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FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN ETEXTS*Ver.04.29.93*END* + + + + + +<o:>, <ae> ``Larsen encodes'' ``Emphasis''?? _italics_ have a * mark. +@@@ mark references to internal page numbers. + +Scanned by Charles Keller with OmniPage Professional OCR software + + + + + +INCREASING HUMAN EFFICIENCY +IN BUSINESS + + +A CONTRIBUTION TO THE +PSYCHOLOGY OF BUSINESS + +BY + +WALTER DILL SCOTT + + + +AUTHOR OF ``THE THEORY OF ADVERTISING,'' ``THE PSYCHOLOGY +OF ADVERTISING,'' ``THE PSYCHOLOGY OF PUBLIC +SPEAKING,'' ``INFLUENCING MEN IN BUSINESS'' + + + + +CONTENTS + +CHAPTER PAGE +I. THE POSSIBILITY OF INCREASING HUMAN EFFICIENCY......1 +II. IMITATION AS A MEANS OF INCREASING HUMAN + EFFICIENCY......................................26 +III. COMPETITION AS A MEANS OF INCREASING HUMAN + EFFICIENCY......................................48 + IV. LOYALTY AS A MEANS OF INCREASING HUMAN + EFFICIENCY......................................75 + V. CONCENTRATION AS A MEANS OF INCREASING + HUMAN EFFICIENCY...............................104 + VI. WAGES AS A MEANS OF INCREASING HUMAN + EFFICIENCY.....................................132 + VII. PLEASURE AS A MEANS OF INCREASING HUMAN + EFFICIENCY.....................................165 + VIII. THE LOVE OF THE GAME AND EFFICIENCY...........186 + IX. RELAXATION AS A MEANS OF INCREASING HUMAN + EFFICIENCY.....................................204 + X. THE RATE OF IMPROVEMENT IN EFFICIENCY............223 + XI. PRACTICE PLUS THEORY............................254 + XII. MAKING EXPERIENCE AN ASSET: JUDGMENT + FORMATION......................................276 + XIII. CAPITALIZING EXPERIENCE: HABIT FORMATION......303 +<p v> + + + +INCREASING HUMAN EFFICIENCY +IN BUSINESS + +CHAPTER I + +THE POSSIBILITY OF INCREASING HUMAN +EFFICIENCY + +THE modern business man is the true +heir of the old magicians. Every +thing he touches seems to increase +ten or a hundredfold in value and usefulness. +All the old methods, old tools, old instruments +have yielded to his transforming spell or else +been discarded for new and more effective +substitutes. In a thousand industries the +profits of to-day are wrung from the wastes +or unconsidered trifles of yesterday. + +The only factor which has withstood this +wizard touch is man himself. Development +of the instruments of production and distribution +has been so great it can hardly be +<p 1> +<p 2> +measured: the things themselves have been +so changed that few features of their primitive +models have been retained. + +Our railroad trains, steamships, and printing +presses preserve a likeness more apparent +than actual. Our telephones, electric lights, +gas engines, and steam turbines, our lofty office +buildings and huge factories crowded with +wonderful automatic machinery are creations +of the generation of business men and scientists +still in control of them. + +_By comparison the increase in human efficiency +during this same period (except where +the worker is the slave of the machine, compelled +to keep pace with it or lose his place) has been +insignificant_. + +Reasons for this disproportion are not +lacking. The study of the physical antedates +the study of the mental always. In the history +of the individual as well as of nations, +knowledge of the psychical has dragged far +behind mastery of tangible objects. We come +in contact with our physical environment and +adjust ourselves to it long before we begin to +<p 7> +study the _*acts_ by which we have been able +to control objects around us. + +It was inevitable, therefore, that attention +should have been concentrated upon the material +and mechanical side of production and +distribution. Results there were so tangible, +so easily figured. For example, if the speed +of a drill or the strokes of a punch press were +multiplied, the increase would be easily recognized. +The whole country, too, was absorbed +in invention, in the development of tools to +accomplish what had always required hand +labor. The effort was not so much to increase +the efficiency of the individual worker-- +though many wise and far-sighted employers +essayed studies and experiments with varying +success--as to displace the human factor +altogether. + +As the functions and limitations of machinery +have become clearer in recent years, +business men have generally recognized the +importance of the human factor in making +and marketing products. Selecting and handling +men is of much more significance to-day +<p 4> +than ever before in the history of the world +--the more so as organizations have increased +in size and scope and the individual +employee is farther removed from the head +and assigned greater responsibilities. + +It is not a difficult task to build and equip +a factory, to choose and stock a store. The +problems of power and its transmission come +nearer solution every day. Physics and chemistry +have revealed the secrets of raw materials. +For any given service, the manufacturer +can determine the cheapest and most +suitable metal, wood, or fabric which will +satisfy his requirements, and the most economical +method of treating it. + +Of the elements involved in production or +distribution, the human factor is to-day the +most serious problem confronting the business +man. The individual remains to be +studied, trained, and developed--to be +brought up to the standard of maximum +results already reached by materials and +processes. + +Few employers can gather a force of effi- +<p 5> +cient workers and keep them at their best. +Not only is it difficult to select the right men +but it is even harder to secure top efficiency +after they are hired. Touching this, there +will be no dispute. Experts in shop management +go even farther. F. W. Taylor, who has +made the closest and most scientific study, +perhaps, of actual and potential efficiency +among workers, declares that:-- + +``_A first-class man can, in most cases, do +from two to four times as much as is done on +the average_.'' + +``This enormous difference,'' Mr. Taylor +goes on to say, ``exists in all the trades and +branches of labor investigated, from pick- +and-shovel men all the way up the scale to +machinists and other skilled workmen. The +multiplied output was not the product of a +spurt or a period of overexertion; it was +simply what a good man could keep up for +a long term of years without injury to his +health, become happier, and thrive under.'' + +Ask the head of any important business +what is the first qualification of a foreman +<p 6> +or manager, and he will tell you ``ability to +handle men.'' + +_Men who know how to get maximum results +out of machines are common; the power to get +the maximum of work out of subordinates or out +of yourself is a much rarer possession_. + +Yet this power is not necessarily a sixth +sense or a fixed attribute of personality. +It is based on knowledge of the workings of +the other man's mind, either intuitive or +acquired. It is the purpose of this and +succeeding chapters to consider some of the +aspects of human nature that can be turned +to advantage in the cultivation of individual +efficiency and the elimination of lost motion +and wasted effort. + +In a thousand instances, in factory and +market place, unrecognized use has been made +of the principles of psychology by business +men to influence other men and to attain their +ends. + +_For the science of psychology is in respect +to certain data merely common sense, the wisdom +of experience, analyzed, formulated, and codified_. +<p 7> +_It has taken its place, alongside physics and +chemistry, as the ally and employee of trade and +industry_. + +The time has come when a man's knowledge +of his business, if the larger success is to be +won, must embrace an understanding of the +laws which govern the thinking and acting of +the men who make and sell his products as well +as those others who buy and consume them. + +The achievements of the human mind and +the human body seem to many to be out of +the range of possible improvement through +application of any science which deals with +these human activities. Muscular strength +and mental efficiency seem to be fixed quantities +not subject to increase or improvement. + +_The contention here supported, however, is +that human efficiency is a variable quantity +which increases and decreases according to law. +By the application of known physical laws the +telephone and the telegraph have supplanted the +messenger boy. By the laws of psychology +applied to business equally astounding improvements +are being and will be secured_. +<p 8> + +Employers sometimes find that their men +are not working well, that they loaf and kill +time on every possible occasion. The men +are not trying and are indifferent to results. +Under such circumstances a new foreman, +the dismissal of the poorer workmen, +modification of the wage scale or method of +payment, or some other device may correct +the evil and induce the men to exert themselves. + +Again, the men are working industriously +and may feel that an increase in output would +be injurious to health or even impossible. +They think they are doing their best; while +the employer himself may feel that he is +achieving but little, although he assumes that +he is doing as much as it is wise to attempt. +For instance, Mr. Taylor, in his studies, found +that both employers and men had only a vague +conception of what constituted a full day's +work for a first-class man. The good workmen +knew they could do more than the average; +but refused to believe when, after close +observation and careful timing of the ele- +<p 9> +ments