Schools. These are concerned with +general educational as well as professional problems, and their +opinion is sought at times by the Board of Education with regard to +proposed regulations. Each of them is represented on the recently +established Registration Council, which has just reported (November +1913). + +Membership of the Teachers' Guild of Great Britain and Ireland, of the +College of Preceptors, and of the National Union of Teachers is also +open to secondary teachers. In the last-named they may join hands with +the great body of elementary teachers; in the first two organisations +with private teachers also. There are also associations for teachers +of certain subjects, the Ling Association and the Association of +Teachers of Domestic Subjects. Membership of such bodies as the +Historical, Geographical and various Scientific Associations is +valuable because not confined to teachers. + +Though the President of the Association of Assistant Mistresses +has said that "there would be a strong feeling against definite +organisation for the purpose of forcing up rates of remuneration,"[7] +yet that body has investigated the scales of pay offered by local +authorities, and writes in protest when posts are advertised at low +rates. + +Under present conditions the principle of general equality of income, +not yet being considered as a serious proposition, it is surely +economically right for the teaching profession to claim remuneration +sufficient to give it a status corresponding to the worth and +dignity of its work. Above all, women not entirely dependent on their +earnings, and therefore in a position to resist under-payment, should +not act as blacklegs and keep down the rate for others dependent for a +livelihood on their occupation. + +Under-payment for teachers means a narrower, more anxious life than +should be theirs who are to live in the strongly electric atmosphere +of a body of girls and young women and yet keep a calm serenity of +spirit--a life less full than is essential for those who have to give +at all times freely of their best. + +Similarly, in order that the fullest possible life may be open to the +woman teacher, it seems desirable that continuance in the profession +after marriage should be more usual than it is. Again, from the point +of view of the pupils this is desirable. Mrs Humphrey Ward is not +the only opponent of women's suffrage to state that the atmosphere +of girls' schools suffers from the preponderating spinster element. +Suffragists may for once join hands with her and urge that the +married woman is in some ways better suited for young people than her +unmarried colleague.[8] Often the most valuable years of a woman's +life are lost to the school by her enforced retirement at marriage. +She gives to it her younger, less experienced years, when she knows +less of the world, less of the problems of the household, less of the +outlook of the parents. It must be remembered that the parents' point +of view is important if there is to be right co-operation between home +and school. To the teacher-mother there will come an altogether new +power of understanding, which should ultimately compensate the school +for broken time during the earlier years of the life of her children. +Provision for absence in these cases might well render more possible +provision for a "rest-term" or a _Wanderjahr_, such as should be +possible to all mistresses at intervals in their teaching career. +Mistresses are not as a rule aware that under most existing agreements +they may claim to continue their work after marriage. They would in +a large number of cases be rendering a service to girls' education by +doing so. Many secondary teachers will welcome the idea that they +need not abandon either the career they have chosen or the prospect of +their fullest development as women. The teaching profession would thus +retain many valuable members now lost to it on marriage, and the ranks +of married women be recruited by many well suited to be the mothers of +citizens. + +The career of teaching adolescent girls gives to those following +it, in the daily routine, many experiences which others seek for in +leisure hours. The woman among girls has the privilege of handing on +to them the keys to the intellectual treasuries where she has enriched +herself, of setting their feet in the paths which have led her to +fruitful fields. She may watch over the birth and growth of the +reasoning powers of her pupils and guide them to their intellectual +victories, initiating them into the great fellowship of workers for +truth. It is interesting but it is not easy work. We have seen that +the material recompense of the teacher is not great, and if she looks +for other return she will too often be disappointed. And yet there is +compensation. Here as elsewhere he that saveth his life shall lose it; +but he that loseth his life shall indeed find it. + + +[Footnote 1: "A secondary school ... is a school which provides a +progressive course of general education suitable for pupils of an +age-range at least as wide as from twelve to seventeen" (Board of +Education, Circular 826).] + +[Footnote 2: Lecture on "The Life of a Teacher" given to the Fabian, +Women's Group, 1912.] + +[Footnote 3: Miss I.M. Drummond, _loc, cit._] + +[Footnote 4: By the Conditions of Registration issued November 1913, +one year's training will be required for all entering the profession +after the end of 1918.] + +[Footnote 5: Miss I.M. Drummond _loc. cit._ For example, a science +graduate with special qualifications in geography, three years' +experience, and a training diploma has recently been appointed to a +leading London High School at a salary of L110, with no agreement for +yearly or other augmentation. [EDITOR].] + +[Footnote 6: The practice of the Girl's Public Day School Trust, +largely followed by other governing bodies, is to give the Head the +right of nomination, and of dismissal during the probationary period +subject to the veto, rarely exercised, of the Committee.] + +[Footnote 7: Miss I.M. Drummond _loc. cit._] + +[Footnote 8: This is surely a better solution than that proposed +in the November 1913, Educational Supplement to the _Times_. The +suggestion is there made that the "conventual system" prevailing in +some girls' boarding-schools should be changed by having Headmasters +instead of Headmistresses. The writer apparently fails to realise +that one of the greatest difficulties in co-educational schools is to +attract the right sort of mistress, because there is no prospect that +she may ultimately attain a headship. The same danger will inevitably +arise in any schools which introduce Headmasters. If the masculine +element is desirable, and we agree that this may well be so, the +obvious course is either to have some male assistants, or to have +married house-mistresses, on the analogy of the married house-master +at boys' schools. A still better solution, in our opinion, is +co-education, with pupils of both sexes, a mixed staff, and a joint +Headmaster and Headmistress. In many of the new County and Municipal +Secondary Schools this innovation has been successfully adopted, +though the Senior Mistress is unfortunately in all cases definitely +subordinate to the Headmaster. [EDITOR.]] + + + + +IV + +ELEMENTARY SCHOOL TEACHING + + +Progressive women to-day resent the social system which requires them +to be economically dependent upon others. They realise that social +service needs labour of a highly skilled variety, and they therefore +demand, on the one hand, training for their work as a guarantee of +their efficiency in its performance, and, on the other hand, monetary +payment and security of tenure as guarantees to them of economic +independence. As a natural corollary to woman's lack of political +power, there are no spheres of professional work in which prevailing +conditions are in these respects completely satisfactory. Perhaps the +teaching service in the State schools comes nearest to complying with +progressive demands: at any rate Government recognises the need for +training, and, to a large extent, meets its cost; a salary, more or +less adequate, is paid in return for the teaching given, and security +of tenure is, with few exceptions, assured. Again, the work done +in the State schools is now generally and rightly regarded as of +first-rate importance to the community, and therefore as meriting +national gratitude in the form of Government superannuation. Popular +prejudice against compulsory education, once so strong, may now be +said to have disappeared, and the work of the pioneers who endeavoured +to create a public opinion in its favour, has borne fruit. To-day +the parents' attitude towards the teacher is normally one of friendly +co-operation and respect, with the result that the latter is fast +becoming a powerful factor in shaping and influencing the democracy. +The school is extending its influence in every sphere which touches +on the social, physical, intellectual, and spiritual well-being of the +people. Activities which, until recently,[1] were associated only +with institutions distinctly religious in character, are now regularly +connected with the work of primary schools. Thus the teacher has +every opportunity for the exercise of public spirit, within school +and without. He is daily confronted with the problem of evolving and +developing an educated democracy, which will demand and obtain proper +conditions of life. + +The nature of the work asked of the teachers in primary schools, has +led to insistence by the State on the necessity for their professional +training, as well as for their academic proficiency. These +requirements have met with the counter-demand on the part of +the teachers in State schools, for State registration. When this +Register,[2] now in process of creation, has become an accomplished +fact, one of the chief remaining obstacles to the progress of the +teaching service will be removed. + +It is now time to turn to the conditions of training, service, and +remuneration prevailing in English and Welsh elementary schools. The +Scotch service differs in some respects, while the state of primary +education and the position of elementary teachers in Ireland[3] are +altogether worse than in Great Britain. + +The Board of Education recognises the following grades of men and +women teachers in public elementary schools: pupil teachers, bursars +and student teachers, uncertificated teachers, and certificated +teachers. Women, over eighteen years of age, who have been vaccinated, +may, without any other qualifications, be engaged as supplementary +teachers, although the Board cannot entertain any application for the +recognition of men in this capacity. A supplementary teacher may teach +(I) infants' classes, that is to say, classes in which the majority of +the scholars are under eight years of age, or (2) the lowest class +of older scholars in a school or department in a rural parish, if the +average attendance in the school does not exceed 100. + +The number of supplementary teachers employed in the schools of +England and Wales in the year 1910-11 was 14,454. + +If we turn to uncertificated teachers, we find that during the year +1909-10 there were 45,549 employed in the schools of England and +Wales, and that this number was increased by 182 during the year +1910-11. Of the uncertificated teachers of England in the year +1910-11, 5,106 were men and 35,222 were women. + +The vast majority of rural schools have only one certificated teacher +on the staff, and in hundreds of rural schools the head teacher is not +certificated. + +The following statistics with regard to certificated teachers have +been taken from the published return of the Board of Education, + 1910-11:[4]-- + England. Wales. + Men. Women. Men. Women. + + Trained 22,134 30,410 2,260 1810 + Untrained 9,060 33,121 539 1598 + +These figures show that of men teachers, 70 per cent. in England and +81 per cent. in Wales are trained, while of women teachers only 46 per +cent. in England and 51 per cent. in Wales are trained. + +These statistics are indicative of the urgent need for total abolition +of uncertificated and supplementary teachers, since the recognition +of these grades offers a direct incentive to girls just to bridge +over the period between leaving school and getting married, without +qualifying even for what ought to be regarded as the lowest ranks of +the profession. This fact is at once realised, when one contrasts the +percentage of women teachers who are untrained, viz., 54 per cent, in +England, 49 per cent, in Wales, with the corresponding figures for men +teachers, viz., 30 per cent, in England and 29 per cent, in Wales. + +Every candidate for teachership, who has passed through a Training +College, is required by the Board of Education to serve in a +recognised school--a woman for five out of the first eight years after +leaving College; a man for seven out of the first ten years after +leaving College--or pay the whole or part of the Government grant +in respect of College training. But, notwithstanding this agreement, +enforceable under Act of Parliament,[5] the Board of Education neither +takes steps to find employment for such candidates in the State +schools of the country, nor admits any responsibility on its part for +the conditions under which teachers are employed. By the Education Act +of 1902, local authorities, of which there are 318, were made +chiefly responsible for the work of education, and it is these local +authorities who lay down the conditions of appointment. + +This refusal by the Board of Education of responsibility for +appointments and conditions of appointment to teaching posts, leaves +it for local authorities to fix scales of salaries, and to decide such +questions as, for example, whether married women teachers shall be +employed. The grave effect of this state of things on the economic +interests of the teachers of the country cannot be too much +emphasised, having regard to the fact that local authorities are +bodies composed mainly of men elected on a rate-saving principle. + +The salaries paid to bursars and student teachers are insufficient +to cover charges for maintenance, clothes, books, etc. Speaking +generally, a quite substantial sum must also be found during each +year of the collegiate course, for college expenses and for board +and lodging during vacations, so that a candidate's parents must hold +themselves financially responsible for her during the various +stages of her training, except in so far as the cost is covered by +scholarship and maintenance grants. Women candidates are in this +respect far worse off than their male colleagues, as, at every stage +of their training, they receive a smaller maintenance grant. At a +residential college, while men receive L40, women receive L20; at a +non-residential college the grant for men is L25, for women L20. +As the whole supply of teachers for each year leaves the Training +Colleges in July,[6] it follows that many of these must wait for +varying periods before finding employment: during these periods the +burden of maintenance must again be borne by the parents. The need for +legislation in the economic interests of teachers is borne out by the +fact that highly trained students of good character are unable to +find employment, even at low salaries. Of 4,384 teachers who left +the training colleges in July 1908, at least 1,226 were, three months +later, without employment, and 259 were known to be without employment +even twelve months later; whilst of the 4,386 students who left the +Training Colleges in July 1909, 1,528 were still without employment in +October 1909. These figures are for both sexes, but by far the larger +number of teachers are women. + +These facts explain why it is that local authorities, bent on +keeping down the rates, have been enabled to obtain the services of +certificated teachers at the scale of salaries which they advertise +for uncertificated teachers: in fact many fully qualified certificated +teachers have been forced to work for a rate of payment lower than +that received by an unskilled labourer; a natural corollary to this +condition of things is that many would-be teachers refuse to expend +time and money on training. + +This state of affairs has had one other effect which is of vital +importance when the economic position of women teachers is being +considered, namely, that local authorities, in order to appease the +popular outcry against this apparently overstocked market, have been +led to sanction regulations for the compulsory retirement of women +teachers on marriage. Happily the London County Council has not +succumbed to this temptation, and there are other equally enlightened +authorities. But constant watchfulness is needed in order to prevent +retrogression in this matter. Young teachers, anxiously awaiting +promotion, sometimes foolishly resist the appointment or retention of +married women. This is a suicidal policy, to be resisted at all costs, +both in the interests of the teachers and of the children. Salaries +are bound to remain low, while women are forced to consider their +profession in the light of a stop-gap until marriage, and not as +a life-work. Moreover, there are real dangers in entrusting girls' +education entirely to unmarried women. The salaries of assistant +teachers vary very considerably. In no single instance is a woman +teacher paid the same rate of salary as a man of the same professional +status. This is true even when the work is identical in character, as +is the case in mixed schools and pupil teachers' centres. One of the +results of this inequality of payment is that women teachers are often +employed to teach the lower classes in boys' schools, and some rural +schools are staffed entirely by women, not because the woman teacher +is deemed more suitable for the work, but because her labour is +cheaper; hence the need, in the teaching profession, for recognition +of the principle of "equal pay for equal work." Without it, the +status of the woman becomes lower than that of the man, inferior +or unqualified women are appointed, and men are driven from the +profession. Only when there is equality of pay can there be security +that the best candidate will be appointed, irrespective of sex. + +The following table taken from the latest returns of the Board of +Education contrasts the number of women and men employed in the +elementary schools of England, and the number of women and men +employed in the better paid higher elementary schools of the country, +for the year 1910-11. + + Higher + Elementary Elementary + Schools Schools. + + No. of Head Teachers (certificated) Men : 12,477 : 36 + " " " " Women : 16,648 : 4 + " Assistant " " Men : 18,659 : 161 + " " " Women : 46,881 : 117 + " " (uncertificated) Men : 5,091 : 4 + " " " Women : 34,910 : 2 + +An examination of statistics with regard to the salaries of teachers +in England, taken from the same returns, year 1910-11, shows that-- + + I. Average salaries (Elementary Schools) were:-- + L s. d. + Head Teachers (Certificated) Men 176 3 11 + " " " Women 122 18 1 + " " (uncertificated) Men 94 8 0 + " " " Women 68 3 5 + Assistant Teachers (certificated) Men 127 9 11 + " " " Women 92 8 6 + " " (uncertificated) Men 65 2 11 + " " " Women 54 14 1 + +II. (1) 67.93 per cent. of the certificated head masters receive less +than L200 per annum. + +(2) 93.9 per cent. of the certificated head mistresses receive less +than L200 per annum. + +(3) 93.38 per cent. of the certificated assistant masters receive less +than L200 per annum. + +(4) 97.73 per cent. of the certificated assistant mistresses receive +less than L150 per annum. + +III. The salaries of certificated teachers (England) were:-- + + Head Teachers. Assistant Teachers. + Men. Women. Men. Women. + Under L50 1 2 2 352 + Totals L50 and under L100 394 4,967 3,838 29,915 + " 100 " " 150 4,506 8,032 9,933 15,548 + " 150 " " 200 3,575 2,631 3,651 1,065 + " 200 " " 250 2,395 742 1,235 1 + " 250 " " 300 963 209 ---- ---- + " 300 " " 350 422 65 ---- ---- + " 350 " " 400 125 ---- ---- ---- + " 400 " " 450 93 ---- ---- ---- + " 450 " " 500 2 ---- ---- ---- + " 560 1 ---- ---- ---- + +IV. The salaries of uncertificated teachers are usually lower than the +wage of a skilled artisan--the average for men _head_ teachers being +below L100, and for women _head_ teachers below L70, whilst 7,855 +assistant teachers receive less than L50. + +V. Supplementary teachers usually receive, of course without board +or lodging, a salary equal to the money-wage of an average domestic +servant. They are commonly less well qualified than is she, for the +work undertaken. + +The chances of promotion to a headship are obviously so few, that the +certificated teacher will probably remain an assistant all her life. +Chances of head-teacherships are being still further reduced by the +amalgamation of departments under a head _master_. + +In the schools of many large urban education authorities, less than 1 +per cent. of the assistant teachers obtain promotion in twelve months. +The total number applying for the 163 places to be filled in the last +promotion list that was formed by the London Education Authority, was +2,337, so that, as a direct result of the publication of that list, +2,174 teachers resumed their work after the summer vacation of +1911 with feelings of less hopefulness with regard to their future +prospects. The issue of a promotion list is in itself a fact to be +deplored, seeing that it acts as a check to mental alertness. For the +2,174 unsuccessful candidates for inclusion, their application has now +either destroyed hope, or suspended any chances of its realisation +for at least two years. There is a consciousness in the unsuccessful +applicant of somehow being worth less than she was before, since +she is now an assistant mistress without potentiality for head +teachership. This feeling does not promote good work. The issue of a +promotion list is from every point of view bad policy, and although +its direct action is confined to London, its sphere of indirect +influence is very far-reaching, since London County Council applicants +for country posts are often asked whether they have been included in +it. + +The essential qualification in a mistress of an elementary school is +ability to teach a great variety of subjects: she must be qualified +for and prepared to teach all the subjects which make up the +curriculum of her school. The diversity of these will be seen from the +subjects taught in an average typical elementary school:-- + + _Girls' Department_.--Reading, writing, + arithmetic, English grammar, literature, history, + geography, nature study, hygiene, physical + training, drawing (including brush-work), + needlework (including cutting-out), knitting, + scripture. + + _Infants' Department_.--Reading, writing, + number, kindergarten and other varied + occupations, physical exercises (dancing + and games), needlework and knitting, + singing, drawing, painting, modelling, + recitation, oral composition, dramatising + stories, scripture. + +The ordinary day is divided into two sessions: the morning session +lasting from 9 A.M. to 12 noon, and the afternoon session from 2 P.M. +to 4 P.M. (infants), 4.30 P.M. (girls). + +The strain of a teacher's life in an elementary school, and the +deadening influence of routine work will be realised when it is stated +that, besides teaching all the subjects above-mentioned, she is +in front of her class of sixty pupils during the whole of the two +sessions each day, from Monday morning to Friday afternoon. + +In addition to the purely teaching work the mistress has to take +her share in the various activities which are now centring in the +school--Care Committees, After-Care Committees, the feeding of +necessitous children, the cleansing of children, medical inspection, +and so forth. There are also such social activities as old girls' +clubs, school journeys and school parties, in which she has to +co-operate; finally, the strain is not lessened by the fact that she +has to satisfy two sets of inspectors, viz., those of the Board of +Education and those of the local authority who require her to keep +special report books, varying in character and in the amount of detail +required, according to the idiosyncrasies of the particular inspectors +who may happen to be allocated to her district. + +In spite of the building regulations of the Board of Education, many +school premises are far from satisfactory with regard to lighting, +ventilation, construction, and often even cleanliness; these defects +naturally have their effect on the health of the teachers, so that +notwithstanding medical inspection during training and the rejection +of the unfit, an alarming number of cases of consumption has been +reported to the Benevolent Fund of the National Union of Teachers. +In addition to this, the strain (already referred to) under which +teachers in the Metropolitan and larger urban districts work, is +resulting in an increasing number of nervous breaksdown. + +The conditions under which a teacher works in a school in a rural +district are so unsatisfactory that they deserve special mention. +There are 245 schools in Wales and 2,199 in England with an average +attendance of less than 40; such schools are staffed by a head +teacher, assisted, in all probability, only by a supplementary +teacher. Education suffers in these circumstances as a result of the +number and the manysidedness of the responsibilities which devolve +upon the head teacher; while the consciousness of her inability to +realise her ideals will re-act unfavourably upon her health. Another +factor that must be borne in mind is that these rural schools, being +small, should, to secure efficiency, be proportionately expensive for +up-keep. In order to keep the cost of maintenance as low as possible, +however, the remuneration offered to teachers in rural schools is so +small as to be a national disgrace. To this must be further added the +fact that many rural teachers are compelled to live 5, 10, and even 15 +miles away from a railway station, so that the cost of living is much +more than it would be in town. Thus it is that rural schools which +should cost more for up-keep than large urban schools, work out at a +smaller figure per scholar.[7] + +Not only is her salary low, but a mistress in a rural school often +has to live in a state of semi-isolation from social and intellectual +activities. It should excite no surprise, therefore, that mistresses +are reluctant to apply for such posts. This difficulty of shortage +of supply is having a sinister and subtle effect on the economic +interests of married women teachers, for, owing to the difficulty in +obtaining assistant teachers in rural districts, it frequently happens +that where the head teacher is a master, his wife, who may be a +fully qualified certificated teacher, has to act as his assistant and +receive the pay of a supplementary teacher. + +During her years of service, each mistress in an elementary school +is required to contribute L2, 8s. per annum to the Government +Superannuation Fund. These contributions purchase a small annuity to +which the Government add a pension at the rate of 10s. for each year +of service. When she becomes qualified for a pension, the mistress +must surrender her certificate and cease to practise as a teacher, +so that, if we assume she has begun work at the age of twenty and +has continued teaching to the age of sixty-five, she will, after +forty-five years of recorded service, receive a pension of L22, +10s. per annum, plus the annuity which her contributions will have +purchased. It should, however, be mentioned that London and a few +other towns have established complementary schemes whereby teachers, +though contributing more, obtain pensions more commensurate with their +salaries. Under the Government scheme, the superannuation allowance +cannot become payable until the teacher has attained the age of +sixty-five years, and, even then, it can be obtained only by a teacher +whose years of recorded service are not less than half the number of +years which have elapsed since she became certificated; thus, if the +mistress, being certificated at the age of twenty, marries and, by the +regulations of the local authority, is forced to resign, she forfeits +all claim to the Government contribution, unless she has completed +twenty-two years of recorded service: nor are her contributions +returned to her. + +Teachers in elementary schools are well organised for the purpose of +self-protection. The National Union of Teachers is a powerful body, +having a membership of 78,000 men and women teachers. It is directly +represented in Parliament, both on the Liberal and Labour sides, and +owes its influence largely to the voting power of its members.[8] + +When the National Insurance Act of 1912 came into force, there were +85,000 elementary teachers to whom its clauses applied, and who +therefore found it advisable to join an approved society. For this +purpose the Teachers' Provident Society of the National Union of +Teachers was re-organised as an approved society under the Act. In +addition to providing protection for its members, the National Union +of Teachers, by means of its Benevolent and Orphan Fund, helps those, +who, through ill-health or other causes are in need of assistance. +It also maintains two orphanages--one for boys in London, and one for +girls in Sheffield. + +At the present time there is a strong probability of a dearth of +qualified teachers for elementary schools in the near future. There +are several factors which have been influential in bringing about this +state of affairs--one is, the uncertainty of employment, even after a +long and comparatively costly training. This defect will be remedied +only when a rational method of regulating the supply of teachers +is established, so that each candidate may be certain that, if she +qualifies, she will be guaranteed employment. + +Many desirable persons are debarred from entering the teaching +profession, because the rate of remuneration is low, considering +the responsibility of the work; and this drawback is still further +emphasised by the very inadequate pension which is offered at the +close of the teacher's career. This difficulty can be overcome only +when the main burden of the cost of education is removed from local +taxation and placed on the national exchequer. + +Another factor which tends to make the teaching profession +unattractive, is the very strenuous life which it entails under +modern conditions. Again, so far as women are concerned, there is not +complete security of tenure, though apart from the regulation that +obtains under some local authorities, requiring women to resign on +marriage, teachers in elementary schools, owing to the efforts of +their various organisations, possess far greater security of tenure +than teachers in any other branch of the profession. Another point in +favour of the teachers in elementary schools, is their freedom from +the burden of extraneous duties, and from the nightmare of external +examinations. + +When schools can be more generously staffed, so that, for example, +the number of assistant teachers exceeds the number of classes to be +taught, a good deal will have been done to relieve the strain under +which teachers are at present working. + +Finally, when education authorities and the public generally, become +sufficiently enlightened to realise that it is uneconomical to dismiss +a teacher when she marries _i.e._, when by her experience she is +most capable of preparing her pupils for life--then women will be +encouraged to enter the teaching profession, and to realise that they +must equip themselves as well as possible for what is to be their +life-work. + + +[Footnote 1: In this connection, the work of the Care-Committees, now +an integral feature of the elementary education system, must not +be forgotten. It will be fully considered in a later volume of this +series. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 2: The conditions for registration were issued on 22nd +November 1913, after this book had gone to press. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 3: _Vide_ Article on Education in Ireland, by May Starkie +in _The New Statesman Supplement_ on "The Awakening of Ireland," 12th +July 1913. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 4: Since this paper was written, a fresh report (Code 6707) +has been published by the Board of Education. The statistical tables +do not materially differ from those given above.] + +[Footnote 5: On the other hand, the Board seldom proceeds against +teachers who have broken their bond. [Editor.]] + +[Footnote 6: The experiment of ending the College course for certain +students at Easter, is now being made. But the movement is too young, +and the Colleges experimenting are too few, to make it possible +to draw deductions. At any rate it looks like a move in the right +direction.] + +[Footnote 7: This is a matter, the investigation of which should +be included in Mr Lloyd George's Land Campaign. There is an obvious +connection between the status of the agricultural labourer and the +inefficiency of rural schools. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 8: The women members are in a large majority, but, being +women, do not, as yet, possess the vote. Their peculiar interests, of +course, do not obtain representation.] + + + + + +V + +TEACHING IN SCHOOLS FOR THE MENTALLY AND PHYSICALLY DEFECTIVE + + +The particular branch of teaching which forms the subject of this +paper--namely, that carried on in schools for mentally or physically +defective children--affords scope for a lifetime of very happy work to +women who are really fitted for it. + +The qualifications required by teachers in these schools are the +ordinary certificates accepted by the Board of Education, but, in +practice, a preference is given to women who have taken up studies +which bear on their particular work. For instance, it is obvious that +a good grounding in psychology, physiology, and hygiene is especially +valuable in schools of this description, and proofs of the successful +study of these subjects undoubtedly carry weight in deciding +appointments to these schools. Also, it is unusual to appoint young +teachers, coming straight from Training Colleges, with very little +practical experience in dealing with children, though under special +circumstances such appointments are occasionally made. The large +majority of women appointed to the London mentally defective or +physically defective schools are, however, teachers of several years' +standing, who are also under the age limit of thirty-five. + +The salary of assistant teachers in the London special schools is L10 +a year more than the salary such assistants would be getting in the +ordinary Council schools. This extra pay only obtains until the normal +maximum salary of assistant mistresses is reached, _i.e._, L150, so +that the monetary advantage is confined to reaching the maximum a +little earlier than would otherwise be the case. With regard to head +teachers, the extra salary varies with the size of the school, L10 +being allowed for a one-class centre, L20 for a two-, three-, or +four-class centre, and L30 for a five- or six-class centre. Schools of +six classes are unusual; the majority of schools contain three or +four classes. Elder mentally defective boys from several neighbouring +schools are frequently grouped together in a special centre under +masters, and there are a few schools specially for elder mentally +defective girls, naturally under mistresses. For elder physically +defective girls there are centres in London where they may be +specially trained in blousemaking and fine needlework. These centres +have, in addition to an ordinary teacher, a trade mistress duly +qualified in the particular branch of work undertaken. The age of +compulsory retirement from teaching in special schools is sixty-five, +as in the case of ordinary schools. For both branches of the service +married women are eligible. The hours of work in mentally defective +schools are from 9.30 to 12 and from 2 to 4. In physically defective +schools the hours are nominally from 9.30 to 12, and 1.30 to 3, but in +practice they are longer, as the children begin to arrive at school +in their ambulances by 8.45, and in the afternoon the last children +rarely leave till an hour after the time of stopping actual lessons. +It is usual to arrange things so that the teacher who comes "early" +one week, is free to come "late" the next, and it is also usually +taken in turns to stay late in the afternoons. The short dinner recess +is due to the fact that most of the children necessarily have their +dinner at school, so there is no reason to allow the usual two hours +for going home and coming back. During the dinner-hour the children +are in charge of the school nurse and the ambulance attendants. + +Work in both sorts of special school has its own particular +difficulties. One great drawback is the impossibility of adequate +classification. In a small three-class centre, there will be +children from five years old up to sixteen years. That, of course, in +physically defective schools means that the work usually divided +among all the classes of an ordinary infant school must be done in the +lowest class, the second class must take the work of standards I. to +III., while the highest class must take that of standards IV. to +VII. It is true that the special schools have a great advantage +over ordinary schools in that the classes never contain more than +twenty-five children, but even granted the small numbers, the need for +taking several groups in a class makes the work very exhausting. The +more successful the teacher, that is to say, the more truly she draws +out the individual powers of each child, the harder does her work +become, for she tends more and more to have a class of children +working at varying stages. In the mentally defective schools it is not +possible to reach the work of the higher standards, so that there +is not the _same_ difficulty, but there is the even greater one of +dealing with different standards of defect, instead of different +standards of attainment. + +Another difficulty encountered in the physically defective schools +is the interrupted school-life. Children will frequently drop out for +three months, six months, or a year at a time in order to have some +operation performed in hospital, or to go to a convalescent home, or +because of an attack of illness. Both branches of the special schools +are faced with the peculiar difficulty of the "spoilt" child--the lame +girl who, by reason of her helplessness, has been indulged and waited +on by the healthy members of her family; the ill-balanced boy whose +brain-storms have been so disturbing that any opposition to his will +has been shirked. It must not be thought that these children are in +the majority at special schools, but they do form a certain proportion +of the children there; they give much trouble, and they call for a +great deal of tact and patience. Patience is so continually needed in +special-school work that women who are not particularly patient would +find themselves definitely unfit for it. Indeed, although patience +and the hopeful spirit do not figure on the list of qualifications +demanded of candidates, they might well head it, for most certainly +an irritable or despondent woman could not find any work for which she +was more unsuited, or in which she was more likely to be miserable and +unsuccessful. + +A further difficulty of the special-school teacher lies in the +"all-round" demands made on her. The children she must teach, are +defective in mind or body, or both. Some will respond to one subject, +some to another; some will make poor progress with headwork, but will +do excellent handwork. The teacher must be able to help each child +along its own path, and must be familiar with the various forms +of simple handwork as well as with the more usual school subjects. +Basket-weaving, clay-modelling, raffia-work, fretwork, bent-ironwork, +strip-woodwork, rug-making, painting, and brush-work, as well as +different forms of needlework and embroidery, are all branches +of handwork helpful in different degrees to these children. +The importance of handwork to them is felt so keenly, that the +special-schools time-tables usually show a morning devoted to headwork +followed by an afternoon occupied by handwork. + +But as well as the difficulties attendant on teaching in +special-schools, there are some very real advantages. Foremost, +perhaps, is the opportunity it affords of knowing and understanding +each child in a way that is not possible when the class consists of +sixty children. Very closely allied with this, is the great advantage +of freedom in the preparation of syllabuses, in the choice of subject +matter and the manner of teaching it. Time-tables must be approved by +the proper authorities, and the superintendents and inspectors must +be satisfied as to the character of a teacher's work, but, when those +conditions are fulfilled, originality on the part of teachers is +welcomed, and completely happy relations between teacher and children +are possible. It can be readily understood that with a class numbering +twenty-five, each child can take a much larger and much more active +share in the work, can be free to express his own views, ask his own +questions and work out his own ideas in a way impossible with a class +of sixty. When, in addition, it is remembered that the teacher is +free to frame her plans of work according to the actual needs of +the children, as shown to her through discussions and questions, +the reason why the work attracts women in spite of its obvious +difficulties is apparent. + +The real thought and care spent by the education authorities on these +schools must have struck every one who has worked in them. If we +compare what is now done for these deficient children with what was +done some fifteen years ago, the stage of progress at which we have +arrived is nothing short of wonderful. Yet every one must also be +convinced that things are not well, so long as the supply of children +for these special schools continues to grow; those who work in them +can see two ways in which that supply might be checked. Teachers in +mentally defective schools continually mourn the sad fact that the +children under their care have been guarded from wrong, and guided to +right along happy paths of busy interest until they are sixteen, only +to be turned adrift into the world at an age when, more than ever +before in their lives, they need a kindly and wise influence "to +strengthen or control." For want of some further plan of continued +supervision, the patient work of years is too often rendered nugatory, +and the child slips back into the very slough from which the school +had hoped to save it. It must be remembered that the defect in many +children in these mentally defective schools shows itself as a lack +of self-control, a want of mental balance, a missing sense of moral +values, an incapacity for concentration--the very characteristics +which render their unhappy possessors the easiest prey to the +evil-minded. Teachers who know both the good to which the child can +attain when properly safe-guarded, and also the evil into which it +will too probably fall when left alone, are very anxious to see some +step taken which will ensure that every child who needs continued +control shall have it.[1] + +Teachers in physically defective schools can also see the need for +prevention of defect rather than its mere alleviation. The more usual +forms of defect are missing limbs, tuberculous troubles (notably in +joints), heart cases, paralysis, cases of chorea, and cases of general +debility. The list must not be taken as complete, for there are, of +course, various unusual forms of defect too. It sometimes happens that +after a stay of some time in a physically defective school, a child +becomes so much better that it is able to return to the greater strain +of an ordinary school; on the other hand, it is often apparent, +that if certain children had been admitted earlier to the physically +defective school, their particular trouble might have been greatly +minimised, if not altogether avoided. What then appears to be needed +is an intermediary type of school to which children might be drafted +who are not as yet absolutely defective, but who are liable to become +so. Children of tubercular tendencies, who should be guarded +against falls or blows more carefully than normal children; those +highly-strung nervous children who, if exposed to the strain of +ordinary school life run the risk of chorea; children suffering from +the after-effects of diseases such as rheumatic or scarlet fever, +who need particularly to avoid over-exertion or too violent exercise; +children of such marked general debility that their power of resisting +disease is abnormally low--all these, if neglected, tend to become +qualified candidates for the physically defective schools. If they +could attend a school designed to suit their needs, they would in many +cases be quite able to return, after varying periods, to their places +in the ordinary schools. The open-air schools are an attempt to meet +this need on the very best lines, but there are far too many of these +border-line children for the available accommodation. If the great +expense entailed by new schools of this description be considered, it +seems not unreasonable, while waiting for them, to allow the admission +of these children to the invalid schools already working, by simply +making the term "physically defective" elastic enough to include a +latent as well as a developed defect. Whatever the apparent expense +of such measures may be, any extension of the preventive side of this +work cannot but be a real economy.[2] + +There is just one other point for the consideration of women who think +of taking up work in special schools. They should be thoroughly strong +and healthy, or they will prove unequal to a strain which tells at +times even on the strongest. But to women of good health who possess +the right temperament, these schools offer a field of useful and +congenial work. + + +[Footnote 1: Something in this direction will be achieved by the new +Act, to which, however, there are counterbalancing grave objections +which cannot be considered here. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 2: Open-air schools, and school sleeping camps such as those +established experimentally in various urban slum-districts, are other +efforts to meet the needs of physically defective children. Teachers +in open-air schools in provincial towns, work under approximately +similar conditions to those described by Mrs Thomas. [Editor.]] + + + + + +VI + +THE TEACHING OF GYMNASTICS + + +No school of any importance is considered properly equipped unless +the staff includes a gymnastic and games mistress. Several systems +of gymnastics are practised in England, but the Swedish system is +steadily proving its superiority; so much is this felt that a number +of teachers who have previously taken a two years' course of training +in some other system, are at the present time taking, or have just +completed, a second two years' course in the Swedish system. As long +ago as 1878 the London School Board introduced the Swedish system into +its schools, but it was not till 1885 that the first physical training +college was opened in this country, and this was for women only. In +1903 this system was adopted for the navy, and in 1906 for the army; +it has also been adopted in the Government schools and Training +Colleges, as well as in all the principal private schools and colleges +for girls, and in many boys' schools, including, among others, Eton, +Winchester, Clifton, and Repton. The following remarks, therefore, +apply only to the Swedish system. + +Until 1885, the rationally trained teacher of gymnastics was unknown +in England, and the physical training of the girls in this country was +monopolised by dancing mistresses and drill sergeants, most of whom +were ignorant of the laws which govern the human body. In that +year Madame Osterberg started a Physical Training College for women +students at Hampstead, the college being removed to Dartford Heath, +Kent, in 1895. Since then similar institutions have been opened at +Bedford, Erdington, Chelsea, etc., and there is a growing army of +women qualified to teach gymnastics and games, and in many cases +dancing and swimming. These trained teachers have studied Anatomy, +Physiology, and Hygiene; they have themselves experienced what they +teach others; they have been trained to observe, and deal gently and +carefully with growing girlhood. They have also studied deformities +such as spinal curvature, round shoulders, and flat feet, and are able +to take all such cases under their special care. + +The course of training lasts from two to three years, and the cost +in a residential college, is about L100 a year. To ensure success as +teachers, students should be tactful, observant, and sympathetic; they +should be medically fit, and physically suited to the work, and should +produce evidence of a good general education. The requirements of the +colleges vary as to educational qualification, some being satisfied +with a school-leaving certificate while others demand Matriculation. +This raising of the standard is a step in the right direction and may +hasten the time when the gymnastic teacher will be thought worthy of a +University degree or diploma. + +The training includes theoretical as well as practical work, and the +idea which used to be prevalent, is now practically exploded, that +a girl who could not pass examinations but who was fairly good +at gymnastics or games might make a good gymnastic teacher. The +theoretical subjects include Physiology, Hygiene, Anatomy, Theory of +Movements, Psychology, and a certain amount of Pathology; whilst the +practical side includes Educational Gymnastics and Teaching, Remedial +Gymnastics and Massage, Games (hockey, cricket, lacrosse, lawn tennis, +net-ball, and gymnasium games), Swimming and Dancing. Dancing is +becoming more and more, a necessary part of the equipment for the +successful gymnastic teacher, who must be able to teach the ordinary +ball-room dances as well as Morris and country dances. + +A typical week's work in the second year's course in one of the +colleges includes six hours' Gymnastics; five hours' Remedial +Gymnastics, and five hours' actual treatment under supervision, of +patients in the clinic; six hours' Anatomy, two hours' Physiology, two +hours' Hygiene, two hours' Vaulting, three and a half hours' Dancing. +In addition to this, four afternoons (from 2 to 4 P.M.) are devoted to +games; class singing-lessons are given twice a week for half an hour, +in addition to a quarter of an hour's practice every day, and each +student teaches in the elementary schools three half hours a week, and +also gets some practice in the high school. Add to all this the time +required for private study, and it will be seen that the work is +fairly strenuous and that none but strong, healthy girls should +undertake it. + +After the course of training the gymnastic teacher usually takes a +post in a school, and having had a few years' experience, may then +become an organiser or inspector to an education committee, a trainer +in an elementary training college or physical training college, the +head of the gymnastic department of a school clinic, or she may +prefer to start a private practice, holding classes, treating cases +of deformity, and also acting as visiting gymnastic teacher or +games-coach to schools in the neighbourhood. + +The rate of remuneration varies according to the kind of work +undertaken; the initial salary in schools is usually L60 to L80 +per annum resident, or L100 to L120 non-resident. Organisers and +inspectors command a much higher salary; the three Government +inspectors start at L200 rising to L400 with first-class travelling +expenses, and the four woman-organisers employed by the London County +Council Education Committee start at L175, rising by L10 a year to +L240 plus actual travelling expenses. Some women do well in private +practice, making from L200 to L300 a year. The salaries of the +gymnastic teachers in the London County Council secondary schools are +fixed at L130 a year with no possibility of advancement, and, though +this may compare favourably with the initial salaries of other +teachers on the staff, it must be remembered that the teaching life of +a gymnastic teacher is shorter and there are no headmistress-ships +to which to look forward. The few "plums" of the profession are the +inspectorships of the Government and of the more important education +committees. For the latter, women have often to compete with men, and +even in cases where both men and women inspectors are employed--the +men doing the same work in the boys' schools as the women do in the +girls'--the men's salaries are considerably higher, despite the +fact that most women give up professional work on marriage, either +voluntarily or compulsorily, and have therefore a shorter time in +which to recover the cost of their training, whereas if they do not +marry, they have to make provision for old age and in many cases to +contribute to the support of others besides themselves. + +With regard to this employment of women after marriage, there would +seem to be no reason why the principals or assistants of colleges or +institutes, or the women with private practices should not continue +their work; but in schools, even where the terms of the appointment +do not demand resignation on marriage, it is not customary for married +teachers to be employed. + +Up to the present, the supply of trained gymnastic teachers has +scarcely satisfied the demand, and fresh openings are from time to +time created. When physical exercises were made compulsory in all the +elementary schools, the class teacher had and still has, to give this +instruction to her class, but there has been an increasing demand for +organisers to teach the elementary school teacher and superintend her +work. This has also led to specialist teachers being appointed to all +the elementary training colleges and pupil teachers' centres. Then +came medical inspection, and with it the need for school clinics, +which could not be complete without a department for treating +curvatures, flat feet, etc., and giving breathing exercises, +especially after the removal of adenoids. Though these clinics are +only in the experimental stage they are sure to expand, and it is +expected that a large number of trained gymnastic teachers will be +required for them. Further it is possible, and may be found desirable, +that specialist teachers should be appointed for groups of elementary +schools, so relieving the class teachers of this part of their work. +Large secondary and private schools often appoint two, three, or four +trained teachers who are jointly responsible for gymnastics, games, +dancing, swimming, and the treatment of deformities throughout the +school. Besides all these openings a considerable number of gymnastic +teachers find work in the colonies, especially in South Africa, +Australia, and New Zealand. + +To band together the teachers of Swedish gymnastics and to guard their +interests generally, the Ling Association was founded in 1899. Though +it is open to men and women, very few men have joined, as the number +of men with the necessary qualifications is very small. Members must +have trained for at least two years at a recognised college, and it +was not till 1912 that the first training college for men was opened +in England. + +With a view to standardising the training and diplomas of gymnastic +teachers, the Ling Association in 1904 started a diploma-examination. +Though the syllabus drawn up is practically the same as those used +in the different colleges, most of the colleges still grant their own +diplomas at the end of the course. + +It is hardly possible at present, to specify the usual age of +retirement for gymnastic teachers, but when a woman becomes too old +for regular school teaching she can organise, supervise, and inspect, +or continue to practise remedial work which includes massage. + +Most of the gymnastic teachers who come within the scope of the +Insurance Act have joined the University, Secondary and Technical +Teachers' Provident Society. + + + + +VII + +THE TEACHING OF DOMESTIC SUBJECTS + + +There are several reasons why instruction in the domestic arts and in +the management of a house has not until quite recently formed part of +the curriculum in girls' secondary schools. In the first years of +the existence of these schools, no handicraft was encouraged except +needlework, and this was soon almost crowded out of the time-table. It +was assumed that household management was taught by the mother. There +was a second assumption made even more confidently than the first, +that a well-informed young woman with an active brain would find no +difficulty in arranging her domestic affairs. This theory was founded +on still another assumption--that there would always be on hire a +sufficiency of servants already well trained for their work. + +It is obvious nowadays that the mistresses of the first two decades +of high-school teaching, being the first college-bred women, were +suffering from a reaction against domestic interests, and the manner +in which these had absorbed the old-fashioned woman. Their best pupils +were at once destined for college; they were considered too good +for mere domestic life, and were prepared for careers, mostly for +teaching. This tendency was naturally accentuated by the fact that +all mistresses were single women, with little prospect of any but a +celibate life. + +In the earlier stages of girls' education, then, it was the teacher +who urged the promising girl to have a career; but the more recent +development is that the parents, harassed by increasing economic +pressure, and encouraged by the instances they meet of successful +professional women, press more and more strongly for their girls to +be educated for professions, whether they are exceptionally gifted or +not. It is recognised in almost all grades of the middle class that +the chance of a daughter marrying, and, further, the chance of her +marriage being an assured provision for her maintenance throughout +life, is by no means a certainty. + +These considerations must militate against the appearance of domestic +subjects in the school time-table, but there are others working in +exactly the opposite direction. These are the increase in house rent +and general rise in prices which make economy in domestic affairs, and +good management, more valued; the dearth of servants; and the decay of +the old traditions of housekeeping. Another factor is the new cult +of hygiene, and increased interest in diet, shown especially by +the inhabitants of large towns, who bewail their lack of energy and +fitness. + +If the home is to establish itself as an acknowledged success in +modern conditions, it ought to be run by women with brains. It is +now becoming acknowledged that the work needs the application of the +scientific method of thinking. It may be true that home-making in the +non-material sense is an art, but housekeeping nowadays is a science; +and so much a science that a woman who has the chance of making +herself an expert will be tempted to make housekeeping a career, and +to undertake the job on a much larger scale than is needed in the +ordinary house. + +Thus, while there was practically no teaching of domestic subjects +in girls' secondary schools until about seven years ago, a demand +for teachers of the kind has sprung up very recently, and is rapidly +increasing. + +The headmistress anxious to undertake something of the sort has had +many difficulties to face in the immediate past. The only teachers +of domestic arts whom she could engage had received a very different +education from the other members of her staff. If their whole time +were not taken up with teaching their subject, they had few or +no subsidiary subjects to offer, nor were they prepared for those +curiously mingled clerical and pastoral duties which fall to the +lot of a form mistress. In general education they might, indeed, be +obviously below the girls in the upper forms, whose general culture +had been sedulously cultivated for years. If teachers of this kind +were, nevertheless, not to be kept for selected "stupid girls," it +was possible (1) to introduce domestic work of the simple handicraft +nature into the middle school, leaving it out of the upper school +where there was a greater pressure on the time-table, or (2) to +organise a post-school domestic course for girls who were not +preparing for a profession. + +The type of woman offering herself as a teacher in domestic arts +has meanwhile been changing and developing, owing to the fact that +a marked advance has taken place in the facilities for training. The +minimum qualifications now required by most education authorities +are diplomas for cookery, laundry-work, and housewifery, granted by a +training school recognised by the Board of Education. It is advisable +to take a fuller course which includes needlework and dressmaking. +Most training schools for domestic arts provide a two or three +year-course, according to the subjects taken. The three-year course, +including cookery, laundry-work, housewifery, dressmaking, and +needlework, costs about L75. Scholarships are offered both by the +training schools and by public bodies. These cover the whole normal +period of training, and an extension course for scientific study. +The subjects included are the principles and processes involved in +cookery, laundry-work, and household management, the last comprising +such diverse matters as the selection and furnishing of various types +of houses, repairing furniture, the choice and care of household +linens, simple upholstery, management of income, first-aid, +home-nursing, and the care of infants and young children. Many +training-schools arrange for their students to gain experience in a +creche or similar institution, and to visit homes of various +types. Practical experience is gained in housekeeping and catering, +superintending the arrangements for meals, ordering stores and keeping +accounts. Voice production and blackboard drawing are also taught, +while science is studied concurrently with the above. The course in +science embraces some Theoretical and Practical Chemistry, Physics, +Physiology, Hygiene (personal and school hygiene and preventive +measures), and the Theory and Practice of Education. Domestic Science +students gain teaching experience not only in the various departments +of the training-school, but also in elementary and secondary schools; +happily the training is the same for those intending to take up either +elementary or secondary teaching. + +Thus it is seen that the present-day teacher of household arts is +much more fitted to train the well-educated girl to organise household +matters, than was her predecessor. Not only is manipulative skill +acquired, but scientific reasons for processes and methods are +outlined, and improvements are suggested. There is, however, still the +danger that the student's training in science has been so subordinated +to the acquirement of manipulative skill that her knowledge of +scientific facts is not sufficiently based on scientific training and +method. + +Much, then, is to be urged in favour of the woman with a science +degree taking courses in domestic arts, but it is essential for her to +attain a high standard of practical work. It has sometimes been found +that a very academic and scientific method of treatment has tended +to lower the standard of manipulative skill. Nevertheless qualified +graduates find themselves, at the moment, greatly in demand. The +economical headmistress must always be on the look out for an +acquisition to her staff who will, like Count Smorltork's politics, +"surprise in herself many branches." If the headmistress can solve her +difficulty about her domestic arts teacher by engaging a college-bred +woman, with a degree to put on the prospectus, all sorts of ordinary +subjects for her odd hours and undertaking to teach cooking as well, +she will jump at the chance, and pay her L10 to L20 more salary than +the ordinary assistant-mistress. She will economise greatly by the +arrangement. If she has some amount of money to back her schemes, +and a large school to administer, she will prefer two people to +one composite one. But she will beg them to collaborate and to work +together. She will not expect the woman with the science degree and a +brief subsequent training in the arts to have the manipulative skill +of the one who has done something like one thousand hours of actual +practice, according to the prescription of the Board of Education. She +will ask the former to show the girls how modern science is connected +with the modern house, and how the scientific way of thinking helps in +keeping a house, as it does in keeping one's own health and fitness. + +During the past five years one secondary school after another has +taken up Domestic Arts as a school subject. The initiative usually +comes from the headmistress, and is a matter of personal judgment, so +that the introduction is still an experiment on trial, and the method +of trial varies. Before giving some indication of the methods tried, +we must return to the demand for teachers. It will be clear from what +has been said, that a science graduate who has studied and practised +household arts and cooking, or a trained teacher of Domestic Arts +who has also some science certificate and a high standard of general +education, will at this moment command a higher salary than the +ordinary secondary schoolmistress, and is practically certain of +a post. But either of these individuals requires an unusually long +period of training, for which most people have neither the time nor +the spare capital. + +One woman's college in London has started courses of its own in "Home +Science and Economics," and awards a three-year certificate to its +students; also a diploma for science graduates who take a year's +course, and a certificate to Domestic Arts teachers who take a closely +related year's course. This is King's College for Women, which has +just obtained the formal approval of London University for its three +years' curriculum. In a very short time arrangements will be made to +grant a University Diploma to the students who have taken this course, +the fee for which amounts to 30 guineas a session. A scholarship, +covering the cost of tuition, is from time to time awarded to +undergraduate students, and there is also a one-year post-graduate +Gilchrist scholarship of 50 guineas. The name of "Household and +Social Science" is recommended by the Royal Commissioners for the new +co-ordination of subjects. Various American universities and colleges +give diplomas of the same kind: and the New Zealand University has +just initiated one. The three-year course at King's College for Women +may possibly be modified by the University authorities: at present it +consists of two years' training in various branches of pure science, +and a third year in which these branches are applied to household +matters of all kinds. For instance, the usual type of academic course +of Inorganic, Organic, and Physical Chemistry gives place in the third +year to the study of food, cooking utensils and cookers, soap and +other cleansing materials, and woven materials. Biology and Physiology +give place to household Bacteriology and Hygiene. Practice in +Housewifery and Cooking occupies one day per week throughout the three +years. A very important feature in this course is the introduction of +Economics. As with the natural sciences, two years' study of ordinary +Economics, chiefly industrial, is followed by a year of Economics +applied to the household, in which an attempt is made to show the +present and past relations of the household to society. King's +College for Women is the first institution in England to see the +great importance of studying the connection of domestic life with +the outside industrial world, instead of treating it as an isolated +phenomenon. + +This is the outline of the three-year course: students are encouraged +to stay a fourth year for special work; the appointments which they +take up at the end of three or four years are not always as teachers, +but in various other vocations which need not be specified here. As +teachers, the holders of these certificates are subject, of course, to +a double fire of criticism. The science specialist thinks they do +not know enough science, and points out that, beyond a few elementary +facts in Chemistry, Physics, and Physiology soon picked up in an +elementary training in these subjects, there stretches a region of +very abstruse science which cannot be attacked except by specialists +in Organic Chemistry, in the Physiology of Nutrition, and so on. +But it is now suggested that many scientific problems connected with +domestic subjects are waiting for solution. If some of these were +solved, they would bridge the gulf between the elementary and the +abstruse, but they must show themselves of sufficient interest to +investigators. Here is a field for work eminently suited to the +scientific woman with a practical turn of mind. Meanwhile, the cookery +diplomee thinks, often justifiably, that the new teachers have not had +sufficient practice in the art of cooking. Criticism of this kind is +inevitable whenever a new co-ordination of subjects is attempted, and +it will keep the new arrangement on its trial until it can justify +itself. The question at issue in this case, as probably readers will +have divined if they are interested in the problem, is whether the +whole method and tradition of teaching housekeeping ought not to be +under revision, so that it may in a few years be a "subject" vastly +different from the traditional handing-on and practising of receipts. +Once the barrier is broken down between the scientifically trained and +the domestic woman, the whole aspect of affairs changes. It is a sign +of the change that the training-colleges and cookery-schools, besides +introducing more Chemistry, Hygiene, and Physiology into their +curricula, are definitely asking that the teachers they employ for +these subjects, shall be women with science degrees as well as some +knowledge of domestic arts. For instance, at the Gloucester School +of Cookery at least one former teacher had taken the Natural Science +Tripos at Girton as well as Domestic Science Certificates: at +Battersea Polytechnic a recent appointment is that of a Domestic +Science diplomee, who subsequently took a science degree at Armstrong +College, while at the National Training School of Cookery, one member +of Staff is at present a science graduate, who subsequently obtained +the King's College for Women Diploma in Home Science and Economics. +Again, the new Government report just issued on handwork in secondary +schools, while in many ways non-committal, distinctly prefers special +training for teachers of Domestic Subjects following on a good general +education--_i.e._, a University degree plus technical qualifications, +rather than a teaching diploma in Domestic Subjects plus a little +science. There is, then, likely to be an increasing number of openings +for women who can afford the double training. Schools of housecraft +to give all-round training to educated women, are springing up in +all parts of the United Kingdom: in those which are attached to +Polytechnics and similar institutions the fullest advantage is +taken of the pure and technical science teaching available in their +laboratories. + +To those who look for a real advance in household science the weak +point of the present situation is the want of proper correlation and +standardisation of the work going on. The Board of Education does not +examine; it accepts the diploma given by any one of a fairly large +number of domestic science schools. In consequence, teachers from +different quarters may be using quite different processes and methods +in laundry work, cooking, or housekeeping. It is time some fundamental +things were agreed upon, and although standardising must not be +allowed to become stereotyping, at present constructive generalisation +is needed, as well as the upsetting of out-grown traditions. In this +context it would be well to discuss a question more properly to be +taken at the end of this paper--the connection between the teaching in +elementary schools and that in secondary schools. There is no reason +to introduce differentiation in the training of the teachers: it +is obvious, for instance, that the recent development of including +economics in that training, is of extraordinary value to the +elementary school teacher. But it is difficult to correlate the +instruction given in the management of a middle-class household, with +from eight to twenty rooms, and from one to a dozen servants, with +that given in the management of a workman's cottage or of a flat +without assistance. The connection which does need systematising and +establishing is between the management of a middle-class house and the +training of domestic servants, which ought naturally to form part of +the trade or technical after-school work for elementary scholars. Here +again, if training is to be followed by certificates, and the +domestic servant is to be in the smallest degree an expert, some +standardisation of training is necessary. We may, of course, find that +domestic service becomes so much a matter of expert work that it is +taken up on a large scale by middle-class girls, but that can +hardly be prophesied yet, although the "lady servant" is an existing +phenomenon. It is, of course, also possible that a modern curriculum +of "Household and Social Science" may attract a certain number of +men of the suitable type of mind. The attitude of the community is +changing so rapidly that one may hope those fears to be groundless +which speak of "relegating women back to the limited sphere of +domesticity," and thereby losing so much that has been gained with +regard to their education. + +We must now return to give a few particulars which have been passed +over. Any information on this subject is, however, liable to be very +soon out of date. A secondary school that elects to teach cooking and +laundry work will want a specially fitted room, which will cost about +as much as a simple science laboratory, and will be arranged in as +close connection with the science laboratory as is convenient. This +means serious expense, and the headmistress is naturally anxious +to have considerable use made of the room. Thus she will be led to +introduce the subject into a large proportion of the classes, instead +of limiting it to one or two middle-school forms, or to a selected +part of the upper-school. She may, however, try to solve the economic +problem by making it a post-school course for which special fees are +charged. Certain schools, notably Clapham and Croydon High Schools and +Cheltenham Ladies' College are able to make a very important feature +of this type of course. To make it a success, the prestige of the +school, its influence over girls and their parents, must be great and +commanding. Otherwise, unless the girls are aiming definitely at some +professional work after the course, there is a tendency to laxness in +attendance, or to the relinquishment of the work in the middle, which +tendency is engendered by the nature of the subject. The mother's +excuse for getting her grown-up girl's company and help will naturally +be, "Gladys can boil the potatoes at home instead of at school." A +valid answer will be that Gladys is being taught to free her mind +from the eternal English boiled potato by learning many other ways of +treating it, and at the same time learning its proper place in a diet. + +Failing the post-school course, the admittance of domestic subjects to +a notable place in the general school curriculum leads to great stress +being laid on the teaching of the elements of Physical Science. The +eminently "feminine" subject, Botany, gives place to Physics and +Chemistry in the middle-school, followed by Physiology and Hygiene +in the upper-school. The subjects are to be illustrated whenever +convenient, by reference to home life. A student choosing her science +subjects at College should bear these in mind as likely to be at +present of the best market value. Though it is very true that a +practical woman who is a good teacher will nowadays connect any +science subject with home life, still a parallel course of domestic +arts will draw chiefly on the lessons given in these four. + +Another fact worthy of notice is that a married woman who is anxious +to continue her former profession of science teaching will not as a +rule have to suffer the usual unfavourable handicap. That a married +woman should teach the domestic subjects is quite a reasonable +proposition to many who would exclude her from most professions: +if she be also a mother it may even count as an asset instead of a +disadvantage. + +The Delegacy for Oxford Local Examinations has been the first, as far +as we know, to set a paper in domestic science to senior candidates. +There has been a demand for it in the London Matriculation, but +objection has been raised on the score of its being a smattering and +a soft option. The Oxford Delegacy has introduced two new +headings--Domestic Science and Hygiene--and sets two papers under +each, without any practical work. The first paper is the same under +both headings--Elementary Physics and Chemistry, and the preparation +for this is intended to be made at least one school year before the +preparation for the second paper. It should be noted that the Hygiene +paper is for boys and girls; it includes a little Physiology, Personal +Hygiene, and Hygiene of Buildings. The Domestic Science paper is for +girls only; it has several details in common with that in Hygiene, but +its main features are the simple outlines of the chemistry of foods +and of cleansing substances. In a few years the suitability of these +subjects for both sexes may have impressed the community. + +We may notice, lastly, the arrangements made for instruction in +Domestic Subjects in elementary schools.[1] This is given in a +specially equipped Centre attached to a public elementary school, the +girls from that and other schools attending either for a half or whole +day weekly during their last two years at school. In some cases for +about fifteen weeks before they leave school, girls give half the week +to Domestic Subjects. This experiment has been so successful, that it +is likely to be extended in the future. A carefully graded syllabus is +followed; due proportion of time is given to theory and demonstration +as well as to practical work. Each girl is required to do a certain +amount of work by herself, and much thought has been expended in order +to make the lessons as useful as possible. The care of infants and +young children is receiving increased attention, and it is hoped that +much may be done to mitigate evils of wrong feeding and treatment. As +far as possible, the teaching in the Centres is correlated with that +in the schools. Where there are science laboratories the experiments +are made on food-stuffs, changes wrought by application of heat in +various ways, the chemistry of common objects, and so on. + +The opportunity for definite science training in connection with +Domestic Subjects teaching in elementary schools is still very small, +and will probably remain so while the school-leaving age is fourteen. +The problem before the teacher in some instances is to combat not only +an entire ignorance of the home arts, but also, in poor districts, an +active experience of household mismanagement and vicious habits. The +teaching in these cases has to be intensely practical, and to aim +chiefly at character-building; the manual work of the subject has been +found of the greatest educational value in this respect. Though the +training of all Domestic Subjects' teachers should reach the same +standard of scientific knowledge, yet the actual work to be done +in different types of schools is thus seen to be necessarily widely +divergent in character. + +In higher elementary or "central" schools, where the pupils normally +remain until the end of the school year in which they reach the age of +fifteen, Domestic Subjects' teaching may have a much wider scope than +at the ordinary Centre, as the pupils are at a very intelligent age, +and represent the best of the elementary scholars. A special syllabus +is prepared according to the individual need of each school, by the +Domestic Subjects' teacher and the headmistress; the instruction is a +very definite part of the curriculum, and the teacher a member of the +school staff. + +In London and other large towns, and with certain County Councils, +the Centre is under the general supervision of the headmistress of the +school to which it is attached, but technical details are entirely +in the hands of the teacher of Domestic Subjects and of the +superintendent who visits periodically. In some rural areas, the +conditions are not so satisfactory. Frequently one teacher has to +serve several villages, visiting them for instruction on certain days. +The accommodation in such places is often sadly deficient, and much +ingenuity and resource are needed to overcome difficulties which do +not occur when the Centre is well-equipped and in continuous use, and +the teacher, as she should be, a regular member of the school staff. + +On leaving school, there are many scholarships open to the girls for +further training, (_a_)for a home course, (_b_) for domestic service, +(_c_) for the trades of laundress, needlewoman, dressmaker, and cook. +These scholarships are held at Technical Institutes, or Trade Schools, +and the training given is admirable in kind. + +A qualified teacher who wishes to take up elementary school work will +have no difficulty, if physically fit, in obtaining a post under a +County Council or other educational authority at a salary of L80 per +annum, usually rising by annual increments to L120. The maximum is not +so high as that for teachers of ordinary subjects, and pensions are +not universal, though most councils make fairly adequate provision for +retirement, breakdown, and ill-health. + +There is at present very little direct promotion open to the +Domestic Subjects' teacher in elementary schools. In London there are +practising-centres for students in training, and training centres for +teachers during the probationary period, the managers of which hold +very responsible posts that carry extra salary. The inspecting staff +is usually chosen from teachers of experience, but this is necessarily +limited in numbers, vacancies occurring only rarely. The salary +attached to these posts is from L150 to L300. Many good posts in +the Colonies have been obtained by Domestic Subjects' teachers in +elementary schools. Some teachers have become foreign missionaries, +Children's Care Committee visitors, or home mission workers and +visitors. Some have established model laundries, others have taken +charge of students' hostels and boarding-houses; while many have +been successful in the needle-trades, luncheon and tea-rooms, and in +lecturing and demonstrating for gas and electric companies. + +Several organisations for self-protection and the advancement of the +profession are open to teachers of Domestic Subjects. The Association +of Teachers of Domestic Subjects was founded in 1896, and has done +valuable work for the members. It is affiliated to the Association of +Teachers in Technical Institutes, and is thus enabled to obtain +good legal advice. A representative has been appointed to sit on the +Council for the Registration of Teachers. The Association is helping +to educate public opinion, and to review and consider the pedagogy +of domestic subjects in all classes of schools. Domestic Subjects' +teachers are also admitted to membership of other Teachers' +Associations, which safeguard the interest of their members and offer +advantages for training and travelling. Members of the Association of +Teachers of Domestic Subjects have the right to join for the purposes +of the Insurance Act the "Approved" section of the Secondary, +Technical and University Teachers' Provident Society. The London +County Council has secured "exception" from the Act for their Domestic +Subjects' teachers, their allowance for sick leave being better than +the provisions of the Act. The Association of Teachers of Domestic +Subjects has obtained special terms for members from two assurance +companies for deferred annuities or endowment assurances. The London +Teachers' Association has also a provident section. + +We have seen that Domestic Arts may now claim a position of importance +in both the elementary and secondary school curricula, and that the +teaching of these subjects may rank as a profession in which there is +a great deal of scope. The attitude of mind towards these subjects has +much changed during the last few years, largely owing to the efforts +of those who have taken them up as subjects of scientific study. +Much, however, remains to be done, both in organising the teaching in +schools, and in the training of teachers in domestic subjects. Only +those who have had scientific training, are competent to put the work +on a sound scientific basis. + + +[Footnote 1: An interesting sidelight on economic conditions is +afforded by the instructions issued by the London County Council for +the guidance of teachers of Domestic Subjects (Syllabus of Instruction +in Domestic Economy. Revised, March 1912). The girls are to be taught +account-keeping in order to "cultivate a well-balanced sense of +proportion in spending and saving. ... Weekly incomes suitable for +consideration in London, to begin with, are 35s., L3, and 28s. taken +in that order." The number in family is supposed to be six, _i.e.,_ +parents and four children. + +The obvious inference is that experts do not find it possible to deal +satisfactorily with cases in which there are, say, six children and +an income of 25s. An income of L1 a week is not even mentioned, though +many a London school-girl must know "in the last three years of +her school-life" that her mother has not more than this to spend. +Translated into concrete quantities of food, clothing, and rent, +this "living wage" is found insufficient for daily needs. The teacher +therefore is encouraged to ignore the economic conditions of most of +her pupils. [EDITOR]. ] + + + +TABLE I. + + +Cost and duration of courses for the first degree in the Faculties +of Arts and Science, together with Scholarships in those Faculties +available for Women at the Universities and University Colleges[1] of +the United Kingdom. + +_NOTES_. + +1. Scholarships, etc., printed in _italics_ are available for Women only. + +2. Scholarships, etc., printed in #black type# are not restricted to + graduates of any one University. + +3. County Council and Borough Scholarships are included only when tenable + at a specified University or College. Particulars of others should in + each case be obtained from the respective Director or Secretary of the + Education Committee. + +4. No scholarship or prize is included of which the value is less than L15. + + +[Footnote 1: University Colleges are those in receipt of a Government Grant +and doing work of a University standard. Thus the Polytechnics and Colleges +such as the Albert Memorial College, Exeter, are not included, although +they prepare students for degree examinations.] + + +#ENGLAND#. + +UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honours (M.A., M.Sc.) in Arts or Science: 4 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: 54 guineas for the course. +Cost of Tuition in Science: From 47 guineas to L186, 2s. for + the course, according to subjects chosen. +Cost of Residence (optional): From 40 to 55 guineas per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Entrance(2) Not more than L25 + 1 year +Fentham's Trust L75 3 years Awarded on to candidates + who have resided for 5 + years in the City of + Birmingham +University(2) L30 1 year Science +University(2) L30 1 year Arts +University(15) Free tuition and not + more than L30 + maintenance 4 years +Theodore Mander L24 2-3 years Open to sons and daughters + of burgesses of + Wolverhampton, and + awarded to those + intending to take Degree + Courses in the Faculties + of Science of Commerce +Polytechnic(2) L45 _circa_ 3 years +Ascough L36 _circa_ 1 year Chemistry + (renewable) +George Henry L45 3 years Classics + Marshall +German L50 -- Offered each year for 5 + years from 1913. +Education Committee L50 3 years + Major(5) +Corbett L28 _circa_ 1 year For 2nd year students. + Mathematics. + +#Post-Graduate# +University(4) L50 1 year Arts and Science +Research(4) L50 1 year Arts and Science +Priestley(3) L96 _circa_ 1 year Chemistry Research + (renewable) +1851 Exhibition L150 2 years Scientific Research + + + + +UNIVERSITY OF BRISTOL. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass or Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: 18 guineas per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: 20 guineas per annum. +Cost of Residence (optional) at Clifton Hill House: 40 guineas per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Bursaries, variable Tuition fees and + in number maintenance grant + 1 year Awarded (to children of + Bristol ratepayers only) + according to + qualification +Vincent Stuckey Lean Interest on Science + Scholarship L1,000 1 year + +#Post-Graduate.# +_Catherine Winkworth_ L30 1 year Arts +_Catherine Winkworth_ L30 1 year Science +Capper Pass Scholarship L25 1 year Metallurgy +Hugh Conway Scholarship L20 1 year English Literature + + + +UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE. + +The only University Scholarships for which women are eligible +are the Arnold Gerstenberg Studentship (income of L2,000) for +Philosophical Research and the Benn W. Levy Studentship for +Research in Biological Chemistry (L100 a year). Scholarships at +Girton and Newnham are for women only. + +The University does not grant degrees to women. + + +GIRTON COLLEGE. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. (Pass candidates + are not accepted.) + +Cost of Course: L105 per annum, including tuition, examinations, + and residence. For out-students the fees are L12 a term. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +_Jane Agnes Chessar_ Not less than + L88 4 years Classics +_Russell Gurney_ L40 3 years History +_Sir Francis Goldsmid_ L45 3 years +_Mary Anne Leighton_ About L16 3 years +_Barbara Leigh Smith_ About L44 3 years + _Bodichon_ +_Todd Memorial_ About L35 3 years + _Higgins_ L40 3 years +_Henry Tomkinson_ At least L20 3 years +_Clothworkers_ L60 3 years +_Skinners_ L50 3 years +_Gilchrist_ L50 3 years Also tenable at Newnham +_Queen's School,_ L30 3 years + _Chester_ +_Dove_ L20 3 years For girls from St. + Leonard's School, St. + Andrew's. Classics + +#For Certified Students# +_Gilchrist Studentship_ L100 1 year For Professionals. Open to + Students at Newnham and + Girton +_Old Girtonians'_ Not less than + _Studentship_ L48 1 year +_John Elliot Cairnes_ Not less than + L58 1 year For research in Political + Economy or Economic + History +_Sir Arthur Arnold_ L30 1 year +_Harkness_ About L70 1 year Geology. Also tenable at + Newnham. Awarded + biennially + +#Fellowships.# +_Pfeiffer_ L120 2 years +#Girton College# L300 Various Open to students of all + Universities + +#Prizes.# +_Gamble_ Interest on L500 +_Therese Montifiore_ Interest on L1,700 + + +NEWNHAM COLLEGE. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science: 3 years (Pass candidates + are not accepted). + +Cost of Course: From L90 to L105 per annum, including tuition, + examinations, and residence. For out-students the fees are + L12 a term. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +_College_(2) L50 3 years +_Clothworhers_ L50 3 years +_College_(1 or more) L35 3 years +_Classical_ L50 3 years Also tenable at Girton +_Modern Languages_ L50 3 years Also tenable at Girton +_Liverpool Clough_ L50 2-3 years For those entering the + teaching profession, only +_Gilchrist_ L50 3 years Also tenable at Girton +_Mary Ewart_ L100 3 years For students who have been + in residence three terms +_Harkness_ L70 1 year Geology. Also tenable at + Girton. Awarded + biennially + +#Certificated Students# +_Arthur Hugh Clough_ L40 1 year +_Mary Ewart_ L150 1 year Travelling scholarship +_Gilchrist_ L100 1 year Tenable only by those + entering a profession. + Held alternate years at + Newnham and Girton +#Bathurst# L75 or under 1 year Awarded from time to time + for proficiency in + Natural Science. Not + restricted to Newnham + students +_Marion Kennedy_ L80 1 year Holder eligible for 2nd + _Studentship_ year + +#Fellowships.# +_Associates_(2) L100 1 year Awarded alternate years +_Mary Bateson_ L100 1 year +_"N"_ L100 1 year + +#Prizes.# +_Creighton_ L15 Awarded for an essay on + _Memorial_ History or Archaeology + + +UNIVERSITY OF DURHAM. + +DURHAM COLLEGE. + +Duration of Course in Arts: Pass 2 years; Honours, 3 years. +Duration of Course in Science: Pass and Honours, 3 years. +Cost of Tuition, Arts and Science: L21 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Abbey House (optional): From L12 to L16 a term. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# + +Foundation Scholarships L70 1 year May be renewed. Arts +Foundation Scholarships L40 1 year May be renewed +Foundation Scholarships L30 1 year May be renewed +Entrance Exhibitions(2) L20 1 year May be renewed +Pears Scholarship L50 3 years Arts +_Scholarships_(2) L70 1 year +_Scholarships_(2) L30 1 year +Exhibitions(2) L20 2 years Persons of limited means + +#Undergraduate.# +Scholarships(2) L30 1 year 2nd year students +Scholarships(2) L30 1 year 2nd year students +Gisborne Scholarship L30 1 year 2nd year students +University Classical L30 1 year + Scholarship +University Mathematical L30 1 year + Scholarship +University Hebrew L20 1 year + Scholarship +Thorp Scholarship L20 1 year +Newby Scholarship L18 2 or 3 yrs. Arts +Scholarships(3) L20 1 year Modern B.A. + +#Prizes.# +Gibson L20 Essay + + +ARMSTRONG COLLEGE, NEWCASTLE-ON-TYNE. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. +Cost of Tuition: L20 per annum. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Exhibition L20 1-2 years Science +Exhibition L15 1-2 years Science +Exhibitions(2) L15 1-2 years Arts +Newcastle-upon-Tyne Free admission to a Open to candidates + Corporation degree course resident in Newcastle. + Exhibitions(10) 2 years Arts + (renewable) +Newcastle-upon-Tyne Free admission to a Open to candidates + Corporation degree course resident in Newcastle. + Exhibitions(10) 2 years Arts + (renewable) +Newcastle-upon-Tyne Free admission to a Open to candidates + Corporation degree course resident in Newcastle. + Exhibitions(10) 2 years Science + (renewable) +Gateshead Corporation Free admission to a Open to candidates + Exhibitions(10) degree course resident in Gateshead. + 2 years + (renewable) + +#Undergraduate.# + +Junior Pemberton L30 and remission of Awarded on the results of + two-thirds of the the first B.Sc. + class fees 1 year examination +Thomas Young Hall L20 with remission of Awarded on the results + two-thirds of the of the first B.Sc. + class fees 3 years examination +Nathaniel Clerk L15 1 year Awarded on the results + of the first B.Sc. + examination +Senior Pemberton L40 and fees 1 year Candidates must have + passed the first B.Sc. + examination + +#Post-Graduate.# +Research Studentships(2) L62, 10s 1 year +1851 Exhibition L150 2 years Science +1851 Exhibition + Probationary Bursaries L70 1 year Science Research + +Johnston Chemical L60 1 year Open to Bachelors of + Science of any British + University of not more + than 3 years' standing + +#Fellowships.# +College L125 1 year +Pemberton L120 3 years Open to graduates in + Science of Durham + University of not more + than 6 years' standing + from their first degree + + +UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS. + +Duration of Pass Course, Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course, Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: L19 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: L27 per annum. +Cost of Residence at University Hall (optional): From L32 to L41 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Emsley L20 2 years +Edward Baines L20 2 years +Charles Wheatley L25 3 years Arts +William Summers L35 3 years Arts +Brown L40 2 years Science + (renewable) +Senior City(14) L50 3 years Open to candidates of not + (renewable) less than 17 and not more + than 30 years of age +County Major L55 _circa_ 3 years Open to candidates of not + (West Riding)(14) less than 16 and not + more than 30 years of + age +Free Studentships Tuition Fees 3 years + (West Riding) +Major (North Riding)(4) L60 1-3 years Open to women of not less + than 16 and not more than + 20 years of age +Scholarships (East L60 1-3 years + Riding) +Salt L20 2 years Arts +City Council Not specified + +#Post-Graduate.# +1851 Exhibition L150 2 years Science +University (limited L25 1-2 years Awarded ordinarily on + number) Final Honours Examinations +Gilchrist L80 1 year Modern Languages +John Rutson L70 1 year Arts + (renewable) + +#Fellowships.# +University L100 1 year + + +UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Arts: 3 to 4 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Science: 4 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: L19 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: L25 per annum. +Cost of Residence in University Hall (optional): From 35 to 50 guineas a + session. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Bibby(2) L20 3 years Open to candidates of not + more than 18 years of age +Morris Ranger L20 3 years +_Ladies' Educational L30 3 years Open to women of not less +Association_ than 16 and not more than + 19 years of age +Elizabeth James L40 3 years Arts or Law +Tate (Arts) L35 3 years Open to candidates who + have been educated in one + of the schools of + Liverpool or the + neighbourhood and who are + not more than 18 years of + age +Tate (Science)(3) L35 3 years +Senior City(8) L30 and free admission Open to candidates of not + to lectures less than 16 and not more + 3 years than 19 years of age +Senior City Technical(2) L50 and free admission Open to candidates of not + to lectures less than 16 and not more + than 25 years of age + 3 years +Derby(2) L35 3 years One without limit of age, + one for candidates of not + more than 18 years of age +Canning L28 3 years} +Iliff L20 3 years} Arts including + Mathematics, or B.Sc. + Honours in Mathematics +William Rathbone L20 3 years} +Gossage L70 _circa_ 3 years Open to pupils of schools + in the Borough of Widnes +Lundie Memorial L15 3 years +Wallasey Borough L35 3 years Open to candidates under + Council 19 years of age +W.P. Sinclair Interest on L1,000 Arts or Honour School of + 3 years Mathematics +Henry Deacon L50 3 years Open to candidates of not + more than 19 years of age + who intend studying in + the Honour School of + Chemistry +Sheridan Muspratt L50 2 years Chemistry +Thomas Hornby L20 1 year Greek + (renewable) +Korbach L20 1 year Undergraduates reading + (renewable) German in the Honour + School of Modern + Languages or graduates + wishing to proceed with + German study or research +Henry Warren Meade-King Interest on L1,000 Economics + 2 years +Holt Travelling L50 1 year Architecture +Isaac Roberts(2) L50 1 year Science. Open to graduates + (renewable) and under-graduates +Sir John Willox L50 2 years Chemistry + +#Post-Graduate# +Korbach L20 1 year __See above, undergraduate_ + (renewable) _scholarship of same name_ +Gilchrist L80 1 year Modern Languages +Isaac Roberts(2) L50 1 year _See above, undergraduate_ + _scholarship of same name_ +1851 Exhibition L150 2 years Tenable at any University + in England and abroad, + and to be used for + Science Research work +University(2) L25 1 year +1851 Exhibition Bursary L70 1 year +Derby L45 _circa_ 1 year Mathematics + (renewable) +Owen-Templeman Interest on L450 + 1 year + (renewable) Celtic +Stanley Jones Interest on L1,300 Economics +#Fellowships.# +University -- 1 year +Charles Beard L75 1 year History +Oliver Lodge Interest on L2,650 Physics + 1 year + + +UNIVERSITY OF LONDON. + +The duration of the Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours, +is 3 years. (_See_ under separate Colleges for Fees.) + +All students of the University are eligible for University Scholarships, +Exhibitions, and Prizes in accordance with the regulations +laid down in each case. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#University Undergraduate.# +Exhibitions(5) L40 2 years Arts and Science +Scholarships(19) L50 1 year Arts and Science +Mitchell Exhibitions(4) 2 of L25} 1 year For candidates from the + 2 of L20}(renewable) city of London +_Si Dunstan Exhibitions_ L60 3 years For residents in London of + _for Women_(3) restricted means +_Gilchrist_ L40 2 years One in Arts, one in + _Scholarships, for_ Science (the latter may + _Women_(2) be increased by L10) + +#University Post-Graduate.# +The Lindley Studentship L100 For research in Physiology + (awarded every 3rd year) +The University L50 For research + Studentship in (undergraduates are also + Physiology eligible) +George Smith Studentship L100 + L5 worth Awarded to the best + of books Internal Candidate for + B.A. Honours in English + on condition of + preparation for M.A. +_Gilchrist Studentship_ L100 For graduates in Honours + _for Women_ who undertake to prepare + for and practise some + profession +Gilchrist Studentship in L80 For internal graduates in + Modern Languages Honours (French or + German) who undertake to + follow abroad a course of + preparation for the + profession of Modern + Language Teacher +Carpenter Medal (or its L20 Awarded every 3 years for + pecuniary equivalent) a Thesis in experimental + Psychology presented for + a Doctor's Degree +Ouseley Memorial L50 Oriental Languages, not + Scholarships(3) restricted to graduates +Gilchrist Scholarships(2)L50 Oriental Languages, not + restricted to graduates + + +Grants are also made from the Dixon Fund in aid of scientific +investigations. + + +BEDFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: 27 guineas per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: From 27 to 38 guineas per annum. +Cost of Residence in College (optional): From 58 to 68 guineas per annum. +All Scholarships at Bedford College are open to women only. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Undergraduate.# +_Reid Scholarships_(2) L30 3 years Arts +_Clift Scholarship_ L30 3 years Arts +_Courtauld Scholarship_ L30 3 years Arts +_Henry Tate Scholarship_ L50 3 years Science +_Arnott Scholarship_ L50 3 years Science +_Pfeiffer_ + _Scholarships_(2) L50 3 years +_Reid Scholarship_ L60 3 years +_Jane Benson_ + _Scholarship_ L60 2 years Awarded biennially to a + student of Bedford High + School + +#Post-Graduate# +_Reid Fellowship_ L50 2 years Awarded biennially either + to an Arts or a Science + graduate + + + +EAST LONDON COLLEGE. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts or Science: L10, 10s. per annum. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. + #Entrance.# +Drapers' Company(2) L40 3 years Arts. Candidates must not + exceed 19 years of age +Drapers' Company(2) L40 3 years Science. Candidates must + not exceed 19 years of + age + +#Post-Graduate.# +Research Studentship Conditions not yet + published + + +UNIVERSITY OF LONDON KING'S COLLEGE FOR WOMEN. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: L25, 4s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: L31, 10s. per annum. +Cost of Residence in King's Hall (optional): From L17, 10s. to L26, 5s. + per term. +All Scholarships, etc., except the three which are specified, are open to + both men and women, and are tenable by the former at King's College, + Strand. + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +_Skinners' Company_ L40 3 years Arts + _Scholarship_ +_Merchant Taylors'_ L40 3 years Arts or Science + _Scholarship_ +Sambrooke Scholarship L25 2 years Classics +Sambrooke Scholarship L25 2 years Science + +#Undergraduate.# +Inglis Scholarship L30 1 year English or History in + alternate years +Sambrooke Exhibition L50 1 year Classics + +#Post-Graduate.# +Inglis Studentship L100 1 year Awarded on the result + of the B.A. Honours + Examination in English + and in History in + alternate years. The + selected Student is + required to prepare for + M.A. and to give some + assistance in teaching +Layton Research L150 2 years Science + Studentship +Gilchrist Scholarship L52, 10S 1 year For graduates intending to + in Home Science take the Post-Graduate + Diploma in Home Science + and Economics. For women + only + +#Prizes.# +Carter Prize L15 in books and gold English Verse + medal +Carter Prize L15 in books and gold Botany + medal + + +ROYAL HOLLOWAY COLLEGE. + +Cost of Residence and Tuition: L100 per annum. +Cost of Tuition for out-students: L12 per term. +All Scholarships at Royal Holloway College are for women only. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +_Founder's_ L60 3 years + _Scholarships_(4) +_Entrance_ L50 3 years +_Scholarships_(8) +_Martin Holloway_ L35 3 years +_Several Bursaries_ Not exceeding + L30 3 years + +#Undergraduate.# +_Driver_(3) L30 3 years For students who have been + at least three terms in + residence +_Christie_ L60 2 years For History + +#Post-Graduate.# +_Several_ Varying 1 year For students wishing to + _Studentships_ in amount take up post-graduate + work +#Prizes.# +_R.C._ +_Christie, Esq._ L21 French literature +_Martin Holloway._ L15, 15s. +------------------------------------------------------------- + + +UNIVERSITY OF LONDON, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: From L24, 3s. to L42 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: L35 per annum. +Cost of Residence in College Hall (optional): From L53 to L82 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Andrews Entrance L30 1 year Arts and Science. Age + Scholarships(3) limit, 18 +Campbell Clarke L40 3 years English Language and + Entrance Scholarship Literature. Age limit, 18 +Goldsmid L30 3 years Science. Age limit, 18 +Rosa Morison L30 3 years Arts. Age limit, 18 +Member's Scholarship L30 3 years Classics +West L30 1 year English and English + History +Morris L16 2 years +St Pancras College fees for Limited to candidates born + 3 years in St Pancras +Campbell Clarke L40 2 or 3 years English Language and + Literature + +#Undergraduate.# +Andrews Scholarships L30 1 year Arts and Science +Derby Zoological L60 2 years +Ellen Watson Memorial L15 1 year Science. Candidates must + be under 21 +Fielden Research L50 1 or 2 years Research in German +_Eleanor Grove_ L30 1 year Research in German + (may be renewed) +John Oliver Hobbes L20 1 year Modern English Literature +Hollier L60 1 year Greek and Hebrew +Jews' Commemoration L15 2 years Arts or Science +Joseph Hume L20 1 year Jurisprudence and + Political Economy +Malden Medal and L20 1 year Proficiency in Greek + Scholarship +Mayer de Rothschild L40 1 year Pure Mathematics +John Stuart Mill L20 1 or 2 years Philosophy of Mind or + Logic +_Rosa Morison_ L30 1 year English Language and + Literature +Ricardo L20 3 years Awarded every third year + for Political Economy +Tuffnell L100 2 years Science. Candidates must + be under 24 + +#Post-Graduate.# +George Jessel L50 1 year Research in Mathematics + Studentship +Jevons Memorial L35 1 or 2 years Research in Political + Economy +Physics Research L60} 1 year + Studentships(2) L40} +Quain L150 3 years English. Awarded every + third year +Quain L100 3 years Biology. Awarded every + third year + +#Prizes.# +Quain L50 English Essay + + +WESTFIELD COLLEGE. + +Cost of Residence and Tuition: L35 a term. +Cost of Tuition for Out-students: L15 a term. +All Scholarships at Westfield College are for women only. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +_Draper's Company_(2) L50 3 years Candidates must be under + age of 20 +_Amy Sanders Stephens_ L50 3 years +_College Scholarships_ L35 to L50 3 years + (2 or more) + + +UNIVERSITY OF MANCHESTER. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: L18 per session. +Cost of Tuition in Science: Pass, from L20 to L30 per annum. + Honours, from L12, 12S. to L45 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Ashburne Hall or Langdale Hall (optional): + From L40 to L52, 10S. per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Rogers L40 2 years Biennial. Classics +Seaton L40 2 years Biennial. Mathematics +Dalton L40 2 years Mathematics +Hulme L35 3 years English and History +Jones L35 2 years History +James Gaskill L35 2 years Mathematics and Chemistry +John Buckley L30 3 years Mathematics and Science +Grace Calvert L30 2 years Science. Biennial +Bleackley L15 3 years Science (not till 1915) +Theodores L15 1 year French and German +_Dora Muir_ L30 3 years +_Alice Fay_ L25 Not more than 3 years +_Ashburne Hall_ L60 3 years +_Marjory Lees_ L40 3 years +_Old Ashburnians_ L30 1-3 years +Jevons L70 1 year Economic Science (once in + six years) +Russian L60 1st year} 2 years + L25 2nd year} +Bishop Fraser L40 2 years Classics +Oliver Heywood L50 2 years Classics +Dieschfield L30 1 year +Robert Platt L50 1-2 years Zoology and Botany +Robert Platt L50 2 years Physiology +Education(2) L50 1 year Intending Teachers +Faulkner (Arts) and L100 1 year + Beyer (Science)(3) +Victoria L40 1 year Classics +Wellington L30 1 year Greek. Biennial +Walters L30 1 year French. German +Bradford L35 1 year History +Shuttleworth L45 1 year Political Economy +Dalton L35 1 year Mathematics +Derby L30 1 year Mathematics +Heginbottom L15 1 year Physics +Dalton L50 2 years Chemical +Mercer L30 1 year Chemistry + +#Post-Graduate.# +Roscoe L50 1 year History + (renewable) +Gilchrist L80 1 year Modern Languages +Graduate L25 1 year One in each Honours School + in Arts and Science +Travelling L60 for 1st year, Russian + and L75 for 2nd year +#1851 Exhibition# L150 2 years Science +Schuster L50 1 year Engineering or Chemistry + +#Fellowships.# +John Harling L125 1-2 years Physics, English +Honorary Schunk L100 1 year Chemistry +Jones L150 2 years History +John Bright L100 2 years +Public Health(2) L50 1 year + +#Prizes.# +Lee Greek Testament L15 + Senior +Warburton L30 + + +UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. (Pass + candidates are not accepted at the Women's Colleges.) + +Women are not eligible for any University Scholarships or Prizes. + All Scholarships at the Women's Colleges are for women only. + The University does not grant degrees to women. + + +SOMERVILLE COLLEGE. + +Combination Fee: From L84 to L105 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +_Entrance L40-L60 3 years + Scholarships_(3) +_Entrance L20-L30 3 years + Exhibitions_(2) +_Shaw Lefevre_ L50 Awarded only to students + in residence + +#Certificated Students.# +#Mary Ewart Travelling# + #Scholarship# L100-L200 Awarded occasionally, and + open to women graduates + of Durham and Dublin, + as well as to all + certificated students of + the Women's Colleges at + Oxford and Cambridge + + +LADY MARGARET HALL. + +Cost of Tuition: L27 per annum. +Cost of Residence (obligatory): From L65 to L75 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +_Jephson Scholarship_ L50 3 years +_College Scholarship_ L40 3 years +_College Scholarship_ L35 3 years + + + +ST HILDA'S HALL. + +Cost of Tuition: L26, 5s. per annum. +Cost of Residence (obligatory): L75 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +_College Scholarship_ L50 3 years +_College Scholarship_ L30 3 years +_Hay Scholarship_ L25-L45 3 years +_Cheltenham Scholarship_ varies in amount Open only to pupils of + 3 years Cheltenham Ladies College + + +ST HUGH'S COLLEGE. + +Combination Fee: From L70 to L95 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +__Old Students'_ L30 3 years + _Scholarship_ +_College Scholarship_ L30 3 years +_College Scholarship_ L25 3 years +_Clara Evelyn Mordan_ + _Scholarship_ L40 3 years Awarded every third year + + +SOCIETY OF HOME STUDENTS. + +Cost of Tuition: From L24 to L30 per annum. + +The Society of Home Students provides for the education of +students who are not in residence at any College. It undertakes +to prepare students for pass as well as honours examinations. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +_Ottley Scholarship_ L40 3 years Open only to pupils of + Worcester High School. +_Gilchrist Travelling_ L100 1 year Open to certificated women + students at Oxford + + + +UNIVERSITY OF SHEFFIELD. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Tuition varies according to subjects chosen. +Cost of Residence in the University Hostel (optional): From +29 to 43 guineas per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Fifth L30 3 years Arts, Science +Corporation L30 3 years Arts, Science +Town Trustees(2) L50 3-4 years Tenable at Sheffield, + Oxford and Cambridge +Education Committee L15, 1st year} + L20, 2nd year}3 years + L25, 3rd year} +Town Trustees(4) L50 3 years Open only to candidates + under 19 years of age + educated in Sheffield +Education Committee L50 3 years Applied Science +Earnshaw[1] L50 at least 1 year Open to inhabitants of the + or more City of Sheffield, and + tenable at any University + in the United Kingdom. + Awarded for Mathematics + or Classics. +Mechanics' Institute L50 and free admission + to lectures 1-2 years +Whitworth Exhibitions(30)L50 3 years Awarded on the results of + Examinations of the Board + of Education +Whitworth(4) L25 3 years Awarded on the results of + Examinations of the Board + of Education +Technical L20, 1st year; L25, 2nd + year; L30, 3rd year; + and free admission to + lectures 3 years +Education Committee L50 3 years Arts +Education Committee(4) L50 3 years Pure or Applied Science + +#Post-Graduate# +Frederick Clifford L50 _circa_ 2 years Open to graduates residing + within a radium of 40 + miles of the University +#1851 Exhibition# L150 2 years Science + +#Fellowships.# +Sorby Interest on L15,503, Chemistry. Next award 1914 + 16s. 6d. 5 years +Town Trustees L75 1 year + + +[Footnote 1: This does not appear to come under either of the categories of +County and Borough Scholarship alluded to in Note 3, p. 28. The Editor +therefore includes it here.] + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, NOTTINGHAM. + +Students read for the external degrees of the University of London. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: L12, 12s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: L18 per annum. +Cost of Residence at Hylton House (optional): L30 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Scholarships(3) L30 1 year Arts and Science. For + (renewable) students not over 19 + years of age +Studentships Remission of fees + 1 year + (renewable) +_Parker Senior_ L25-L50 3 years For daughters of residents + _Exhibitions_ in Nottingham +County Council College and travelling Open to candidates under + Scholarships fees, and books 19, ordinarily resident + in the County + +#Undergraduate.# +Weinberg Scholarship L15 1 year For students in need of + pecuniary assistance +College Studentships L10 to L18 1 year For students in need of + pecuniary assistance + +#Post-Graduate.# +Science Research(2) L50 and free admission + 1 year +Heymann Research L35 1 year May be divided between two + candidates. Preference + given to students in the + Faculty of Arts +#1851 Exhibition# L150 2 years For Research work in + #Scholarship# Science. Tenable at any + University. + + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, READING. + +Students read for the external degrees of the University of London. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: L20. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: From L20 to L24 per annum. + (There is a reduction for local students.) +Cost of Residence in St Andrew's Hall, Wessex Hall and St + George's Hostel (obligatory for students not residing with + parents or guardians): From L32 to L42 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Open Scholarships-- L69} 2 years Science + Major(2) L65} (renewable) Arts + Minor(2) Remission of College + fees 2 years + (renewable) +County Borough of + Reading-- + Minor Scholarships(2) Remission of College For candidates educated + fees. 1 year in Borough of Reading + (renewable) +_St Andrew's Hall._ L40 2 years + (renewable) + +_St Andrew's Hall_ Amount variable Students in need of + _Bursaries_ pecuniary assistance +_Exhibition_ Remission of College For graduates, whether + fees 1 year already students of the + College of not. Secondary + Education Course + + + +HARTLEY UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, SOUTHAMPTON. + +Students read principally for the external degrees of the University of +London. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: L20 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: L24 per annum. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +College(2) L26, 8s., 1st year} + L34, 8s., 2nd year} 3 + L36, 8s., 3rd year}years +College(2) L26, 8s., 1st year} 2 + L34, 8s., 2nd year}years +Exhibitions(4) L15 and L18 3 years Open to candidates between + the ages of 16 and 19 +Thomas Godolphin L23 1 year Open to candidates who + Rooper have been educated for at + least 2 years at a Public + Elementary School in the + late Mr. Rooper's + Inspectorial District + + + + +#IRELAND.# + + +UNIVERSITY OF DUBLIN. + + +TRINITY COLLEGE. + + +Duration of Arts Course, Pass and Honours, 4 years. +Duration of Science Course: Pass, 4 years; Honours, 5 years. +Cost of Tuition: L16. 16s. per annum. +Cost of Residence in Trinity Hall (for women not residing with + their parents or guardians): From L11 to L15 a term. + + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Exhibitions(12) L20 (6)} 2 years Examination results + L15 (6)} of Irish Board of + Intermediate Education +Junior Exhibitions(16) L20 (12)} 2 years Candidates under 19 + L15 (4) } +Sizarships(10) College fees Students in need of + pecuniary assistance +Non-foundation L30 5 years Arts or Science + Scholarship +James Patrick Kidd L80 4 years Arts or Science +_Irish Society_ L60 3 years Open only to pupils of an + _Scholarship_ Intermediate School in + Londonderry or Coleraine + +#Undergraduate.# +Senior Exhibitions(16) L20} 2 years Arts or Science + L15} +Lloyd Exhibition L16 2 years Mathematics +Mullins Exhibition L17 3 years Classics +Ekenhead Scholarship L32 3 years Science. Open only to + natives of Antrim +FitzGerald Memorial L50 1 year Research in Science + Scholarship +Blake National History L85 4 years + Scholarship + +#Prizes.# +Bishop Law's Mathematics L20 Algebra and Trigonometry +McCullogh L30 and L20 Mathematics +Townsend Memorial L22 Mathematics +Vice Chancellor's L20 Classics +Ferrar Memorial L18 Classics +Marshal Porter Memorial Interest on L500 Classics +Wray Prize L30 Mental and Moral + Philosophy +Cobden Prize L20 Essay on Political Economy +Hebrew Chaldee and L40 + Syriac +Ferguson Memorial L20 Celtic Literature + + +M'CREA MAGEE COLLEGE LONDONDERRY. + +(In connection with the University of Dublin.) + +Duration of Course in Arts: Pass, 3 years 9 months to 4 years; + Honours 4 years. +Duration of Course in Science, Pass and Honours: 4 years. +Cost of Course in Arts or Science: From L32, 12s. to L50. 8s. + for the course. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +Bigger L30 1 year +Grocers' Company L25 1 year +M'Crea Science L25 1 year Mathematics and Physics +Adams' Bursary L15 1 year +M'Crea Science L30 1 year Mathematics and Physics +Grocers' Company L25 1 year +Findlater L25 1 year +Irish Society L20 1 year +Mabel L20 1 year Modern Literature + + +NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF IRELAND. + +All students of the University are eligible for University +Scholarships in accordance with the regulations laid + down in each case. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#University Undergraduate.# +Dr Henry Hutchinson L30 3 years Awarded on results of + Stewart Literary First Examination in Arts + Scholarship +Tipperary County L50 3 years + Council + +#University Post-Graduate.# +Coyne Memorial L32 1 year Awarded in alternate years + Scholarship for Essay on Political + Science +University Travelling L200 2 years In Arts and Science + Studentships(3) subjects in rotation + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, DUBLIN. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Arts Course: L28, 10s. +Cost of Science Course: Variable, according to subjects chosen. +Cost of Residence in Loreto Hall or St Mary's Dominican Hall + (optional): From L30 to L40 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance#. +Scholarships(4) L50 1 year +Scholarships(4) L40 1 year +Scholarships(4) L30 1 year +Scholarships(4) L20 1 year + +#Undergraduate.# +Scholarships(4) L50 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd + year students +Scholarships(4) L40 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd + year students +Scholarships(4) L30 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd + year students +Scholarships(4) L20 2 years Arts and Science. For 2nd + year students +First Class Exhibitions L20 1 year Result of Examination in + (4) 2nd year + +#Post-Graduate.# +Scholarships(5) L60 1 year Result of B.A. and B.Sc. + Honours Examination +Scholarship L30 1 year +Scholarships(2) L15 1 year +First Class Exhibitions L20 1 year Result of B.A. and B.Sc. + (3) Examination + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, GALWAY. + + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: L10 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: L15 per annum. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance#. +College(4) L30 1 year +College(8) L25 1 year + +#Under-Graduate#. +College, 2nd year L30 1 year Arts +College, 2nd year(3) L25 1 year Arts +College, 2nd year L30 1 year Science +College, 2nd year(2) L25 1 year Science +Blayney L30 1 year Scholars must attend + Honours Courses +Dr and Mrs W.A. Browne L32 1 year Modern Languages + +#Post-Graduate.# +College(4) L60 1 year + +#Prizes.# +Irish L15 + + + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, CORK. + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: L9 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science varies according to subjects chosen. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate# +College Scholarships(12) L20-L40 1 year +Honan Scholarships(3) L50 3-5 years To candidates born in + one of the counties of + Munster other than Clare +Cork County Council(10) L24 3 years +Kerry County Council(2) L50 3 years Open to candidates of not + more than 19 years of age +Kerry County Council(3) L30 -- Open to candidates of not + more than 19 years of age +Waterford County L50 3 years Open to candidates of not + Council(3) more than 19 years of age +Waterford County L50 3 years Open to candidates of not + Borough(2) more than 19 years of age +College Scholarships(8) L20-L40 2-3 years Open to 2nd year students + +#Post-Graduate Scholarships.# +Studentships (2) L150 3 years + + + +QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY, BELFAST. + +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Tuition varies according to subjects chosen, but does +not exceed L11, 11s. per annum for the Arts Course. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate# +Entrance(12) L40 1 year Arts, Science, and + Medicine +Second and Third Year L40 2 years Arts and Science +Porter L20 1-3 years +Porter L40 1 year +Sullivan L40 _circa_ 1 year Open to pupils of the + Royal Belfast Academical + Institution +Sullivan(2) L40 _circa_ 3 years Open to teachers in Irish + National Schools +Sir Hercules Pakenham L20 1 year Science +Emily Lady Pakenham L20 1 year Arts +Reid-Harwood L40 _circa_ 1 year Modern Languages +Andrews Studentship L36, 10s. 2 years Awarded alternate years + for Chemical and Physical + Science +Blayney L27 1 year Arts +County Borough(4) L40 3 years Arts, Science, Medicine, + Law, Commerce +Antrim(2) L40 3 years Tenable at any University + in Ireland +Donegal(2) L45 3 years Tenable at any University + in Ireland +Kildare(4) L50 3 years Tenable at any University + in Ireland by non-Roman + Catholic students +King's County L50 3 years Tenable by non-Roman + Catholics +Monaghan(3) L50 3 years Tenable at any University + in Ireland by a non-Roman + Catholic student +Monaghan Bursaries(2) L25 3 years Tenable at any University + in Ireland by a non-Roman + Catholic student +Westmeath(3) L50 3 years Tenable in the National + University of Ireland or + in Queen's University, + Belfast +Wexford(3) L50 3 years Tenable in any University + or College in Ireland by + a non-Roman Catholic + student +Wexford Bursaries(2) L25 3 years Tenable in any University + or College in Ireland by + a non-Roman Catholic + student + +#Post-Graduate#. +Studentships(5) L50 1 year Arts +Studentships(4) L50 1 year Science +Dunville Studentships(2) L50 1st year } + L100 2nd year}2 years Physical Science and + Biological Science +Purser L108 1 year Mathematics +Studentship L80 1 year Arts + + +ALEXANDRA COLLEGE, DUBLIN. + +Students read for the Examinations of the University of Dublin, the + National University of Ireland, and Queen's University, Belfast. +Duration of Course in Arts or Science, Pass and Honours: 3 to 4 years. +Cost of Tuition: From L17 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Alexandra Hall: From L58 to L68 per annum. +Alexandra College is for women only. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate#. +_Skinners' Entrance_ L22 total value Candidates must be under + _Scholarship_ 17 on 1st. Jan. +_Governess Association_ L42 total value Candidates must be under + _Scholarship_ 17 on 1st. Jan. +_Pfeiffer Entrance_ L30 total value Candidates must be under + _Scholarship_ 17 on 1st. Jan. +_Stearne Scholarships(2)_L20 total value Candidates must be under + 17 on 1st. Jan. +_Wilson Suffern_ L15 Candidates must be under + 17 +_Skinners' Senior_ L27 total value Awarded in alternate years + _Scholarship_ +_Pfeiffer Senior_ L30 total value + _Scholarship_ +_Pfeiffer Literature_ L30 total value +_Jellicoe Memorial_ L24 total value + _Scholarship (Governess_ + _Association)_ +_Jellicoe Memorial_ L25 total value +_Trench Memorial_ L15 total value + _(Senior)_ +_Trench Memorial_ L15 total value Candidates must be under + _(Junior)_ 17 +_R.P. Graves Memorial_ L15 total value + + + + + +#SCOTLAND#. + +SCHOLARSHIPS TENABLE _AT ANY_ SCOTTISH UNIVERSITY. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +David Anderson(2) L30 4 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Duart L32 3 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Maclean L25 4 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +James Stewart L35 3 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Strang-Steel L30 4 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Glenbuck L27 3 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Ferguson Bursaries L25 to L30 4 years Restricted to candidates + from specified schools or + districts +Louson L20 4 years +Dumfries L30 3 years +Spence(2) L30 1st year} 2 years For 2nd year Arts students + L40 2nd year} +Menzies L45 4 years Tenable at St Andrews, + Glasgow, or Edinburgh +Patrick A. Lowson L70 2 years Tenable at any University + in the United Kingdom +Cowan L30 for 2 years } Tenable alternately at + L20 for 3rd year} Edinburgh and Glasgow + 3 years + + +SCHOLARSHIPS, ETC., OPEN TO STUDENTS _OF ANY_ SCOTTISH +UNIVERSITY. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Undergraduate#. +Franco-Scottish Society L15 1 year For students wishing to + Travelling Scholarships study in France +Spence Bursaries -- -- _See above,_ Scholarships + tenable at any Scottish + University +James Stewart Bursary -- -- _See ante,_ Scholarships + tenable at any Scottish + University + +#Post-Graduate#. +Ferguson Scholarships(3) L80 2 years Arts and Science. Open to + Masters of Arts +Carnegie Research L150 2 years Arts, Science, Medicine + Fellowships +Carnegie Research L100 1 year Arts, Science, Medicine + Scholarships +1851 Science Scholarship L150 2 years Tenable at any approved + institution +Shaw Philosophical L150 5 years Mental Philosophy. Open to + Fellowship Arts Graduates +_George Heriot_ L30 1 year Open to graduates of +_Bursary for Women_ the United Kingdom for + training as teachers. + Tenable at St. George's + Training College, + Edinburgh + + + +UNIVERSITY OF ABERDEEN. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honours Course in Arts or Science: 5 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts : L10, 10s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science : L21 per annum. +There is no Hall of Residence. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate.# +Adam(9) L20 (3)} Arts + L15 (6)} 4 years +Campbell(6) L18 4 years Arts +Cargill(8) L20 4 years Arts +Crombie(8) L15 4 years Arts +Fullerton(9) L15 4 years Arts +Gammie L35 2 years French and German +Gordon and Cuming L20 4 years +Hutton(7) L29 (2) } Competitors must not be + L20 (3) } 4 years under 14 + L18 (2) } +Macpherson(3) L20 4 years Arts. Gaelic-speaking + candidates. +Mather(4) L15 4 years Arts +Melvill(2) L15 4 years Arts +Milne and Fraser L20 4 years Arts +Moir(14) L20 (4) } 4 years Arts + L15 (10) } +Red Hyth, Smith and L25 4 years Arts or Science + Short +Reid and Cruden L20 4 years Arts +Rolland L25 4 years Arts +Rose L20 4 years Arts +Simpson(5) L30 4 years Arts +Highland Society of L15 3 years Gaelic-speaking candidates + London + +#Post-Graduate#. +Robert Fletcher L30 2 years Mathematics +Fullerton, Moir, and L100 (4) } 2 years Arts + Gray(7) L75 (3) } 3 years +Fullerton L100 2 years Science +Knox Income on L2,000 Arts + 1 year +Reid Scholarships --- 1 year Amount not specified. Arts + or Science +Croom Robertson L200 3 years Arts + Fellowship +James Day Scholarship L100 1 year Graduate in Arts intending + to take up teaching +Fullerton Scholarship L100 2 years Science + +#Prizes# +Arnott Interest on L1,000 Natural Philosophy +Dr Black L28 Latin +Blackwell L20 English Essay +Caithness L20 History +Greig L30 Natural Philosophy +Simpson and Boxill L65 and L28 Mathematics +Simpson L65 Greek + + + +UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Arts: 4 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Science: 5 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: L10, 10s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: L15, 15s. per annum for 5 years + for M.A. and B.Sc. L21 per annum for B.Sc. only. +Cost of Residence in Muir Hall (optional): From L10 to L13, 10s. + a term. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Bursaries.# +George Heriot Bursary L20 3 years Arts or Science +Heriot High School L30 3 years + University +R. Johnstone Bursary L19, 13s. 4 years +Chrystie Bursary L18 4 years +Pringle and Wardrop L19, 4s. 4 years + Bursary +Mitchell and Shortt L27, 5s. 4 years +Dundas L36 4 years +Fraser L22, 4s. 7 years Arts +Grant L45 4 years Arts +Stuart L17, 12S 3 years Arts or Science +Jardine L42, 12S. 6d. 4 years Arts or Science. Limited + to natives of Scotland +Bruce(4) L40 (1) } 4 years + L30 (3) } +Patrick L45 4 years +Ayrshire Club L30 2 years +Peebleshire Society L20 4 years Arts or Science +Rhind L20 4 years +Bruce of Grangehill and L35 (3) } 3 years Arts. 1st and 2nd year + Falklands Bursaries L20 (2) } 3 years Students +Horsliehill Scott L39, 16s 2 years 3rd year Arts Students +Harrison L25, 18s. 6d. 2 years 3rd year Arts Students +Border Counties and L30 (1) } 4 years Arts or Science. For + Walter Scott L20 (1) } students having attended + schools in certain + specified counties. + Natives of Argyllshire, + Bute, or Western Islands +Argyllshire L20 3 years Arts or Science. For + students having attended + schools in certain + specified counties. + Natives of Argyllshire, + Bute, or Western Islands +Ardvorlich L15, 13s 4 years Arts. Students must come + from certain specified + parishes +Sibbald L30 3 years Arts and Science. + Specified parishes +Edinburgh Angus Club-- L25 4 years Preference given to + Dalhousie Bursary candidates from the + County +Orkney and Zetland L40 3 years For natives of Orkney and + Zetland + Grierson(5) L20(4) } 4 years Preference given to + L24(1) } natives of parishes of + Cranford or Leadhills +Lanarkshire L20(4) 4 years +Johnstone of Harthope L17,2s. 4 years Natives of Moffat, + Bursary Peebles, and students of + name of Alexander or + Johnstone preferred +Marshall L36,18s. 4 years Restricted +Fothringham and Forrest L24 4 years Restricted +Marquess of Zetland L40 3 years Arts. For natives of + County of Orkney and + Zetland +Thomson L25 4 years +Patterson L16 2 years In Anglo-Saxon Grammar or + Literature +John Welsh(8) L20 4 years Mathematics and Classics +Mackinnon(3) L22,4s.6d. 3 years Arts. Gaelic-speaking + students +Whitelaw(3) L24,12s. 3 years Arts +Renton L19,11s. 1 year Student must be between + age of 16 and 21. Arts + and Science +Newton L23,5s. 2 years Natural Philosophy and + Mathematics +Mann L29,6s.6d. 3 years Candidates must reside in + Nairn +Allan L30 3 years Arts or Science +James Fairbairn L33,4s.6d. 4 years +Jardine or Thorlieshope L40,10s. 4 years Open to natives of + Roxburghshire and + Dumfriesshire +Mackenzie L22 4 years +Maclaurin L91,12s.8d. 4 years Restricted to students + of name of founder +Bailie Cousin's L32,15s. 3 years +Maule L21,2s. 6 years +Donald Fraser L50 1 year For Science Research work +Baxter of Balgavies L30 3 years For students educated at + High School, Dundee +Masterton Memorial L30 3 years For sons and daughters of + ministers of United Free + Church +London Inverness-shire L18 3 years Preference to students of + Association County of Inverness +Lanfine L35 2 years +Auchairne L53,15s.4d. 3 years Natives of County of Ayr +Edinburgh Morayshire L20 3 years Arts or Science. Natives + Club of County of Moray + +#Undergraduate#. +Vans Dunlop L100 3 years Arts and Science +Fettes Exhibition(2) L60 4 years +Skirving L50 3 years +Mackay Smith L27 2 years Natural Philosophy +Nichol Foundation L50 1 year Laboratory Work +Hope Prize L30 1 year Chemistry +Misses Baxter of L40 1 or 2 years Men and women educated in + Balgavies High School of Dundee + +#Fellowships.# +Guthrie L86 4 years Classical Literature +Hamilton L100 3 years Philosophy +Edmonstonne Aytoun L85 3 years English Literature +Falconer Memorial L123 2 years Science + +#Post-Graduate.# +Pitt Club Classical L76 4 years +Mackenzie Club Classical L118 4 years +Sir David Baxter L68 4 years + Mathematical +Sir David Baxter L68 4 years + Philosophical +John Edward Baxter L100 3 years Arts and Science +Drummond Mathematical L103 3 years +Bruce of Grangehill and L100 3 years Classical + Falklands +Bruce of Grangehill and L100 3 years Mental Philosophy + Falklands +Bruce of Grangehill and L100 3 years Mathematics + Falklands +Gray L97 2 years Arts or Science +Rhind L95 2 years Graduates and + undergraduates of not + more than 3 years + standing. Arts +Charles Maclaren L110 3 years Mathematics and Natural + Philosophy +Neil Arnott L40 1 year Experimental Physics +George Scott(Travelling) L40 1 year To enable graduates to + travel for purpose of + Research +Macpherson L85 1 year For study of Celtic +Kirk Patrick L64 1 year History +C.B. Black L74 2 years Greek. Open to graduates + and undergraduates +George Heriot's L100 1 year To graduates intending to + Travelling become teachers of Modern + Languages +Baxter Physical Science L80 2 years +Baxter Natural Science L80 2 years + +#Prizes.# +Ellis L30 Physiology +Lord Rector's L26.5s. Essay +Bruce of Grangehill and L20 Logic and Metaphysics + Falkland +Scott and Dunbar L15 Greek +Cousin L15 Essay +Blackie Celtic L60 + + +UNIVERSITY OF GLASGOW. + + +QUEEN MARGARET COLLEGE. + +Duration of Arts Course: Pass, 3 years; Honours, 4 years. +Duration of Science Course, Pass and Honours: 3-4 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: L10, 10s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: L63 the course of 3 or 4 years. +Cost of Residence at Queen Margaret Hall (optional): From + 17s. to 25s. a week without lunch. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Barbour (Kilbarchan)(1) L25 3 years Arts. Candidates must not + be over 18 +John Clark(24) L30 4 years Arts +Crawford and Brown(1) L19, 13s. 4d 4 years Arts +Forfar(5) L58 4 years Arts +Forrester(1) L20 3 years Arts +Foundation(2) L20 4 years Arts +Gartmore(1) L22 3 years Arts +General Council(5) L20 2 or 3 years Arts +Glasgow City Education L25 4 or 2 years Arts +Endowments(10) L50 +George Grant(1) L40 3 or 4 years Arts +George Grant Junior(1) L40 4 years Arts +Hamilton Educational L20 3 years Arts. Competitors to + Trust(3) pupils from public or + State-aided schools in + burgh and parish of + Hamilton. +Hastie(1) L27 4 years +Highland Society, L20 3 years + Glasgow (12) +Hill(6) L20 3 years Arts. For pupils in School + Board district of Govan +James Laing(8) L25 4 years Arts. For candidates + educated at least 3 years + in schools in County of + Stirling +Lanfine(6) L27 2 years +Lorimer(4) L25 and L17 3 years Mathematics +Alexander Manderson(1) L15 3 years Arts. Natives of the Lower + Ward of Renfrewshire +Marshall Trust(20) L30 4 years Arts. Pupils from public + or State-aided schools in + Lanarkshire or + Stirlingshire +Sir Walter Scott L25 4 years +A. and B. Stewart(13) L20 3 years Arts +Stewart(3) L15 4 years Arts +King Williams(2) L15 3 years Arts +Ayrshire Society(4) L15 3 years Arts or Science. For + descendants of Society or + natives of Aryshire and + Glasgow +Denny(4) L30 4 years Arts or Science. Students + over 14 who have been 2 + years at Dumbarton Burgh + Academy +Dumfriesshire Society(2) L15 4 years Arts or Science +Hart(2) L30 5 years Arts or Science. + Preference to students + born in Ayrshire +Pratt(2) L20 4 years Arts or Science + +#Undergraduate.# +Will. Houldsworth L150 2 years Research in Science +Mackay Smith L48 2 years Natural Philosophy and + Chemistry +MacKinnin L60 1 year Science and Modern + Languages +Thomson Experimental L20 1 year Science + +#Post-Graduate.# +Breadalbane (2) L56 3 years Arts or Science +George A. Clark L170 4 years Arts or Science +John Clark L50 4 years Arts +Alexander Donaldson L44 2 years Chemistry +Robert Donaldson L66 2 years Science +Eglinton L65 2 years Arts +William Euing L80 5 years Arts +Luke L95 3 years Arts +Metcalfe L120 3 years Arts +Reid Stuart L60 3 years Arts +Walter Scott L80 2 years Arts +Mackinnon L60 1 year Geology, Natural History, + Modern Languages + Examination as for Final + Hons. Degree + +#Prizes# +Arnott L25 and L15 Examination +Cobden L20 Essay +Findlater L38 Examination +Gladstone Historical L25 Examination +Henderson L21 Essay +William Jack L35 Thesis for D.Sc. +Kelvin L35 Thesis for D.Sc. +Macfarlan and Cook L21 Examination +MacKenzie L25 Essay +Reid L25 Original Research +Watson L50 Examination + + +UNIVERSITY OF ST ANDREWS. + + +UNITED COLLEGES. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Arts: 4 years. +Duration of Pass and Honour Courses in Science: 4 to 5 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: L10, 10S. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: L15, 15s. per annum. +Cost of Residence in University Hall (optional): From L45 to + L75 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate.# +Foundation Bursaries(4) L20 4 years +Foundation Bursary(1) L50 4 years +Patrick Kidd L32 3 years +William Byers L39 3 or 4 years Preference given to + students of Mairs and + Strathmartine. Arts +Russell(6) L30 (5) } 3 years Arts and Science + L40 (1) } +Simson(6) L20 (5) } 3 years + L30 (1) } +_Valentine_ L25 3 years Restricted to women + residing in the County + of Fife, Ross or + Cromarty, or in village + of Findhorn, Morayhire +Fife, Clackmannan, and L5 3 or 4 years Restricted to students + Kinross Bursary coming from the above + counties +Wilkie L19 4 years +Henry L15 4 years +Madras L20 4 years +Fairweather L25 3 years Arts or Science. For + pupils from any school in + Dundee +Blyth(2) L20 3 years +George Scott L27 3 or 4 years Arts. Restricted to + applicants who are + natives of the Parishes + of Dull, Weem, Logierait + in Perthshire +Wood of Orkie L20 3 or 4 years Restricted to pupils who + have attended public or + state-aided schools in + the Parishes of Newburn, + Kilconquhar, Scoonie, + Largo, Kennoway, Elie, + Largoward +_Lumsden_ L35 1 to 3 years For women students + educated at St Leonard's + School, St Andrews +Ramsay L40 4 years +Baxter(2) L21 2 years For 2nd year students +Cheape(2) L23 3 years For 2nd year students +Thomas Thow L50 1 year Arts. For 2nd year + students natives of and + resident in Dundee or + the County of Forfar +Stephen Williamson L47 1 year For 4th year Honours + students +Smeaton L20 1 year For 4th year Honours + students + +#Post-Graduate.# + +Bruce and Falkland L50 2 years +Berry L80 1 year May be continued for 2nd + year. Arts or Science +Grants(6) L20 1 year For students entering on + Course of Training for + Secondary Teachers + +#Prizes.# +Miller(2) L30 Arts and Science +Arnott(2) L20 and L10 +Chancellor's L21 Essay + + +DUNDEE COLLEGE. + +Duration of Course in Arts: Pass, 3 years; Honours, 4 years. +Duration of Course in Science: Pass or Honours: 3 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: L10, 10s. per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: L21 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Mayfield Hostel (optional): L1 per week. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance.# +Armitstead L20-L15 1 year +David Myles -- -- +Entrance Scholarships(9) L15 1 year +Educational Endowment L25 3 years + +#Undergraduate.# +Bursaries(11) L15 to L20 1 year For second and third year +Bursaries(8) L15 to L20 1 year For fourth and subsequent + years +Bute Bursary Income of L1,000 + 3 years + +#Post-Graduate.# +William Strong(2 Income of L3,240 + or more) 1 year + +#Prizes.# +Gladstone Memorial L20 (in books) Essay + + + + +WALES + + +UNIVERSITY OF WALES + +Scholarships, etc., not connected exclusively with one College. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Undergraduate#. +Price Davies L30 2 years Tenable at Aberystwyth or + Scholarship(2) Bangor + +#Post-Graduate#. +University L125 2 years + Fellowships(3) +University L65 2 years Awarded on nomination by + Studentships(6) the Colleges +Eyton Williams L65 2 years + Studentships(6) +#Isaac Roberts# L150 1 year Open to graduates of any + #Scholarship# (renewable) University in the United + Kingdom. Science. Tenable + at Cardiff +1851 Science Scholarship L150 2 years Tenable at any approved + institution +Gilchrist Modern L80 1 year Open to graduates + Language Studentship intending to teach + Modern Languages. + Tenable abroad + + + +ABERYSTWYTH UNIVERSITY COLLEGE. + +Duration of Pass Course in Arts or Science: 3 years. +Duration of Honour Course in Arts or Science: 3 to 4 years. +Cost of Tuition in Arts: L12 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: L16 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Alexandra Hall (optional): From L11,11s. + to L17, 17s. per annum. + + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate#. +David Davies L40 1 year Entrance + (renewable) +Open L40 1 year Entrance + (renewable) +Visitor's L15 1 year Entrance + (renewable) + +Commercial Travellers of L20 1 year Entrance + North Wales (renewable) + +Scholarship(1) L20 1 year Confined to students + (renewable) intending to proceed to + the Degree of B.Sc. in + Agriculture and Rural + Economy +Brereton L15 1 year Entrance + (renewable) +_Elizabeth Davies_ L20 1 year Entrance. + (renewable) Limited to women natives + of Cardiganshire or + Carmarthenshire +Cynddelw Welsh L20 1 year For students undertaking + Scholarship to pursue a course of + Welsh study +Humphreys Owen L20 1 year + (renewable) For natives of + Montgomeryshire + +#Post-Graduate.# +Keeling Resewell L40 1 year + Scholarship + +Thomas Davies L54 1 year For Research work in + Chemistry or Agriculture + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF NORTH WALES (BANGOR). + +Cost of Tuition in Arts or Science: L12 per annum. +Cost of Residence in University Hall (optional): L25 to L42 per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Undergraduate.# +Eyton Williams L40 3 years +Eyton Williams L30 3 years +Eyton Williams L20 3 years + Exhibition +Piercey L30 3 years Confined to candidates + from Flintshire or + Denbighshire +Richard Hughes L50 1 year +Isaac Roberts(2) L50 Not less + than 1 yr. + +#Post-Graduate.# +Osborne Morgan L40 Not more Open to past and present + than 3 years students + + + +UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF SOUTH WALES AND MONMOUTHSHIRE +(CARDIFF). + +Cost of Tuition in Arts: L10 to L12 per annum. +Cost of Tuition in Science: L10 to L16 per annum. +Cost of Residence in Aberdare Hall (optional): L34 to L43, 10s. per annum. + + + Scholarships, Bursaries, and Prizes. + + Name. Value and Tenure. Remarks. +#Entrance and Under-graduate.# +Drapers' Company L35 1 year Science + (renewable) +Sir Alfred Thomas L20 3 years +_Caroline Williams_ L25 3 years +College L25 3 years +Craddock Wells(5) L20 and 1 year Open to candidates under + fees 19 years of age +Studentships Fees and Open only to natives of + maintenance Glamorgan and Monmouth, + grant 3 years the City of Cardiff and + the County Borough of + Newport + +#Post-Graduate.# +Catherine Buckton L40 1 year + + + + + +TABLE II. + +In addition to the University Post-Graduate Studentships mentioned +in the above table, the following Research Scholarships in Arts and +Science, not restricted to graduates of any one University, are open +to women:-- + +TABLE II. + +In addition to the University Post-Graduate Studentships mentioned +in the above table, the following Research Scholarships in Arts and +Science, not restricted to graduates of any one University, are open +to women:-- + +Subject. Title. By whom awarded. Restrictions (if any). Annual Value and + Duration + +Subject not fixed. A.K. Travelling A Board of Trustees who receive nominations British Subjects who are L600 and L60 for + Fellowship from Vice-Chancellors of Universities in the University graduates books; 2 awarded + United Kingdom, the President of the Royal annually for 1 year + Society, and the President of the British + Academy + +Physical Science McKinnon Research Royal Society -- L150 for 2 years + Fellowship + +Biological Science McKinnon Research Royal Society -- L150 for 2 years + Fellowship + +Bio-Chemistry -- Lister Institute of Preventive Medecine -- L150 for 1 year, renewable + for a 2nd year. + +Bacteriology -- Lister Institute of Preventive Medecine -- L150 for 1 year, renewable + for a 2nd year. + +Physiology George Henry Lewes Special Trustees; application to Professor Investigator must be in need L200 for 3 years (renewable) + Scholarship Langley, Cambridge of pecuniary help to prosecute + research + +Philosophy George Henry Lewes University of Toronto Graduates who have specialised L50 for 1 year + Scholarship in Philosophy + + +Subject not fixed. _Price Fellowship_ Federation of University Women Women graduates who have L120 for 1 year + already published the results + of independent research + +Natural Science Research Studentship Board of Agriculture and Fisheries Science graduates who are L150 for 3 years, part + prepared to research in of which must be spent + subjects under the purview abroad, and all 3 at + of the Board, and afterwards approved institutions + to adopt a career in + agricultural science + +Economics _Shaw Research_ London School of Economics -- L105 for 2 years + +Economics Hutchinson Research London School of Economics -- L105 for 1 year + +Natural Sciences _The Ellen Richards_ American Association for Advancement of Thesis 1,000 dollars + _Research Prize_ Research Work by Women. Hon. Sec., (L204, 10s.) + Mrs A.D. Mead, 283 Wayland Avenue, + Providence, R.I. + + + + + +SECTION II + +THE MEDICAL PROFESSION INCLUDING DENTISTRY + +I + +MEDICINE AND SURGERY + + +It may be safely claimed that, although there is still much to be +done, in medicine women have gained as good a position as in any other +branch of labour. + +One of the most important considerations in discussing any branch of +women's work is what sort of women are suited for it. The following +are the chief requisites for the medical profession:-- + +(1) The first and most important qualification is enthusiasm. It is +impossible to follow this profession with success, unless it is +work for which one has not only aptitude but also natural taste. It +necessitates a very strenuous life, and many unpleasant details of +work, which are unimportant to a person to whom the occupation +is acceptable as a whole, but which would be quite insuperably +disagreeable to any one to whom the total idea of life embodied in it +was unattractive. + +(2) Another very important qualification is a knowledge of men and +things. A doctor must never forget that she is dealing primarily with +human nature; certainly human nature which may be for a time +unhinged, or the mechanism of which may not be working smoothly, but +nevertheless with the human individual as a whole. + +The so-called "bedside" manner which is the butt for so much ridicule +is not so purely ridiculous as one might be tempted to think. Its +basis is to be found in this very knowledge of human nature which is +so essential, although the superstructure is often nothing more than +vapid futility. In addition to this the ideal doctor should possess a +trained scientific mind, and, of the two, the former is infinitely +the more important, although the latter is very valuable, not only for +itself, but for the training which it gives in "tidy" thinking. + +(3) Good health. A sick doctor is an anomaly and many people prefer +to be indifferently treated by some one who is cheerful and healthy, +rather than have the most expert advice from a woeful person. + +(4) A good general education is essential. This should include a +certain amount of Latin, which is needed throughout medical work. +The student must also possess the necessary capacity for acquiring +knowledge. It is very usual to find among the general public--women in +particular--an idea that a tremendous amount of a vague quality which +they describe as "cleverness" is necessary in order to follow one of +the learned professions. Certainly this is not so in medicine. It is, +however, necessary to be possessed of average intelligence and a +good memory, and it is difficult for people to pass the qualifying +examinations if they have for many years given up "school +work"--_i.e._, the habit of learning large numbers of new facts. + +(5) Money. For three reasons: (i.) The training is expensive, (ii.) +It is also strenuous, making a certain amount of margin for suitable +recreation very desirable, (iii.) Earning capacity, although +ultimately high, so far as women are concerned, is much delayed, and +the work itself is one of considerable nerve-strain. It is, therefore, +very important that economic worry should, if possible, be avoided. + +Medicine is one of the few professions in which women receive as high +remuneration as men. A very strenuous battle was fought between the +public authorities and medical women on the subject of equal pay for +equal work. All sorts of dodges have been used to get cheap woman +labour, but, so far, the victory has been almost completely on the +side of medical women. By the word "almost" is meant the fact, that +if two or three posts of varying grades and remunerations are created +under a health authority the woman nearly always gets the lowest, +whatever her qualifications and experience. With this exception the +victory has been complete, and this has been entirely due to two +things:-- + +(1) The very able support given by the British Medical Association, +which practically served as a Trade Union for doctors, stated the +lowest rate of remuneration to be accepted, and kept a black list +of posts which were advertised at salaries below this rate. The +Association has throughout supported with absolute consistency, the +principle of equal pay for equal work for the two sexes, and has +helped us as medical women to fight many battles. + +(2) The other factor has been the public spirit of the medical women +concerned, without which nothing could have been done. One of the +forms of public service most essential at the present day and for +which the individual gets neither honour nor even thanks, is that of +refusing "black leg" labour. It is generally admitted by those who +have to deal with the question of salaries and conditions of work +under public authorities, that medical women, as a whole, have shown +at least as great public spirit as men in refusing unsatisfactory +terms. To lose a post which would give one enough for one's own +needs and which would mean so much more in the way of experience and +adequate scope for one's energies, and to refuse it simply because +it would lower the market rate of pay, is a very fine thing to do. +Unless, however, this high tone is maintained the position of medical +women will become as bad as that of some other working women. If, on +the other hand, it can be maintained, the position already gained may +be used as a very powerful lever in raising the rate of pay in other +departments of women's work. There is sufficient support for +us amongst medical men. Everything, therefore, depends upon the +_personnel_ of the women doctors, and, as things become easier for +the students, it becomes more and more difficult to convince the new +recruits of the strenuousness of the fight in earlier years and of the +need for constant vigilance and self-sacrifice at the present time. + +Those who fought so nobly in the past have earned the lasting respect +and gratitude of those who come after them. An account of their +labours has been written by Mrs Isabel Thorne, and is called a "Sketch +of the Foundation and Development of the London School of Medicine +for Women."