of each operation, they were shown that +they could accomplish twice or three times as +much as their customary tasks. + +_Actual instances prove that great increase of +work and results can be secured by outside stimulus +and by conscious effort_. + +If there is one place where the limit of +exertion can be counted upon, it is in an inter- +collegiate athletic contest. While taking part +in football games, I frequently observed that +my team would be able to push the opposing +team halfway across the field. Then the +tables would be turned and my team would +give ground. At one moment one team would +seem to possess much superior physical +strength to the other; the next moment the +equilibrium would be changed apparently +without cause. Often, however, the weaker +team would rally in response to the captain's +coaching. On the field a player frequently +finds himself unable to exert himself. His +greatest effort is necessary to force himself to +work. In such a mental condition a vigorous +and enthusiastic appeal from the coach may +<p 10> +supply the needed stimulus and stir him to +sudden display of all his strength. + +I recently conducted a series of experiments +on college athletes to determine +whether coaching could actually increase a +man's strength when he was already trying +his ``best,'' and whether he could continue +to work after he was ``completely exhausted.'' +I put each man at work on machines which allowed +him to exert himself to his utmost and +measured his accomplishment. While he was +thus employed, the coach began urging him to +increase his exertion. Ordinarily the increase +was marked--sometimes as much as fifty +per cent. + +Again, when the man had exhausted himself +without coaching, the extra demand would +be made on him; usually he was able to continue, +even though without the coaching he +had been unable to do any more. There was, +of course, a point of exhaustion at which the +coaching ceased to be effective. + +_The tests proved conclusively that when a man +is doing what he believes to be his best, he is still_ +<p 11> +_able to do better; when he is completely exhausted, +he is, under proper stimulus, able to continue_. + +Before a horse is started in a race it is +vigorously exercised, ``warmed up.'' To the +uninitiated this process seems so strenuous +as to defeat its purpose by wearing out the +strength of the horse. Every horseman knows, +however, that the animal cannot attain top +speed till after it has undergone this severe +discipline. + +In training for a contest an athlete usually +takes long runs. Soon after the start he feels +weary and exhausted, but, by disregarding this +feeling and continuing to run, a sudden change +comes over him commonly known as ``getting +his second wind.'' + +Thus the runner feels wave upon wave of +exhaustion followed by waves of invigoration. +Had he stopped when he first began to tire, +he never would have known of his wonderful +reserve fund of strength which can be drawn +upon only by passing through the feeling +of exhaustion. He seems to be able to tap +deeper and deeper reservoirs of strength. +<p 12> + +_Many men have never discovered their reserve +stores of strength because they have formed the +fixed habit of quitting at the first access of weariness_. + +Thus they never become conscious of the +wonderful resources which might be used if +they were willing to disregard the trifling +wave of weariness. + +Our best energies are not on the surface +and are not available without great exertion. +We have to warm up and get our second wind +before we are capable of our best physical or +mental accomplishments. All our muscular +and psychical processes are dependent upon +the activity of the nervous system. This activity +seems to be at its best only after repeated +and vigorous stimulation and after +it has reached down to profound and widely +distributed centers. + +_Most of us never know of our possible achievements +because we have never warmed up and +got our second wind in our business or professional +affairs_. + +When an individual succeeds in tapping his +<p 13> +reserve energies, others marvel at the tremendous +tasks he accomplishes. They judge in +terms of superficial energy, and for such the +results would, of course, be impossible, even +though many of the admiring spectators could +actually equal or excel the deed. + +Consider for a moment the work achieved +by Mr. Edward Payson Weston who recently +walked the entire distance from New York +to San Francisco without halt or rest in one +hundred and four days. Throughout the +entire journey Mr. Weston covered about +fifty miles daily, once attaining the remarkable +distance of eighty-seven miles in twenty-four +hours. Though Mr. Weston is seventy years +of age, at the close of the walk he seemed to be +relatively free from exhaustion and undaunted +in spirit. + +The work accomplished by such men as +Gladstone and Roosevelt is incomprehensible +to most of us who have never undertaken +more than puny tasks. These men retain their +strength and in no way seem to be undermining +their health by the accomplishment of their +<p 14> +Herculean labors. Body and mind seem to +respond to the demands made upon them. +Their periods of sleep and their vacations +seem to be no more than the hours and days +of rest required by those of us who accomplish +infinitely less. + +No need, however, to go beyond the field +of business or industry to find men whose +super-energy has carried them to epochial +discoveries or feats of organization. The +invention of the incandescent lamp by Edison +is said to have been accomplished, for instance, +only after forty-eight hours' continuous +concentration on the final problem of finding the +right carbon filament and determining the +proper degree of vacuum in the inclosing +bulb. Months of experiment and research +had gone before; eighteen hours a day in the +laboratory had been no uncommon thing for +the inventor and his assistants, but in the last +strenuous grapple with success his own physical +and mental powers were alone equal to the +strain. Not once during the two days and +nights did he rest or sleep or take his attention +<p 15> +from the successive tests which led up to the +assembling of the lamp which lights the world's +work and play. + +The steel blade that is used seems to last as +long as the one which is allowed to lie idle. +The wearing out in the one case does not seem +to be more destructive than the rusting out +in the other. + +We have a choice between wearing out and +rusting out. Most of us unwittingly have +chosen the rusting process. + +This, indeed, may be said to be Edison's +regular method of work, as it is the method of +many other men who have accomplished great +things in science and industry. Both mind +and body have been trained and accustomed to +exertions which seem quite impossible to ordinary +individuals. + +Many persons find that increased intellectual +activity results in less fatigue and +greater achievements. As a student I did +my best work and enjoyed it most the year +I carried the greatest number of courses and +assumed the most outside duties. In my +<p 16> +capacity as adviser to college students I find +many who are able to accomplish thirty per +cent more work than is expected of college +students but fail to do equally well the regular +amount. There are others who can carry the +regular amount but not more without injury +to their health. + +College grades afford a means of recording +intellectual efficiency directed toward particular +problems. With no apparent change in +bodily conditions the same student frequently +increases his efficiency a hundred per cent. +The increase seldom has an injurious effect +on health, but is merely evidence of the fact +that he has suddenly wakened up and is +applying energies which before were undiscovered. +A slow walk for a single mile leaves +many persons ``dragged out'' and exhausted, +but a brisk walk of the same or a greater distance +results in invigoration and recuperation. +Likewise the droning over an intellectual task +results in exhaustion, while vigorous treatment +whets the appetite for additional problems. + +This swift, decisive attack on problems was +<p 17> +the method of Edward H. Harriman, who +crowded into ten years the railroad achievements +of an extraordinary lifetime. Decisions +involving expenditure of many millions of +dollars were arrived at so quickly as to seem +off-hand, even reckless. In reality, they were +the products of brief periods of intense application +in which he reviewed all the conditions +and elements involved, and forged his conclusion, +as it were, at white heat. Back of each +decision was exact and thorough knowledge +of the physical and traffic conditions of each +of his railroads. In the case of the Union +Pacific, at least, he gained this mastery by +patient, intensive study of each grade and +curve and freight-producing town on its 1800 +miles of track. + +The inhabitant of the torrid zone upon +moving to a northern climate is severely +affected by the chill of the atmosphere. The +discomfort may last for days or months, but +he becomes acclimated and is able to withstand +the cold without serious discomfort. Likewise +the inhabitant of a cool climate feels exhausted +<p 18> +by the heat of the torrid zone. In some cases +he is unable to accustom himself to the change, +but in many instances the acclimatization +follows rapidly and leaves the individual well +fortified against the dangers of excessive heat. + +Persons who have accustomed themselves +to stimulants of any sort are completely depleted +if they are