[1] It reads like a romance and shows the absolute +determination and pluck which were needed by the women in order to +gain their point. As one learns of the rebuffs and indignities which +they endured, it reminds one of the struggle which is at the present +time going on for the parliamentary vote. There is one thing which +makes one inclined to "back the women every time," and that is their +stupendous patience. A very short _resume_ of the facts may not be out +of place here. Miss Elizabeth Blackwell, English by birth but resident +in America, succeeded in 1858 after much difficulty in obtaining the +degree of M.D. of the University of Geneva, United States of America. +She then applied to have her name placed upon the register of duly +qualified medical practitioners of the General Medical Council of +Great Britain and Ireland, and it was discovered to the dismay of the +authorities that she could not be refused. The next step was taken by +Miss Garrett, now Dr Garrett Anderson. She decided to qualify herself +for the medical examinations of the Society of Apothecaries, London, +who also, owing to the wording of their charter, were unable to refuse +her, and in 1865 she successfully passed the required tests. In order, +however, to prevent a recurrence of such "regrettable incidents," the +society made a rule that in future no candidates should be admitted to +their examinations unless they came from a recognised medical school, +and, as no such school would admit women, this closed their doors. + +In the meantime Miss Jex-Blake had applied to Edinburgh University +for medical education, but had been refused on the score that it was +impossible to make such alterations "in the interests of one lady." +Mrs Thorne, Miss Chaplin, Miss Pechey, and Mrs de Lacy Evans then +decided to join Miss Jex-Blake, thus making five instead of one. They +were allowed to matriculate, but forced to form separate classes +and to guarantee 100 guineas for each class. They were not, however, +allowed to receive scholarships, to which their work would have +entitled them, on the score that they were women. Mrs Thorne states +that their "success in the examination lists was their undoing," as, +owing to this, and to the fact that they were unjustly debarred from +receiving the distinctions that they had gained, a great deal of bad +feeling was aroused. + +As the agitation increased, the efforts of these pioneers to obtain +a qualifying course for women in Edinburgh, were supported by a +committee of sympathisers, which speedily rose to five hundred +members, and, after a severe struggle, the question of clinical +teaching in the Infirmary was settled partially in the women's +favour in 1872. Later, the question of the validity of the original +resolutions admitting women to the University was raised and decided +against them. They had, therefore, been four years at the University +and were finally excluded. This, however, proved to be only temporary +as, in later years, the University reopened its medical degrees to +women; but not in time to allow of the return of these courageous +pioneers. + +In the meantime Dr Garrett Anderson, having taken her degree in +Paris, had been steadily working in London, forming the nucleus of the +present New Hospital for Women, and the pioneers from Edinburgh came +to London and helped her to start a school of medicine for women. + +This was successfully accomplished owing to the kind help of many +people, both within and without the profession, but no clinical +teaching could be obtained, as all the big London hospitals were +closed to women students. Finally, however, arrangements were made +with the Royal Free Hospital in Gray's Inn Road. It had no men's +medical school attached to it, and the admission of women to +the hospital was due to the kind intervention of the Rt. Hon. J. +Stansfeld, M.P., who met the Chairman of the hospital, Mr James +Hopgood, while away on a holiday, and induced him to persuade the +hospital authorities to give the dangerous experiment a trial. So +seriously was it regarded, that the women students had to guarantee an +indemnity to the hospital of 300 guineas annually in addition to their +fees, as it was felt that the general support might decrease by, +at least, this amount when the public became aware that there were +medical women studying at the hospital! This was soon found not to +be the case, and the yearly indemnity was generously remitted by the +hospital authorities, the students simply paying the usual fees for +instruction. In connection with this subject, it may be of interest +to note that to-day the presence of medical women at the hospital is +evidently found by the authorities to be an important means of +gaining the sympathy of the general public, for appeals for funds may +frequently be seen in London omnibuses stating, as the ground for +an appeal, the fact that this is the only general hospital in London +where women medical students are trained. + +The medical school which began in a small Georgian house has now a +fine block of buildings with all modern appliances, and the hospital +is, at the time that this book goes to press, undergoing extensive +alterations and additions, including enlargement of the students' +quarters. + +The success of this pioneer work has been sufficiently amazing, but +it is most important that every one should realise that the fight is +still going on. Not a day passes but somebody tries to get medical +women to work either for less pay or under less honourable conditions +than those required by their medical brethren, and one of the most +trying parts of work in this profession at the present time is the +constant alertness required both for detecting and defeating these +attempts. That they should be made is not surprising, when we remember +the lower market value attached to women's work in almost every other +occupation. Practical examples of the sort of attempts made, may be of +service. + +_Example 1._--A medical woman went as _locum tenens_ for a +practitioner in a country town during the South African War. The +practitioner himself was at the time absolutely incapacitated by a +severe form of influenza, complicated by ocular neuralgia which made +work absolutely impossible. Owing to the War, he was quite unable to +get a man to act as _locum tenens_. A woman consented to help him in +his extremity, at considerable inconvenience both to herself and to +the people with whom she was working at the time. She carried on the +practice during the depth of the winter, having on some occasions to +go out in the snow-sleigh and frequently to drive in an open trap +at night in the deadly cold. She carried on the work with such +conspicuous success that her "chief" asked her to stay on as his +assistant when he was convalescent. For this he offered her L85 a +year, living in, saying, without any shame, that he knew that this was +not the price that any man would command, but that it was plenty for a +woman. He was bound to admit that he had lost no patient through her, +that he charged no lower fees when she went to a case than when he +did, that she did half the work while acting as his assistant, and +that she had kept his practice together for him while he was ill. +Fortunately, owing to the fact that she had behind her means +of subsistence without her salary, she was able to refuse his +unsatisfactory offer, although at considerable violence to her +feelings, for she had made many friends in the neighbourhood. + +_Example 2_.--A husband and wife, both medical, went to settle in a +town in the north of England. They both practised, the qualifications +of both were excellent, but the woman was the more brilliant of the +two, having better degrees and more distinctions. Both applied to +be admitted to the local medical society. The man was, of course, +accepted, the woman refused on the score of her sex, this meaning that +she would be cut off from all opportunity of hearing medical papers +and discussing medical subjects with her colleagues. During the next +few months a local friendly society was anxious to obtain a medical +officer and was offering terms regarded as insufficient by the local +doctors. Among others approached by this society was the medical woman +in question. Directly the officials of the medical society, which had +banned her when her own benefit was concerned, heard that she had been +approached by the friendly society, they elected her without asking +her consent to the very society from which they had previously +excluded her, in order that she might be unable to take the post in +question, whereby they might have financially suffered. + +_Example 3_.--The exclusion from medical societies referred to under +Example 2, like many similar actions in life, tends to recoil on its +instigators. For instance, a medical woman in another northern town +applied for and accepted a post which the local men had decided was +unsatisfactory in some particulars, and for which therefore none of +them had applied. They were loud in their denunciations of the woman +in question, but owing to the fact that her men colleagues had not +recognised her professionally in other ways, she was quite unaware of +her offence for several months after undertaking her new duties. + +_Example 4_.--Men and women are sometimes appointed on apparently +equal terms and conditions to posts which are not, however, really +equal, in that there is a chance of promotion for the men but none for +the women. + +_Example 5_.--In another town in the north of England men and women +appointed to do the work of school medical inspection on equal terms +recently considered that they were not sufficiently remunerated. They +met and decided that they would together apply for better terms. A +rumour was then set abroad that the authority under whom they worked +would certainly not consider such an increase in expenditure. In this +crisis the men on the staff, although they had so far joined with +their women colleagues in sending up their petition, sent up another +of their own, without informing or consulting the women at all, in +which they said that they considered it was time that this equality of +remuneration for both sexes should cease. They begged the authority +to neglect their public appeal, but to grant instead increased +remuneration to the men, and the men only. One of the reasons given +for this suggestion on the part of the men was that their liabilities +were greater. The result of enquiry, however, proved that of the three +men, one only was engaged to be married, the other two had no one +dependent upon them; whereas of the three women, two were supporting +other people--one being a married woman separated from her husband and +with two children to support and educate. + +_Example 6_.--The following is an instance of the way in which the +Government is sometimes responsible for encouraging women's "black +leg" labour. Dr Leslie Mackenzie in his evidence given recently before +the Civil Service Commission said that the Treasury refused to allow +the Scottish Local Government Board to have a woman medical inspector +at a medical inspector's salary, but permitted them to engage a woman +with medical qualifications at a woman inspector's salary, which was, +of course, much less. Sad to relate a woman was found to accept this +post. + +These examples have been given because it is necessary that a woman +intending to adopt the profession of medicine should know the sort +of work, quite apart from the treatment of her cases, which a medical +woman, worth her salt, has to do. It may be asked how it is, if these +difficulties are still constantly arising, that our pioneers were so +successful? For several reasons: first, because they were in the best +sense women of the world: they understood when to be firm and when +to give way. They understood mankind. Secondly, they had an assured +position. This is probably the most essential condition of all for +success. Before decent terms and conditions of work can be demanded, +the worker must be in such a position financially that she can, if +necessary, refuse the work in question, and if possible the employer +must be aware of this fact. So often women enter the labour market +only when driven by stark necessity, that it is unfortunately the +easiest thing in the world to exploit them. People of either sex faced +by starvation for themselves or those dependent on them must take the +first thing that offers if the conditions be in any way bearable. In +my opinion, next to the parliamentary vote, the most powerful lever +in raising the condition of women will be the entrance into the labour +market of a considerable number of women so trained in Economics that +they will always "play the game," and at the same time sufficiently +remote from want to be able to resist the sweating employer. + +Some people discourage women of independent means from entering the +labour market through the mistaken idea that if such women work they +are taking away the chance of some other women who are in need. In +case any reader may be in doubt on this question, I should like +to point out that it is the groups of workers among whom no such +economically independent individuals are to be found, that are always +exploited by the unscrupulous employer; they are such easy prey. + +What really makes women workers afraid of their independent sisters is +that extremely pernicious system of payment euphemistically known as +"pocket-money." This should be swept off the face of the earth. Even +the richer woman has some rights, notably the right to work, and +I would suggest that she has this particular, and certainly not +unimportant function of raising the rate of remuneration. From my +knowledge of her, I consider that she is most anxious to do nothing +but good to her fellows. The only thing she needs in order to become +a help instead of a menace to her poorer sisters is knowledge of the +rules that govern the economic labour market. + +Owing to the necessary expense and prolonged training for the medical +profession it has probably attracted a larger proportion of working +women who were not subject to immediate economic stress than most +other branches of work, and it is, in my opinion, due to the +presence of such women, that the conditions in it as a whole are so +satisfactory. + +Having discussed the sort of woman suitable for the medical +profession, I now pass on to a consideration of the course of training +which must be taken in order to fit her for the work. + +Before beginning her training, the student has to decide what medical +qualification she will take. Her choice lies between + + (1) A degree of one of the universities, and + (2) A diploma. + +It is essential to go to some University or Examining Board which +admits women and not to one, such as Oxford or Cambridge, where women +are denied the degree to which their work entitles them. As a matter +of fact, women medical students are not accepted at Oxford and +Cambridge. It is not possible to practise medicine, in a satisfactory +way unless one is actually in possession of the qualification. Any +one who does so, however well trained, ranks as a quack, and is not +legally entitled to sign death certificates nor to recover fees. + +The degrees open to women in medicine, as in other branches of +learning, are those of London, Glasgow, Trinity College, Dublin, and, +in fact, of all the Universities of the United Kingdom except the two +just mentioned. + +Qualifying diplomas other than degrees are those granted by:-- + + (1) The Conjoint Examining Board of the + Royal Colleges of Physicians and + Surgeons of England. + (2) The Royal Colleges of Scotland. + (3) The Royal Colleges of Ireland. + (4) The Society of Apothecaries of London. + +The authorities at the Women's Medical School strongly advise students +to take a degree, and that the best open to them, namely, in Great +Britain, that of London for the south, or one of the good Scottish +Universities for the north. Their reason for this advice is that they +feel that it is extremely important that medical women should rank as +high as possible in their profession. + +At London University there are no sex restrictions. A woman is +eligible not only to take the examinations on equal terms with a man, +but all the rights and honours (except, of course, the Parliamentary +vote) are also open to her. Women may vote for and sit upon the +Senate, become members of Convocation and take any of the exhibitions, +medals, or scholarships which are offered to candidates at +examinations. For this reason women feel attached and like to belong +to the London University, and to do it honour. + +Having decided which qualification she wishes to take, the candidate +applies to be entered as a medical student at a definite school. If +she elects to work in _London_ she must follow the course of study +at the Royal Free Hospital School of Medicine for Women at 8 Hunter +Street, Brunswick Square. + +At _Glasgow_ the students are all entered at the Women's College +(Queen Margaret's). The medical course is taken in conjunction with +men students. At the Royal Infirmary some wards are open to women for +clinical instruction. + +At _Dublin_ the students are admitted to the degrees and diplomas +in medicine, surgery, and midwifery on the same conditions as men. +A special anatomical department with dissecting room, etc., has been +erected by the Board of Trinity College for them. + +At _Edinburgh_ the arrangements for women students are largely +separate from those for the men. The degrees are open to them. + +At _Durham_ the degrees are open to women, and most of their work is +done with the men. + +The same applies to _Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham,_ and +_Sheffield_. + +The course takes from five to six years, but it is wise to allow the +longer time. The preliminary examination in general subjects is taken +before admission to the medical school. After this, the first year +at the medical school is spent in scientific study, such as Biology, +Inorganic Chemistry, etc. Having passed her first scientific +examination, the student proceeds to the study of the human +individual, and deals for the next two years with Anatomy, which +includes dissection, Physiology, the study of drugs in Materia Medica +and Pharmacology, and Organic Chemistry. When the examination in these +subjects has been satisfactorily negotiated, she passes on to medical +work proper, the study of disease and the result of accident in the +living person--in other words, she walks the wards of the hospital and +undertakes duties as clerk to physicians and dresser to surgeons, from +whom she receives instruction in medicine, surgery, and pathology. +Special branches are also studied, such as midwifery, women's +diseases, and affections of the throat, ear, eye, and skin. The +treatment of minor accidents also receives special attention. During +the whole of this time the student also attends regular courses of +lectures on these subjects, and she then takes her final examination. +If this be a degree examination, she becomes, on passing it, Bachelor +of Medicine, or M.B., and Bachelor of Surgery, Ch.B. or B.S. Having +obtained a diploma, she is generally entitled to style herself a +Member or Licentiate of the college of which she has passed the +qualifying examination, for example, M.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. or L.S.A. +On application, she is then placed upon the Medical Register, and is +known as a registered medical practitioner. + +The cost of the training is approximately as follows :-- + +_For a London Degree._ + +Fee at the Medical School for Women, if paid as a composition fee in +five yearly instalments of L28, L51, L45, L40, and L15; Total:--L179, +or, if the whole sum is paid on entrance to the school, L160. In +addition there is a fee of three guineas for the special study of +fevers. These fees include everything in the way of material, except +books and instruments for which it is wise to allow another L30. The +examination fees of the university are L25. These amounts make no +allowance for any failures, and consequent revision of work, and +re-entry for examination. In reckoning the expense, the necessary cost +of living for the six years must also be included. For those students +whose homes are not in London there are flats and boarding-houses +where it is possible to live very reasonably. Suitable board and +residence can be obtained from about 25s. a week. + +_For the Diploma of the Conjoint Board._ + +The school fees are the same; the examination fees are, however, +higher, namely L42. + +For other qualifications, the school fees are L20 less for the course. + +Certain scholarships are available for students, of which all +particulars can be obtained from the secretary of each school. + +When a woman becomes a registered medical practitioner, she is for +the first time legally entitled to treat patients herself, and is +entrusted with responsibility. As in most other branches of knowledge +in the world, while she has simply been learning and carrying out her +duties under authority, she has had no opportunity of really testing +her own knowledge. It is, therefore, very generally felt amongst newly +qualified medical practitioners that they need more experience before +undertaking quite independent medical work. This experience is +best gained by taking hospital posts. By this is meant positions of +moderate responsibility, such as that of resident house physician or +resident house surgeon in a hospital, where the newly qualified doctor +is under the authority of an experienced visiting "chief," but is +expected to deal with ordinary incidents as they may arise, to realise +the relative importance of different symptoms, and report those that +matter to the visiting physician or surgeon. + +It is at this stage that the doctor must decide whether she wishes to +become + + (a) a "specialist" in some particular branch + of medicine or surgery, + (b) a general practitioner, or + (c) whether she wishes to work in the public + service. + +(a) If she wishes to be a specialist she must so arrange her future +work as to gain experience in the branch which she selects. For +this purpose it is necessary to take posts at special hospitals, and +ultimately to become a member of the staff of some hospital in the +department chosen. Here women find that they are heavily handicapped. +The only hospital of any size in London of which the members of staff +are all women is the New Hospital, Euston Road, and this admits only +of a small staff, giving opportunities to comparatively few women for +special experience. + +The Royal Free Hospital, where women take their training as students, +has now two women on its staff in the department for gynaecology. It +has also a woman anaesthetist, and some of the minor posts, such as +clinical assistant to the outpatients, pathologist, etc., are open to +them. All the physicians, the surgeons, and the assistant physicians +and surgeons are, however, men. + +Of the hospitals for special ailments in London, none so far admits +women to the staff, and it has only recently become possible for +them even to form part of the medical audience at the outpatients' +department at some of these special hospitals. + + No London Hospital for Diseases of Women + and Midwifery (except that of Dr M'Call), + or for Diseases of Children (except one recently + started by women), + or for Diseases of the Eye, + or for Diseases of the Ear, Nose and Throat, + or for Diseases of the Nervous System, +admits women to its staff, although several of them allow women to +take appointments as clinical assistants, pathologists, anaesthetists, +and other minor posts. Their admission to the full staff is, perhaps, +merely a question of time, and of the naturally slow movement of the +British mind towards admitting women to positions of responsibility. + +There has, however, been of late years a tendency on the part of +medical women themselves to take this matter into their own hands, and +new women's hospitals are being started about London where the staff +is exclusively composed of women. + +(b) If, on the other hand, the newly qualified doctor decides to +become a general practitioner, her course is much simpler. She takes +such posts as are available, which she thinks will aid her general +knowledge of medicine. Then she selects a neighbourhood, puts up a +plate, and waits. + +This course also involves delayed earning capacity, as she must be +prepared to face outlay for several years without much return. During +this time she generally augments the income which she gets from her +private practice by other part-time paid work, notably by giving +lectures in first aid, etc., by school inspection, where part-time +officers are appointed, and other such work. She also generally does +a certain amount of voluntary work on that most pernicious system +of giving her services in order to get known. It is in this way that +doctors are everywhere so terribly exploited. When they are _all_ so +busy doing work which they think will bring them into the public view, +this becomes of no particular use to any of them, and the only people +who benefit, and at the same time scoff, are the members of the +general public, who become so used to getting the doctor to work for +nothing or next to nothing, that it comes as a shock when they have +to pay. It is a healthy sign that the long-suffering doctor is at last +beginning to show symptoms of fight, and in the future it may be +hoped that doctors, like lawyers, will not be required to give their +services free to the community. It may be true that if a man will not +work neither shall he eat, but the converse should also be true, that +if a man works he should eat, and at present it is not by any means +always true of the doctor. + +(c) Should she decide to enter the public service, she will still +require to take a certain number of posts, especially those dealing +with eyes, ears, and skin, and must also obtain the Diploma of Public +Health. To gain this diploma she will need to devote several months +to post-graduate study in that subject before taking the necessary +examination. + +The chief posts at present open in the public service to a woman +are:-- + + (1) School medical officer, or assistant medical + officer of health. + (2) Assistant medical officer in some asylums + and poor law infirmaries. + +There is one woman inspector of prisons who is a medical woman, but +she is not a medical inspector and was not appointed in that capacity. +It is much to be hoped that women prison medical officers will +speedily be appointed on equal terms with their medical colleagues. +The conditions for women prisoners from the standpoint of health are, +at the present time, extremely unsatisfactory. + +The tendency is to employ more and more women in the public service, +and therefore the opportunities are likely rapidly to become more +numerous. + +The Act, under which medical school inspection was made obligatory, +particularly mentioned the suitability of women for much of this work. +It is therefore becoming usual all over the country to have at least +one woman school doctor, and in some districts there are several on +the staff. This work is not extremely arduous, is free from the heavy +strain of private practice, and, if the school medical officer is +allowed reasonable freedom in her work, may be made of much interest. +It is, however, somewhat monotonous, and has the great disadvantage +that at present the stimulus of promotion is largely absent, as the +higher administrative posts are almost universally in the hands of +men. This is a disadvantage which will also be gradually, perhaps +rapidly removed as the prejudice against women in authority dies down. + +After having practised medicine for some years, further degrees +indicating experience are open to the medical practitioner; thus, if +she has taken the Bachelorship of Medicine she may, after the lapse of +three or four years, enter for her Doctorate. This is gained either +by a further examination or by writing a thesis on some subject of +original research. If she has taken the Diploma of the Royal Colleges, +it is open to her to sit for the Fellowship in Surgery or Membership +in Medicine. She is also open to election to the Fellowship in +Medicine. + +It is extremely difficult to give anything like an adequate idea +of the remuneration to be obtained in medicine, as it varies +tremendously. + +The first posts, which are taken soon after qualification, if really +first-rate in the experience which they give, seldom include any +salary at all, though board and lodging are provided. Posts which rank +as slightly inferior to these, but still give a considerable amount of +experience, are often associated with honoraria varying from about L50 +to L150 a year, including board and lodging. + +(a) If we turn again to our three sub-divisions we find that a +specialist or consultant cannot expect to earn her working expenses +for a good many years. She must have one room at least in a certain +specialist quarter of the town, known as the consultants' area, and +there the rents are usually high, in London about L150 a year, in the +provinces slightly less. + +We have already stated that she requires some hospital post; for this +she will receive no remuneration, but if the hospital where she works +has a medical school attached to it, she may expect to get a certain +number of patients through the recommendation of students whom she +teaches at the hospital. There is generally also some teaching at +the hospitals, for which the students pay definite fees. She may also +augment her income by lectures and work of that description. She will +probably find it necessary to write papers on her special branch of +work and on the cases which come under her observation, but for this +she will very seldom be paid. It is, therefore only possible for a +girl with some monetary resources independent of her work, to take up +successfully a special branch of medicine. + +If she elect to become a surgeon, a hospital post is an absolute +necessity, and her income will, as in the case of the medical +specialist, be delayed. Eventually, however, if she is successful, it +is greater than that to be obtained on the medical side. The fees are +high, and therefore money can be made more speedily in this branch of +the work. People, however, hesitate as a rule to trust a very young +surgeon, so she will at first get her work chiefly as assistant to +her seniors and must be content to wait some years for the much bigger +fees which she will get as principal. Ultimately she should make +L1,000 to L2,000 a year. + +(b) If she elect to become a general practitioner, her outlay at first +is probably as great as that of the specialist, if not greater, but +the return is quicker, and a great deal depends upon the choice of a +neighbourhood. If she chooses an upper middle class district she +also, like the specialist, must be content to wait, and in fact she is +ill-advised to choose such a neighbourhood unless she can rely on some +good social introductions. + +If she choose a district partly middle and partly lower middle class +her return will be infinitely quicker. She may expect to cover her +expenses in the course of two or three years. The work is, however, +incessant and rather harassing. If she select a working-class +neighbourhood and have a dispensary, her return will be still quicker, +such places frequently paying their expenses in the first or second +year. The people are nice to deal with, and the work is interesting, +but it is apt to be very distressing for two reasons--(1) that owing +to the poverty of the patients they can so seldom be attended under +conditions in which they have a fair chance of recovery, and (2) there +is apt to be an appreciable amount of dirt. + +The most varying reports are given as to the incomes to be made in +private practice and it is almost impossible to get at the truth, +because it is obviously to everybody's interest to make them appear +as high as possible. A woman's practice also is admittedly rather a +specialist one. She does not get the general local practice of the +ordinary practitioner, but instead certain selected women who want to +consult a member of their own sex. These often live at considerable +distances, thus making the work more difficult to arrange and the +travelling more expensive than in the case of the ordinary medical +man. It is rare for a woman to be able to buy a practice. She must +generally build it up for herself, as it is of little or no use for +her to buy a man's practice, and there are only very few women's +available. + +Generally, it may be stated that a woman covers her expenses by about +the third or fourth year after starting, and she may ultimately make, +according to the district and her success, anything between L400 and +L1,500 a year. Frequently two medical women settle together, which +seems to be a very good arrangement. + +(c) If she elect to enter the public service her outlay is very small. +Beyond equipping herself for this work in certain special branches +already described, all that is necessary is that she should be able to +keep herself until she obtains a suitable post. The salary given for +whole time work in the public service should not be less than L250 a +year rising to L400 or L500 a year. In most cases the school doctor +gets the school holidays, including the whole of every Saturday. + +English women who go to India, do so generally in connection with +either + + (1) a missionary society, or + (2) a hospital under the Dufferin Fund. + +(1) Many missionary societies engage medical women to treat the native +women. Salaries, of course, differ, but are, on the whole, low, as the +aim of a missionary is not supposed, primarily, to be financial gain. +Generally somewhere about L110 in English money is given, with +an allowance for carriage and house including the chief items of +furniture. Leave is also granted with second class return fare every +five years--in some missions every three years. The medical experience +is excellent, the opportunities of doing good professional work are +practically unlimited, and the professional position of the doctor +quite untrammelled. She is assisted, usually, by good nurses, under a +proper scheme, these being Indian girls superintended by fully trained +English sisters. + +(2) Under the Dufferin Fund[2] things are very different. It is +somewhat difficult to speak of this branch of the work, as it is, at +the present time, the subject of enquiry, and it may be legitimately +expected that it will, before long, be put on a more satisfactory +basis. The fund was originally started by Lady Dufferin as the direct +result of a command by the late Queen Victoria, and it was intended +to provide the services of medical women for the Purdah women of India +who, owing to the strictness of their rules, were not infrequently +debarred from the full benefit of medical treatment by men. +Unfortunately, however, the doctor in charge of most of the Dufferin +Hospitals is under the local senior civil surgeon, who is a man. As +he has the right, if he wishes to exercise it, of seeing any of +the patients, and doing any of the operations or other treatment +necessary, it is obvious that the hospitals are of little or no use to +Purdah women, as they have no guarantee against treatment by a man. + +There is also no security of tenure for the doctor who is not allowed +to be present at the meetings of the governing body, and may find +herself dismissed or transferred from a good post to a bad one at +short notice. + +The remuneration varies roughly between L250 and L500 a year, with +house but no carriage allowance. The doctor is entitled to add to her +salary by private practice. In some towns this is a considerable +item, whereas in others it is quite negligible. There is no definite +furlough allowance, and the doctor may be removed from her post and +required to keep herself on very little for a considerable period of +time before being appointed to another hospital. All this causes a +severe drain on the resources of doctors without private means. The +staff is also frequently inefficient, and the nursing is sometimes +very indifferent, being undertaken by Eurasian girls under partly +trained women who have never been "home." + + +In the practice of medicine as in all other branches of women's +labour, the question of the effect of marriage upon work is a very +important and difficult one. In its general aspect it lies at the very +heart of the whole question of the working woman. Its effect on the +medical woman varies according to the branch of her profession which +she selects. If she wishes to become _(a)_ a specialist or _(b)_ a +general practitioner, she has perfect freedom of choice as to what she +will do in the event of marriage; and some women retire while others +continue their work. The latter is a much more desirable course from +the point of view of medical women as a whole. The medical woman who +is married can, better than any one else, render to society certain +services in her profession, and it is desirable that these should not +be lost. In any event no woman need retire from her work on marriage, +though it is, of course, most important that the married medical woman +should not deny to herself and to her husband the normal healthy joy +of having children. To continue in practice, however, while bearing a +child requires a certain amount of expenditure, as such a doctor +will need to retire from practice for at least two or three months, +probably longer, and is therefore put to the expense of engaging a +_locum tenens._ This ought, however, to be possible when both husband +and wife are earning incomes. + +From the point of view of society as a whole, it is waste that any one +who has had such a long and arduous training as that required for +the medical profession should not use it in service to the community. +There is a form of selfishness not sufficiently recognised, which +consists not in acquiring goods but in acquiring knowledge without +rendering it again in service to one's fellow men and women. + +Should the doctor decide _(c)_ to enter the public service, the +question will probably not be in her own control as there is an +ever-increasing tendency on the part of public authorities to insist +on single women or widows only among the medical women whom they +employ. There is a big fight to be waged here--one of the many that +our pioneers have left for us and our successors. The lack of social +instinct which lies behind this edict is amazing. What can be more +anti-social than that a young, healthy, and highly-trained woman +should have to decide between marriage and executing that public work +for which she has with great labour fitted herself? In at least some +cases of which the writer is aware, the demand that a doctor shall +retire on marriage, has led to a decision against matrimony, and this +is not surprising, although very serious as a general problem. The +great need of society at the present day is that the most healthy and +well-trained young men and women should be induced to found families, +and public authorities by this bar put on the trained woman, are doing +their best to hinder marriage. + +Medical women have, for their protection, societies of registered +medical women in London and in the north of England and also in +Scotland, these working more or less in touch with one another. In +common with other medical societies they have meetings at which the +advances in medical science are discussed, and they also act in a +modified way as Trade Unions, Members of these societies can always +gain information from them as to the recognised rate of pay in any +particular branch of the work which they may wish to undertake. + +Reference has already been made to the excellent work which has been +done by the British Medical Association in uniting the men and women +of the profession and helping both to keep up the salary rate. Without +this aid the women's associations would have been comparatively +helpless, as they would have erred in ignorance, though certainly +not by intention. The gratitude of medical women to this association +cannot therefore be overstated, and I think I am justified in saying +that the same is true with regard to medical men. If their chief +"Union" had not admitted women we might unwittingly have become a +danger to our medical colleagues as black-leg labour. This has been +almost universally the case in other work which women have taken up, +and one cannot help wishing that men in other branches of labour might +speedily realise the fact that women cannot be stopped from working, +and that the only wise thing, from the men's point of view as well as +from the women's, is to admit all to their unions that they may fight +shoulder to shoulder for better labour conditions, and not against +each other. An example of a case where this was realised has already +been quoted under Example 2, page 144. + +With regard to the opportunities for post-graduate study:--At first +all the men's medical societies were closed to women, the provincial +societies being among the first to recognise their women medical +colleagues. London, being in this as in all things conservative, took +many years to move, and did so very grudgingly; but now nearly all +the important medical societies admit women, in this falling into line +with the learned professions generally. The Royal Medical Society, +London, at first admitted women to its separate sections only, +while denying them the Fellowship, with which would have gone that +mysterious power which men so deeply resent our possessing--the power +to vote on matters of its internal economy. The authorities of this +society have, however, recently admitted medical women on perfectly +equal terms with men to their Fellowship--a privilege for which we are +deeply grateful, as post-graduate knowledge of recent investigations +is absolutely essential to good work. + +In conclusion, the general position of medical women at present may be +shortly summarised as follows:-- + +Their legal status is _absolutely identical_ with that of men in +every respect, by which is meant that by being placed upon the Medical +Register they have every privilege, duty, and responsibility which +they would have if they were men. In obtaining this and allowing many +other things to be settled by their successors our pioneers showed +their tremendous wisdom. + +We have in the medical profession, what women are now claiming in the +State, the abolition of legal sex disqualification. With this firm +platform upon which to stand, it entirely depends upon medical women +themselves what position they will gain in their profession. All other +disabilities and disqualifications are minor and remediable. + +This absolute equality of medical men and women before the law +includes the rights to + + (1) Practise in any department of medicine in + which their services may be demanded. + + (2) Recover fees if necessary. + + (3) Sign death certificates. + + (4) Sign any certificates for which a medical + signature is essential. + +Under this latter heading a curious anomaly arises. If a man is signed +up as a lunatic, he is, for so long as he remains a lunatic, debarred +from using his Parliamentary vote, and, as may be seen from the above, +a medical woman's signature is as valid as that of a man for this +disfranchising certificate of lunacy. The State, therefore, at the +present time allows that a medical woman may be sufficiently learned +and reliable to disfranchise a man, though she be not sufficiently +learned and reliable to vote herself. + +The Insurance Act concerned medical women only in the same way that +it affected their men colleagues. The sole reason, therefore, for +mentioning it in this paper is that it affords an indication of two +things:-- + +(1)that the Government therein makes no sex distinction in the +profession; + +(2)that the bogey of sex cleavage, so often mentioned by the timorous +in the political world, is here, as always where it is put to the +test, proved to be without foundation. + +Unfortunately, the Insurance Act divided the medical profession into +two parties; women, no more than men, were unanimous on the subject +and some were to be found on either side. + +Women are still debarred from the full use of their medical powers in +the following ways:-- + +(1) The demand for their services from the general public is at +present not so great nor so universal as that for men. This is not +surprising when it is realised for how short a time there have been +medical women; however, the demand on the part of the public is very +rapidly increasing, naturally, of course, amongst their own sex. + +(2) As in other work the tendency is to restrict women to the +lower branches of public work, or to the so-called "blind alley" +occupations. This can only be cured by public demand, and some +improvement is to be noted in this respect. There is, however, no +doubt that general practice affords at present the most unrestricted +field for a medical woman's activity, because there she suffers from +no limitations except those of her own personality in relation to +society. Any patients who are inclined to trust her are absolutely +free to do so, and it is open to her to demand what fees her services +are found to be worth. + +If, on the other hand, she enters the public service she may +admittedly qualify herself in every way by attainments and experience +in the lower ranks for one of the higher administrative posts and be +barred simply by sex disqualification. This also will no doubt in time +improve, and the pioneer work that it implies may attract many, but +the progress is necessarily slower. + +(3) She is still debarred from full opportunity for specialist work. +(See efforts being made by women themselves to obviate this by the +starting of women's hospitals, p. 149.) + +Finally, then, the medical profession should attract women of good +average capacity and general education, good health and certain, even +if moderate, means. Above all do they need public spirit, which will +make them anxious to maintain and improve the excellent position +medical women have so far obtained. It is a very widely interesting +life, bringing those who adopt it out of the study into direct touch +with human affairs. + + +[Footnote 1: Publisher, G. Sharrow, 28A Devonshire Street, Portland +Place, W.] + +[Footnote 2: Quite recently the outline of a new scheme was put +before a meeting at the Women's Medical School in London by the +Director-General of the Indian Medical Service. Under this scheme the +Women's Medical Service in India would not be upon the same footing +as the Indian Medical Service (I.M.S.) for men, but would remain as +at present, a Dufferin Association. It would, however, receive a +Government grant of L10,000 yearly, and proper arrangements would be +made for pay, furlough, promotion, and security of tenure. The scheme +is open to criticism on some points, but, as a whole, it marks a +considerable advance on the previous conditions of service in this +department of women's work, and may be welcomed as a genuine if +somewhat belated attempt on the part of the Government to deal fairly +with an urgent question.] + + + + +II + +DENTAL SURGERY + + +It is not sufficiently well-known that dental surgery as a profession, +opens up a practically unexplored and lucrative work for women. + +The training in the British Isles can be carried out in London, +Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Dublin, each of these cities granting their +Licentiate of Dental Surgery. In London, the National Dental Hospital, +and the London School of Medicine for Women (Royal Free Hospital) have +special facilities for women students, including special bursaries +and scholarships, while dental and medical studies can be carried +on concurrently. The course of study includes the passing of a +Professional Preliminary Examination or Matriculation, followed by two +years' mechanical work, and two years' hospital practice. The student +can be articled to a qualified dental practitioner for mechanics, or +can obtain tuition at the Dental Hospital. This branch includes the +preparation of models, vulcanite and metal dentures, crowns, and +bridges, etc. + +The Dental Hospital course for two years includes lectures on Physics +and Chemistry, Dental Anatomy and Surgery, Metallurgy and Materia +Medica. At the same time practical work is done--extractions, +fillings, crowns, bridges, dentures, and the regulation of children's +teeth. At the medical school and hospital, lectures on Anatomy, +Physiology, Surgery, and Medicine must be attended, and dissections on +the human body, and clinics in the ward must be completed. At the end +of each year examinations in the subjects are taken, the whole course +covering a minimum time of four years. The qualification of the +Licentiate of Dental Surgery of the Royal College of Surgeons of +England is now open to women. The composite fee for training extending +over four years, is about L200, but an additional sum of at least L100 +is required for incidental expenses. Should the woman student desire +to confine herself to dental mechanics this would materially lessen +the expense. The average wage for a good male mechanic is L120 per +annum. Hospitals can be joined at the age of nineteen, and it is +advisable to begin study soon after leaving school or college. + +If it is possible, a woman should obtain a medical qualification as +well as the L.D.S. Much of the work can be taken at the same time as +the dental course. A medical degree enlarges a dentist's sphere of +usefulness and interest and adds to her _locus standi_: on the other +hand, it necessitates two or three years' extra study, and the fees +are increased by several hundred pounds. + +The woman dentist will probably find it necessary to start practice on +her own account as soon as she is qualified, as it is not likely she +will be able to obtain an assistantship with men practitioners, but +there are an increasing number of posts open to women, such as dental +surgeon to school clinics or to factories. These posts offer the same +salaries to men and women. Smaller part-time appointments, with an +honorarium attached, can be obtained, and are especially useful to the +newly qualified practitioner who is building up a practice. + +It is essential for the woman who intends to succeed in this +profession to have excellent physical and mental health, though +great muscular strength is not necessary. During student life and in +practice, every care should be taken of the general health--exercise +in the open air being especially necessary, though this should not be +too energetic in character. It is a well-known fact that male dentists +doing careful and conscientious work, cannot, as a rule, stand the +strain for many hours daily after they have reached middle age, and +the intending student should consider this point. + +The prolonged hours of standing in a cramped position, the confined +space, the exactitude required for minute and painful operations, are +some of the causes of this overstrain. Great self-control and will +power must be exercised as the patients, especially children, are +frequently nervous, and confidence must be imparted to them if the +work is to be well done. + +The British Dental Association and the Odontological Society are both +open to women, and male practitioners have always displayed the utmost +courtesy though some prejudice must be expected. The general public +apparently welcome the advent of women dentists as the few qualified +women in London and the Provinces have excellent practices. It is +curious, however, to note that few Englishwomen have taken up the +profession, there being about twelve practising in the United Kingdom, +though in Germany, Russia, and the United States there are great +numbers of women practitioners. + +With regard to restrictions from which women at present suffer, one +dental hospital only is open to women in London, and, until recently, +no posts could be obtained. But as more women qualify, these +disadvantages will probably be removed. It is also extremely difficult +to obtain mechanical work in private work-rooms. Women should bear in +mind that they require exactly the same facilities for study as men, +and try to get admittance to all hospitals and posts on an equal +basis--_i.e._, the salary should be equal for equal work, and a +smaller fee should not be accepted. + +In deciding whether a practice should be started in London or a +provincial town, the question of capital must be carefully considered, +as it is improbable that the expenses will be met during the first +year of practice. The upkeep necessarily varies with the locality +chosen, and a minimum capital of L150 is desirable. + +Pioneer women must be prepared to do their work conscientiously, and +to the utmost of their ability, and they must always remember that +their work will be very severely criticised. + +This necessitates frequent inspection of both the clothing and persons +of the children. Certain cases which are found to need attention are +also visited in their homes. The school nurse is so much alone in +her work that she requires to be very experienced and her powers of +observation to be highly trained in order to enable her to detect +signs of ill-health in its early stages. Firmness and kindness +are constantly required in dealing with parents, and tact and +consideration in her dealings with all with whom her work brings her +in contact. + +In the London area the salary begins at L80 rising by L2, 10s. +yearly to L85, and then by L5 yearly to L105. Uniform and travelling +expenses, within the county, are provided. The nurse is required to +contribute to the superannuation fund from which she can ultimately +draw a pension if she remains all her working life in the service of +the Council. + +The hours of work are from 9 A.M. to 4.30 P.M. five days weekly, and +from 9 to 12.30 on Saturdays. Clerical work must be done out of school +hours. Holidays are arranged during the school holidays. + +There are 128 nurses working under one Superintendent, +two Assistant-Superintendents, and four Divisional +Assistant-Superintendents. + +_B_. There are 42 nurses attached to schools for the physically +defective whose special duties are concerned with the care of the +crippled and delicate children who attend these schools. Certain +special precautions against injury and strain are necessary for these +children, and the nurse receives instructions concerning these from +the visiting doctor. The salary is the same as that mentioned above, +and the nurses get the school holidays. At open-air schools the +nurse's work is somewhat similar to that in the schools for the +physically defective. + +_C_. There are 8 nurses now working under the Infant Life Protection +Act. + +All women who undertake the care of an infant for payment have to be +registered. Of such children, a large proportion is illegitimate. It +is the duty of the nurses to visit every such case. Each nurse has +an area allotted to her; the work is arduous and responsible as the +visitor has full powers under an Act of Parliament summarily to remove +the child if the conditions required by the Act are not complied +with. The nurse who undertakes this work should have been trained +in maternity work (and if possible have been examined by the Central +Midwives' Board). She should also have her certificate from the +Sanitary Institute as she is expected to report on the sanitation +of the premises as well as on the condition of the child. There is a +considerable amount of clerical work in connection with these posts. + +The salary of these nurses is good, compared with the usual salaries +for nurses--L120 to L150, with a further rise to L200 after ten years +of service. + +The superannuation fund, which is compulsory for all permanent +officers, yields a provision of not less than one-third of the average +rate of pay in a case of complete breakdown in health after ten or +more years in the service of the council. The retiring age, apart from +breakdown, is sixty-five years. + +The conditions of work in the Provinces are much the same in general +outline as those described above, which prevail in London, except that +in the country the nurse often undertakes in addition the work done in +London by Care Committees and Attendance Officers. This, although it +increases her work also increases its variety. + + + + +VIII + +NURSING IN HOSPITALS FOR THE INSANE + + +Mental nursing as a profession for educated women has much to +recommend it. It is of absorbing interest to those of a sympathetic +nature and of a scientific turn of mind, and it develops all the finer +qualities, self-control, patience, tact, and common-sense. It gives +scope for originality and accomplishments of every kind. The work +itself is difficult, and is the one of all the many branches of +nursing which demands the closest personal devotion and service, great +as is the necessity for these in all forms of a nurse's work. + +Mental nurses are employed in (1) county asylums, (2) mental +hospitals, (3) private work. + +(1) _County Asylums_--These may take from 1,000 to 2,000 patients +each. They are usually situated in the country with healthy +surroundings and large grounds, and they are generally placed within +reasonable access to some town. + +Probationer nurses are received for training from twenty-one years +of age. They must be of good health and physique. A nurse who is +successful in this branch of work should be able to obtain her +certificate from the Medico Psychological Board at the end of three +years' training. The salary is L19 the first year, with an annual +increase of L1 up to L35. Free board, lodging, washing, medical +attendance, are also supplied and uniform after three months' trial. +The hours on duty are from 6 A.M. to 8 P.M., with two hours off for +meals. Nurses get leave from 8 P.M. to 10 P.M. daily and one day +weekly; they also have fourteen days' holiday after the first twelve +months, increasing subsequently to three weeks a year. + +The duties of the nurse in an asylum consist of the care of the +patients, the supervision of the cleanliness of the wards and +linen, and also of the work done by the patients in the various +departments--the needleroom, laundry, kitchen, corridors, etc. It is +obvious that in view of the number of patients, individual attention +is practically impossible. Entertainments of all kinds are provided +for the help and amusement of the patients, and nurses are expected to +assist in arranging these. Consequently any one with a gift for music, +acting, singing, or other accomplishment is an acquisition to the +staff. + +(2) _Registered Mental Hospitals_.--These, owing to their different +circumstances, vary much in their conditions of service. Most of them +are training-schools and receive probationers of good education, from +twenty-two years of age, for a course of training. This consists of +lectures by the Medical Staff and Matron, the subjects receiving most +attention being Elementary Anatomy, Physiology, and Psychology; and +there is, of course, practical training in the nursing of mental +cases: in some hospitals a course of Massage and Swedish Drill are +added in the fourth year. + +Salaries are on the whole lower than in the County Asylums, beginning +at anything from L15 rising to L19 in the third year with a bonus of +L3 on passing the final examination of the Medico-Psychological Board. +There must, however, be set against this lower rate of remuneration, +the fact that these mental hospitals are often situated more centrally +than the county asylums, thus making less expenditure necessary for +travelling to and from the hospital when out on leave. The usual free +board, lodging, washing, medical attendance, and uniform are also +given after three months' satisfactory service. + +The hours of duty are from 7 A.M. to 8 P.M. with two hours off for +meals, etc. Leave during a month varies with the different hospitals, +but is usually two whole days, three half days, four evenings from 6 +P.M. to 10 P.M., and four evenings from 8 P.M. to 10 P.M.: there is +also annual leave of fourteen days after the first twelve months, +increasing to three weeks after three years' service. + +The work in a mental hospital is totally different from that in large +asylums. As there are fewer patients, individual treatment is the +rule, and the nurse gets more intimate knowledge of her patients' +condition, which she may thus do much to ameliorate. Owing to the +homelike freedom allowed, nurses need to be specially patient +and tactful. In return for this, however, by their much closer +companionship with their patients they gain the opportunity of +thoroughly knowing and therefore sympathising with and guiding them, +and on this, successful treatment largely depends. The majority of +the patients in these hospitals are suffering from acute forms of +insanity, and this adds both to the strenuousness and to the interest +of the nursing work: the fact that such patients frequently recover, +acts as a great incentive to the work. + +Private asylums are on a different basis and do not as a rule offer +training. + +A trained nurse may hope for promotion to posts as Sister of a ward, +Night Superintendent, Assistant Matron, or Matron. These posts demand +personal attributes in addition to good training--_e.g._, powers of +organisation and administration, a knowledge of housekeeping, laundry +work, etc. For the higher posts, training in general nursing is +essential. In all forms of mental nursing it is undoubtedly a great +advantage if the nurse has had a preliminary general training before +entering on the special branch of the work. + +The conditions for private mental cases are the same as those +described under private nursing for general work (see page 184). The +fees, however, compare very favourably with those obtained for general +work, being almost universally higher. The great disadvantage is that +the hours are very long and the work necessarily exhausting. + +Much has been done of recent years to improve the conditions of +service for workers in institutions, and there is still room for +amelioration. Particularly is this so with regard to the long hours +on duty and insufficient leave, due, chiefly, to shortage of staff. +Increase is also urgently needed in the salaries in every department +so that the nurses may be able to make provision for old age. When, as +now, so many of them are dependent on a pension as the only provision +for their old age, they are bound to stay at one institution for the +whole or nearly the whole of their lives--an arrangement which is not +to the benefit of either party, for "change is necessary to progress, +and the tendency is, from long years of service in one place, to +narrow and lose the adaptability of earlier years." + +More arrangements are needed for the recreation of the nurses when +off duty, especially in institutions situated in the country. Swimming +baths would be a real boon; the beneficial effects of this form +of exercise upon both nerves and body being too well known to need +further comment. Its value also in promoting mutual helpfulness is +by no means negligible. Reading-rooms, apart from the general +common-room, are very valuable, as are also tennis courts where they +can be arranged. All these, of course, mean expense, but, if the +better class woman is to be attracted to the work, her interests +must be considered. Moreover, healthful recreations, apart from their +benefit to the nurse herself, must re-act favourably on the patients. + + + + +IX + +NURSING IN THE COLONIES + + +Colonial nursing is usually undertaken by those who possess the spirit +of adventure, and do not mind the prospect of pioneering work. Love of +novelty, strong interest in fresh scenes and peoples, a desire to make +more money than can in most cases be made in England, help a nurse in +colonial work, provided that work really means her life, and she loves +it. But let it be emphatically stated that the nurses who are _not_ +wanted in the colonies, in any capacity, are those who are failures +in their work in England, or who simply leave the dull work of the old +country with the object of having a good time abroad. Such women may +do immense harm in countries where it is essential to the Empire that +English people should be looked up to with respect and admiration, +and where almost the most important part of an English nurse's work +(_quite_ the most important _if_ she is working in a hospital), is to +make the native nurses, of whatever race they may happen to be, see +the dignity and possibilities of their profession, and be stirred with +the desire to become proficient themselves. + +No special training is required for colonial work. A thorough +all-round training, including midwifery, a high standard of nursing +ethics, a knowledge of hospital organisation, and good business +abilities are needed. The rest is chiefly a matter of temperament +and constitution. It goes without saying that a nurse for foreign +climates, whether tropical, as in the majority of colonial posts, +or subject to extremes of heat and cold, such as in Canada, must +be physically strong; she should also be of an even temper and +philosophical disposition, easily adaptable to climate, conditions, +circumstances, and racial peculiarities. + +The nature of the work will vary greatly with the locality and the +kind of post undertaken. The colonial nurse who does private work will +find patients and their needs much the same all the world over; she +must, however, be prepared for anything, and ready to make the best of +all things in emergencies. + +In tropical hospitals it is altogether another matter. If the nurse +taking a Matron's post in such a hospital is the first European +to have occupied that post, she will probably have every detail to +organise and put in order, from providing dusters for use in the +wards, to arranging off-duty time for the nurses. She will mostly +likely see at once that everything wants altering, and yet she +will have to "make haste slowly," _very_ slowly, or she will have +everything in a ferment, and every one in open rebellion against her. + +If she is working in the East, she will have the endless complications +of caste and race and religion to deal with, and will have for some +time, to learn vastly more than she teaches. Her success or failure +will depend very largely upon how she gets on with the medical +department--in other words, upon her own tact and common-sense, and +whether she can so approve herself to the various medical officers +that they will loyally back her up in her attempts at reform. Once +things are established in working order, it is a question of constant +supervision, day by day, for in no tropical hospital is it possible to +expect that native nurses will do their work well and conscientiously, +without the constant example and supervision of their trained Matron +and Sisters. + +Colonial posts are chiefly to be obtained through the Colonial Nursing +Association, of which offices are at the Imperial Institute, South +Kensington. + +Salaries vary considerably, according to climate and the nature of the +work. In very unhealthy climates, such as the west coast of Africa, +the salary is high, and the risks proportionately so. + +Private nurses, and those holding subordinate posts in hospitals get +salaries varying from L60, which is the minimum, to L120 a year. An +Assistant Matron may in some few cases get a salary increasing to +L150 or L200. In a large hospital there is the ordinary chance of +promotion--a Sister may be made Assistant Matron, or an Assistant +Matron become Matron; but most colonial posts are simply for a certain +term of years, at the expiration of which the nurse seeks fresh +fields, her passage, both out and home, being paid. If, however, there +should be a desire on both sides for a renewal of the engagement, the +nurse can usually obtain an increase of salary. + +A Matron's salary will vary from L100 to L250, in large Government +hospitals in the Colonies where, it must be borne in mind, leave +entails a journey to England, and a very expensive passage. In +colonial posts there is usually six weeks leave yearly (which may be +taken as three months together in the second year), but in most places +there is no bracing climate within a reasonable distance. This, of +course, does not apply to India and Ceylon, where the hills are easily +accessible. + +Each Government has its own arrangements with regard to pensions; some +posts include pensions, but not all. The retiring age is usually +sixty years. There is, unfortunately, no pension obtainable from the +Colonial Nursing Association itself. This is certainly one respect +in which it would be well if an alteration could be made; it is +a question of funds and has already been brought forward for +consideration. There would be vastly more inducement for really +capable nurses, no longer very young (the age limit for joining is +thirty-five) to join the Colonial Nursing Association, and serve their +country in foreign dependencies, if they were assured of even a small +pension after ten years' hard work in trying climates. + + + + +X + +NURSING IN THE ARMY AND NAVY + + +The training required by Army and Navy nurses is that for general +work. Additional experience according to the branch of the service +which the nurse wishes to enter is also useful. Only fully trained +nurses are appointed. Some of the tending of the sick is done by the +men themselves, under supervision. + +In the _Military Service_ the salaries are as follows: +Matron-in-Chief, L305; ordinary Matron, from L75 to L150; Sister, from +L50 to L65; Staff Nurse, from L40 to L45, with allowance for board, +washing, etc., and arrangements for leave and pension after twenty +years' service. + +In the _Naval Service _the arrangements are slightly different, +but the salaries work out at about the same. Foreign service is +obligatory. + +There is also a small Army Nursing Reserve, but this is quite +inadequate for purposes of defence, and great efforts have recently +been made to supplement it by voluntary organisations, such as the +British Red Cross Society. + + + + +XI + +PRISON NURSING + + +This is, at the present time, carried out by the ordinary staff of +prison warders. There are all over England not more than two or three +trained nurses among them, and it is most desirable that properly +trained women should be in charge of prison infirmary wards, just as +much as in the infirmary wards of workhouses. Prisoners are just as +likely to suffer from disease as other people, and they surely do not +forfeit all claim to expert care, simply because they have, perhaps +in a moment of weakness, yielded to temptation. To one form of illness +needing specially expert nursing, they are peculiarly liable--mental +disease. It is almost impossible to gauge the amount of good which +might be done both for the individual and for society by providing +trained nurses to attend to these unfortunate people. + + + + +XII + +MIDWIFERY AS A PROFESSION FOR WOMEN (OTHER THAN DOCTORS) + + +This is not a paper to discuss the suitability of women for midwifery. +All through the ages it has been done by women, until early in the +nineteenth century in England and its colonies, it gradually became +customary for men-doctors to attend such cases; apart from this, the +work of midwifery has never been in the hands of men, except when +abnormal cases have required the assistance of a doctor with knowledge +of anatomy and skilled in instrumental delivery. Even before +the passing of the Midwives Act in 1902, statistics proved that +three-quarters of all confinements in this country were attended by +women. + +Continental countries have been alive to the need for training the +women who did this work. For instance, in the great General Hospital +in Vienna with its 3,000 beds, 550 beds were kept apart for maternity +wards, and of these, 200 were reserved for the State training of +midwives--a course of _one_ year's duration being obligatory, with +_daily_ lectures on every detail in midwifery from the Professor of +Obstetrics. The present writer attended these lectures daily for six +months in 1885, and was made to feel the importance in teaching of +"hammering" at essentials and of questioning, so that the lecturer +might discover whether he were talking above the head of the least +clever of the audience. + +England's population increased so steadily and rapidly during the +nineteenth century, that it seemed to trouble no one that countless +lives of mothers and babies were lost during the perils of +child-birth; it remained the only civilised country of Europe where a +woman could practise as a midwife without any training at all. + +For nearly twenty years before the passing of the Midwives Act in +1902, a small band of devoted women laboured in season and out of +season urging on Parliament the need of a bill requiring a _minimum_ +of three months' theoretical and practical training and an examination +before trusting a woman with the lives of mother and child. + +This historical fact alone is a sufficiently cogent reason for the +now ever-increasing demand on the part of women for the parliamentary +vote. + +The Central Midwives Board (C.M.B.), a body of eight members (experts +elected by various bodies, such as the Royal Colleges of Physicians +and Surgeons, the British Nurses' Association, the Midwives' +Institute, etc.), now exercises supervision over the midwives of the +whole of England and Wales, though local supervising authorities also +take cognisance of midwives' work and investigate cases of malpractice +and the like. The address of the Central Midwives' Board is Caxton +House, Westminster. + +The training for the examination of the Central Midwives' Board is +based on the method pursued in medical education in English-speaking +countries, viz., there is not one uniform course, but each of the +training schools attached to hospitals follows out its own plan of +training, each hospital having been approved by the Central Midwives' +Board as giving an adequate training for its examination. There are +now seven maternity hospitals in London, where women students may +train in midwifery. Of these, only one--the Clapham Maternity Hospital +(with its training school founded by Mrs Meredith in 1885)--is, and +always has been, entirely officered by women. Here the course advised +is six months, viz., three months in the hospital (Monthly Nursing), +and three months in the hospital and district doing Midwifery proper. +During this time over 200 cases may be seen, and nearly 100 cases +attended personally. The cost of this training is L35 to L40, which +includes board and residence for twenty-six weeks. Students previously +trained elsewhere may take one months' extra training at a cost of +ten guineas. Private doctors and midwives may also take pupils if +recognised as teachers by the Board. + +Midwifery training is now required not only by those who are going +to act as midwives, but also by most missionaries, all fully trained +nurses (for matrons' posts or colonial posts) and by health visitors +and inspectors before obtaining appointments. + +But it should be borne in mind, especially in considering the present +condition and future prospects of Midwifery as a profession, that even +now a large though ever-decreasing proportion of registered midwives +are still ignorant women who have never passed the Central Midwives' +Board or any other examination, and have had no teaching from any +one more experienced or better informed than themselves. For when +the Midwives' Act came into force in 1903, it was necessary to move +slowly, and so a clause was inserted, permitting women who had been +in _bona-fide_ practice for more than one year before 1902 to continue +their work under inspection and supervision (with many attempts at +teaching them by means of simple lectures and demonstrations). This +plan, or some similar one, was necessary, not only in the interests +of the midwives themselves, a set of decent and kindly, if ignorant +women, who would have been ruined by too sudden a change, but also +because a large number of mothers in England would have been left with +no one to help them in their time of need unless they were prepared +to run the risk of breaking the law. This, until recently, respectable +English women disliked to do. + +It is important to remember this fact, when considering the present +and future prospects of the midwife. The untrained woman used to +charge 5s. or 7s. 6d. for her services, and the fact that her name had +been enrolled on the Government Register, that she was subject to +the supervision of an inspector, without having spent anything on her +change of status beyond the 10s. registration fee, did not suggest the +need of any particular change in her scale of charges. Thus 7s. +6d. per case, unfortunately still remains the very common fee for +midwifery, though this now involves, under the rules of the Midwives' +Board, not only the long hours of watchful care at the birth, but ten +days of daily visits to supervise both mother and baby, with careful +records of pulse and temperature, etc., kept in a register. Naturally, +the general public who employ midwives--viz., the poorer classes--do +not differentiate between the trained certificated midwife and the +untrained _bona-fide_ midwife whose name is on the register, and thus +the scale of charges remains very low and the profession, as one for +educated women, is thereby greatly injured. + +Granted an intelligent woman is willing to give six months' work and +study and L35 to L40 for her training, what chance has she of earning +a decent living? If she could command 15s. or 17s. 6d. per case +afterwards, she could make a decent living, given fairly hard work and +the acceptance of real responsibility. If she had 100 cases a year, +she would earn L75 at 15s. per case, and so on. This rise in the +fees payable to midwives has just been made possible by the National +Insurance Act of 1911, the framers of which appear to have recognised +the necessary result of the Midwives' Act of 1902. As the _bona-fide_ +midwife, who has received no training, gradually dies out, it becomes +necessary to provide the means of paying trained midwives, whom the +people are obliged to employ in place of the old ones, but who would +soon be non-existent were the means of paying them not also provided +by the State. + +A 30s. maternity benefit is now given for every confinement of an +insured person or the wife of an insured person. As the patient may +have free choice of doctor or midwife, it seems possible, now that it +has been established that the benefit shall go direct to the mother or +her nominee, that hereafter the greater part of it may be paid over to +the person who can supply that most necessary item of the treatment, +i.e., good and intelligent midwifery with nursing care of mother and +child. Therefore, it is the right moment for the careful, well-trained +popular midwife definitely to raise her fees to all "insured" +patients, being still willing to help the poor at a low fee as before. +It should be remembered that in about one-tenth of all her cases, +medical help will be required, but this case could probably be guarded +against by an insurance fund, if properly organised. + +We frankly admit that as things now stand--apart from the possibility +of the maternity benefit being made to help her--midwifery is +financially but a poor profession. But to an enthusiastic lover of +her kind, who has other means or prospects for her future than the +proceeds of her profession, there is much that is attractive in this +most useful calling. + +Now let us turn to a consideration of the poor mother. Dr Matthews +Duncan in 1870 put the puerperal mortality at 1 in 100 for in-patients +and 1 in 120 for patients in their own homes--shocking figures for +a physiological event! Miss Wilson, a member of the Central Midwives +Board, stated in 1907 that the average mortality of English women, +from puerperal fever, a preventable disease, is 47 in 10,000 or _1 in +213_, but that in three of the best lying-in hospitals this figure has +been reduced to less than _1 in 3,000_. To quote Miss Alice Gregory +in her article on this subject in _The Nineteenth Century_ for January +1908: "We feel there is something hopelessly wrong somewhere. It +becomes indeed a burning question: By what means have the Maternity +Hospitals so marvellously reduced their death rate?" + +The answer is not now far to seek in the opinion of the writer, +who has worked continuously at Midwifery since 1st May 1884. It is +probably wholly contained in the three following points:-- + + (1) All that makes for scrupulous asepsis in + every detail for the surroundings of the + mother. + + (2) The absence of "Meddlesome Midwifery." + + (3) Pre-maternity treatment, a factor which + the writer considers to be of great importance, + and of which she would like + to have much more experience. + +By this is meant the building up of the future mother's health by +improved hygiene and careful, wise dieting and exercising and bathing +during the last three months of pregnancy, which enables many a +stumbling-block to be removed out of the way. Hence, the utility of +pre-maternity wards wisely used. This is, one knows, a "counsel of +perfection"; but every expectant mother should and could be taught how +to treat herself wisely at this time. + +These three points are all in favour of the well-trained midwife. + +(1) _Scrupulous Asepsis_, if intelligently taught, can be learned in +six months' training, though one feels bound to add it requires moral +"grit" in the character to make one unswervingly faithful in observing +it. The midwife, too, should run no risk of carrying infection from +others, as a doctor might do. + +(2) "Meddlesome Midwifery" is not so much a temptation for the midwife +as the doctor, though she also may want to do too much. Patience +combined with accurate knowledge when interference is urgently needed, +is part of her training. + +(3) The midwife who becomes a wise friend to her patients will be just +the one to whom the mother will gladly apply early, and who will know +if it is advisable to send for skilled medical advice. Contracted +pelvis, threatened eclampsia, and antepartum haemorrhage are typical +cases, which lose half their terror if diagnosed and treated early. + +If ever it is recognised that good midwifery is at the root of the +health of the nation and the new maternity benefit is made to help +in obtaining it, it will at once become worth while for educated and +intelligent women to take to the profession seriously. A practice +could then be worked by sets of two or three midwives in co-operation, +and with proper organisation as regards an insurance fund for securing +operative midwifery from medical practitioners when necessary. + +There is ample room for a much larger body of trained midwives than +exists at present, if the health and welfare of the nation are to be +secured, while the women themselves could, under these conditions, +earn a sufficient livelihood. + +Trained nurses also specialise in midwifery. They take the full course +of training described above, completing this by passing the Central +Midwives' Board Examination. They do not practise for themselves, +but work only under doctors, thus replacing the monthly nurse. The +improvement in health and comfort of both mother and child, when +nursed by some one thoroughly competent, is very marked. + +The fees which they receive for this work are usually 12 to 14 guineas +for the month, and in some cases may rise to 18 guineas. + + + + +XIII + +MASSAGE + + +This work demands a healthy body and cheerful mind, a love of the +work, endurance, and much tact in dealing with the nervous cases for +which this form of treatment is found to be beneficial. + +It may be undertaken either + +(1) As a separate profession, or + +(2) As an additional qualification by trained nurses. + +The training must be good and adequate to ensure any success as a +masseuse, so great care should be exercised in the choice of a +school. The many training schools advertised are of varying degrees +of efficiency, and those prepared to train in a few weeks, or by +correspondence only, are obviously unsatisfactory. + +On application to the secretary of the Incorporated Society of Trained +Masseuses, information can be obtained with regard to the training +schools in London and the Provinces where a course of instruction in +massage is given, which is accepted by the society as adequate. + +The society itself is an independent examining body which insists on +a satisfactory standard for massage workers. It holds two examinations +yearly and grants a certificate to successful candidates. No one may +enter for the examination unless she can show that she has received +her training at one of the schools approved by the society. + +Adequate training in massage includes a course of not less than six +months in Elementary Anatomy and Physiology, the Theory and Practice +of Massage and a course of bandaging. Students usually attend the +classes from 10 A.M. to 4 P.M., lectures being given in the morning, +demonstrations and practical work on "model patients" in the afternoon +hours. + +Sufficiently advanced students are allowed to attend at hospitals or +infirmaries to see--and themselves to carry out under the teacher's +supervision--the treatment ordered for the patients by the doctor. In +this way all students have opportunity during their training of seeing +and giving treatment to the various cases which they may have to deal +with as qualified masseuses when working under private doctors. + +Some training schools give their own certificate after training, +and this is useful as a guarantee of the training taken. It is not, +however, such an assurance of efficiency to the medical profession or +the general public as the certificate gained after examination by an +independent examining body. + +There is also a further examination held by the society once yearly +in Medical Gymnastics. The minimum time to expend on this is a further +six months after qualifying as a masseuse, so that it takes a year to +gain the double qualification. + +In addition to supplying the independent examination in these +subjects, the society watches over the interests of the masseuses. All +its members are bound to observe the rules of the society. The result +of this is threefold. + + (1) The doctor is assured that the masseuse + will not undertake cases on her own + diagnosis, but work only under qualified + direction. + + (2) The public is assured that the masseuse + is a trustworthy woman as well as an + efficient worker. + + (3) The masseuse herself is protected from + undesirable engagements. This is of + considerable importance. + + The training for the examination previously + mentioned is from 10 to 15 guineas for those taking + the course. There is generally some reduction + made for nurses. The further course in Medical + Gymnastics costs from 20 guineas. + +From this it will be seen that the whole training is comparatively +inexpensive; it is, however, not a profession to be entered lightly. +London is already overstocked and the better openings at the present +time are to be found in the Provinces, in Scotland and the Colonies. +It is well to start, if possible, in a town where the masseuse is +already known either to the doctors, or to some influential residents. +Much depends on the individuality of the masseuse, and one who is +prepared to give all her time to the work, taking every call that +comes, may reasonably expect to make in her first year from L50 to +L100. By the third year a steady connection should be formed, bringing +in an income of L150 to L250. This cannot, however, be expected unless +the masseuse has some introductions to start her in her work. + +Fees in the country vary from 3s. 6d. to 7s. a visit, and in London +and some other places they rise to 10s. 6d. for an hour or less. + +Hospital and nursing-home appointments are most useful as experience +for the masseuse in her first year; they should be tried before +she finally decides where to start work. Such appointments are +residential, and the salaries offered vary from L30 to L70 a year. + + It must not be forgotten that, owing to the short and comparatively + inexpensive training, very many women take up this work, + so that the above excellent results are not realised unless the + masseuse has good introductions. The value of a thoroughly reliable + society such as that mentioned cannot be over-estimated, not only + for its certificate, but also on account of the information it can + give as to the respectability of posts advertised for masseuses. + Many of these are unfortunately merely blinds for undesirable houses. + [SUB-EDITOR.] + + + + +SECTION IV + +WOMEN AS SANITARY INSPECTORS AND HEALTH VISITORS + + +The introduction of women into the public health service is a modern +development, although they have been engaged in it longer than is +usually known. + +Women who are employed in Public Health Work hold office under Local +Sanitary Authorities, and their work must not be confused with that +of the Women Home Office Officials, who were first appointed in 1895; +these inspect factories and workshops, but their powers and duties +are of a different character. For instance, the Women Home Office +Inspectors deal, amongst other things, with the cleanliness of +factories, but not with the cleanliness of workshops, and with the +heating of workshops, while the ventilation of the same workshops is +under the control of the local sanitary officials. + +Glasgow was the first county borough to utilise the services of Women +Health Officials, for in May 1870 four "Female Visitors," afterwards +known as Assistant Sanitary Inspectors, were appointed in connection +with the Public Health Department. Their duties were: "by persuasion +principally, to induce the women householders to keep the interiors +of their dwellings in a clean and sanitary condition, and to advise +generally how best this can be maintained." They possessed the same +right of entry to premises as the men inspectors, and were required +to hold the certificate of the Incorporated Sanitary Association of +Scotland. They reported certain nuisances, but themselves dealt +with others, such as "dirty homes or dirty bedding, clothing, and +furnishing." + +The work of Women Health Officials in England, dates from the passing +of the Factory and Workshops Act of 1891, when certain duties with +regard to workshops, which had previously been performed by the Home +Office Inspectors, were laid upon Sanitary Authorities. + +In the opinion of Dr Orme Dudfield, late Medical Officer of Health +for Kensington: "It soon became apparent that, not only was systematic +inspection necessary, but also that many of the duties involved +were of so special and delicate a nature that they could not +be satisfactorily discharged by male inspectors." He therefore +recommended the appointment of two Women Inspectors of Workshops in +Kensington. In the meantime the city of Nottingham had appointed a +Woman Inspector of Workshops in May 1892, and in accordance with +Dr Dudfield's recommendation two Women Inspectors were appointed in +Kensington in 1893. + +These ladies were appointed as inspectors of workshops _only_. +They did not hold Sanitary Certificates, nor had they the status of +Sanitary Inspectors. In practice, this entailed a visit by a male +inspector every time it was necessary to serve a legal notice for +the abatement of any contravention of the Factory and Workshops' +Act. Therefore, when these ladies resigned upon their appointment as +Factory Inspectors, it was decided to appoint the in-coming ladies as +Sanitary Inspectors, with power to deal with these matters themselves. +It was, however, Islington which appointed the first woman with the +legal status of Sanitary Inspector in 1895. + +By 1901, eleven women had been appointed in the Metropolitan area as +Sanitary Inspectors, nearly all of them exclusively engaged in the +inspection of workshops. Since that time the number of women appointed +by Local Sanitary Authorities has increased considerably, both in +London and the Provinces. The exact number outside London is only +known approximately, as no register exists which is available to the +public. It is to be hoped that this information may be obtainable +from the last census returns. The figures with regard to London are +published annually by the London County Council, and there are now +forty-one Women Sanitary Inspectors in the Metropolitan area. + +Sanitary inspectors in London, whether men or women, are required to +hold the certificate of the Sanitary Inspectors' Examination Board, +the examination for which is the same for men and women.[1] Outside +London no definite qualification is required by the Local Government +Board, but it is usual in county and municipal boroughs for a sanitary +certificate to be demanded from candidates for the position of +Inspector of Nuisances (the term used outside London for Sanitary +Officials). Men and Women Sanitary Inspectors possess equal rights of +entry to premises and equal statutory powers for enforcing compliance +with the law. + +The duties of Women Sanitary Inspectors have become very varied and +numerous during the past ten years; they differ considerably according +to locality and to the opinions of the local Medical Officer of +Health. Broadly speaking, before 1905 women in London were mainly +engaged in the inspection of workshops, whereas in the Provinces (with +the exception of Nottingham, Leicester, and Manchester) they were +engaged in house-to-house visitation in the poorer parts of the towns, +with a view to the promotion of cleanliness, giving advice to mothers +concerning the feeding and care of infants and young children, and +the detection of sanitary defects. The inspection of workshops in the +Provinces was a later development. + +These varied duties have called for special qualifications, and, in +addition to certificates in sanitation, Women Sanitary Inspectors +usually hold qualifications in nursing or midwifery. The general +education of the women who take up this profession is, on the whole, +superior to that of the men. Most of the women have had a high school +education, and many are University graduates, while the men, as a +rule, come from the elementary schools. + +The duties of a Woman Sanitary Inspector are sufficiently varied to +avoid monotony, and may comprise any or all of the following:-- + + _A_. (1) The inspection of factories in order to + see that suitable and sufficient sanitary + accommodation is provided for women, + in accordance with the requirements of + the Public Health Acts. + + (2) The carrying out of the provisions of + the Public Health and Factory and + Workshops Acts, with regard to the + registration and inspection of + + _(a)_ laundries, workshops, and workplaces + (including kitchens of + hotels and restaurants) where + women are employed; + + _(b)_ Outworkers' premises. + + (3) The inspection of tenement houses and + houses let in lodgings, and the enforcement + of the bye-laws of the Sanitary + Authority affecting these. + + (4) House-to-house inspection in the poorer + parts of the district. + + (5) The inspection of public lavatories for + women. + + (6) The carrying out of duties and inspection + concerning + + (_a_) Notifiable infectious diseases, + such as scarlet fever. + + (_b_) Non-notifiable infectious diseases + such as measles. + + (_c_) The notification of consumption. + + (7) Taking samples under the Food and + Drugs Acts. (This work is rarely + given to women.) + +For many of the above duties, women are obviously better fitted than +men, but for the following most important group of duties men are +practically disqualified by reason of their sex:-- + + _B_. Health visiting. Work in connection with + the reduction of infantile mortality :-- + + (1) Notification of Births Act, 1907. Visiting + infants and giving advice to mothers + about the feeding and general management + of young children. + + (2) Advising expectant mothers on the + management of their health and as + to the influence of ante-natal conditions + on their infants. + + (3) Work in connection with milk depots and + infant consultations. + + (4) Promotion of general cleanliness in the + home and discovery of sanitary defects + + remediable under the Public Health + Acts. + + (5) Investigation of deaths of infants under one year of age. + + (6) Lecturing at mothers' meetings. + + (7) Organisation of voluntary Health + Workers in the district and arrangement + of their work. + + _C._ The following duties may also be required + in the Provinces:-- + + (1) Work relating to the administration of + the Midwives' Act, 1902 (where the + County Council have delegated their + powers to the District Council). + + (2) The inspection of shops under the Shop + Hours Act, 1892-94, and the Seats for + Shop-Assistants Act, 1899. + +The work described under _C._ 1 and 2, is performed in London (except +in the City) by special inspectors appointed by the London County +Council, who also inspect employment agencies where sleeping +accommodation is provided and carry out certain duties under the +Children's Act. + + (3) Work in connection with the medical + inspection of school children (performed + in London by the London + County Council school nurses). + +The duties of Men Sanitary Inspectors are very clearly defined, and +differ considerably from those of the women. Men are mainly engaged +in the inspection and reconstruction of drains, the detection of +structural defects in the houses of the working classes, the carrying +out of bye-laws with regard to tenement houses, the investigation of +cases of notifiable infectious diseases, the inspection of workshops +and factories, the enforcement of the law with regard to the sale of +foods and drugs and the abatement of smoke nuisances. + +As will be seen from the duties enumerated above, Women Inspectors, as +a general rule, are brought into very close and intimate contact with +the homes of the people, and this necessitates the exercise of much +tact and patience. The large demands thus made upon their powers of +persuasion and teaching capacity, involve a considerable strain upon +their nervous energy as well as their physical strength. The work +of the Men Inspectors, on the other hand, being of a more official +character, does not involve the same strain. + +There is no uniformity of practice with regard to hours of work, +holidays, remuneration or superannuation, either within or without the +metropolitan area. Each Local Authority makes its own arrangements. +Many have no superannuation scheme and give no pensions. Men and women +working for the same Authority usually work under the same conditions +as to hours and holidays: the rate of remuneration, however, is by no +means the same. The salaries of Women Sanitary Inspectors within the +Metropolitan area range from L100 to L200 per annum, the latter figure +being reached only in two boroughs and in the City of London: whilst +the salaries of the men range from L150 to L350. The average maximum +salary of the women is L150, and the average maximum salary of the men +is L205. Outside London, the salaries of both men and women are lower, +those of the women ranging from L65 to L100, a few rising to L150. +Payments are made monthly, and a month's notice can be demanded +on leaving, though it is frequently not enforced. Another unjust +distinction frequently made between men and women is that the latter +are generally compelled to retire upon marriage, thus enforcing +celibacy on some of our most capable women. + +The hours of work are usually from 9 A.M. to 5 or 6 P.M. and to 1 +P.M. on Saturdays. If we consider the nature of the work, the holidays +appear most inadequate--viz.: only from two to three weeks per +annum are allowed in London, and from ten to fourteen days in many +provincial towns. + +The Health Visitor, as a public official, was not known until 1899, +when several were appointed by the City Council of Birmingham. The +name "Health Visitor" was thought to be more feminine and suitable +than that of Inspector, and it was imagined that she would in +consequence be better received in the homes of the people. As a +private society in Manchester had previously engaged women of an +inferior class and education with the title of "Health Visitor," this +designation was deprecated by women already in the profession. Many +smaller provincial towns, however, followed the example of Birmingham, +and appointed Health Visitors instead of Women Sanitary Inspectors. +It was not until later that the Health Visitor was introduced into +London, and in the following way:-- + +In the Metropolitan area (exclusive of the City) half of the salary +of all Sanitary Inspectors is paid out of the County Rate, and their +duties are defined in Sections 107 and 108 of the Public Health +(London) Act, 1891. As Medical Officers of Health and the public +generally became more and more interested in the question of infant +mortality, Women Inspectors were employed to investigate infant +deaths, to visit houses where a birth had taken