unable to get the special +form to which they have been accustomed. +This holds true for tobacco, morphine, coffee, +and many other forms of stimulants actually +indulged in by many persons. If they are +able to resist the temptation and deny themselves +the stimulant, the period of exhaustion +soon disappears and the subject may even lose +all craving for that which formerly seemed +essential to his very existence. + +The quantity which we eat is partly a +matter of habit. There is doubtless a minimum +of nourishment which is absolutely necessary +for health and strength. On the other +hand there is doubtless a maximum limit +which cannot be passed without serious injury. +Our bodies seem to demand the amount of +<p 19> +food to which we have accustomed them. If +we should increase the amount ten or twenty +per cent, we might, for a while, feel some +discomfort from it, but soon our system +would begin to demand the greater quantity +and we could not again return to the lighter +diet without a period of discomfort. Likewise +the amount of food which most of us +consume could be reduced materially with no +permanent injury or reduction of energy or +danger to health. Following the reduction +would be a period of discomfort and probable +reduction of weight. This period would last +for but a relatively short time, after which we +would again strike a physiological equilibrium +such that an increase of food would not be +craved nor be of any benefit. + +Any great increase in the amount of physical +or mental work results in a feeling of weariness +which is usually sufficient to cause us to return +to our habitual amount of expenditure of +energy. Our system is, however, wonderful +in its capacity to adjust itself to changed +demands which come upon it, whether these +<p 20> +demands be in the nature of changes in temperature, +in stimulants, in nourishment, or in +the expenditure of physical or mental energy. + +There is, of course, a limit to possible human +achievements. There are resources which +may not be exhausted without serious injury +to health. Those who accomplish most, however, +compare favorably with others in length +of days and retention of health. + +_While overwork has its place among the things +which reduce energy and shorten life, it is my +opinion that overwork is not so dangerous or so +common as is ordinarily supposed_. + +In not a few industries, the dominant house +or firm has for its head a man past seventy +who still keeps a firm and vigorous grip on the +business: men like Richard T. Crane of +Chicago, E. C. Simmons of St. Louis, and +James J. Hill, whose careers are records of +intense industry and absorbed devotion to the +work in hand. + +_Many persons confuse overwork with what is +really underwork accompanied with worry or +unhygienic practices_. +<p 21> + +A recent writer on sociology calls attention +to the fact that nervous prostrations and +general breakdowns are most common among +those members of society who achieve the +least and who may be regarded as parasites. +Exercise both of brain and of muscle is necessary +for growth and for health. + +Those nations which expend the most energy +are probably the ones among whom longevity +is greatest and the mortality rate the lowest. +In the city of Chicago there are many conditions +adverse to health of body and mind, yet +the city is famous for its relatively low mortality +as a parallel fact. It is also affirmed +that the average Chicago man works longer +hours and actually accomplishes more than +the average man elsewhere. This excess in the +expenditure of energy--in so far as it is +wisely spent--may be one of the reasons for +the excellent health record of the city. + +In every walk of life we see that the race +is not to the swift nor the battle to the strong. +We all know men clearly of secondary ability +who nevertheless occupy high positions in +<p 22> +business and state. We are acquainted also +with men of excellent native endowment who +still have never risen above the ranks of mediocrity. + +_Human efficiency is not measured in terms +of muscular energy nor of intellectual grasp. It +is dependent upon many factors other than native +strength of mind and body_. + +The attitude which one takes toward life +in general and toward his calling in particular +is of more importance than native ability. +The man with concentration, or the power of +continued enthusiastic application, will surpass +a brilliant competitor if this latter is +careless and indifferent towards his work. +Many who have accomplished great things +in business, in the professions, and in science +have been men of moderate ability. For +testimony of this fact take this striking quotation +from Charles Darwin. + +``I have no great quickness of apprehension +or wit, which is so remarkable in some clever +men,'' he writes. ``I am a poor critic. . . . +My power to follow a long and purely abstract +<p 23> +train of thought is very limited; and therefore +I never could have succeeded with metaphysics +or mathematics. My memory is extensive, +yet hazy; it suffices to make me cautious by +vaguely telling me that I have observed or read +something opposed to the conclusion which I +am drawing, or on the other hand in favor +of it. So poor in one sense is my memory, +that I have never been able to remember for +more than a few days a single date or a line +of poetry. I have a fair share of invention, +and of common sense or judgment, such as +every fairly successful lawyer or doctor must +have, but not, I believe, in any higher degree.'' + +This is presumably an honest statement +of fact, and in addition it should be remembered +that Darwin was always physically +weak, that for forty years he was practically +an invalid and able to work for only about +three hours a day. In these few hours he +was able to accomplish more, however, than +other men of apparently superior ability who +were able to work long hours daily for many +<p 24> +years. Darwin made the most of his ability +and increased his efficiency to its maximum. + +For a parallel in business, Cyrus H. McCormick +might be named. The inventor of the +reaper and builder of the first American business +which covered the world was not a man of +extraordinary intellect, wit, or judgment. He +had, however, the will and power to focus his +attention on a single question until the answer +was evolved. Again and again, his biographers +tell us, he pursued problems which +eluded him far into the night and he was +frequently found asleep at his desk the morning +following. When roused, instead of seeking +rest, he addressed his task again and +usually overcame his obstacle before leaving +it. + +All these considerations point to one conclusion. +It is quite certain, then, that most of +us are whiling away our days and occupying positions +far below our possibilities. A corollary +to this statement is Mr. Taylor's conclusion that +``few of our best-organized industries have attained +the maximum output of first-class men.'' +<p 25> + +_Not to give too wide application to his discovery +that the average day's work is only half +or less than half what a first-class man can do, +it is more than probable that the average man +could, with no injury to his health, increase his +efficiency fifty per cent_. + +We are making use of only part of our existing +mental and physical powers and are not +taxing them beyond their strength. Increased +accomplishments, and heightened efficiency +would cultivate and develop them, would +waken the latent powers and tap hidden +stores of energy within us, would widen the +fields in which we labor and would open up +to us new and wider horizons of honorable +and profitable activity. + +In succeeding chapters will be described +specific methods, many of which are employed +by individual firms, but which could be utilized +by other business men, to insure their own efficiency +and that of their employees. The experiences +of many successful houses will be linked +to the laws of psychology to point the way that +will bring about greater results from men. + + + +CHAPTER II + +IMITATION + +AS A MEANS OF INCREASING HUMAN +EFFICIENCY + +TWENTY years ago the head of an industry +now in the million-a-month +class sat listening to his ``star'' salesman. +The latter, in the first enthusiasm of +discovery and creation, was telling how he had +developed the company's haphazard selling +talk and had taken order after order with a +standard approach, demonstration, and summary +of closing arguments. To prove the +effectiveness of ``the one best way,'' he challenged +his employer to act as a customer, +staged the little drama he had arranged, secured +admissions of savings his machine would +make, ultimately cornered the other, and sold +him. + +``That's great,'' the owner declared the in- +<p 26> +<p 27> +stant he had surrendered to the salesman's +logic. ``If we can get all our agents to learn +and use this new method of yours, we'll double +our business in three years.'' + +Then followed discussion of the means by +which the knowledge could be spread. + +``I've got it,'' the manager announced at +last. ``I'll telegraph five or six men to come +in''--he named the agents within a night's +ride of the factory--``and you can show +them how you sold fifteen machines last week. + +``We could take down your talk in shorthand +and send it to them, but that wouldn't +do the business. I want them to watch you +sell, to study how you make your points, how +you introduce yourself, how you get your +man's attention, how you bring out his +objections and meet them, how you lead up +to the signing minute, and show him where +to