place and advise +mothers on infant care, to manage milk depots, to weigh babies, and to +assist at infant consultations, and to do a great deal of work which +hitherto had not been considered the work of a Sanitary Inspector. +There was never any question as to the value of the work done nor of +the efficiency with which it was performed, but the Local Government +Board Auditor took the view that it did not come within the scope of +the order of 1891, defining the duties of a Sanitary Inspector, and +he refused to sanction the payment out of the County Rate of half the +salary of those women who were engaged in Health Visiting work. In +March 1905, the borough of Kensington solved the difficulty for itself +by appointing a Health Visitor and paying the whole of her salary out +of the Local Rate; but less wealthy boroughs felt unable to do this. +It was work which the Sanitary Authorities wanted to undertake; it was +work which the London County Council and the Local Government Board +were desirous of seeing performed, but this technical difficulty stood +in the way. It was overcome by the inclusion in the London County +Council General Powers' Act of 1908, of Section 7, which empowered +Sanitary Authorities in the Metropolitan area to appoint Health +Visitors, and this enabled the London County Council to contribute +half their salaries out of the County Rate. As a matter of fact, at +the present time (November 1913) the whole of the salary of Health +Visitors in London is being paid out of the Local Rate, as the +Exchequer contribution account is completely depleted by the payment +of the moiety of the salary of Sanitary Inspectors. + +The essential difference between a Woman Sanitary Inspector and a +Health Visitor is that the Woman Sanitary Inspector is a statutory +officer with a legal position, having definite rights of entry and +certain statutory powers for enforcing the Public Health Acts, while +a Health Visitor is a purely advisory officer, with no legal status +or right of entry or power to carry out any of the provisions of the +Public Health Acts. + +In actual practice, the title of Inspector has in no way proved an +obstacle to successful health visiting, as may be demonstrated by +an enquiry into the work now being carried on by Women Sanitary +Inspectors in Sheffield, Leeds, Liverpool, Bradford, London, and other +places. On the contrary, it has enabled officials to obtain an entry +into dirty and insanitary places and to expose cases of neglect, which +might otherwise have remained undiscovered. + +The Health Visitor is usually paid a lower salary than the Woman +Sanitary Inspector; this ranges in London from L100 to L120; in the +provinces it may be as low as L65 per annum, and rarely rises above +L100. The hours of work and holidays are, as a rule, the same as for +Women Sanitary Inspectors. The difference in salary has proved a great +temptation to Local Authorities in London to appoint Health Visitors +when Women Sanitary Inspectors would have been more useful and +efficient officers. Indeed, it is to be deplored that very few members +of Local Authorities understood the advantages to be gained by the +appointment of the more highly qualified official. The immediate +effect of Section 7 was that several boroughs, having no women +officials, proceeded to appoint Health Visitors; other boroughs, which +possessed Women Sanitary Inspectors, also appointed Health Visitors. +Seven or eight boroughs re-appointed their women officials in the dual +capacity of Sanitary Inspector and Health Visitor so that the work in +those cases went on as before. An indirect effect has been the almost +complete cessation of the appointment of Women Sanitary Inspectors +and the diminution in their number in some boroughs by the lapse of +appointments on resignation or marriage. The inspection of workshops +where women are employed has, in several instances, fallen back into +the hands of Men Inspectors, whose unsuitability for this work first +called women in England into the Public Health Service. + +In September 1909 the Local Government Board issued the following +order with regard to Health Visitors in London:-- + +"Art. 1. Qualifications. A woman shall be qualified to be appointed a +Health Visitor if she + +(_a_) is a duly qualified medical practitioner ; or + +(_b_) is a duly qualified nurse with three years' training in a +hospital or infirmary, being a training school for nurses and having a +resident physician or surgeon; or + +(_c_) is certified under the Midwives' Act, 1902; or + +(_d_) has had six months' nursing experience in a hospital receiving +children as well as adults, and holds the certificate of the Royal +Sanitary Institute for Health Visitors and School Nurses, or the +Diploma of the National Health Society; or + +(_e_) has discharged duties similar to those presented in the +regulations in the services of a Sanitary Authority and produces such +evidence as suffices to prove her competency; or + +(_f_) has a competent knowledge and experience of the theory and +practice of nurture, and the care and management of young children, +of attendance on women in and immediately after child-birth, and of +nursing attendance in cases of sickness or other mental or bodily +infirmity. + +"Art. 2. Every appointment must be confirmed by the Board. + +"Art. 6. Enables a Sanitary Authority to determine the appointment of +a Health Visitor by giving her three months' notice, and no woman may +be appointed unless she agrees to give three months' notice previous +to resigning the office or to forfeit a sum to be agreed. + +"Art. 8. Outlines the duties of the Health Visitor but prohibits +her from discharging duties pertaining to the position of a Sanitary +Inspector (unless with the consent of the Board she holds the dual +appointment). + +"Art. 9. The Board's approval is required to the salary to be paid +to the Health Visitor, and an allowance in respect of clothing, where +uniform or other distinctive dress is required, may be made." + +The Board in their circular letter state that they consider that, +in consideration of the importance of the duties and of the salaries +often paid to Women Sanitary Inspectors in London, the salary ought +not to be less than L100 per annum. + +It will be seen from the above that it is quite possible for a Health +Visitor to be appointed practically without any qualification for the +position, and with absolutely no knowledge of Public Health Law and +sanitation. + +It is, therefore, apparent that there are two classes of women +officials in connection with Public Health Departments, one on the +same footing as the men, with equal powers and responsibilities, but +remunerated at a much lower rate, and another with a lower status and +a still lower rate of remuneration. The duties of the second class may +be performed equally well by the first, but the duties of the first +cannot be performed by the second. The introduction of the Health +Visitor has therefore lowered the status of the Public Health Service. + +The remedy for this state of affairs is for competent woman officials +in the future to be appointed in the dual capacity of Sanitary +Inspector and Health Visitor at an adequate remuneration, and for +the order of 1891 defining the duties of a Sanitary Inspector to be +expanded to meet the developments which have been taking place in the +Public Health Acts since that date. + +There are two organisations which Women Sanitary Inspectors may +join:-- + +(1) The Women Sanitary Inspectors' Association, which includes +as members Women Sanitary Inspectors and Health Visitors holding +recognised certificates in sanitation. (Health Visitors holding +official appointments but without these recognised certificates in +sanitation may become associates.) + +(2) The Sanitary Inspectors' Association, which is composed of a large +number of Men Sanitary Inspectors and a few Women Sanitary Inspectors. +This is not open to Health Visitors. + +There is no approved society for Sanitary Inspectors under the +Insurance Act. The income of the majority of Men Inspectors exempts +them from the operation of the Act, but a large number of Men and +Women Inspectors receiving less than L160 per annum, have joined +the approved society of the National Association of Local Government +Officers. + +To sum up, we may say that on the whole the life of a Health Official +is a healthy and suitable one for a woman of average physique; it +demands great activity, with many hours spent out of doors, and +whoever undertakes it must be prepared for surprises and difficulties. +She may find herself in an office staffed entirely by men, with chief, +committee, and council composed entirely of men--indeed everything +looked at from the male standpoint. She either works singly or in +small groups of two or three, except in a few large towns where the +women officials may number from ten to twenty. Thus isolated and +scattered, it is extremely difficult for the Women Health Officials +to form an effective organisation. What is accomplished under one +Authority may have little or no effect upon another. + +One condition which presses heavily on many women is the shortness +of the holidays. The work is always arduous, particularly in poor +districts where one is brought face to face with poverty, disease, and +suffering, and from two to three weeks is not sufficient for rest and +recuperation, particularly as the years pass on. + +The creation of public opinion and the advent of a greater number of +women on Municipal Councils and Health Committees is greatly needed +to improve the conditions under which women officials work, and to +support their reasonable demands.[2] + + +[Footnote 1: Full particulars of this can be obtained from the +Secretary, Sanitary Inspectors' Examination Board, Adelaide Buildings, +London Bridge.] + +[Footnote 2: The above article considers under the term "Health +Visitors" such women only as are serving under public Municipal +Authorities. Unfortunately, since it gives rise to confusion, the +name is also used in connection with officials privately appointed by +various charitable institutions. These have no universally recognised +standard of attainments: some of the so-called "Health Visitors" are +without any qualifications, others, _e.g._, those employed by the +Jewish Board of Guardians, are fully trained and do excellent work, +comparable with that performed by Hospital Almoners. We hope, in a +later volume of this series, to publish an article on their duties and +position.[EDITOR.]] + + + + +SECTION V + +WOMEN IN THE CIVIL SERVICE + +I + +THE HIGHER GRADES: PRESENT POSITION AND PROSPECTS FOR THE FUTURE + + +The claim that women should be allowed to enter not only the lower but +the higher branches of the Civil Service is being freely made at the +present time. It is very generally felt that posts in which the holder +has to execute judgment and to decide on administrative matters should +be open to women as well as to men. + +Many reasons are urged for admitting women more freely to a share in +the responsible work of the Service, but the true basis of their claim +lies in this--that the most successful form of government and the +happiest condition for the governed can only be attained, in the +State as in the family, when masculine and feminine influences work in +harmony. + +It is not, perhaps, widely known that women have already made their +way into many branches of the Service and have done invaluable work +therein. Perhaps the strongest argument that can be urged in favour of +their admission into yet other branches of the Service will be found +in the following brief survey of the appointments held and the work +already done by them in various directions. + +_The Local Government Boards_ + +The credit of being the first Government Department to appoint a Woman +Inspector belongs to the English Local Government Board. As far +back as 1873, yielding to the pressure of public opinion, that Board +appointed a Woman Inspector, with full powers to inspect workhouses, +and district schools. During the short period of her appointment, this +lady did excellent work, and called attention to much needed reforms +in the education of girls in Poor Law Schools. Unfortunately, owing +to a breakdown in health, she was obliged to resign her appointment in +November 1874, and the Local Government Board, either repenting of +its enlightened action, or not appreciating the aid of a woman even +in matters concerning the welfare of women and girls, refrained from +appointing a woman to succeed her. It was not until 1885 that another +Woman Inspector was appointed, and then her work was restricted to the +inspection of Poor Law Children boarded out beyond the Union to which +they belonged. In 1896, once more by reason of the pressure of public +opinion, a woman was appointed as an Assistant Inspector of Poor +Law Institutions in the Metropolis. In 1898 a second Inspector +of Boarded-out Children was appointed, and in 1903 the number of +Inspectors was increased to three, each Inspector having a district +assigned to her. + +Four years ago the total number of Women Inspectors was increased to +seven, and the scope of their duties somewhat widened, as will be seen +below. There is now one Superintendent Inspector at a salary of L400 +to L450, and six Inspectors at L250 to L350. Candidates for these +inspectorships must have had considerable administrative experience. +They must hold a certificate of three years' training as a Nurse, and +the Central Midwives' Board's certificate is considered desirable. +These qualifications have only been required since 1910. + +The duties assigned to the Women Inspectors include (1) the inspection +of boarded-out children, both within and beyond the Poor Law Unions +to which they belong; and (2) the inspection of Poor Law +Institutions--_i.e._, infirmaries, sick wards of workhouses, maternity +wards, and workhouse nurseries: also of Certified Homes, Cottage +Homes, and Scattered Homes. + +The duties of the Women Inspectors in connection with the boarding-out +of Poor Law Children include the visiting of officials of Boarding-Out +Committees, and of homes in which children are boarded out; the +Inspector visits a sufficient number of children and homes to enable +her to satisfy herself that the duties of the Boarding-Out Committee +are carried out in a satisfactory manner, and makes a report to the +Board thereon. Women Inspectors arrange their own inspections of +boarded-out children within a prescribed district. + +Each of the fourteen districts into which the country is divided for +Poor Law purposes is placed under the care of a General Inspector +(male), whilst the half dozen Women Inspectors are available for +duty in these districts, but only at the invitation of the General +Inspector. If an Inspector omits to arrange for these visits it is +possible for his district to remain unvisited by a Woman Inspector for +an indefinite period. When it is remembered that there are still +194 Unions without a woman on the Board of Guardians, the present +arrangement, by which the Women Inspectors can only inspect Poor Law +Institutions on sufferance, is seen to be indefensible and the need +for reform in this direction urgent. + +There is one Assistant Woman Inspector, who is a highly qualified +medical woman, in the Public Health Department of the Board. She has +been in office only a few months, but it has been remarked in more +than one quarter that the enhanced value of the recent report of +the Board's Medical Officer on Infant Mortality is due to her +co-operation. + +The jurisdiction of the Local Government Board in London is confined +to England and Wales--Scotland and Ireland having their own Boards in +Edinburgh and Dublin respectively. + +The Local Government Board for Scotland appointed a Woman Inspector +for the first time about three years ago, at a salary of L200 a year. +She is a fully qualified medical woman. Her duties include both Poor +Law Work (_e.g._ the inspection of children in poor-houses or boarded +out, enquiries into complaints of inadequate relief to widows) and +Public Health Work (_e.g._ enquiries into any special incidence of +disease). + +The Local Government Board for Ireland employs two Women Inspectors, +one at a salary of L200-10-L300 and the other at a salary of L200, to +inspect boarded-out children. + +There are no prescribed qualifications for these posts; but they +have always been, and still are, held by highly qualified +women--distinguished graduates and experienced in social work; one is +a doctor of medicine. + +Sir Henry Robinson, Vice-President of the Local Government Board for +Ireland, said in his evidence before the Royal Commission on the Civil +Service that he would like to have one or two women doctors to go +round the work-houses and to visit the female wards, but the salaries +offered by the Treasury to women doctors seemed to him too low to +attract well qualified women. + +_The Home Office_ + +It was about twenty years ago that the Home Office began to realise +that the ever-increasing number of women and girl workers in factories +and workshops made it imperative that women as well as men inspectors +should be appointed if the Factory Acts intended for the protection of +workers were to be effectually enforced. There was no doubt even from +the first about the usefulness of these Women Inspectors, but in ten +years' time the number appointed for the whole of the United Kingdom +had only increased to eight. At the beginning of the present year, +1913, they numbered eighteen, and only within the last few months has +this number been increased to twenty. + +There is one Woman Inspector of Prisons at a salary of L300-15-L400. +(The lowest salary received by Men Inspectors is L600-20-L700.) + +There is also one Woman Assistant Inspector of Reformatories and +Industrial Schools. Her salary is L200-10-L300, whilst that of Men +Assistant Inspectors is L250-15-L400. + +Women Factory Inspectors are appointed in the same way as men. A +register of candidates is kept in the office, in which the name of +every applicant is entered. When a vacancy occurs a selection is made +from the list, and the best qualified candidates are interviewed by +a Committee of Selection, consisting of the Parliamentary +Under-Secretary, the Private Secretary, the Chief Inspector of +Factories and the Chief Woman Inspector. Generally speaking, about +one half of the candidates interviewed are selected to sit for an +examination in general subjects. At the end of two years' probation +a qualifying examination in Factory Law and Sanitary Science must be +passed. + +The Principal Woman Inspector is responsible to the Chief Inspector +of Factories for the administration of the Women Inspectors' work +throughout the United Kingdom. Women Inspectors are stationed at +Manchester, Birmingham, Glasgow, and Belfast. The work of the Women +Inspectors is so organised as to be entirely separate from that of the +Men Inspectors, although they cover the same ground. The nature and +scope of the women's work is so generally known that it is perhaps +unnecessary to describe it in much detail. Investigations into cases +of accident affecting women and girl workers or into complaints as to +the conditions under which they work are promptly made by the Women +Inspectors. Women Inspectors (equally with men) have power to enter +and inspect all factory and workshop premises where women and girls +are employed. They are empowered to enforce the provisions of the +Factory and Truck Acts and to prosecute in cases of breach of the law. +They conduct their own prosecutions. + +The reports of the Women Inspectors evoked much appreciative comment +during a recent debate in the House of Commons. Some interesting +remarks on their work are also to be found in the evidence given +before the Royal Commission on the Civil Service by Sir Edward Troup, +K.C.B., Permanent Under-Secretary of the Home Office. + +The number of Women Inspectors at present employed is not nearly +large enough to cope with the work that needs to be done. It must +be remembered that the staff enumerated above is responsible for the +inspection of factories and workshops in Scotland and Ireland as well +as in England, and that the number of women engaged in industrial work +has increased during the last five years from about one and a half +millions to two millions. The necessity of increasing the number of +Women Inspectors has frequently been urged upon the Government in +the House of Commons and in the press, and it seems probable that the +Government must soon yield to this pressure. + +The following extract from the _Women's Trade Union League Quarterly +Review_, July 1913, may be of interest in this connection:-- + +"That the Women Inspectors' staff in particular is far below the +numerical strength which would enable it to cope adequately--we do not +say completely--with the task presented to it, has long been patent +to every one who knows anything of the industrial world and the +part taken in it by the woman worker. But in 1912 promotions and +resignations left gaps in the already meagre ranks which for some time +were not filled even by recruits, with the result that the number +of inspections was necessarily reduced in proportion. To those who +realise, as we do, the importance of the women inspectors' visits, +both in detecting infringements of the law and in making clear its +provisions and their value to the employer and worker alike, this +decrease, even for a time, of the opportunities which Miss Anderson's +staff enjoy of exercising their beneficent and educative influence +seems altogether deplorable. The recent promise of the Home Secretary +to increase that staff by two is very welcome, but we cannot pretend +to think that such an increase will meet the need which these pages +reveal." + +There is one Woman Inspector of Prisons, a qualified medical woman, +who acts also as Assistant Inspector of State and Certified Inebriate +Reformatories. Her salary is L300-15-L400, whilst the lowest salary +received by Men Inspectors is L600-20-L700. + +There is one Woman Assistant Inspector of Reformatories and Industrial +Schools in Great Britain. Her salary is L200-10-L300, whilst that of +Men Assistant Inspectors is L250-15-L400. + +_The Board of Trade_ + +The first woman to be admitted to the higher branches of the Board +of Trade was appointed as a Labour Correspondent in 1893. In 1903 she +became the Senior Investigator for Women's Industries, the salary of +the post being fixed at L450. A Senior Investigator's Assistant was +also appointed at a salary of L120-10-L200, but the salary has now +been increased to L200-L300. These posts are open only to University +women with high honours. + +The Senior Investigator, with the help of her Assistant, undertakes +special enquiries into the conditions in women's industries. Perhaps +her most important function is to originate investigations concerning +women, which will yield information likely to be useful to the +Department in the future, when some particular question comes up for +discussion or decision. For instance, when the question of bringing +laundries within the scope of the Trade Boards Act was under +discussion, the investigations previously made by the Women +Investigators into wages and conditions proved invaluable. + +There are also three Women Investigators appointed in connection +with the Trade Boards. Their duty is to assist in the collection of +information relating to the scheduled trades, in all of which a large +number of women is employed. They may be called upon to help in the +preliminary work involved in setting up new Trade Boards. They explain +as far as necessary the provisions of the Act to the working women +concerned get nominations of workers to sit on those Boards and +otherwise assist the Boards in carrying out their functions. They also +conduct inspections to see that the law is carried out. + +All these appointments are made by the President of the Board of Trade +on the recommendation of the Civil Service Commissioners. + +_Labour Exchanges_ + +The establishment of Labour Exchanges under the Board of Trade some +years ago gave occasion for the appointment of a considerable number +of women to responsible posts. On the organising staff at the Central +Office there is a Principal Woman Officer at L400-15-L450, who is +responsible for the organisation of the women's work in all the Labour +Exchanges. She has an Assistant at L150-L7, 10s.--L200. A woman also +acts as Secretary to the large London Juvenile Advisory Committee. She +has the acting rank of an Assistant Divisional Officer, although her +salary (L300-15-L400) is less than that received by men Assistant +Divisional Officers. + +There are nine Senior Organising Officers with salaries of +L250-10-L350, six of whom are women. The three men holding these +appointments deal with Juvenile work only, whereas some of the women +are in charge of both Women's and Juvenile work. Of the five Junior +Organising Officers at L200--L7, 10s.--L250, three are women. The nine +Assistant Organising Officers at L150--L7, 10s.--L200 are all women. +All these officers are engaged in organising the work of the Juvenile +and Women's Departments all over the country, and inspecting local +offices. There are also twenty secretaries to Juvenile Advisory +Committees, who may be either men or women. The salary for these posts +is L150-5--L200. + +In the Divisional Offices there are some staff posts open to women +at a salary of L200 to L300. Their work is purely clerical, and is +concerned with Unemployment Insurance. + +The original appointments in this branch of the Board of Trade were +made by a Selection Committee on which the Civil Service Commissioners +were represented. Applications were invited by advertisement, and +a large number of candidates was interviewed. The more recent +appointments have been filled by candidates who have first appeared +before a Board, and have then passed a qualifying examination, +conducted by the Civil Service Commission. + +_Board of Education_ + +The Board of Education (or the Education Department, as it was +then called) was established in consequence of the passing of the +Elementary Education Act of 1870. Its jurisdiction was and still is +limited to England and Wales. + +Notwithstanding that it was responsible to Parliament for regulating +the conduct of public elementary education all over the country, +and that in those schools there were hundreds of women teachers and +thousands of little girl pupils, it seems not to have occurred to +the Department to call in the aid of women either as inspectors +or administrators until the appointment in 1884 of a Directress of +Needlework. A Directress of Cookery was added in 1891, and laundry +work was brought under her supervision in 1893. It was only when +the passing of the Education Act of 1893 had brought other forms of +education--secondary, technical, and scientific--more completely under +the supervision of the Department that the need for Women Inspectors +began to be felt. In justice to the Department it must be said that +having once realised the need, they did not meet it grudgingly. The +first Women Inspectors were appointed in 1904, and by the spring of +1905 there were no less than twelve, one of whom was appointed as +Chief. Since then the number has been steadily increasing, and there +are now 45--a much more satisfactory rate of progress than that of the +Women Factory Inspectors. + +_Educational Inspectors._--There are now 1 Chief Woman Inspector, at +a salary of L650; 45 Inspectors, 8 at L400-10-L500, and 35 at +L200-15-L400. + +The method of appointment of Women Inspectors' is similar to that of +men--_i.e._, by nomination of the President of the Board of Education. +The Chief Woman Inspector first interviews candidates, weighs their +qualifications, and reports upon them to the Secretary. There is no +examination on appointment. Besides academic qualifications, which +are the same as those of men, many of the Inspectors have special +qualifications, as well as having had practical experience in +teaching. + +A special class of work is allotted to each Inspector: about 17 of +them are occupied in inspecting Girls' and Infants' Public Elementary +Schools: 15 are responsible for Domestic Subject Centres in Elementary +Schools: 4 for Girls' and Mixed Secondary Schools: 3 for Training +Colleges (women's and mixed): and 3 again for Domestic and Trade +Courses and Girls' Clubs. + +In the case of secondary schools, the Women Inspectors pay special +attention to women's subjects, but they also take part in full +inspections. They are not in charge of districts, and therefore do +not carry on the miscellaneous correspondence with the Local Education +Authorities which falls to the lot of a District Inspector. In +relation to domestic subjects, however, the Women Inspectors are +practically in charge of districts, and deal directly with Local +Education Authorities. They inspect the work done by girls, and +look into the organisation of the schools with regard to health, +suitability of curricula, etc. + +In the case of elementary schools, the Women Inspectors are attached +to the various districts and are directed by the District Inspectors +(men) as occasion requires, to deal with infants' and mixed schools, +and to carry out routine inspections of public elementary schools. + +_Medical Inspectors._--There are one Senior Medical Officer at +L600-L800; one Junior Medical Officer at L400-20-L500; and also three +Inspectors of Physical Exercises at L200-15-L400. + +The Women Medical Inspectors take part in the work of the medical +branch in the same way as men; Physical Exercises come under their +jurisdiction. + +The Board of Education also employs three women on the permanent staff +of the Department of Special Enquiries and Reports. The salaries are +L100-L7, 10s-L180, and the posts are pensionable. The duties consist +partly of library work and partly of giving assistance in the general +intelligence work of the office. + +The Right Hon. A.H. Dyke Acland said in his evidence before the Royal +Commission on the Civil Service that he did not see why at the Board +of Education the same sort of women who become good inspectors and +headmistresses should not take part in the administrative work of the +office. + +_Scotch Education Department_ + +The first Woman Inspector was appointed by the Scotch Education +Department in 1902, and two others were appointed in 1910. Their scale +of salary is L200-15-L400. They are strictly specialist inspectors for +domestic economy subjects, cookery, laundry, etc., for which they have +qualifications including experience in teaching and inspecting such +subjects. + +Specially qualified women are occasionally employed by the Department +to inspect girls' schools, and are paid a fee according to the time +occupied. + +_National Education Board, Ireland_ + +Two Women Inspectors are employed by the Irish National Education +Board. Their salary is L150-10-L300, the same as that of Men Junior +Inspectors; Men Senior Inspectors receive L300-20-L700. + +There are two Women Organisers, whose duty it is to organise weak +schools. + +There are also 14 Organisers of Domestic Economy; their work is +similar to that of Inspectors; they travel about and have authority +in the schools; they do not inspect general subjects, but confine +themselves to cookery, laundry and domestic science. + +There are also six Women Organisers of Kindergarten. + +_The Board of Agriculture and Fisheries._ + +This Department has recently employed a few women upon various kinds +of scientific work. Three women are appointed as Assistant Naturalists +in the Fishery Branch, at a salary of L150 per annum, and two as +Junior Assistant Naturalists at L2 per week. They are appointed on +the nomination of the President, without examination, but they must +possess the necessary scientific qualifications and have taken a +recognised course of study. These posts are non-pensionable. The +Fishery Branch deals with questions relating to the natural history +and diseases of fish, fish-hatcheries and laboratories, the protection +of undersized fish, the effect of methods of capture, international +investigations, and grants in aid of fishery research. The women +are engaged upon the same work as men, except that they do not write +technical reports and are not liable to be called upon for sea duty. + +In the Herbarium and Library of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew there +are two Women Assistants at L150-10-L300 (the Men Assistants' scale is +L150-15-L300). Scientific qualifications are required for these posts, +and there is an examination by the Civil Service Commission. The +Library is maintained for official consultative work, to supply the +basis of an accurate nomenclature throughout the establishment and +as an aid to research. The Herbarium aims at representing the entire +vegetation of the earth with especial regard to that of British +possessions. A scheme for preparing a complete series of floras of +India and the Colonies was sanctioned by the Government in 1856, and +has been steadily prosecuted ever since. The principle work of the +staff is the correct identification of the specimens which reach +Kew from every part of the world, and their incorporation in the +Herbarium. It is visited for the purposes of study and research by +botanists from every country. + +The scientific work in the various branches of the Board of +Agriculture and Fisheries would seem to afford some scope for women of +scientific attainment. Sir T. Elliott, formerly Permanent Secretary +to the Board, in his evidence before the Royal Commission on the Civil +Service, said he considered that women could do good work in many +directions, and that their help might be especially valuable in +entomology. + +_The Public Trustee's Office._ + +The Public Trustee's office was established in 1908, under the Act of +1906. Two Women Inspectors--or more correctly speaking, Visitors--are +now employed, one of whom receives a salary of L200 and the other +L180. + +These Visitors are attached to the special Department set up to take +charge of children (1) left by will to the guardianship of the Public +Trustee, or (2) who have been awarded damages in the High Court either +for injury or for the loss of parents or guardians. + +As regards the first-named, the Public Trustee has express powers +under his rules to act either as sole guardian or co-trustee. In these +cases the Women Visitors assist the Public Trustee in discharging his +trust. They visit the children, go thoroughly into the circumstances +of each case, consulting with relatives and family solicitors. Schools +are chosen, holidays arranged, careers decided upon, apprenticeship or +training provided for; medical attendance is secured and even clothing +attended to. + +In all cases concerning children in which an action for damages has +been brought under the Common Law or under Lord Campbell's Act, the +money awarded as compensation is paid over to the Public Trustee, +unless the judge otherwise directs. A large part of the Women +Visitors' work consists of supervising these compensation cases. It is +important to see that the money is spent upon the children, and in +the manner most likely to promote their future welfare--_e.g._, +in providing education or special training. In the case of injured +children, proper medical attention is secured and any instruments or +artificial limbs which may be necessary. + +It is becoming increasingly the practice, when funds are raised +locally to help special cases, to place the money collected in the +hands of the Public Trustee, instead of appointing local trustees. +Where the beneficiaries of such funds are women or children--very +often they are widows--it becomes the duty of the Women Visitors to +find out on the spot how the money can best be applied, and to advise +the Public Trustee accordingly. + +In all cases the supervision is continued as long as it is required, +but where relatives are found to be competent and willing to take +charge of children the responsibility is left to them. + +Such work, concerned as it is with the young and the helpless, seems +peculiarly suited to women. The Public Trustee in his evidence before +the Royal Commission on the Civil Service, stated that the women +already appointed had proved themselves "most efficient." + + +_The National Health Insurance Commissions._ + +The Inspectors appointed by the National Health Insurance Commissions +are so recent an institution that it is not yet possible to say +whether the work to be performed by this Department will afford scope +for the employment of a large number of educated women. + +It is satisfactory to note, however, that the salaries of men and +women more nearly approximate to equality than in any previous +appointments. The salaries of the Women Commissioners in all four +countries are the same as those of the men, viz., L1,000 per annum. + +The English Commission has 10, the Scotch 1, and the Irish 1 Woman +Inspector at L300-10-L400. Men Inspectors begin at the same salary but +rise to L500. + +The English Commission has 25, the Welsh 3, the Scotch 5, and the +Irish 4 Assistant Women Inspectors at L100-10-L300. Men Assistant +Inspectors begin at the same salary, but after two years they rise by +L15 to L350. + +The English Commission has 19, the Welsh 1, the Scotch 5, and +the Irish 5 Women Health Insurance Officers, on a scale of salary +L80-5-L110, after two years rising by L7, 10s. to L150. This scale is +precisely the same as that of Men Health Insurance Officers. + +The duties of Men and Women Inspectors and Officers under the National +Health Insurance Commission are identical in character and scope. + +The primary function of these officers is to impose upon the whole +adult population the new conditions created by the Act--_i.e._, they +have to ensure the proper payment of contributions in respect of all +persons liable to be insured. + +Trades are assigned to Men or Women Inspectors according as a trade +employs men or women in greater numbers. + +The Insurance Commissioners work through the Inspectors in all matters +that are more susceptible to local treatment than to treatment by +correspondence. The Inspectors obtain information and make local +enquiries as to the facts in cases submitted to the Commissioners for +determination under various sections of the Act. + +An interesting account of the very varied duties which fall to the +lot of these Officers will be found in the first "Report on the +Administration of the National Insurance Act," Part I., which has +recently been published. The following extract from that Report will +give some idea of the work done by the Women Inspectors, and the +estimate which has been formed of it. + +"Inasmuch as the Insurance Commission is the first Government +Department in which a woman staff has been appointed from the outset, +special mention may be made of one portion of the work carried out +by the women inspectors during the past year. The enquiry held in the +autumn by Mr Pope on the objections raised to the inclusion of +married women outworkers within the provisions of Part I. of the Act +necessitated much careful investigation among employers and outworkers +in a large number of trades all over the country, such as tailoring, +glove-making, lace manufacture, carding of hooks and eyes, pins and +needles, buttons and fish-hooks at Birmingham, net-making at +Bridport, chain-making at Cradley Heath, straw hat-making at Luton, +chair-making, box-making, and boot, shoe, and hosiery manufacture. +This investigation was undertaken by the women staff. The enquiry +entailed hundreds of visits, both in the poorest parts of industrial +towns and in remote country districts, and in interviews with +employers and workers great tact and patience were required. Of the +evidence given by the women inspectors, Mr Pope reports that they +'one and all gave evidence with extreme moderation, impartiality and +discretion. The conspicuous fairness and the success with which they +had collected information were frequently a matter of commendation +from employers, who informed me that the enquiry had afforded them +information about their own trades which years of work in it had not +made known to them.'" + +_The General Post Office_ + +This paper would not be complete without some reference to the large +number--now nearly 3,000--of women clerks employed by the General Post +Office, all of whom enter the service by open competition, either +as girl clerks between sixteen and eighteen years of age or as women +clerks between eighteen and twenty. Their duties are necessarily of a +clerical nature, and in their earlier years at least they can hardly, +perhaps, be included in the "higher grades." Yet the supervisory posts +which become necessary wherever large numbers of workers are employed +call for considerable administrative ability and are proportionately +better remunerated. All women clerks are eligible for these posts, and +indeed they are never filled in any other way. + +The highest post open to a woman clerk in the General Post Office is +that of Superintendent at the _Savings Bank,_ the present holder +of which is on a scale of L350-20-L600. There are 4 Deputy +Superintendents at L270-15-L330; 13 Assistant Superintendents at +L210-10-L260; and 53 Principal Clerks at L150-10-L200. The Savings +Bank has the largest group of women clerks--numbering 1,210--of any +department, and of these 150 are in the first class. + +The next largest group of Women Clerks is in the _Money Order +Department;_ in this office the women outnumber the men in the +proportion of 5 to 1. They number 592, of whom 67 are in the +first class. There is one Superintendent at L350-20-L500; 1 Deputy +Superintendent at L270-15-L330; 5 Assistant Superintendents at +L210-10-L260; and 24 Principal Clerks at L150-10-L200. + +The _Accountant General's Department_ has 1 Superintendent at +L280-15-L400; 3 Assistant Superintendents at L210-10-L260; and 3 +Principal Clerks at L150-10-L200. The staff of clerks numbers 416, of +whom 57 are in the first class. + +The _London Telephone Service_ has 1 Assistant Superintendent at +L210-10-L260 and 5 Principal Clerks at L150-10-L200, with a staff of +278 clerks, of whom 21 are in the first class. + +The _Accountants Offices_ are the only ones in Edinburgh and Dublin +which employ women as Clerks. In Dublin there is 1 Superintendent at +L210-10-L250 and 2 Assistant Superintendents at L150-10-L170. Of +the staff of 61 clerks, 7 are first class. In Edinburgh there is 1 +Superintendent at L200-10-L250, and 1 Assistant Superintendent at +L150-10-L190. Of the staff of 69, 8 are in the first class. + +In consequence of the employment of so large a number of women, the +General Post Office found it necessary many years ago to employ a +Woman Medical Officer. The present holder of this office receives +a salary of L350-20-L500. She has the help of two Assistants, whose +salary is L180-15-L300. + +A few posts which may properly be deemed "higher" are also open to +Women Counter Clerks and Telegraphists. In the London Postal District +there are 3 Supervisors at L180-10-L250, 50 Assistant Supervisors +(first class) at L140-6-L170 and 61 Assistant Supervisors (second +class) at L115-5-L130. + +In the _Central Telegraph Office_ the Chief Supervisor of Women +Telegraphists receives a salary of L180-10-L300 (not a large salary +for supervising a staff numbering nearly 1,000), the 13 Supervisors +receive L180-10-L250, and the 35 Assistant Supervisors L140-6-L170. + +The _Postal District and Telegraph Offices_ in Dublin and Edinburgh +have each one Woman Supervisor of Counter and Telegraph Clerks at +L140-6-L875. In Dublin there are 12 and in Edinburgh 6 Assistants at +L110-5-L135. There are also a number of Supervisors in the provinces +whose rates of pay vary from L149-6-L175 to L115-5-L135, according to +the size of the district. + +The _Telephone Service_ also offers a few important posts to women. +In the London Telephone Service a Woman Superintendent is appointed +at L200-10-L300, 9 Supervisors at L159-6-L190, and 40 Assistant +Supervisors at L110-5-L145. There are about 3,600 Women Telephonists +employed within the London postal area. The salaries of Supervisors in +the provinces vary from L125-5-L150 to L105-5-L120, according to the +size of the district. + +The variety of work, which is now efficiently performed by women in +the various departments above enumerated, seems to prove conclusively +that when other branches are opened to them they will be equally +successful. + +In the statements recently submitted to the Royal Commission of the +Civil Service on behalf of various women's organisations, the reasons +for throwing open to women the more highly paid and responsible posts +were admirably set forth. + +On behalf of the Association of Headmistresses it was stated by Miss +R. Oldham:-- + + "In asking that in future some of the more highly paid + and responsible posts in the Civil Service should be thrown + open to women, the Headmistresses are conscious of the + fact that modern economic conditions have evolved the + woman who must of necessity, as well as by choice, + become self-supporting. The professions of teaching, + medicine, art, and literature offer openings with adequate + remuneration for the highly educated young woman of + to-day. Those lower branches of the Civil Service which, + with a few exceptions, alone are open to women do not + supply posts of enough responsibility and administrative + power to prove attractive to able women of secondary + school and university education, many of whom, in the + opinion of the Headmistresses are fitted, both by their + education and by their natural ability, to fill positions + of equal responsibility with their brothers. + + "They desire to submit the following reasons why + women should be considered eligible for positions of + administrative responsibility in the service of the + State :-- + + "(1) Women have shown by their success in positions + of great responsibility that they are capable of + undertaking high administrative work. + + "(2) Women have special gifts for social investigation + and inquiry, and special knowledge in many + important subjects, which ought to be used + in the service of the State. + + "(3) Under present conditions of women's employment + in the Service, the ablest and most + highly qualified women do not enter it. + + "(4) The presence of a large number of women in + the lower branches of the Civil Service makes + it desirable that there should be women + employed in higher and more responsible + posts. This would have the effect of ensuring + good discipline and judicious promotion. + + "(5) The present almost total exclusion of women + from high and responsible posts has the effect + of discrediting them as applicants for such + posts outside the Service. Private employers + when asked to give women opportunities for + rising to posts of responsibility, are able to + point to the failure of the Government to + do so." + + In the statement submitted by Mrs W.L. + Courtney on behalf of the Council on Women's + Employment in the Civil Service the claim was + made:-- + + "That women should be eligible for first division + appointments, or equivalent appointments, in suitable + offices, such as the Education Office, the Local Government + Board, the Home Office, the Insurance Commission, + and the Board of Trade. It has already been found + necessary to appoint women to responsible posts in the + Inspectorate of each of these offices, and the same + reasons which justify those appointments point also to + the desirability of appointing women to positions in the + corresponding internal administrative service." + +There is another point to be remembered in this connection; it is +important that the recommendations made by Women Inspectors should +have the chance of being considered and acted upon by women in an +administrative capacity, as well as by men. Otherwise there is danger +that the women's point of view put forward by an Inspector may be +overlooked or her recommendations brushed aside. + +Miss Penrose, Principal of Somerville College, Oxford, in her +statement for the Royal Commission, said: + + "In branches of the Service, such as the Home Office, + the Local Government Board, and the Board of Trade, in + which a good deal of work is done, or should be done, by + women because it is concerned with women, I think it + would be an advantage to have one or more women on + the general administrative staff, which deals with the + work of the departments as a whole. + + "If a board which deals with human beings, does not + employ women except to carry out the policy of the + Board, after that policy has been initiated, shaped and + embodied in regulations, it may not infrequently be found + that regulations unsuitable in some respects to be applied + to women have been drafted, or that unnecessary differences + of treatment have been created. Just as in so far + as women look at things from a different angle it is + important that their point of view should be at the service + of a department at as early a stage as possible." + +An illustration of this may be found in the draft Order for the +regulation of Poor Law Institutions which is now before the public. +This draft has been drawn up by a departmental committee of the Local +Government Board, composed entirely of men, notwithstanding that it +will regulate the administration of institutions staffed by women +and having large numbers of women and children as inmates. It is not +surprising to find that the draft Order meets with the disapproval of +many women engaged in poor law work. + +The Council on Women's Employment also claimed:-- + + "That women should be made eligible or considered + for appointment-- + + "As scientific specialists, especially museum assistants + and keepers. The area of choice would thus be enlarged + in cases where there is sometimes a very small number of + suitable candidates. Women have been notably successful + in original work in various departments of botany, and + have done valuable original work in bacteriology and + archaeology. They are already employed as scientific + specialists in certain departments and in temporary work + for the British Museum, though hitherto excluded from + its permanent service. + + "As librarians, keepers of records and papers, and + assistants to the holders of these offices, and to positions + requiring qualifications for statistical work and historical + knowledge, such as those in the Public Record Office. + + "That appointments in suitable offices should be opened + to women between the ages of 19 and 24, who have either + passed or can pass an examination equivalent to that of + male second division clerks, or clerks of the intermediate + class, according to the practice of the department in + filling its appointments. It seems desirable that the + abilities of women who would otherwise be occupied in + business, teaching, secretarial and clerical, and other work, + much of which is closely comparable with that of second + division and intermediate clerks, should be available for + the work of the Civil Service, especially in the offices + already mentioned in connection with the first division + appointments." + +These claims, pertinent as they are, and strongly as they should be +urged, need to be extended still further. + +Women claim to be admitted to share in the administrative work, not +only of those departments directly concerned with women, but also +in those in which the work concerns equally men and women as +citizens--_e.g._, the Treasury, the Foreign Office, the Colonial +Office, the Inland Revenue. No one could argue that the work of these +departments is unsuitable for women, any more than is the work of the +General Post Office, in which they have so conspicuously succeeded. +Even the War Office, with the charge of so many soldiers' wives and +children living in barracks, removed from the jurisdiction of all +civic services, and the control of so large a number of Army Nurses, +needs women amongst its administrators. + +The claim must also be made quite clearly, that in throwing open these +posts to women, the same method of recruiting must be employed as +for men, and the remuneration must be at the same rate. In asking for +these opportunities women are simply asking that the sex disability +which at present bars them from the majority of posts in the service, +may be removed. They do not seek admission in some special way, nor do +they wish to undercut men by accepting lower salaries. They ask that +the sex barrier may be removed in the case of both Class I. and Class +II. appointments--in other words, that these appointments may be open +to them on the same conditions as they are or may be open to men. + +In the case of the majority of the appointments hitherto held by +women, some care has been taken to put them on a different footing +from those of men; in these instances it is not easy to compare the +work of women with that of men, or to urge the claim of women to +be paid at the same rate as men for work of equal value. There are, +however, some conspicuous instances--_e.g._, of the Factory Inspectors +and Inspectors of Schools--in which no such differentiation is +possible and in which the only reason for paying the women less than +the men seems to be that given by the ex-Permanent Secretary of the +Treasury in his evidence before the Royal Commission on the Civil +Service, "that women ought to be got as cheaply as possible, and that +if they can be got for less, they ought not to be paid the same as +men." + +There seems some ground for believing that official opinion in +this matter is undergoing modification, since in the case of later +appointments--_e.g._, in the Labour Exchanges and in the National +Health Insurance Commission--the tendency has been to approximate the +salaries of women much more closely to those of men and even in some +instances to make them identical. It is therefore reasonable to hope +that the principle of equal pay for equal work will, before long, be +extended to appointments of longer standing, in which its application +would be no less just than in the case of new appointments. + + + + +II + +THE LOWER GRADES AND THE PRESENT POSITION + + +So far as the position of its women workers is concerned, the State is +very far from being the model employer it sometimes professes to +be. When one considers the very wide disparity existing between the +salaries for similar work of women and of men, one realises to what +an enormous extent the Exchequer, and, consequently, the taxpayer, has +benefited by the economies practised at the expense of the women Civil +Servants ever since their introduction in the early seventies. +There is not a shadow of doubt that economy was the motive for their +employment, but even economy would not have justified the continued +increase in their numbers, had they not exhibited what has been +called by a high official, "remarkable efficiency," and also the very +desirable qualities of docility, patience, and conscientiousness. + +When the Government first took over the telegraphs from the private +companies, it found women in their employ, and decided to retain them +in the service. Women Telegraphists and Counter Clerks are now a very +large body numbering in London about 2,000, and in the Provinces about +5,000,--a total of 7,000 women as compared with 16,000 men. The duties +of men and women telegraphists are more closely comparable than their +respective work in any other class in the Civil Service, practically +the only differentiation being that women are debarred from night +duty. They are also generally exempt from Sunday duty, excessive late +duty, and special duties in connection with race meetings, although +the Hobhouse Committee in 1907 recommended that women should do the +Sunday work if required. (As, however, payment for this is made at a +higher rate, there is usually no lack of volunteers.) Their scale +of salary in the Central Telegraph Office is 18s. a week at eighteen +years of age, rising to a maximum of 40s. The men's scale is 20s. +rising to 65s. When the necessary technical qualifications are +acquired, an allowance of 3s. a week carried beyond the maximum and +pensionable, is now given to both sexes alike. Formerly the technical +allowance for women was 1s. 6d. per week only, and this would appear +to account for the lower proportion of women who have qualified for +the technical increment. + +There appears to be a tendency to stereotype certain kinds of work for +men only, in order to justify the differentiation in pay, but in +point of fact, most of the work now exclusively allotted to male +telegraphists was at one time done by women. The work done by men and +women Counter Clerks is identical. The women in the Telegraph Service +have no separate organisation, but combine with the men in the Postal +Telegraph Clerks' Association, which has a large number of branches, +and carries on a very active campaign for improvement in pay and +conditions of service. Equal pay for equal work is one of the planks +in its platform, and formed part of the case put forward before the +Select Committee on Post Office Servants last year. + +Women Clerks are employed in the great financial Services of the +General Post Office, the Savings Bank Department, Money Order +Department (including the Postal Order Branch), Accountant-General's +Department, and the Controller's Office of the London Telephone +Service, as well as in the Accountant's Departments of the General +Post Offices in Edinburgh and Dublin. In all, they number nearly +3,000. It may, perhaps, be of interest to go into the history of this +class. + +Women Clerks were first introduced into the General Post Office +in 1871 by Mr Scudamore, who considered that as women were more +"fault-finding" than men, they might well be used as "a check on the +somewhat illiterate postmasters of the United Kingdom in the +interests of a somewhat long-suffering public." Entry was at first +by nomination, but in 1881 the appointment of Women Clerks was thrown +open to the public by competitive examination by Mr Fawcett, who was +then Postmaster General. This step met with some opposition, and Queen +Victoria even caused a letter to be written to Mr Fawcett expressing +her strong disapproval of the change. The Postmaster-General, however, +carried his point, and fixed the scale of salary at L65, rising by L3 +per annum to L80. When the working day was increased from six to seven +hours, the maximum was raised to L100. The revisions of the Tweedmouth +Inter-Departmental Committee came into force in 1897, involving many +concessions to the male staff, and simultaneously the minimum salary +of the Women Clerks was, without any warning, reduced for new entrants +to L55 per annum, and the increment for the first six years was +reduced to L2, 10s. + +Realising the defencelessness of their position, the Women Clerks +formed an Association in 1901, and so strong was the case for +improvement which they were able to bring before the Hobhouse +Parliamentary Committee of 1906, that in spite of considerable +misrepresentation of their work in the evidence given by Heads of +Departments, they were able not only to get back the 1881 minimum of +L65, but were awarded further an increased increment of L5 throughout +the scale and a rise of L10 in the maximum. This was the position +until December 1911, when a tentative scheme was introduced in the +Money Order Department to hand over all the simpler duties to a new +class of Assistant Women Clerks with an eight-hour day and a wage +of 18s. rising to 34s. a week. The Association of Post Office Women +Clerks, the basis of which is "equal pay and opportunities for women +with men in the Civil Service," and which therefore necessarily +stands for simplification of the classes of employment, regarded +the restriction of a fresh grade of women to yet another water-tight +compartment at a low wage as in itself an evil. But apart from this, +they looked upon the scheme as a deliberate evasion of the Hobhouse +Committee's recommendations. So strong was the criticism levelled at +the new scheme, both by Members of Parliament and the Press, that the +Postmaster-General, Mr Herbert Samuel, consented to refer the +matter to the Select Committee on the Post Office (known as the Holt +Committee)[1], which was appointed in the early part of 1912, and +he gave an undertaking that no more appointments to the new grade +should be made in the Money Order Department until the Committee had +reported, The value of this concession was considerably lessened by +its limited application, and the fact that many Assistant Women Clerks +were subsequently appointed to the London Telephone Service, clearly +indicated the intention of the authorities to proceed with the +development of the scheme in a Department which provided an easier +field of operation in the shape of new work and a new staff taken over +from the National Telephone Company. + +In 1897 the class of Girl Clerks was created, to undertake some of the +simpler duties in the Savings Bank Department, hitherto performed by +Women Clerks. They were subsequently introduced into the Money +Order Department and the Controller's Office of the London Telephone +Service, and there are approximately 250 now employed. They take +the same examination as Women Clerks, but at a lower age--sixteen +to eighteen--and are grouped apart for the purpose of marking. Their +hours of duty are seven daily, and their salary L42, raising by L3 per +annum, to L48. They are in reality a probationary class, and become +Women Clerks automatically after two years' service. The introduction +of this class was not considered by the Department to be an +administrative success, as the obligation to make them Women Clerks in +two years prevented their being employed in sufficiently large numbers +to effect any appreciable economy. The scheme for the introduction of +the grade of Assistant Woman Clerk involved the abolition of the Girl +Clerk. + +The Women Clerks are an analogous grade to the Male Clerks of the +Second Division who are common to the whole Civil Service, and they +do practically the same class of work. The examinations for the +two classes are somewhat severe in character and are roughly +comparable.[2] There is, however, a wide disparity in the salaries +paid, as will be seen from the following comparison:-- + + SECOND DIVISION CLERKS. + + L70 by L7, 10s. per an. to L130 + thence by L10 per an. to L200 + thence by L10 per an. to L300 + (Efficiency Bar at L130 and + L200) + + Above the salary of L300 advancement + to higher posts by promotion. + + + WOMEN CLERKS. + + _Second Class_-- + L65 by L5 per an. to L100 + (No Efficiency Bar) + + _First Class _(by promotion)-- + L115 by L5 to L140 + + Above the rank of First Class + Clerk there are certain higher + posts which constitute a percentage + of 4.6 of the total + number of First and Second + Class Clerks. + +The existence of this double standard of payment for the same kind +of work is not only an injustice to the women concerned, but is a +standing menace to the men, who rightly consider that the presence +of women as a blackleg class keeps down their wages and reduces their +prospect of promotion. A sense of irritation and dissatisfaction is +thus engendered between the two sexes. The maintenance of separate +staffs of similar status but with different rates of remuneration, +enables the department to play off one against the other, for the +existence of a lower paid class makes it increasingly difficult for +the Men Clerks to substantiate a claim for better pay themselves. The +standard of their work is raised by the "moving-down" or "degrading" +of duties, without any improvement in pay such as they would probably +be able to obtain if women were not involuntarily undercutting them. +Women fully sympathise with their male colleagues, whose prospects +are injured in this way, but they insist that the only solution of +the difficulty is equal treatment and fair and open competition. +The Association of Clerks of the Second Division supported the Women +Clerks' claim for equal pay for equal work in their evidence before +the Royal Commission on the Civil Service, and it is gratifying that, +in spite of the determined policy of the department to adhere as far +as possible to the absurd segregation of the sexes, the two organised +bodies of Men and Women Clerks are on excellent terms. + +In 1883 the class of Women Sorters was instituted, its original scale +of pay ranging from 12s. per week, increasing by annual increments of +1s. to 20s. per week. In 1885 a first class was created with a maximum +of 30s. per week. The Tweedmouth Committee of 1897 abolished the +classification, and substituted therefor an efficiency bar at 21s., +so that, unless incompetent, all the Women Sorters have a right to +proceed to the maximum of 30s. Since the salary was fixed at that +figure, the work of the Sorters has greatly improved in character. +Originally introduced for the purpose of sorting, arranging, and +filing the multitudinous kinds of official documents and papers, +they have by degrees taken over more and more of the simpler duties +formerly performed by the Women Clerks, until, at the present day, +it is no exaggeration to say that nearly one-half of their duties +consists of elementary clerical work. The Women Sorters are recruited +from an examination of the same standard as that hitherto applied +to Telegraphists, and the Women Sorters' Association claims that the +principle of equality between Sorters and Telegraphists, which was +recommended to the department by the Tweedmouth Committee in 1897, +should be applied to the Women Sorters. Prior to 1900, vacancies +occurring in the female staff at the Returned Letter Office were +filled by transferred Women Telegraphists, but since that date, +vacancies have been filled by successful candidates at the Women +Sorters' examinations, who are awarded the Women Telegraphists' scale +of pay. There is, therefore, the anomaly of two different scales +of pay being given to successful candidates in the Women Sorters' +examinations. The Women Sorters also claim some outlet, or prospect of +advancement, other than that provided by the "Senior Sorterships," +of which there are a few in each department, carrying a supervising +allowance of 3s. a week; this claim has been partly met by the +apportionment of the new posts of Assistant Women Clerks previously +mentioned. + +Women Telephone Operators are a large and rapidly growing class, +recruited entirely by nomination followed by a qualifying examination. +They number at the present time about 4,000, including Supervisors. +The growing use of the telephone is replacing the telegraph, and +is likely to make of this class a serious rival to the grade of +Telegraphist. In this connection, it is important to recognise that +the change is likely to entail an enormous increase in the use of +cheap labour. The maximum salary of the Telephonist in London is only +28s. per week. The work is extremely exacting and exhausting to the +nervous system, so much so, that it is an absolute necessity for the +maintenance of health that proper and adequate rest-room accommodation +should be provided, and that the operators should be equipped with +apparatus of the proper type. + +The classes already mentioned have, until the present year (1913), +been recruited solely for the Post Office, but the class of Women +Typists, numbering about 600, are a Treasury Class, and are common to +the whole Civil Service, the conditions of entry varying according +to the Department. In the Post Office alone, are Typists recruited +by open competitive examination. The scale of salary is 20s. a week, +rising in three years to 26s.: they then have the option of qualifying +in shorthand, after which they can rise to 31s. per week. In the Post +Office, however, the number allowed to qualify in this way is +limited to 50 per cent. of the staff. The supervising posts are: +Superintendent, 35s. a week, and Chief Superintendent, 40s. a week. +No higher positions are open to Typists anywhere, no matter how good +their qualifications and educational equipment. The Association of +Civil Service Typists claim some avenue of promotion to clerical work +in the Departments in which they serve. + +There are also about 650 women employed by the Board of Trade in the +Labour Exchange Service. With the exception of about 180, who were +transferred from the Post Office for Unemployment Insurance Work under +Part II. of the National Insurance Act, these women were admitted +by the new method of recruitment adopted by the Civil Service +Commissioner under Clause VII. of the Order in Council of January +1910. Under this system, applications are invited, and a certain +number of apparently suitable candidates are interviewed by a +committee of selection, and those chosen for appointment are +subsequently required to pass a qualifying examination. The +educational standard of this examination, for both men and women, +is so low that it appears to be designed, not for the purpose +of selecting candidates of good general education, but merely to +eliminate the illiterate. + +The scale of salary for these posts is the same for women as for men, +and is as follows:-- + + Lower Grade L60, rising by increments of L5 + per annum to L105. + Higher Grade L110, rising by increments of + L5 per annum to L150. + +There are also a few higher appointments. Women are, however, under +a particular disability in that they must wait for a vacancy in the +Higher Grade before passing on beyond L105, whilst in the case of +the Men Clerks there is no such stoppage, officers being allowed to +proceed straight on, if certified efficient. + +It will, no doubt, have been observed that the post of Women Clerk is +the highest in the Service open to women by competitive examination, +and with the exception of some sixteen or eighteen appointments in the +Board of Education, Women Clerks have hitherto been recruited for the +Post Office alone. They are now being recruited from this examination +for the National Health Insurance Commissions. The exclusion of Women +Clerks from the numerous State Departments such as the Home Office, +Local Government Board, Inland Revenue, etc., is mainly traditional, +as they are not excluded by the wording of the Order in Council of +10th January 1910 (paragraph 5, Part I.) which states that + + "all appointments ... shall be made by means of competitive + examinations according to regulations framed, or + to be from time to time framed by the Commissioners, + and approved by the Treasury, _open to all persons_(of the + requisite age, health, character, and other qualifications + prescribed in the said regulations) who may be desirous + of attending the same...." + +In this passage the word "persons" is interpreted to mean men only, +but as other professions are yielding to the pressure of modern +economic conditions and are opening their doors to women, it is +time that the State considered the advisability of profiting by the +services of women eminently fitted to perform clerical, organising, +and administrative duties, many of whom may possess the special +qualifications needed for the work in various Government Departments. + +The present limitation of the employment of women, and their lack of +prospects of advancement constitutes a serious grievance. Whilst many +avenues are open to men to improve their condition in the early years +of service, if they possess the necessary ability and enterprise, +women have no such opportunities, and have practically no chance of +advancement except by way of supervision in their own grade. Moreover, +if we look at this question from the point of view of advantage to the +community, we find that the present mode of staffing the higher posts +of the service from the male sex narrows the field of selection. It is +in the interests of the public that the best type of officer should be +secured, and not merely the best male available, and the unrestricted +admission of women to the higher classes in the Civil Service, and +their payment on the same terms as men would make for the greater +efficiency of the Department, by securing the services of highly +qualified women, who at present are not attracted by the small +salaries and the meagre prospects offered. It must also be realised by +heads of families that they have a right to expect that the service of +the State--a dignified, secure, and independent profession--should be +open to their daughters as well as to their sons. Furthermore, as +the revenue, out of which the salaries of Civil Servants are paid, is +collected from women as well as from men, women should have an equal +right to earn those salaries. + +Economy in working and simplification of administration would be +attained by abolishing the separate examinations, and allowing men and +women to enter for the same examinations on equal terms. + +There are certain advantages attached to service under the State, +which are taken into account when salaries are fixed, but the value +of these privileges to the staff is frequently over-estimated by +the outsider. For instance, security of tenure and the prospect of +a pension at retirement, often act as a deterrent to clever and +enterprising officers who, but for the sacrifice involved, would +throw up their appointment and seek more remunerative and promising +employment outside. Again, the medical attendance provided by the +Post Office is, in the case of the women employed in the Headquarters +Departments, only available in practice when they are well enough to +attend at the office to wait on the Medical Officer there. In theory, +every employee is entitled to the services of a Medical Officer at her +own home in case of serious illness, but, in fact, the Women Medical +Officers are too few to be able to give the necessary individual +attention. As an instance of this, it may be stated that to one +Department, numbering 1,800 women, the part time of one doctor only, +is allotted. + +Other advantages are a steadily progressing scale of salary, +provided that efficient service is rendered; annual leave with pay; +a reasonable working day--seven hours for the clerical force and the +typists, and eight hours for the other classes; in most Departments +payment is made for overtime; a pension on compulsory retirement after +ten years' service, except in the case of women retired on marriage, +when a gratuity is given after six years' service, amounting to +one month's salary for every year of service up to twelve years. +A compassionate allowance is also given on the same basis for both +sexes, in cases where an officer is compelled to retire through +ill-health before completing ten years' service. Sick pay is granted +up to a maximum of six months on full pay and six months on half +pay. The full period of leave is not, however, always allowed before +retirement. It is given only at the discretion of the Department, +if there is a chance of complete recovery; officers have no definite +claim to it. Although these are distinct advantages to the staff, it +must not be overlooked that it is essential for the State to offer +some inducements of this kind, in order to obtain a staff more or less +permanent who will regard their employment as a career. It is most +important for the proper conduct of a Government office that the +officials should have a lasting interest in their work, and a share in +the successful administration of the Department. + +Women Civil Servants are under the Superannuation Act of 1859 as +regards their pensions, and receive an amount equal to one-sixtieth +of their annual salary at retirement, for every year of service. Under +the Courtney Scheme of 1909, the basis of calculation is one-eightieth +instead of one-sixtieth, and the reduction in the pension is +compensated by a cash payment at retirement, or, in the event of +death occurring whilst in harness, a cash payment is made to the +next-of-kin. Women secured their exclusion from the provisions of the +latter scheme at their own request, as it was felt that the larger +pension was of more value to them than the cash payment at death or +retirement; moreover their pensions were already too small to admit of +further diminution. + +It is a general rule throughout the Service that a woman must retire +on marriage; as already mentioned, a compensating-bonus is granted in +respect of the loss of pension thereby sustained. A married woman has +no definite claim to return to her employment, should she again desire +to earn her own living, and only if widowed is she allowed, in certain +circumstances, to return to the Service. Should any other misfortune +overtake her, or should she for any other reason wish to become +economically independent, she is not allowed to earn her living by +means of her own profession of Civil Servant. This rule of the Service +undoubtedly acts as a deterrent to marriage for, according to the +statistics published, only about 3 per cent. of the whole female staff +annually leave to be married. It need hardly be pointed out that +in the present state of the law of the land, when no portion of a +husband's income is secured to his wife as a right, a woman will not +lightly throw up her means of livelihood with no prospect of returning +to it should she so desire, in order to take her chance of happiness +with a man whom the law permits to hold her in subjection body and +soul. There is another aspect of the question: Women Civil Servants +have to pass a strict medical examination before entering the Service; +they have to furnish satisfactory evidence of respectability, of the +health of their antecedents, and of a certain standard of education. +They are therefore what is known as "selected lives": if these women +are forced to remain celibate as a condition of their employment, +it is a distinct loss to the nation of a specially selected class +of potential mothers. In these days, when the declining birthrate is +causing some concern to our statesmen, it would surely be worth their +while to consider how far they are themselves contributing to the +condition of affairs which they deplore, by maintaining this rigid +regulation for the sake of a worn-out sentiment. The compulsory +resignation on marriage is a definite wrong both to the women +concerned and to the community at large, for women of selected health +and intellect are discouraged from marriage by this regulation. +Pending the final settlement of this question which is likely to be a +very controversial one, the difficulty might be met by a modification +of the existing rule allowing married women who have been Civil +Servants to return to their employment should they again desire to +earn their own living by means of the only profession for which they +have qualified. + +Women in the Civil Service are in a peculiar position with regard +to their rights as citizens. They are handicapped by all the rules +governing the political action of men, while they are without the +means of maintaining their status as wage-earners. Although they +are prohibited by reason of their sex, from taking part in any +Parliamentary election as voters, they are nevertheless bound by the +rules of the Civil Service which were drawn up when Civil Servants +were first enfranchised. These rules state that "now officers have +been relieved of the electoral disabilities to which they were +formerly subject, they are eligible to be placed on the Parliamentary +Register and to vote at a parliamentary election. Nevertheless, it +is expected of them as Public Servants that they should maintain a +certain reserve in political matters and not put themselves forward +on one side or the other." This rule has been interpreted by the +Department to mean that no Woman Civil Servant may take an active part +in any Suffrage Society which interferes in party politics. Thus women +are forced to accept a subservient position, and are also prevented +from taking direct steps to raise their status. The principle of equal +pay for equal work, if conceded without equal opportunities, is liable +to be evaded, and must be safeguarded by statute, and there is no +guarantee that any improvement gained will be permanent until women +have political power to enforce their demands, for the masculine +point of view dominates every Government Department and colours all +administration. + +Moreover, it should be borne in mind that women are handicapped by +being, to a large degree, dependent on reports of their work emanating +from male Heads of Departments who are in many cases prejudiced, +sometimes unconsciously, against their employment. Heads of +Departments do not as a rule take the same amount of personal interest +as a private employer in the women under their control, and so these +are frequently the victims of caprice. If the person in authority at +a particular office happens to object to employing women, he actually +opposes their appointment in that office, and deprives them of the +chance of displaying their ability. Whilst they have more than their +fair share of routine work, and are excluded from practically all the +higher posts, they are on that account actually accused of possessing +less initiative, less administrative ability, and less power of acting +in sudden emergencies than men. It is indeed a vicious circle. They +are prevented by their sex from acquiring these qualities in the +ordinary course of their duties and excluded from the examinations for +admission to those posts in which such qualities would be of use. It +is then seriously urged by responsible officials of the Civil Service +as an argument against their admittance to superior appointments, that +they are lacking in the necessary qualifications. + +Such unreasonable and unfair criticism creates bitterness in the minds +of the women, who find themselves, in a large number of cases, saddled +with domestic responsibilities as great or greater than those of the +officials who would seek to drive them back into the home, and who +endeavour to prevent them from rising to any decent positions in their +profession. An encouraging sign, however, is the enlightened attitude +shown by some of the members of the Royal Commission on the Civil +Service; the pertinent enquiries made of the Heads of Departments +regarding the position of women tend to show that the question will, +at least, receive consideration, and that the evidence placed before +the Commission by the women's organisations will not be without its +effect on the administration of the Civil Service in the future. + +The recognition by the male staff in the Civil Service of the +importance of the principle of equal pay for equal work is a sign of +advance which should be welcomed by all who have the cause of women +at heart. This increased enlightenment was evidenced at the Annual +Conference of the Civil Service Federation held at the Guildhall +on the 11th October last. Delegates were present, representing +approximately 100,000 Civil Servants, and the following resolution, +which is important enough to be quoted in full, was passed by a +majority of 31 votes to 10. + + "That this Council expresses its conviction that equal + pay for equal work is the only solution of the problem + of male and female labour in the Civil Service, and + considers that the establishment of this principle is the + only alternative to the competition of cheapness which + is the result of the existing double standard of payment, + and is affecting so injuriously the conditions of service + of both men and women. It therefore pledges itself to + endeavour to obtain the abolition of the sex disability." + +Women in the Service are realising more and more that their strength +lies in effective combination. A new organisation has recently sprung +into being as a result of the introduction of Women Clerks into +the Board of Trade and the National Health Insurance Service, the +Federation of Civil Service Women Clerks having been formed for +the purpose of working for the larger interests of the women in the +various clerical departments of the Civil Service. The general policy +of the Federation will be to afford a ready means of communication +between various sections of the Service for the purpose of taking +joint action when necessary in the interests of the whole body of +Women Clerks, and to enable them to concentrate more effectively on +the larger issues connected with the claim for equality of opportunity +for women with men in the Civil Service. + + * * * * * + +This article will not be complete without some reference to the +Report of the Holt Committee which is engaging the attention of the +Postmaster General at the present time. + +When the Report was published in August last, it was generally agreed +that the women had been badly treated. The demand for equality of +remuneration with the male staff which was put forward by the Women +Telegraphists and the Women Clerks has been completely ignored. The +Women Sorters are awarded an increase of 2s. a week in the maximum +salary, and, as a set off, it is proposed that they shall undertake +a larger portion of the minor clerical duties now performed by Women +Clerks. The immediate supervision of the Women Sorters is to be met +by the establishment of the Senior Sorters (who at present receive a +supervising allowance of 3s. a week) as a regular supervising class +with a fixed scale of salary, viz., 32s. per week rising by 1s. 6d. +to 38s. The ultimate supervision remains in the hands of the Women +Clerks. The Committee recommended the abandonment of the tentative new +grade of Female Assistant Clerks on the ground that there is no need +for a class intermediate between the Women Sorters and the Girl +and Women Clerks. A further recommendation, causing widespread +dissatisfaction, is that the hours of duty shall be increased by three +and a half hours per week. The eight-hour day for manipulative +work and the seven-hour day for clerical work has hitherto been the +standard working day in the Post Office, and the suggested increase +with no compensating rise in salary apart from an immediate increment, +not to be carried above the maximum of the scale, has been rejected by +all classes with indignation.[3] The Women Telegraphists get nothing, +the Women Telephonists nothing, the Women Clerks of the First +and Second classes, L10 and L5 increase in the maximum salary +respectively. The Women Counter Clerks and Telegraphists in the +provinces get nothing, although the men of the same class get 2s. a +week increase in the maximum. + +It is understood from a reliable source that the higher officials of +the Post Office admit that the women on the whole have been scurvily +treated, and it is confidently expected that the Postmaster General +will modify and improve some of the proposals when the final revision +of the Report is undertaken. Apart from the various class interests, +the only recommendation that can be regarded as in any way +satisfactory to women is the abolition of the grade of Assistant Women +Clerks as at present constituted. The only form in which the new grade +could be at all acceptable would be in substitution for the grades of +Girl Clerk and Women Sorter with a scale of salary comparable to the +Male Assistant Clerk, in accordance with the claim placed before the +Holt Commission and before the Royal Commission on the Civil Service. +The insertion of a new water-tight compartment such as the Department +proposed, between the Women Sorters and Women Clerks would be +dangerous to the interests, and detrimental to the expansion of +both, while the present restriction of women to rank and file work +continues. It would press the Sorters still further down in the scale +by depriving them of all opportunity of succeeding to clerical work, +as the recruitment of the Assistant Clerks from their ranks would +inevitably be very small; and it would also injure the prospects +of promotion of the Women Clerks by decreasing their numbers and by +depriving them of higher posts due to growth of work and increase of +staff. This latter result was clearly foreseen by the Department when +the scheme was first promulgated. Moreover, it would be a blow to the +general status of women in the Post Office by depreciating the value +of their work and lowering the standard of their employment. It is a +matter for congratulation, therefore, that the Select Committee have +advised the abolition of the new grade, and the Postmaster General, +having agreed in the House of Commons to refer the matter to the +arbitrament of the Parliamentary Committee, can hardly repudiate their +decision. + + +[Footnote 1: See the end of the article for the Report of the Holt +Committee.] + +[Footnote 2: The women are pressing for identical examinations. +[EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 3: The Postmaster General has recently (December 1913), +conceded the point, and has promised that there shall be no increase +in the hours of duty in the Post Office Service; concessions about pay +have been refused. [EDITOR.]] + + + + +SECTION VI + +WOMEN CLERKS AND SECRETARIES + + +The salary of the woman secretary of the best class, whether working +privately or for a firm, seems to be L100 to L150 a year. Generally +speaking, this is exactly what it was twenty years ago. It would seem +that the highest salaries are those given by City men to confidential +clerks (sometimes relatives), who are either good accountants or good +linguists. The head of an influential typing office and registry in +London informed me that the highly paid posts of translators to City +firms are usually filled by German girls. The woman receiving L200 to +L250 is a very rare person. I know only of one who receives L5 a +week, and that is from an American firm in London. She does +private secretarial work, but has no book-keeping and no foreign +correspondence. Some years ago I knew of another woman, private +secretary to the head of a large publishing firm, who had L200 a year. +She was an efficient French correspondent, an able, all-round woman, +and had been with the firm for twenty years. There are now two clerks +in her place at much lower salaries. There seems to be a tendency to +employ two cheap clerks in place of one expensive one. + +People unacquainted with the facts, seldom realise how small is the +remuneration of capable secretaries. I am acquainted with the work of +a woman who has the following qualifications: verbatim shorthand, neat +typing and sound knowledge of secretarial and business work, including +book-keeping; she is methodical and conscientious in her work, has had +some years' City Experience, three years in the shorthand and typing +offices in the Houses of Parliament and with peers and members. She is +asking 45s. a week, and would take 40s. "with prospects." + +Well-paid posts seem to be exceptional. A woman with an intimate +knowledge of City conditions, who was chief accountant to an important +firm for sixteen years, informs me that L175 is the highest salary she +has ever known a woman clerk to receive. The lowest on record seems +to be 5s. a week. There is a woman running a typing office in the City +who hires out shorthand typists at this figure to business firms. +She employs a staff of from fifteen to twenty girls. Similarly, an +industrial insurance company, nine months ago, opened a new department +to deal with the work of the new Act. They engaged fifty girl clerks +at 10s. with a superintendent, also a woman, at 30s. a week. + +There is sometimes difficulty in getting accurate information with +regard to payments. The heads of typing schools and colleges are apt +to give too rosy a picture, and the individual clerk has usually a +somewhat narrow experience and is inclined to be pessimistic. A man +whom I interviewed (in place of the manager, who was engaged), at +one of the biggest schools for training clerks, informed me that +everything depended on the clerk. He said the girls who were getting +10s. a week were not worth more, and that there were "many" women +clerks getting from L300 to L350. I said I was delighted to hear this +as I had had difficulty in running to earth the woman clerk with +L200, and had not before heard of the higher salaries. I took out my +notebook and begged for particulars. He then said he knew of "one" of +their diplomees working for a firm of florists, who had a salary +of L300: she was able to correspond in English, French, German, and +Spanish. I asked if he would kindly give me her name and address that +I might interview her, but he said he could not possibly do that, as +any woman clerk who allowed herself to be interviewed would be certain +to lose her post. + +The manager of a business in Manchester, who employs five shorthand +typists, pays them from 15s. to 30s. He admits that it is impossible +for the girls to live on their salaries unless they are at home with +their parents, as is the case with all of them. But he says that it +is unreasonable to expect him to give more than the market rates, and +that for 30s. he gets excellent service. He suggests that the only way +to raise wages is for the clerks to organise. + +The principal of a high class typing office in the City, a woman of +experience, who trains only a select number of educated girls, never +allows a pupil from her school to begin at less than 25s. a week with +a prospect of speedy increase. She pays her own translator L3, 5s. +a week, and four members of her staff are paid at the rate of L160 a +year. + +Mr Elvin, Secretary of the Union of Clerks, tries to enforce a minimum +wage of 35s. a week as the beginning salary for an expert shorthand +typist, and this may be regarded as the present Trade Union rate. Mr +Elvin's difficulty is chiefly with the girls themselves. They are so +accustomed to the idea of women being paid less than men that it is +not easy to get them to insist on equal pay. In one case he was asked +to supply a woman secretary for a certain post. He agreed to find a +suitable person if the firm would guarantee a commencing salary of +35s. a week. After some demur this was conceded, and he sent to a +well-known school for three competent clerks that he might examine +them and recommend the best of the three. After the test he asked +them, in turn, what salary they expected. They were all over +twenty-one years of age and all competent. One mentioned 25s., the +second 23s., and the third L1 a week. On being asked, they said they +knew they were worth more, but they thought that, as they were women, +they would not get it. + +Where there is no one to safeguard the interests of the clerk, an +employer, on the look-out for cheap labour, finds it easily enough. +The head of a big firm offered a French girl, an expert shorthand +writer in three languages, 15s. a week, with a possible rise after +three months. She finally accepted a post at 30s. a week as she could +get nothing better through registries or by advertisement. + +Unless a girl has a claim on a school where she has trained, or has +influential friends, it is very difficult for her to get a post suited +to her needs in London. The whole profession seems to be in a chaotic +condition, and the chances through advertisement are haphazard and +unsatisfactory. Employment bureaux maintain that there are more good +posts than there are qualified women to fill them, but individual +secretaries are timid about giving up unsatisfactory posts as they do +not know how to get better. + +Take the case of a private secretary to a Member of Parliament. +He loses his seat, retires to the country, and gives up his London +secretary. He gives her a number of introductions. These lead to +nothing, and she is forced into the competition of the City. Her +particular training is of no use in a commercial office, and her value +falls to 30s. a week. + +A woman with an intimate knowledge of women clerks and secretaries +in the City for the past twenty years, says that it is difficult to +overestimate the poverty of a vast number of girls. Many of them are +the chief breadwinners of the family. She knows of half a dozen cases +of men of forty and a little older who are living on the earnings of +their daughters; there may be two girls in the family, one getting +12s. and the other 25s. a week. + +The private secretary who lives in, has usually excellent food and +pleasant surroundings, but in some cases the life is a solitary +one. Unless there is a governess or other educated employee in the +household, she has no companionship. The salary varies from L30 to +L120 and sometimes more. There is apparently no fixed rate. One lady +writes: + +"For two years I lived in the house of Sir----, the most hopelessly +isolated and uninteresting existence, within the four walls of his +study. A secretary should certainly stick out for a free week-end once +a month when living in. Isolation is horribly bad for one." + +The secretary living in with congenial literary or medical people, +where she is made one of the family circle, has a happier time, but +the payment is not high. + +Apart from salary, the conditions in which the woman clerk works are +by no means ideal. + +Twenty years ago, in a far northern city, there was a flourishing new +school where over thirty girls of from fifteen to twenty were being +taught shorthand, typewriting, book-keeping, and all that goes to the +making of a fully-equipped clerk. This school was the first experiment +of the kind in an enterprising community. As the pupils qualified, +with Pitman certificates of varying degrees of speed, at the end of +six months or longer, the way in which old-fashioned lawyers accepted +the innovation of attractive young women on their clerical staff, +seemed almost magical. Decorum relegated the young women to separate +rooms from the rest of the employees, and the formality in the bearing +of heads of departments towards these pioneer females must have been +gratifying to Mrs Grundy. So superior to human exigencies seemed these +dignified men, that the subject of lavatory accommodation for young +women, mewed up from 9 to 1 and from 2 to 5.30, was not mentioned. +Woman's modesty, if it were to reach the high standard made for her by +man, had to come before her health or comfort. Although typists of +all grades have multiplied by thousands[1] during the past twenty +years--in London alone there are over 25,000 women clerks and +secretaries--there is still need for adequate inspection of sanitary +accommodation for women workers of this class. Apart altogether from +sanitary accommodation, common sense would seem to suggest that, +in the case of any one who has to turn out decent typing, a regular +supply of hot water is a necessity for washing hands that may have to +change a ribbon or do the many little messy jobs that typing involves. + +In a lecture before the Fabian Women's Group in February 1912, Miss +Florence, of the Association of Women Clerks and Secretaries, said: + +"With regard to the sanitary conditions--these as a rule are bad, +especially where there is only one woman. The difficulty has been +shirked by the women themselves in a great many cases.... I do not see +how these can be altered except by improving the status and position +of women, so that they may become strong enough to say they will not +have it if it is too bad." + +Who is to dictate what is "too bad"? Surely the only remedy is to +have a proper standard of decency enforced by law. Women as a rule are +fools on this subject, and will endure almost any discomfort, rather +than complain. + +In giving evidence before the Royal Commission, in May last year, +concerning the conditions of employment and their effect on the +health of Civil Service female typists and shorthand writers, Miss +Charlesworth, Honorary Secretary of the Civil Service Typists' +Association, said: + +"The statistics as regards sickness relating to our class are almost +too small to be of very much use.... I may say from experience that +they are greatly influenced by the conditions under which the work +is done. In my own department (Local Government Board) our average +absence from sickness in the old office, where we were much +overcrowded, varied between ten and fourteen days a year, while in +our new office the average has steadily gone down from twelve to a +fraction over six last year.... It is very striking that there has +been that reduction in the average number of days' absence per year +from sickness, from twelve to six in four years while we have been +working under better conditions ... that means a less number of typing +machines in one room, more light to work by and more air--better rooms +to work in." + +This evidence is interesting, as the worst conditions that could +possibly exist in the lofty rooms of a Government office, where +everything is on a big scale and there is a certain standard of +comfort, must be superior to the majority of commercial offices, +especially in London, where space is so expensive. Think of four girls +taking shorthand notes by telephone in a room with thirty typewriting +machines working at once! + +There are no figures available with regard to the health of women +clerks generally. The common ailments are neuritis, anaemia, and +nervous breakdown. Typing is also a strain on the eyesight and +hearing. Miss Charlesworth says that in her experience it is the girls +who are not suited for the work who suffer most from ill-health. + +One typing office and school, of high repute for excellence of work, +had rooms so dark that electric light was always used in one or other +of them during part of the day. No sun ever entered the work-rooms. +The salaries were good, but overtime was paid at only 6d. an hour. +There was a sort of compulsion, too, to work overtime; some of the +best typists, occasionally even stayed all night during excessive +rushes of work. No holidays were paid for, and it was regarded as +disloyalty on the part of a clerk to stay away for sickness. There +was an instance of a girl being dismissed because she stayed away a +fortnight owing to influenza. This particular firm recently moved into +bigger, brighter rooms, not out of humanity to its staff, but because +the lease had run out. + +Where competition is as keen as in the typing business, it is often +the case that the comfort of employees is considered as little as is +compatible with running the place at a profit. There seems to be no +inspection, and there is no law to say how many typists may be worked +together, or what limit of noise shall be endured by them. Everything +is ruled by the individual standard of decency of the employer. Many +well-educated girls enter typing offices for the excellent practical +training to be had, and for the short time they remain they are +willing to put up with severe discipline and some personal discomfort. +There are, of course, typing offices with as high a level of comfort +and decency as the most exacting law would prescribe. Many of the +big engineering firms and City houses have most comfortable and even +luxurious quarters for their women clerks. + +In old days in the above-mentioned northern school, it was possible +to get complete teaching as a clerk--excellent teaching, too--for a +guinea a term. There were some shorthand typists whose training cost +them only that initial guinea and the fees of the supplementary course +of evening classes, 5s. and 10s. according to the number of subjects. +In London at that time a year's course in the same subjects cost +as much as 60 guineas at some of the chief typing schools. The fee +nowadays, at one of the foremost London schools for a secretarial +course for six months only, is 60 guineas; a year's course is L100.