sign. _*What you say_ is about half the trick: +_*how you say it_ is the convincing part--the +thing the slowest man in the force by watching +you can learn more quickly than the smartest +could work out at home.'' +<p 28> + +The result of that conference was one of +the earliest organized training schools for +salesmen in the country. It was an unconscious, +but none the less certain, utilization +of the instinct of _*imitation_ for increasing the +efficiency in employees. Since then, business +has borrowed many well-recognized principles +from psychology and pedagogy and adapted +them to the same end. + +Many important houses have grafted the +school upon their organizations and _*teach_ +not only raw and untrained employees, but +provide instruction calculated to make workmen +and clerks masters of their jobs and also +to fit them for advancement to higher and +more productive planes. Teaching is by example +rather than by precept, just as it was +in the old apprentice system. + +_The newer method uses even more than the +older a perfect example of the process and the +product for the learner's imitation and makes +them the basis of the instruction_. + +No man was made to live alone. For an +individual, existence entirely independent of +<p 29> +other members of the race is the conception +of a dreamer; apart from others one would +fail to become _*human_. Modern psychology +has abandoned the individualistic and adopted +the social point of view. We no longer think +of _*imitation_ as a characteristic only of animals, +children, and weak-minded folk. + +_We have come to see that imitation is the +greatest factor in the education of the young and +a continuous process with all of us. The part +of wisdom, then, is to utilize this power from +which we cannot escape, by setting up a perfect +copy for imitation_. + +The child brought up by a Chinaman +imitates the sounds he hears, hence speaks +Chinese; brought up in an American home, +English is his speech--ungrammatical or +correct according to the usage of his companions. +If one boy in a group walks on +stilts or plays marbles, the others follow his +example. If a social leader rides in an automobile, +wears a Panama hat, or plays golf, +all the members of this circle are restless till +they have the same experience. The same +<p 30> +phenomenon is seen in the professions and in +business. If one bank decides to erect a +building for its own use, other banks in the +city begin to consult architects. If one manufacturer +or distributor in a given field adopts +a new policy in manufacturing or in extending +his trade zone, his rivals immediately consider +plans of a similar sort. Partly, of course, +this act is defensive. In the main, however, +imitation and emulation are at the bottom +of the move. + +For the sake of clearness, in studying acts +of imitation we separate them into two +classes--_*voluntary_ imitation (also called conscious +imitation) and _*instinctive_ imitation (also +known as _*suggestive_ imitation). + +A peculiar signature may strike my fancy +so that consciously and deliberately I may +try to imitate it. This is a clear case of +voluntary imitation. Threading crowded city +streets, I see a man crossing at a particular +point and voluntarily follow in his path. In +learning a new skating figure I watch an expert +attentively and try to repeat his perform- +<p 31> +ance. In writing letters or advertisements +or magazine articles, I analyze the work +of other men and consciously imitate what +seems best. Or I observe a fellow-laborer +working faster than I, and forthwith try to +catch and hold his pace. + +The contagion of yawning, on the other +hand, is instinctive imitation. Also when in +a crowd during the homeward evening rush, +we instinctively quicken our pace though there +may be no reason for hurry. + +For precisely similar reasons, a ``loafer'' +or a careless or inefficient workman will lower +the efficiency or slow up the production of +the men about him, no matter how earnest +or industrious their natural habits. Night +work by clerks, also, is taken by some office +managers to indicate a slump in industry during +the day. To correct this the individuals +who are drags on the organization are discovered, +and either are revitalized or discharged. + +_I have seen more than one machine shop where +production could have been materially raised_ +<p 32> +_by the simple expedient of weeding out the workmen +who were satisfied with a mere living wage +earned by piecework, thereby setting a dilatory +example to the rest; and replacing them with +fresh men ambitious to earn all they could, who +would have been imitated by the others_. + +In these instances it is assumed that the +imitation is not voluntary, but that we +unconsciously imitate whatever actions happen +to catch our attention. For the negative +action, the ``slowing down'' process, we have +the greater affinity simply because labor or +exertion is naturally distasteful. One such +influence or example, therefore, may sway us +more than a dozen positive impulses towards +industry. + +Imitation thus broadly considered is seen +to be of the utmost importance in every walk +of life. The greatest and most original genius +is in the main a creature of imitation. By +imitation he reaches the level of knowledge +and skill attained by others; and upon this +foundation builds his structure of original and +creative thought, experiment, and achieve- +<p 33> +ment. Furthermore he does not imitate at +random; but concentrates his activity on +those things and persons in the line of his pursuits. + +Among my associates are both industrious +and shiftless individuals. I instinctively imitate +the actions of all those with whom I come +in contact; but if I am sufficiently ambitious, +I will consciously imitate the acts of the industrious. +This patterning after energetic models +will render me more active and efficient than +would have been possible for me without such +examples. + +_Imitation, accordingly, is an imperative factor +both in self-development and in the control of +groups of individuals. Knowing that I instinctively +imitate all sorts of acts, I must take +care that only the right sort shall catch my attention_. + +And since imitation is a most effective aid +in development, I must provide myself with +the best models. To reduce my tendency to +idleness or procrastination I must avoid the +companionship of the shiftless. To acquire +<p 34> +ease and accuracy in the use of French, I must +consort with masters of that tongue. + +In handling others, the same rule holds. + +_To profit from the instinctive imitation of +my men, I must control their environment in +shop or office and make sure that examples of +energy and efficiency are numerous enough +to catch their attention and establish, as it were, +an atmosphere of industry in the place_. + +There are instances in which it would be +to the mutual interest of employer and employee +to increase the speed of work, but conditions +may limit or forbid the use of pacemakers. +In construction work and in some +of the industries where there are minute subdivision +of operations and continuity of processes +this method of increasing efficiency is +very commonly applied. In many factories, +however, such an effort to ``speed up'' production +might stir resentment, even among the +pieceworkers, and have an effect exactly opposite +to that desired. The alternative, of +course, is for the employer to secure unconscious +pacemakers by providing incentives +<p 35> +for the naturally ambitious men in the way of +a premium or bonus system or other reward +for unusual efficiency. + +To take advantage of their conscious or +voluntary imitation, workpeople must be +provided with examples which appeal to them +as admirable and inspire the wish to emulate +them. A common application of this principle +is seen in the choice of department heads, +foremen, and other bosses. Invariably these +win promotion by industry, skill, and efficiency +greater than that displayed by their fellows, +or by all-round mastery of their trades which +enable them to show their less efficient mates +how any and all operations should be conducted. + +This focusing of attention upon individuals +worthy of imitation has been carried much +farther by various companies. Through their +``house organs''--weekly or monthly papers +published primarily for circulation within the +organization--they make record of every +incident reflecting unusual skill, initiative, or +personal power in an individual member of +the organization. +<p 36> + +A big order closed, a difficult contract +secured, a complex or delicate operation performed +in less than the usual time, a new personal +record in production, the invention of +an unproved method or machine--whatever +the achievement, it is described and glorified, +its author praised and held up for emulation. +This, indeed, is one of the methods by which +the larger sales organizations have obtained +remarkable results. + +_Graphically told, the story of an important +sale with the salesman's picture alongside makes +double use of the instinct of imitation. It +suggests forcibly that every man in the field can +duplicate the achievement and tells how he can +do it_. + +Frequently, examples of initiative and efficiency +are borrowed from outside organizations. +``Carrying a message to Garcia'' has +long been a business synonym for immediate +and effective execution of orders. One big +company, employing thousands of mechanics +and developing all its executives and skilled +experts from boys and men within the or- +<p 37> +ganization, has printed in its house organ +studies of all the great American and English +inventors from Stephenson and Fulton to +Edison and Westinghouse. These histories +emphasize the facts that these men were self- +taught and bench-trained, and that their +achievements can be imitated by every intelligent +mechanic in the organization. + +_In teaching and learning by imitation certain +modifying facts are to be kept constantly in mind. +We tend to imitate everything which catches our +attention, but certain things appeal more powerfully +than others_. + +The acts of those whom I admire are particularly +contagious, but I remain indifferent +to the acts of those who are uninteresting. +Acts showing a skill to which I aspire are +immediately imitated, while acts representing +stages of development from which I have escaped +are less likely to be imitated. We imitate +the acts of hearty, jovial individuals more +than the acts of others. This point cannot +be pressed too far since a surly and selfish +individual often seems to corrupt a whole +<p 38> +group. Also it is not always the acts which +I admire that are imitated. If I am frequently +with a lame person, I am in danger +of acquiring a limp; one who stutters is +clearly injurious to my freedom of speech; +round-shouldered friends may at first cause +me to straighten up, but soon I am in danger +of a droop. + +That imitation is merely something to be +avoided by teachers, employers, and foremen +is an idea soon banished when the importance +and complexity of the process is comprehended. +In teaching we find precept inferior +to example wherever the latter is possible. +Particularly in teaching all sorts of +acts of skill the imitation of perfect models +is the first resort. In business, however, +insufficient consideration has been given to the +possibilities of imitation in increasing human +efficiency. + +_In the preparation of this article representative +business men who had been especially successful +in dealing with employees were asked +the following questions_:-- +<p 39> + +In increasing the efficiency of your employees +do you utilize imitation by + +(1) placing efficient workmen where they +may be imitated by the less efficient? + +(2) having the men visit highly efficient +establishments? + +(3) bringing to the attention of your men +the lives of successful men and the work of +successful houses? + +(4) bringing frequently to the attention of +the men model methods of work? + +(5) Have you observed any pronounced +instance of increase or decrease in the work +of a department due to imitation? + +The men interviewed took a decided interest +in the subject, and their answers +contained much of general value. Some admitted +that they had never made any conscious +effort to utilize imitation as implied +in the first four questions. Many others +had made particular use of one or more of +the methods. A few of the firms interviewed +had employed all four methods with entire +satisfaction. +<p 40> + +The following is a fair representative of +the answers. It is the response of a very +successful general manager of a railroad:-- + +``I beg to give you below the answer to +the questions which you have asked:-- + +``1. The superintendent and foremen in +our shops are the most efficient we can find. +They are imitated, and thus influence the less +efficient. + +``2. We have the heads of our departments +visit other shops to see how they are progressing +in the same line. If they notice anything +that is better than what we have as to the +output of work, we imitate it by following +their methods. + +``3. We have not made a practice of bringing +to the attention of our employees the lives +of successful men or the work of successful +houses. + +``4. We keep standard models of the different +kinds of work in plain view of the men. If +there is any doubt in their minds, they can +study these models. + +``5. We have observed a pronounced in- +<p 41> +crease in the work of our shops, due to imitation, +since in lining up our organization we +put the most competent men we have at the +head. Their influence over the men in their +charge increases the work, as there is no +question that a good leader is imitated by +the men, and the company is benefited by +this imitation.'' + +_Judged by the results of the investigation the +most common use of imitation is in the training +or ``breaking in'' of new employees. The +accepted plan is to pick out the most expert and +intelligent workman available and put the new +man in his charge_. + +By observing the veteran and imitating his +actions, working gradually from the simpler +operations to the more complex, the beginner +is able to master technic and methods in the +shortest possible time. The psychological +moment for such instruction, of course, is the +first day or the first week. New men learn +much more readily than those who have become +habituated to certain methods or tasks; +not having had time or opportunity to experi- +<p 42> +ment and learn wrong methods, they have +nothing to unlearn in acquiring the right. +They fall into line at once and adopt the stride +and the manner of work approved by the +house. + +This is the specific process by which the +most advanced industrial organizations develop +machine hands and initiate skilled mechanics +into house methods and requirements. +It has been largely used by public service +corporations--street-car motormen and conductors, +for instance, learning their duties +almost entirely by observation of experienced +men either in formal schools or on cars in +actual operation. Many large commercial +houses give new employees regular courses in +company methods before intrusting work to +them; the instructor is some highly efficient +specialist, who shows the beginner _*how_ to get +output and quality with the least expenditure +of time and energy. The same method has +been adapted by leading manufacturers of +machines, who call their mechanics or assemblers +together at intervals and have the most +<p 43> +expert among them show how they conduct +operations in which they have attained special +skill. + +_In the training of salesmen imitation has +received its widest application in teaching new +men the elements of salesmanship; in showing +them how to make the individual sale; in giving +old men the best and newest methods--all by +imitation_. + +Not only is the recruit to the selling ranks +in formal schools given repeated examples of +the most effective ways to approach customers, +to demonstrate the house goods and secure the +order; but the more progressive companies, +after this preliminary instruction, assign him +to a training ground where he accompanies +one of the company's best salesmen and +merely observes how actual sales are made. +Then the new man is sent out alone; usually +he fails to secure as large an order as the +house wants. Again the star salesman takes +him in hand, analyzes the student's approach +and demonstration, points out their weaknesses +and, going back with the new man, +<p 44> +makes the right kind of approach and secures +a satisfactory order. For the beginner this is +the most vivid lesson in salesmanship; he +cannot but model his next selling effort on the +lines proved so effective. + +The use of imitation, however, is carried +further. In the monthly or semiannual district +conventions of salesmen which most big +organizations call, the newest and most effective +selling methods are staged for the +instruction both of new men and veterans. +The district leader in sales, for example, or +the man who has closed an order by a new or +unusual argument is pitted against a salesman +equally able, and the whole force sees +how the successful man secured his results. + +_Educational trips to other factories were +employed by several firms to stimulate mental +alertness and the instinct of imitation in their +men. These trips usually supplemented some +sort of suggestion system for encouraging employees +to submit to the management ideas for +improving methods, machines, or products_. + +Cash payments were made for each suggestion +<p 45> +adopted, quarterly prizes of ten to fifty dollars +were awarded for the most valuable suggestions; +and finally a dozen or a score of the +men submitting the best ideas were sent on a +week's tour of observation to other industrial +centers and notable plants. In some instances +the expense incurred was considerable, but the +companies considered the money well spent. +Not only were the men making helpful suggestions +the very ones who would observe +most wisely and profit most extensively from +such educational trips, but they would bring +back to their everyday tasks a new perspective, +see them from a new angle, and frequently +offer new suggestions which would +more than save or earn the vacation cost. + +Business managers, it was made plain, are +coming more and more to depend upon imitation +as one of the great forces in securing +a maximum of efficiency without risking the +rupture or rebellion which might follow if the +same efficiency were sought by force or by +any method of conscious compulsion. Tactfully +suggested, the examples for imitation will +<p 46> +lead men where no amount of argument or +reasonable compensation will drive them. I +am therefore led to suggest the following uses +of imitation for increasing the efficiency of the +working force. + +In breaking in new recruits they should +be set to imitate expert workmen in all the +details possible. + +Gang foremen and superintendents should +always be capable of ``showing how'' for the +sake of the men under them. + +The better workmen should, where possible, +be located so