[2] +This includes book-keeping and shorthand correspondence in one foreign +language, besides shorthand and typing, etc. + +The best testimony shows that a year is altogether too long for +an intelligent well-educated girl of eighteen or more to spend on +technical training.[3] Mr James Oliphant, writing in _The School +World_ for July 1913 on the subject of secretarial training for girls, +says: + +".... It is to be noted that the curriculum in girls' schools is of +a much more reasonable character than that which is commonly provided +for boys, and that the more completely it is fitted to supply a good +general education, the better it would be adapted to the special +needs of those who wish to become clerks or secretaries. It would +seem eminently desirable that such aspirants should continue at the +secondary school between the ages of sixteen and eighteen, being +provided with a specialised course of study ... but whenever it is +possible it would be well to insist that no subject should be included +which is not generally educative in the widest sense. The acquisition +of such mechanical arts as stenography and typewriting should be +relegated to technical colleges where, according to general testimony, +proficiency can be gained by well-educated girls in a period +varying from six to nine months. 'Commercial correspondence' is +an abomination; a sufficient knowledge of the ordinary forms +of letter-writing should be imparted in every course of English +composition ... while the special jargon of each business or office +can be readily acquired by any intelligent girl when it becomes +necessary." + +There is every variety of price at the various technical training +schools all over the country, from a guinea to L100. With regard to +the training given in non-technical schools, the capable head of a +well-equipped West End typing office writes: + +"It is a pity the ordinary schools are taking it up. I know of at +least one so-called secondary school which makes a speciality of +'Commercial Training.' The girls who take up the subject are quite +the wrong kind, with absolutely no real education,... and are ready +to accept anything in the way of salary. The really good schools where +the girls remain till they are 18 or 19 give a better training, of +course.... But I do not think the schools have any right to undertake +a specialised vocational training; it must lower the standard. +Every other profession has its special training after a good general +education has been acquired." + +The best-known societies for protecting the interests of women clerks +and secretaries are, the Association of Women Clerks and Secretaries +at 12 Buckingham Street, Strand, and the National Union of Clerks +at 186-188 Bishopsgate Street. These are the only approved societies +under the National Insurance Act. + +The Association of Women Clerks and Secretaries has been in existence +for eight years, and during the last year has more than trebled its +members, the clerks' attitude towards combination having recently +changed somewhat, in London at any rate. The Association has a devoted +secretary and does excellent work. Its aims are: + + (1) To raise the status of women clerks and secretaries, + and to encourage a higher standard of + practical training. + + (2) To secure a just remuneration for all grades. + + (3) To render legal aid and give advice to members, + and to benefit generally the clerical and secretarial + profession for women. + + (4) To maintain a registry for women clerks and secretaries, + and to watch for openings for members of + the Association. + + (5) To establish and maintain an Approved Society + under the National Insurance Act, 1911, for the + benefit of Women Clerks and Secretaries. + +The Association is not yet, however, strong enough to form a +recognised union able to fix a minimum education qualification for +membership. An important conference was held by this Association in +May last at the University of London. Every speaker emphasised the +need for better and wider education before taking up the profession, +and there was unanimity of opinion that no girl should be allowed to +start the technical part until she was at least sixteen. A remark of +Mrs W.L. Courtney, who was one of the speakers, is well worth quoting: +"One of the cleverest women I ever knew, who was an amateur indexer, +said to me one day, 'It does not matter in doing this work about being +clever; what matters is to have lived.'" There is not much chance then +for the school-girl of sixteen.[4] + +The National Union of Clerks is conducted with energy and +enlightenment. It has increased its membership by nearly 8,000 in the +last twelve months, and one of the best reasons it offers women clerks +for joining, is that it is the only National Society for Clerks that +has always accepted women as members on equal terms as men. There are +1,000 women in a membership of 10,000. Notwithstanding the hard work +these two societies are doing, there is nothing like the response +there should be from women clerks. It is only the exceptional woman +clerk who has yet developed anything like a corporate conscience. The +reason is partly that she is often an isolated being. Where there is a +large number of clerks together, as in the Civil Service, there is no +lack of the right spirit. + +Here are a few of the causes of the overstocking of the clerical +market by women. Almost any one can be a clerk of a kind. The training +is cheap and easily obtainable. Many parents want their children to +bring in money early, and this seems an easy way. A large percentage +of young girls (in 1907-1909, 87 per cent.) who fail to pass Civil +Service examinations, try to become clerks. Some time ago there was +an article in a daily newspaper entitled "The Passing of the +15s.-a-week-Girl." She is with us in larger numbers than ever, +however, and she has added to her numbers a 10s.-a-week-girl and even +a cheaper girl, as we have seen. We meet her daily in Tube and 'bus, +looking remarkably attractive, in spite of foolish shoes and a bad +habit of eating four-penny lunches. The chief charge some of her +fellow clerks have against her, apart from her inferior work, is that +she only makes use of typing as a road to marriage. The other class of +offender is the daughter of well-to-do parents. Typing is regarded +as a ladylike employment, and parents, who would never expect their +daughters to be self-supporting, are glad for them to earn pocket +money or just enough for dress. + +According to Mr Elvin of the National Union of Clerks, even in +prosperous times there are always 3 per cent. of unemployed clerks. In +bad times the percentage must be greater. Whether the times are good +or bad, young girls with the most elementary education are being +turned out by hundreds from typing schools. + +The only remedy is that the output of clerks should be restricted; no +one should be allowed to become a clerk who has not reached a certain +standard of efficiency. The parents are the chief offenders. Many of +them do not seem to have the necessary energy or intelligence to find +out for what their daughters are best fitted. Advisory Committees are +wanted in connection with all elementary and secondary schools. Of the +girl typists and shorthand writers who resigned from the Civil Service +from 1894 to 1906 for various causes, 17 per cent. left to take up +other work. The lady superintendent in one of the Civil Service typing +rooms pointed out a girl and said: "That girl would have made an +excellent milliner or a kindergarten teacher, but she is not at all +suited for this work." + +The chief grievance of the really efficient woman clerk and secretary +is that she has not enough scope. One woman writes: + +"If the various firms and professions who employ girls as typists were +to give them an insight into the business, whatever it might be, it +would add enormously to the enthusiasm of the worker. In America +they do this very often. The wonderful Miss Alice Duckin, the lady +skyscraper builder, was once a typist. When she entered the firm they +allowed her full scope to develop, and she mastered the building trade +and is now the chief partner of Messrs Duckin and Lass. There is one +firm of lawyers in London who allow their typists to attend the Law +Courts, and give them work to do which is usually reserved for men. +Only under such conditions can the profession expand." + +There is often a chance for a secretary in a newspaper office to +develop into a journalist. But there are instances when the private +secretary, who begins writing for the paper on which she is employed, +is told that she was engaged not as a contributor but as an efficient +secretary. + +One girl who had been for ten years private secretary to a literary +man in London, horrified her relatives, and gave her employer a shock, +by suddenly throwing up her much-envied post and entering herself at +a hospital for a particularly strenuous kind of nursing. Her salary +as secretary was 35s. a week; she had a comfortable room of her own +to work in, a good annual holiday, and other blessings. Her chief said +"good morning" and "good evening" to her, but she saw no one else, and +frequently she had technical German translations in the evenings, +for which she got nothing extra. Her chief did not know German, and +thought she did the translations as easily as she wrote shorthand. Her +whole work was moderately interesting, but the dullness of her life +became insupportable. Another private secretary at the end of fifteen +years in an excellent post, opened a tea-shop. + +An Edinburgh woman sends the following interesting statement:-- + +"Secretarial work seems to me one of the most congenial for educated +women. In Edinburgh the prospects are excellent. The headmasters and +mistresses of all the large schools, medical men, dentists, university +professors, managing editors of our great printing and publishing +houses, several of whom are editing encylopaedias, need a fair number +of women secretaries. And there is not a sufficient supply for the law +offices of which Edinburgh has such a large number. + +"The conditions are in need of some kind of organised supervision, +particularly where everything depends on an individual employer. In my +first post with a medical specialist, for instance, my time was never +my own; my work began at 9 and often did not end at midnight. Sunday +work was quite common; there were no Saturday afternoons off, but I +had free hours here and there which it was impossible to utilise. + +"Another post I had was ideal. I worked for two men, for one of whom I +spent the morning in a pathological laboratory. Here I did nothing +but research work and writing. In the afternoon I did general +correspondence and assistant editing of one of the medical journals. I +had free evenings and Saturday afternoons. It is an excellent plan +to work for two men, as it gives variety and may often be more +remunerative, although for myself I never had more than L100 a year. +There is lack of organisation in this profession, and posts are +difficult to get by registry or advertisement. I have never found a +Women's Employment Bureau of any use whatever. I have got everything +by personal recommendation." + +A common grievance seems to be the amount of overtime imposed on many +clerks, sometimes paid for, but often obligatory whether paid for +or not. There is a naive arrangement in the Civil Service Typing +Department. It seems that the typists are allowed 9d. or 10d. an hour +for overtime up to a limit of fifteen hours a month, but any overtime +beyond that is not paid for. In the Minutes of Evidence before the +Royal Commission we read:-- + +"_Commissioner_. Is any other time beyond that (15 hours a month) ever +exacted? + +"_Superintendent_. Yes. + +"_Commissioner_. Are they ever required to work longer than that? + +"_Superintendent_. Yes. + +"_Commissioner_. And are they not paid for it? + +"_Superintendent_. No. + +"_Commissioner_. What is the reason for that? + +"_Superintendent_. The Treasury laid it down in their minute. + +"_Commissioner_. Have you questioned it? + +"_Superintendent_. Yes, we have many times asked the Treasury to allow +the department to pay for more, but so far as I know, in no case has +it been allowed, and at this present time (May 1912), in the +London Telephone Service all shorthand-typists and typists and +superintendents are doing a great deal of overtime, but only 15 hours +in a month of 4 weeks is paid for. Superintendents are not paid at all +for overtime. The only reason, apparently, for the limitation is that +the salaries are so close that if shorthand-typists were paid for +more overtime than 15 hours they would be earning more than the +superintendents." + +It seems impossible to tell as yet how the working of the National +Insurance Act will affect women clerks. The secretary of the +Information Bureau of the Woman's Institute says that, as far as she +knows, good offices continue to pay their clerks their salaries in +cases of illness, only making a deduction of the 7s. 6d. paid as +insurance money. + +To sum up, there is urgent need for better organisation among clerks +and secretaries. They should be graded in some way, so that the +efficient who are out of work may easily be brought in touch with +employers. The societies reach only a small proportion of the +workers, many of whom do not even know of their existence. It must +be remembered that a difficulty in the way of men and women clerks +combining, is that women of good education, sometimes in possession of +degrees, find themselves in competition with men of an inferior social +class. A large proportion of the best secretaries are the daughters +of professional men. The average woman clerk is invariably a person of +better education and manners than the male clerk at the same salary. + +In the next place, better sanitation and better working conditions +must be secured. Only last year, a firm employing hundreds of men and +a dozen women, had no separate lavatory for the women. It is to the +interest of the employer of women clerks to look after their health +and to provide rest rooms. Anti-feminists are positive as to women's +"inferior physique," but their practice as employers is too often +inconsistent with their opinions. + +Most important of all, women clerks and secretaries want more scope. +After ten years of clerking and secretarying they find that they are +up against a dead wall. There is no prospect of advancement, and no +call on their initiative. In private secretarial work this is not +always the fault of the employer; it is often inherent in the nature +of the work. Unless the secretary has, say, literary or journalistic +ability and develops in that way, she is worth little more to her +chief, if he is a literary man, after fifteen years than she was at +the end of ten. There may be progress from a less desirable to a more +desirable post, but there can be no advancement in the work itself. +As a training, however, a private post is incomparable. With the woman +who works for a commercial firm, it is a different matter. Women of +the best type who do this work, have a right to complain when they are +without chance of promotion. They feel that they should be given the +same opportunity of rising in the business, whatever it may be, as is +open to any intelligent office boy. The reply of the employer is, that +while the office boy, if promoted and given increasing pay, may be +expected to stay with the firm for a lifetime, there is not the same +certainty of continuity of service from women clerks, who may at any +time leave to get married. There are cases, however, where women have +stayed on after marriage when it has been made worth their while. +One woman who entered a firm as a young girl, continued with the +firm after marriage, and is now, as a widow, working for the same +employers. There is no reason why such cases should be exceptional. + +The calling, the conditions of which we have been considering, suffers +from its accessibility to the half trained and undisciplined of +various social grades. When, however, the righteous complaint of the +employer against the incompetent and scatter-brained has been heard, +the fact remains that among women clerks and secretaries there is an +exceptionally large proportion who give, for a moderate return and +limited prospects of advancement, conscientious, loyal, and skilful +service. + + +[Footnote 1: See Appendix II., p. 317.] + +[Footnote 2: Satisfactory secretarial training may be obtained in +London from reliable teachers for a fee of 25 guineas for a year's +course. It is, however, necessary to make searching enquiries before +arranging to enter any school, as some of these neither give a sound +training, nor obtain posts for their pupils as their advertisements +promise. [EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 3: First rate secretarial preparation includes more than +merely technical instruction. It gives a sound business training as +well, and, in addition, insists on one or more foreign languages. A +girl who hopes to become something more than a shorthand-typist ought +not to scamp her professional training: this should, of course, +follow her school-course--_i.e._, not begin until she is seventeen or +eighteen. Graduates, who have specialised in foreign languages, +may also advantageously prepare for the better secretarial posts. +[EDITOR.]] + +[Footnote 4: Apart from monetary prospects altogether, no girl should +be allowed to enter the profession until she is old enough and wise +enough to protect herself, should need arise, from the undesirable +employer, who may insult her with unwelcome attentions. The +possibility of such annoyance is an additional reason for all clerks +to join a Trade Union, which helps individuals to insist on proper +conditions of work. [EDITOR.]] + + + + +SECTION VII + +ACTING AS A PROFESSION FOR WOMEN + + +I do not know that the first actress who ever faced the public told +her friends that _the_ profession was not all paint and glitter, +because being a pioneer, and so treading on the corns of custom, she +was held as an unwomanly creature, and had unpleasant things thrown at +her, as well as words. So her impressions are not recorded. But when +women had settled down into the work, and were allowed to represent +themselves in the theatre (a privilege not as yet accorded to them +elsewhere), they announced practically and forcibly that all that +glittered was not gold, and that a successful, much-loved heroine +did not invariably tread the rosy path without finding the proverbial +thorns. + +The word "hardship" often repeated by successful artists, is accepted +by the public as a truism, which affects their attitude towards the +stage as a career about as much as the statement that the world is +round, when in their eyes it appears disappointingly flat. Yet the +word "hardship" has a meaning which most hurts those who have most +capacity for pain, and who are specially sensitive to humiliations, +disappointments, and discomforts--artists. + +But there are compensations, urges the outsider: good pay, congenial +work, and fame. If there are hardships what a glittering prize +compensates for the suffering! + +Let us at once grant the compensations which the few achieve. The few +make world-wide reputations, large salaries, and many devoted friends: +their life is full of interesting and successful work. But the average +individual is in the great majority, and the many spend all and obtain +nothing, trying to obtain a bargain which is no bargain: a bargain in +which there is something to sell and no one to buy--even our average +actress has something to sell, something worth buying--composed of +talent, ambition, long study, and application. There are, of course, +many more successful women in the theatre than there used to be, owing +to the tremendous opening up of this means of livelihood; but though +the successful are more abundant, there is, alas! no doubt a growing +number of unsuccessful workers in this very much over-crowded market. +In fact, it is becoming a profession in which it is only possible +to survive if the worker has some private means, or a supplementary +trade. + +I believe that this question of a supplementary trade requires +consideration, and am, myself, at present working on the subject, in +the hope that a scheme may be evolved to ensure those willing to +work an opportunity of gaining a livelihood during the long "resting" +periods. This waiting for work is almost universally the largest part +of an actress's life; and any satisfaction in the magnitude of the +wages which may be obtained must always be balanced by the knowledge +that an enormous number of weeks must be taken into consideration, +when work is quite unattainable. + +Here is one of the gravest disabilities of the profession. Only +continuous work can develop the powers of any artist, and this +is particularly true of the art of the theatre. Under the present +conditions an artist is, with an entire want of reason, raised to a +pinnacle of importance when playing a good part in a successful play; +but she may with equal suddenness be dashed into a gulf of failure and +non-productiveness, also without reason. + +There have been many artists, who at the end of a brilliant run of +a successful play, to the success of which they have largely +contributed, have found themselves forgotten by the powers that be, +and have discovered with bitter disappointment that a successful run +may result in being left utterly ignored, without a single offer of +work. + +The Christmas pantomime and the summer season cut down the actor's +year to forty weeks. From information which I was able to obtain from +the Actor's Association, the average yearly income of an actor is L70. +From this, L37 may be deducted for travelling and other expenses. For +though the actual railway fare is usually paid, no allowance is made +for conveyance of luggage from station to lodgings, and the constant +change of quarters naturally makes the weekly expenditure on a higher +scale. On these figures the average weekly earnings of an actor would +be 12s. 6d., or 1s. 9d. per day. + +This is the average income of an actor when working, but under present +conditions, the average day for an average actress is one in which she +looks for work. So let us take the average day of the average actress, +and see how she spends it. + +After leaving her tiny, grubby back room in Bloomsbury (time and fares +prohibit a bigger, better room in the suburbs), where she has cleaned +her own shoes, ironed her blouse and sewn in frilling before starting, +she walks down to an agent. The waiting-room there has a couple +of forms, which are already filled, and groups of girls have been +standing for some time. They have all had insufficient breakfasts, +badly served and ill-cooked; they all wear cheap and uncomfortable +shoes, too thin for wet pavements; they are all obliged to put on a +desperately photographic pose and expression, in case the agent's eyes +light on them. One or two, better dressed and more self-possessed, +secure interviews and pass out by another door. No information about +the part is to be procured, they are all there "on the chance." At +half past one the agent comes out for lunch, saying, as he passes +through the room, "No use waiting, ladies; no one else wanted to-day." +Our average friend has stayed for three hours, knowing no one to speak +to, and leaves no nearer her goal for her morning's congenial work. +She lunches on sandwiches and tea, re-arranges her hat and veil, and +starts out with fresh hope to use her one letter of introduction to +the manager of a West End theatre. + +She hands it to a door-keeper, who may possibly be considerate, but +cannot offer her a chair. There is no waiting-room; she waits in a +draughty, tiny passage, stage hands constantly squeezing by her. There +is a rehearsal; she must wait, or come back in an hour's time. She +walks round and looks into the shops in Leicester Square, and returns +thoroughly fatigued and a little pale, at four o'clock. She is shown +into an office, and by virtue of her letter of introduction is asked +to sit down. A few questions are put to her about her past work: she +does not know what part the manager has in mind, and puts forward +inept qualifications. In two or three minutes the important man has +formed his opinion of her face, carriage, expression, and has decided +if he will remember her or not. Her name being average, the odds are +that he will not; but he murmurs, "If anything turns up, I will let +you know," and her big chance is over. There is nothing approaching an +audition, such as a singer gets. It is the only opportunity afforded +her, this poor and hopeless method of proving her capacity as an +actress. It leaves her poorer for the day's outlay in food. She walks +back to the little room, her foothold in London--the great art market. + +This is a "congenial" day's work, which may be repeated for weeks, +and it occurs on an average in every three months. The adventure of it +stales very quickly. + +Let there be no mistake in the mind of the reader. This is not only +the experience of a would-be actress, a well-trained, medal-laden +aspirant from one of the good dramatic schools, but is one of the +bitter and frequent experiences of the thoroughly capable, trained, +and occasionally well-salaried actress, who has failed to arrive, +during her eighteen to twenty years of experience, at the much +coveted, and supposedly safe position at the top of the theatrical +ladder. + +Suppose our average actress is lucky, and her letter of introduction +gains her a small part in the London production. Into her three lines +she tries to crowd all she can of what she has learned from teachers +and experience. It is her opportunity. She has stepped forward amongst +those fortunate ones whose names are mentioned in the programme. +She starts for rehearsal happily enough from the little room in +Bloomsbury, passes the door-keeper without question, and takes up her +stand in the wings. There she stays three hours. She has companionship +in hushed whispers, and the right to exist. At two o'clock her act has +not yet been reached, and the artists are allowed to leave the theatre +for half an hour to get lunch. As she is not paid for rehearsals, +she cannot afford more than sixpence for a meal; so her repast is +necessarily a light one. At five, rehearsal is dismissed, and she +has gone through her part twice. Five minutes would cover her actual +acting for the day; and having stood about for nearly six hours she +walks back home to her room. + +As the play nears production, the rehearsal hours lengthen, and the +lunch times shorten. Her own hoard of savings offer her less and less +to spend on food, and when finally the play is produced--let us face +the worst--it not infrequently occurs that the run of the piece may +end in three weeks. She has rehearsed for four weeks, has been glad +to accept L2 for her tiny part, and out of that short run, which +represents L6, she must save enough to tide her over the next few +weeks, or perhaps months, until she gets her next engagement, more +unpaid rehearsals, and perhaps another short run. There is always +wearing anxiety, and the unpleasing, thankless, humiliating searching +for work, under the most distasteful conditions possible. + +There is now an effort being made by a few of the London managers to +pay a percentage on salaries for rehearsing. The movement, I think, is +partially due to the Insurance Act, which, of course, touches all +the low paid labour in the theatre. This effort, though obviously of +importance, can hardly as yet be considered as quite satisfactory. The +payments for five weeks' rehearsals are 6s. on the L1, 1s. salaries, +which include dancers, walkers-on, etc.: and 12s. 6d. a week on +salaries of L3. In each case, of course, the threepence insurance has +to be deducted, and it must be quite clear that no woman can live on +5s. 9d., much less make a good appearance, unless she has other means +of support. + +She may get an engagement to tour for a limited number of weeks. If +so, she gazes in despair at her small wardrobe, trying to puzzle out +three costumes to be used in the play, for actresses going on tour +have usually to provide their own dresses. + +A friend of mine played the leading part on the tour of a West +End production. She had to find all her own dresses, hats, +shoes, stockings, etc., and her salary was L3, 10s. a week. In a +"boiled-down" version she played twice nightly for L5 a week, and +found four dresses, two hats, an evening cloak, besides the shoes, +stockings, gloves, etc., incidental to a well dressed part. Another +soubrette on a salary of L2, 5s. paid her fare both on joining and +leaving the company, and was obliged to provide two dresses, one +evening dress and cloak, shoes, stockings, etc. + +The average salaries in melodrama are L4 a week, out of which must +be provided many dresses. The "heavy lead" or "adventuress" type, +generally magnificently attired, gets about L3 a week. In London, of +course, in the West End productions, dresses are provided, but the +engagement is not for a definite period as it would be on a tour, +and a curious difficulty arises through this arrangement, since the +actress who has once been beautifully dressed has a natural and +very comprehensible predilection thenceforward to continue to be so +delightfully gowned. Her own opinion as to what a dress should cost +almost invariably, after a London engagement, ceases to be on a level +with what her yearly income should permit. Clothes assume a horrible +importance not known in other trades, since her appearance may mean +her livelihood as a worker; for do we not know of engagements which +have been made when the angle of a hat has exactly coincided with the +mood of the manager who is engaging his company? + +So our little average actress, starting off on tour, patches and +manoeuvres to have a satisfactory appearance, and is painfully +self-conscious of deficiencies when the eyes of the manager, or the +more well-to-do sharers of the dressing-room, appear to enquire too +closely into details. One of my first successes was a triumphant one +for my sister; since an evening blouse, ingeniously concocted from a +table-centre, received some long notices in the Press. + +Theatrical lodgings, when one's salary is 25s. a week, are not always +the most pleasing in the town. Rheumatic fever and other unpleasant +illnesses have been contracted from damp beds, when the landlady, in +her desire to live up to the degree of cleanliness expected of her, +returns the sheets too quickly to the so-lately vacated bed; because, +with one company leaving in the morning, and another arriving at +tea-time, there are not many hours to clean out a room, and wash and +iron the only pair. + +The lodgings are usually extremely bad and dirty, and generally in the +least attractive and most unsavoury quarters of the town. The food is +generally unappetising and cooked with very little intelligence. +There have been many cases of women finding themselves in disreputable +houses; and even recommended lodgings have been found empty on +arrival, the police having raided them. I feel very strongly that the +only comfortable and dignified way to meet this difficulty is to have +a regular chain of clubs, on the principle of the Three Arts Club. + +Recently, in the correspondence of a leading "Daily," I read a letter +in which a man wrote that actresses on tour were able to perfect +themselves as wives and housekeepers. This throws a curious side-light +on the ignorance of people in general with regard to the theatre. +Actresses may, and do, become admirable workers, wives, and +housekeepers; but this is rather from the hardships of their lives +than from any possibility of developing a natural aptitude for +housekeeping whilst travelling week after week from town to town, +and living in rooms where the cleaning and cooking are done by the +landlady. As all domestic work is undertaken by the people who let the +rooms, the days go slowly, and there is absolutely nothing of +interest to do. If our average actress is with a successful play, her +engagement may be a long one; and she lives through the discomforts, +buoyed up by the hope of further opportunities, and a swelling account +at the Post Office. + +The happiest of all existences, for an actress, despite hard work and +much study, is in a repertory theatre. The opportunities are great; +ambition is not thwarted at every step; the day is filled with hard +study, but the nights result in greater or smaller achievement. +Everybody with whom she comes in contact is working as hard and +earnestly as she is. Life invigorating, progressive, uplifting, is +hers. To-night she is conscious she was not quite her best, but next +week, when the play is done again, she will work to make that point +real, she will laugh more naturally, cry more movingly, progress a +little further on the way to realise her dream of perfect expression, +free from worry and anxiety, free to work. + +Having achieved a certain amount of experience on tour and in London, +and being more or less proficient in her profession, does not, +however, ensure an increase in the actor's value. A domestic servant +receives a character, which is, if satisfactory, a sure means of +employment; a teacher, inspector, etc., has a certificate which is a +pronouncement of efficiency; but however great the achievement of +the theatre there is no lasting sign of your work, and the want of +definite aim is mentally demoralising. I have heard men say, and I +think not unjustly, that as many of these women are practically "on +the rocks," they will do anything for money; and this brings one to +a question which looms largely when considering unskilled trades. The +unskilled, pleasure-loving, short-sighted but ambitious girl, is apt +to lose her sense of values, and to be an easy and sometimes very +willing victim. If she be attractive, the eye of a powerful person may +alight upon her, and several shades of temptations are placed before +her. Not only money, and the advantages which an outward show of +prosperity may bring with it; not only amusements and luxuries; but a +much more dangerous and difficult temptation, which is not possible +in other trades, is placed before the worker--the offer of greater +opportunities in her work, the opportunities which an "understudy" may +bring in its train; the opportunity of a small part; the gratification +of ambition. There is no more immorality than in other trades, but +there is an amount of humiliating and degrading philandering, a +mauling sensuality which is more degrading than any violent abduction. +To be immoral a certain amount of courage is required; but the curse +of modern theatrical conditions is this corrupt debauchery. Many girls +have come to me explaining their difficulties, and many in asking my +advice ended up with the persistent cry of the modern woman, "I do so +want to get on!" This is a transitional stage in the world, as well as +in the theatre. When women are more intelligent and independent, there +will not be the same amount of selling themselves for the necessities +of existence. They will be able to secure the necessities, and a large +number of the luxuries, for themselves--one of the reasons, doubtless, +why the reactionaries cry out so loudly against the woman's movement. + +People love power over others; they love to control their destinies; +and there is a very large number of men who drift towards the theatre, +and like to consider the poor little butterflies as creatures of a +different species from their wives and daughters--a species provided +by a material Providence, who supplies their other appetites. The +poor little butterflies are glad, for a short time, to put up with +stupidity and egoism for the sake of a temporary relief from sordid +discomfort and gloom. Of course, I am not speaking of the women who, +without economic pressure, lead an illicit life. There are a few +of these women who are more than able to protect themselves, and +occasionally avenge their sisters. + +Of course, there are also theatres which are obviously dependent +for their great success upon this "oldest profession in the world": +theatres where a fairly good salary is offered with the suggestion +that it is as well to sup at some well-known restaurant, at least +three times a week; to drive to the theatre in a motor car, and to be +dressed by one of the famous dressmakers, whose names are given with +the salary. There are theatres where an eye is kept on the number of +stalls which are filled by the employed. But on the tours of these +successes, the managers are often very strict in their regulations, +and do everything to prevent those employed from supplementing their +incomes in this manner. + +There are, unfortunately, too many women who still believe in +dependence, so the supply is quite as great as the demand. To the real +artist who is deeply centred in her work, this particular evil is +of practically little importance. A great belief in her own powers +enables her to push aside opportunities which are not genuine. Men are +also human, and if met frankly and straightforwardly in work, or +for that matter, out of it, are as capable of honest, helpful good +fellowship as any woman. In fact, the work of the theatre, which +employs men and women, on more or less equal terms, is a splendid +place to find out that humanity is not limited to sexual problems, and +that the spirit of work removes these limitations, and gives place +to a healthy, invigorating atmosphere of _camaraderie_. It is quite a +false idea that a move in the wrong direction is in any way necessary +to success. + +Something must be said with regard to the sanitation and ventilation +of the theatre. Though there has been latterly a great effort to +improve the dressing-rooms in the new buildings, there is still a +great deal to be remedied. Here is a description of a dressing-room +used by a young artist in a modern West End theatre. + +"We were seven in a room which just held seven small toilet tables on +a shelf running round the wall, and a narrow walking space from the +door to the window in between. This dressing-room was two floors +below the level of the street, and the one window opened on a passage +covered with thick glass, so that there was no direct air channel. +Next door was a man's urinal used by about forty men--actors, stage +hands, and scene shifters. A pipe from this place came through +the dressing-room; the smell sometimes, even in the winter, was +overpowering; and we ourselves bought Sanitas and kept sprinkling it +on the floor of the room and the passage. Added to this was the fact +that the stairs from the stage led straight down facing the entrance +of this men's urinal, and not infrequently the door would be open and +shut as we came down, and it was altogether very objectionable." + +The report of a young artist who toured for some time with a comedy +sketch in the music halls shows equally bad conditions. This sketch +was sent out by a first rate London management, and the halls visited +were on the first-class tours. She told me that in one of the largest +towns in England the Music Hall had only one ladies' lavatory, which +was on the stage exactly behind the back-drop. A horse was necessary +for an Indian sketch on the same bill in which the comedy sketch was +played, and the recess by the lavatory was found to be the only +safe place to stable the horse. The door of the ladies' lavatory was +therefore nailed up for the week. Should anyone wish, she could, on +explaining to the ushers in the front of the house, receive a pass +of admission to the ladies' cloakroom, but to reach the front of the +house meant a walk of four minutes round a complete block, and, +even if it had not been winter time, it is almost impossible for any +actress, when once dressed for her part, to go into the street without +attracting a great deal of notice, and also very likely entirely +spoiling her appearance, as theatrical "make-up" is only meant for the +dry atmosphere of the theatre. + +On this same tour, in a famous south coast resort, this lady had to +dress in an underground dressing-room with twelve others, and the only +lavatory for women's use was opposite the stage-door box, where all +letters were called for, and the stage hands lounged about the whole +evening. In the most important town on this tour the dressing-room +in which she was directed to dress had, for its sole ventilation, the +door by which one entered, exactly facing the one general lavatory. +The aperture, high up in the wall, opened into another room where, +during this week, fifty cocks and hens, used in an animal turn, were +kept. It would be quite impossible to describe the sickening smell +which all this meant. The only thoroughly clean, sanitary hall which +she visited, was in Scotland. + +In almost all the theatres, even where the conditions are considered +above criticism, the lavatories reserved for the ladies are, by a +curious arrangement, generally on the floor where most of the actors +dress. They are almost invariably difficult to use, for as the +dressing-rooms are usually allotted by men, there is little +consideration of women's comfort in this matter. It is a curious +side-light on the intelligence of men that they almost universally +seem to think that women, by a special Providence, are exempt from +these natural laws; and almost all women are still too Early Victorian +to insist upon some change. Many of the old theatres in London and the +provinces suffer from want of proper ventilation; and many of them +are appallingly, incredibly dirty. In the provinces dressing-rooms are +sometimes dripping with damp; and it is not an uncommon experience to +share the room with mice and other vermin. + +It is only possible for me to touch very lightly on employment by the +cinematograph firms; but from the enquiries I have made, the usual +payment seems to be roughly from 5s. to 7s. 6d. a day, the workers +finding their own clothes: 10s. 6d. if the workers can ride and swim: +3s. a day for walking on, when light meals are provided. There is +a form of application to be filled in, which demands the following +particulars:-- + + Height. + Bust measurement. + Waist measurement. + Skirt length. + Age. + Line of work. + Remarks. + Ride horseback. Cycle. Swim. + +The pictures take about ten days to prepare, and as a supplementary +trade, undoubtedly this work is of value to the actress. + +An evil which attacks the theatre of the present day is the horrible +mantle of respectability which has settled on the profession. +Respectability in Art is a blight which undermines, and the moment +any worker or profession of workers is accepted on equal terms by +the non-workers of the community, misery invariably ensues. It is +impossible for a non-worker to comprehend the life of a worker, or +to make any margin for the work, which, if we judge by the example of +their own lives, they evidently despise. The restrictions which all +honest work brings, along with its compensations, are annoying to +ornamental parasites; and the contempt for restrictions is apt subtly +to undermine the mind of the worker. + +There is no doubt that for the average actress, when such an enormous +number of people are rushing into the theatrical profession, there is +little security. The life of a successful actress is undoubtedly one +of the very best, so far, open to women. It is not a fact that the +best and greatest actresses are always the successful ones: but it is +a truth that all the successful ones have some natural qualifications +which have enabled them to gain that position. + +Then what is the matter with the theatre? and why has it become such +a miserable life for the average worker? It is an unskilled trade, +and the people who have control of the trade have a contempt for the +average worker. They believe they can teach in a few weeks, what they +have not, in years, succeeded in mastering themselves. The unfortunate +worker is taught like a parrot, used for a short time, and then thrown +on the scrap-heap of the unfit for the theatre, when the theatre has +unfitted them for more honourable work. + +The employer is at the present moment a man, and a man will offer a +salary of 30s. a week to a woman, because she will take 30s.: but he +will not offer that sum to an actor. There is a subtle assumption that +because women will take less, they are not entirely dependent on their +work; and a manager will sometimes offer a large salary to a woman who +drives up in a motor car, magnificently dressed, most obviously not +dependent on her earnings; whilst the accomplished actress, without +these powerful assets, and obviously dependent on her work, is paid +practically a third of that salary. + +Let us sincerely hope that this transitional stage from the days when +each town had its own theatre, and engagements were always for the +season, to the waste and despair of the present conditions of the mass +of the workers in the theatre of this country, may give place to +some system which will select the fit from the unfit, and give them +a permanent engagement with a proper clause of notice on either side, +such as that to which workers in other trades are entitled. More care +in selection; more belief that an actress, if she be of any use, can +represent a diversity of types; a shutting of the doors on those who +are obviously unfitted, however cheap their labour may be, would +be salvation to the women who are trying to earn their bread in the +theatre. For it is time we ceased to grovel before this misused word +"Art," which covers the wasteful cruelty the present conditions in the +theatre permit. + + + + +APPENDIX I + +SCHEME OF WORK OF THE FABIAN WOMEN'S GROUP + + +The Group was formed by some women members of the Fabian Society +in 1908, chiefly with the object of studying the problem of women's +economic independence in relation to socialism. The work was mapped +out on the following lines, to which the Group has adhered:-- + +_Part I.--Differences in Ability for Productive Work Involved in +Difference of Sex Function._ + +Division 1.--Natural disabilities of women when not actively engaged +in childbearing. + +Division 2.--Natural disabilities of women when actively so engaged. + +_Part II.--Women's Economic Independence in Relation to Social +Conditions._ + +Division 1.--Women as productive workers and as consumers in the past. + +Division 2.--Women as productive workers and as consumers in the +present. + +_Part III.--Practical Steps towards such Modification of Social +Conditions as will enable Women:_ + +(_a_) Freely to use and develop their physical and mental capacities +in productive work, while remaining free and fully able to exercise +their special function of childbearing. + +(_b_) Each personally to receive her individual share of the social +wealth. + +Two Summaries of the lectures and discussions arising out of Part I. +were issued for private circulation in 1910. Copies, 1d. each, can now +be procured through the Fabian Office, 3 Clement's Inn, W.C. + +Fifteen papers of the Historical Series, Part II., Division I, have +already been given, and the subjects considered in them have nearly +covered the field of material at present available for the rough +preliminary enquiry, in which the Group has led the way. When the +series is finished, it is hoped to shape the material into essay form +for publication. + +The present volume is the outcome of lectures and discussions arising +out of Part II., Division 2. It is hoped that it may prove to be +the first of a Series dealing with this part of the investigations +undertaken by the Women's Group. + + + + +APPENDIX II + +LATEST CENSUS RETURNS[1] OF WOMEN WORKERS IN THE SEVEN PROFESSIONS +CONSIDERED IN THIS BOOK + + + Total. Unmarried. Married. Widowed. + + I. Teachers 187,283 171,480 11,798 4,005 + + II. Physicians, Surgeons 477 382 76 19 + and Registered Practitioners + + III. Midwives, Sick Nurses, 83,662 55,288 11,867 16,507 + Invalid Attendants + + IV. Poor Law, Municipal, 19,437 14,439 2,514 2,484 + Parish, etc., Officers + + V. National Government 31,538 25,843 3,410 2,285 + Employees + + VI. Commercial or Business 117,057 114,429 1,733 895 + Clerks + + VII. Actresses 9,171 5,259 3,540 372 + +In a volume which may be issued by the Census Office in February, some +sub-divisions of the above headings will be made. Thus (1) teachers +employed by Local Authorities will be separated from those in other +schools; (2) the number of dentists (not included above) will be +given; (3) the number of midwives will be shown separately; (4) Poor +Law will be distinguished from other Local Government Service; (5) +Post Office Servants will be distinguished from other Civil Servants; +(6) clerks will, as far as possible, be classified according to the +industry with which they are connected; (7) actresses in music-halls +will, as far as possible, be distinguished from those in theatres. + + +[Footnote 1: In connection with these returns of 1911, it must be +remembered that a large number of women workers resisted the census in +that year as a protest against their exclusion from citizenship. +The above figures are, therefore, though official, unavoidably an +understatement.] + + + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Women Workers in Seven Professions +by Edith J. 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