that they will be observed +by the other employees. + +Inefficient help should be avoided since the +example of the less efficient should become the +model for the larger group. + +Educational trips or tours of inspection +should be regularly encouraged for both +workmen and superintendents. + +The deeds of successful houses should be +brought to the attention of employees. + +Where conditions admit, pacemakers should +be retained in various groups to key up the +other men. +<p 47> + +Favorable conditions should be provided +for conscious and instinctive imitation for all +the members of the plant. + +Persons who are sociable and much liked +are imitated more than others, and if efficient, +are particularly valuable; but if inefficient, +are especially detrimental to others. + +At the formal and informal meetings of the +men of a house or a department, demonstrations +of how to do certain definite things are +very interesting and helpful to all concerned. +Demonstrations should be more common. + + + +CHAPTER III + +COMPETITION + +AS A MEANS OF INCREASING HUMAN +EFFICIENCY + +THIRTY years ago American steel +makers were astonishing the world +with new production records. What +English ironmasters, intrenched in their +supremacy for centuries, had regarded as a +standard week's output for Bessemer converters, +their young rivals in mills about the +Great Lakes were doubling, trebling, and even +further increasing. Hardly a month passed +without a new high mark and a shift in possession +of the leadership. + +To this remarkable increase in efficiency +William R. Jones--``Captain Bill'' Jones as +he was familiarly known--contributed more +than any other operating man. He was a +genius among executives as well as an inventor +<p 48> +<p 49> +of resource and initiative--a natural leader +and handler of men. When he was asked by +the British Iron and Steel Institute in 1881, +to explain the reasons for the amazing development +in the United States, he attributed it to +organization spirit of the workmen and the +rivalry among the various mills. + +``So long as the record made by a mill +stands first,'' he wrote, ``its workmen are +content to labor at a moderate rate. But let +it be known that some other establishment +has beaten that record and there is no content +until the rival's record is eclipsed.'' + +_It was on this idea of competition for +efficiency--of production as a game and achievement +as a goal--that the wonderful growth of +the steel industry was based_. + +On the intensive development of this idea +by Andrew Carnegie, within his expanding +organization, hinged the tremendous progress +and profits of the Carnegie Company. ``The +little boss'' matched furnace against furnace, +mill against mill, superintendent against +superintendent. He scanned his weekly and +<p 50> +monthly reports not merely for records of +output, but for comparative consumption of +ore, fuel, and other supplies, for time and labor +costs in proportion to product. + +If a superintendent, foreman, or gang failed +to respond to this urging, failed to get into +the race for the famous broom which crowned +the stack of the champion Carnegie mill or +furnace, the parallel showing of the other mills +became a club to drive the laggards into line. +So intense was the competition, so sharp the +verbal goads applied that Jones, after resigning +in indignation, parodied in sarcastic +notes in this manner the Carnegie fashion of +bringing executives to task: ``Puppy dog +number three, you have been beaten by puppy +dog number two on fuel. Puppy dog number +two, you are higher on labor than puppy +dog number one.'' + +How effective was this system of pitting +man against man, plant against plant, was +shown by the dominant position of the Carnegie +Company in the trade when the Steel +Corporation was launched and by the stag- +<p 51> +gering value put upon its business. Indirect +testimony of the same fact was given another +time by Jones when he refused thousands of +dollars in yearly royalties for the use of his +inventions by outside companies, this though +the men who sought them were personal friends +and his contract with the Carnegie Company +allowed such licenses. His excuse was eloquent +of the power residing in the Carnegie +contest for efficiency and results: leadership +for his charge, the Edgar Thompson works, in +output and costs, meant more to him than +money and a chance to help his friends. + +_The Carnegie system was one of the most +comprehensive applications in business of man's +instinct of competition to the work of increasing +individual and organization efficiency_. + +In the handling of executives it was carried +to such extremes as few great managers would +approve to-day. Undeniably, however, the +contest idea was an important influence in the +building up of a vast business in relatively brief +time, while the influence on the pace of the +whole industry gave the United States its +<p 52> +present supremacy in steel and iron. It survives +in the parallel comparisons of records +with which the Steel Corporation measures +the efficiency of its units of production and +keeps its mill superintendents to the mark. +It is utilized, in some degree and in varying +departments, by hundreds of successful houses. + +Let us analyze the facts, the habits of +thought, the emotions behind competition and +determine where and how it may be applied +to the task of increasing our own and our +employees' efficiency. + +The experienced horseman knows that a +horse is unable to attain his greatest speed +apart from a pacemaker. The horse needs the +stimulus of an equal to get under way quickly, +to strike his fastest gait and to keep it up. +In this particular an athlete in sprinting is like +the horse. He is unable by sheer force of will +to run a hundred yards in ten seconds. To +achieve it he needs a competitor who will push +him to his utmost effort. + +_The struggle for existence, one of the main +factors in the evolution of man, has raged most_ +<p 53> +_fiercely among equals; without it, development +scarcely would have been possible_. + +So fundamental has been this struggle +that the necessity for it has become firmly +established within us. We require it to stimulate +us to attain our highest ends. + +As is made evident by a consideration of +imitation we are eminently social creatures. +We imitate the acts of those about us. Imitation +is, however, only the first stage of our +social relationship. We first imitate and then +compete. I purchase an automobile in imitation +of the acts of my friends, but I compete +with them by securing a more powerful or +swifter car. By erecting a new building because +some other banker has done so, the +second individual does more than imitate. +He competes with the first by planning to +erect a more magnificent structure and on a +more commanding site. Or a great retail +store, announcing a ``February sale'' of ``white +goods'' or furniture, invariably tries to surpass +the bargains offered by rival establishments. +<p 54> + +We do indeed imitate and compete with all +our associates, but those whom we recognize +as our peers are the ones who stimulate +us more to the instinctive acts of imitation and +competition. + +_Our actual equals stimulate us less than those +whom we recognize as the peers of our ideal +selves--of ourselves as we strive and intend to +become. The man on the ladder just above me +stirs me irresistibly_. + +The effect of one individual upon others, +then, is not confined to imitation. There is +a constant tendency to vary from and to excel +the model. My devotion to golf is mainly due +to he example of some of my friends. My +ambition is to outplay these same friends. +Imitation and competition, apparently antagonistic, +are in reality the two expressions +for our social relationships. We first imitate +and then attempt to differentiate ourselves +from our companions. + +The manufacturer or merchant imitates his +competitor, but tries also to surpass him. +Indeed it is a truism that competition is the +<p 55> +life of trade. In the shop and in the office, +on the road and behind the counter, in all +buying and selling, competition is essential +to the greatest success. Competition, the +desire to excel, is universal and instinctive. +It gives a zest to our work that would otherwise +be lacking. In every sphere of human +activity competition seems essential for securing +the best results. + +_We assume ordinarily that competition exists +only between individuals. As a matter of fact, +a slight degree of competition may be aroused +between a man's present efforts and his previous +records_. + +While not so tense or so compelling as is +competition between individuals, it has the +advantage of avoiding the creation of jealousies. +In all the more exciting and stimulating +games, rivalry between individuals is a +prominent feature. In golf the game is frequently +played without this factor, the only +competition being with previous records or +with the mythical Bogy. + +Such competition adds considerable zest +<p 56> +to the game, and the same principle is applicable +to business. The most compelling rivalry +is between peers; without this, however, +it is possible to pit the possibilities of the +present month against the achievements of +the previous four weeks or the past year or +even against a hypothetical individual ``bogy.'' +This bogy may be fixed by the executive, and +the man induced to compete with it. Thus +the dangers of competition may be minimized +and the advantages of the human instinctive +desire for competition be gained. + +In the average well-organized business the +carrying out of such a plan would not be difficult. +Studying the previous records of his +men, a manager or foreman could determine +what each individual bogy should be. The +employee should know just what the _*record +is_ that he is competing with, and that his +success or failure would be recorded to his +credit or otherwise. Above all, the bogy +must be fair and within the power of the man +to accomplish. + +_Competition need not be confined to individuals._ +<p 57> +_Frequently one city finds a stimulus in competing +with another. Nations compete with one another. +In any organization one section may compete +with another_. + +In an army there may be competition between +regiments. Within the regiment there +may be the keenest rivalry between the different +companies. We are such social creatures +that we easily identify ourselves with our +block, our street, our town, our social set, our +party, our firm, or our department in the firm. +Like teams in any game or sport, these groups +may be rendered self-conscious and thus made +units for competition. + +It is possible to create such units for +competition in business organizations. In some +instances individual employees of one firm +are pitted against those of a competing firm, +the contest proving stimulating to the men in +both. In other instances the competition is +restricted to the house, and similar departments +or sections are the units. + +The closer the parallel between the units +and their activities, as in the Carnegie blast +<p 58> +furnaces and steel mills, the more interesting +and effective the competition becomes. + +This principle has received widest recognition +and achieved greatest success in the +sales department. Here individuals are on +a footing of approximate equality or may be +given equality by a system of handicaps based +on conditions in their territories. Success +has also attended the pitting of selling districts +against each other. These larger competing +units work against bogies of the same +character as do the individual ones. The whole +house may be keyed up to surpass previous +records or to attain some fixed standard. + +To ascertain to what extent the principle +of competition was consciously employed by +business firms and what methods were used +to apply it in increasing the efficiency of the +men, a number of successful business firms +were asked the following questions:-- + +_How do you utilize competition in increasing +efficiency among your employees?_ + +(1) Do you regard it as unwise to stimulate +competition in any form? +<p 59> + +(2) Do you encourage men to excel their +own records of previous years? + +(3) Do you encourage competition between +men in the same department? + +(4) Do you encourage competition between +your own departments? + +(5) Do you encourage competition with +departments of competing establishments? + +(6) In competition do you make it fair +by ``handicapping'' your men? + +_What reward does the winner receive, e.g_.:-- + +(1) Monetary reward? + +(2) Promotion? + +(3) Public commendation? + +_In answers by equally successful managers +great diversity of opinion prevailed. Some +men were afraid of all forms of competition_. + +They believed that co<o:>peration was essential +to success and that any form of competition +among the men tended to lessen such +co<o:>peration. Most of the men interviewed +believed that competition when wisely handled +is very effective in stimulating the men. + +Of course, most firms try in some way to +<p 60> +encourage their men to excel their record of +previous years. The inquiry developed, however, +that a few are unwilling to employ competition +even in this mild form as a means to +increased efficiency. Most of the firms made +conscious use of this principle and were convinced +of its potency. + +Competition between men in the same +department was approved by a majority of the +firms, and its adaptability to the selling +department was especially emphasized. But +some of the best houses will permit no such +competition. The diversity in opinion was +very pronounced in answering this question. + +As to encouraging competition between departments +in the same firm, no general answer +is satisfactory. Organizations differ widely. +In many houses such competition is not practicable; +in others it certainly is not to be encouraged. +In many organizations which would +admit of such competition the experiment had +not been tried. In others it has become a +regular practice and is looked upon with favor. + +In competition between members of the +<p 61> +same department or between departments the +danger of jealousy and enmity seems to be so +real that the greatest caution has to be +observed in managing the contests. When +such caution is exercised, the results are +ordinarily reported upon favorably. + +As to encouraging competition with departments +of rival establishments, the diversity +of business makes general statements un- +illuminating. Even where such a course is +possible, some managers reject the practice +as unwise. They believe that it is not best +to recognize other houses or to consider them +in this particular. A few firms report that +they are able to stimulate their men successfully +in this way, even though the conditions for +such a contest are difficult to handle. Of those +who utilize competition a few houses employ +no handicaps to put their men on the same +level and make success equally possible to all. + +_The principle of handicaps is so manifestly +fair that organizers of contests can hardly afford +to neglect this essential to the widest interest and +participation in the competition_. +<p 62> + +If the little man in a country territory +doesn't feel that he has a fighting chance to +equal or surpass the man in the big agency, +he makes no attempt to qualify. And the +purpose of every contest, of course, is to get +every man into the game. + +Touching monetary rewards for the winners, +there is practical unanimity of opinion. +The winner should receive a prize in cash or +its equivalent. Usually the effort is to distribute +the prizes so that all who excel their +average records receive compensation and +recognition for the additional work. In many +instances unusual increases in sales or output +are rewarded by a higher rate of compensation. + +_That success in contests should influence +promotion was generally agreed. The knowledge +and energy shown are indications of capacity to +occupy a better position_. + +The contest merely reveals such capacity; +the promotion might well follow as part of the +prize for the winner or winners. + +Public commendation of winners in com- +<p 63> +petitions is held by many firms to be bad +policy. There is fear that such commendation +might render the participant conceited +and unfit for further usefulness. A majority +of firms, however, give the widest possible +publicity to such commendation. This, indeed, +is the reward most generally used and +apparently most keenly desired by employees. +Reproduction of photographs of the winners +in the house organ with an account of their +achievements is the commonest acknowledgment +of their success, though posting the +names of the winners in various parts of the +establishment is the method employed by +smaller houses. + +_Many important houses use competition as +part of their regular equipment for handling +and energizing men_. + +Particularly is this true of manufacturers +and distributors of specialties, patented machines, +trade-marked goods and lines, and +wholesalers whose travelers are selling in +territories where conditions are generally the +same. Several firms of this sort make con- +<p 64> +scious and elaborate use of the instinct of +competition in their ordinary scheme of management. + +A concrete and typical illustration of its +application to selling is afforded by the +experience and the undoubted success of one +of the largest specialty houses which distributes +its products direct to the consumer. +The sales force numbers about 500 men, and +executives of wide experience declare that the +organization is, of its size, the most efficient +in the United States. Analysis of this company's +methods is most illuminating and suggestive +because every phase of the instinct +of competition has been exploited to the +advantage of both the house and its employees. + +The medium of competition is a series of +contests--monthly, quarterly, even yearly which +bring into play all the motives urging +individuals to maximum effort and industry desire +to beat bogy, ambition to win in individual +contest with immediate neighbors and +against the whole organization, team spirit in +<p 63> +the matching of one group of agencies against +another group, and finally organization spirit +in the battle of the whole force to equal or +surpass the mark which has been set for it. + +_The first and basic contest here is that of the +individual salesman against his bogy or ``sales +quota_.'' + +This quota, the monthly amount of business +which each agency should produce, has +been worked out with great care and has a +scientific foundation. Since the great bulk +of sales are made to retail merchants, the +possibilities of each territory are determined +by reckoning the total population of all towns +containing three retailers rated by commercial +agencies. For normal months there is a standard +quota, a little above the monthly average +of all agencies the previous year, reckoned +against their total urban populations. In +``rush'' months, this quota is advanced from +fifteen to forty per cent, as the judgment of the +sales manager dictates. If general and trade +conditions lead him to believe, for instance, +that the month of May should produce +<p 66> +$1,000,000 in orders, while the sum of the +usual quotas is $800,000, he calls for an over- +plus of twenty per cent. The territory containing +one per cent of the total urban population +of the country, as reckoned, would then be +expected to make sales equal to $10,000. This +would be the agency quota for the month, +and the first and most important task of the +agent would be to secure it. + +_Because all quotas, both normal and special, +are figured on the productive population of the +territories and standings may be calculated by +percentages, it follows that all agents are on terms +of equality_. + +This is essential in a contest for individual +leadership as well as in team or organization +matches. For at least eight months of the +year, there is such a competition for the best +selling record in the entire force. Variety +is given to these contests and the interest of +the men sustained by changing the terms of +the competition. One month the chief prize +will be given to the salesman who secures his +quota at the earliest date; next month the +<p 67> +award will be for the individual who first obtains +a fixed sum in orders, usually $2500; +leadership the third month will go to the man +who gets the highest per cent of his quota +during the entire period; again, the honor will +fall to the agent whose net sales total the +greatest for the month. + +_Further changes are rung and the inspirational +effect of the contest immensely increased by enlarging +the conditions so that every third or +fourth agent is able to qualify for the month's +honors and a prize_. + +Here, for instance, besides the prize for +the first agent selling $2500, there will be +prizes--like hats, umbrellas, and so on--for +every man who closes $2500 in orders before +the twentieth of the month, with the attendant +publicity of having his portrait and his record +printed in the house organ which goes to +every agent in the field and every department +and executive at the factory. Before leaving +the individual contests, mention should be +made of the ``star'' club of agents who sell +$30,000 or more during the year; the presi- +<p 68> +dency going to the agent who first secures +that total, the other official positions falling +to his nearest rivals in the order in which +they finish. + +The team and organization contests are +usually carried on simultaneously with the +individual competitions. These range from +matches between the forces of the big city +offices, like New York, Chicago, and St. Louis, +upward to district contests in which each team +represents from thirty to fifty salesmen and +finally to international ``wars'' where the +American organization is pitted against all +the agents abroad. Challenges from one +district to another usually precipitate the +district competitions; once a year there is a +three months' general contest in which all the +districts take part for the championship of the +whole selling force. + +_To announce contests is a simple matter; +to organize and execute them so that they are of +benefit is much more difficult_. + +Unless the interest of the men is focused on +the contests, they are not worth while. To +<p 69> +make them successful the firm under consideration +utilized the following devices:-- + +During the contest the house organ appeared +often and was devoted almost exclusively +to the contest. In it the record of +each salesman was printed, his quota, his +sales to date, and other pertinent information. +The sheet was edited by a ``sporting editor,'' +and great tact and skill were displayed in giving +the contest the atmosphere of an actual +race or game. In addition the sales manager, +the district managers, and the house executives +wrote letters and telegrams of encouragement, +and even made trips to the agencies that got +under way too slowly. + +The unique feature of the contest was the +manner in which the ``sporting editor'' gave +actuality to the contests by pictorial +representations. One competition took the form +of a shooting match. The house organ contained +an enormous target with two rings +and a bull's eye. When a salesman qualified +with orders for $625, he was credited with a +shot inside the outer ring and his name was +<p 70> +printed there. With $1250 in sales, he moved +into the inner ring, and when his orders +amounted to $2500, he was credited with a +bull's eye and his name blazoned in the center +space. + +Another contest was represented as a balloon +race between the different districts. +Each district was given a balloon, and as sales +increased, the airship mounted higher. On +the balloon the name of the district leader in +sales was printed, while cartoons enlivened +the race by showing the expedients, in terms +of orders, by which the district managers and +their crews sought to drive their airships +higher. Each issue of the house organ showed +the current standing of the districts by the +heights of their balloons. This conception of +the selling contest was very successful. +``Going up--going up--how far are you up +now?'' was used as a call, and it seemed to +strike the men and inspire them. It became +the greeting of the salesmen when they met, and +irresistibly produced a feeling of competition and +a desire to have the district balloon go higher. +<p 71> + +Other ingenious fancies by which the contests +were given the appeal and interest of +popular sports was their conception as a baseball +game, a football game, an automobile +race, a Marathon run, and so on. + +In providing prizes, the firm was rather +generous, though the expense was never great. +While the contest was in progress, all those +who were really ``in the running'' had the +satisfaction of honorable mention, with their +photographs reproduced in the house bulletin. +This honor and publicity was the chief reward +received by the great majority of contestants, +and was adequate. Minor prizes were offered +on conditions, allowing a large number to qualify, +and tempting virtually everybody to make +an effort to win one. The value of the prizes +did not need to be great, for each man was +impressed with the idea that his comrades were +watching him, that they observed every advance +or retrogression. Success in the contest +meant ``making good'' in the eyes of the +other salesmen as well as in the eyes of his +superiors. +<p 72> + +_This desire for social approval and the spirited +comment of the editor had a marked influence +on the efficiency of many of the younger +salesmen_. + +These special contests were conducted +chiefly during the ``rush'' seasons, when +activity and efficiency of salesmen meant +greater returns to the house. Because of +their varied forms the contests did not become +monotonous, and thus fail in their effect. +During the three or four ``big'' selling months +when special quotas were announced, an individual +pocket schedule was mailed to each +man, showing how much business he must close +each day to keep pace with ``Mr. Quota,'' the +constant competitor. + +_The most industrious and ambitious men are +stimulated by competition; with the less industrious +such a stimulation is often wonder working +in its effects_. + +For many positions in the business world a +hypothetical bogy should be created after the +style of the quota referred to above. + +To increase the feeling of comradeship and +<p 73> +promote co<o:>peration between the men the +entire organization or single sections of it +occasionally should be made the unit of competition. +This is perhaps the most helpful +form of competition, but it is hard to execute. + +Valuable prizes should always be given to +the winners. This ``need'' may not necessarily +be monetary. + +Promotion should not depend upon success +in contests, but such success may be well +reckoned in awarding promotions. + +Public commendation for success in competition +costs the company little and is greatly +appreciated by the winner. There seems to +be no reason why the head of the house should +not assist in the presentation. + +The most essential factor in creating interest +in a contest is the skill of the ``sporting +editor'' in injecting the real spirit of the +game into each contest, thus securing wide +publicity, and enlisting the co<o:>peration of +large numbers of participants. + +Prizes should be widely distributed, so that +the greatest number may be encouraged. +<p 74> + +A fair system of handicapping should be +adopted in every case where equal opportunity +to win is not possessed by all. Previous records +often make successful bogies, and should be +more extensively employed. + +It is possible to carry on contests between +individuals in the same department without +jealousies, but skill is required to conduct +them. There is the danger that individuals +will seek to win by hindering others as well +as by exerting themselves. Where it is not +possible to carry on a contest and retain a +feeling of comradeship between the men, no +competition should be encouraged. + + + +CHAPTER IV + +LOYALTY + +AS A MEANS OF INCREASING HUMAN EFFICIENCY + +DELAYED by a train of accidents, a +big contractor faced forfeiture of his +bond on a city tunnel costing millions +of dollars. He had exhausted his ingenuity +and his resources to comply with the terms of +his contract, but had failed. Because public +opinion had been condemning concessions on +other jobs on flimsy grounds, the authorities +refused to extend the time allowed for completing +the work. By canceling the contract, +collecting the penalty, and reletting the task, +the city would profit without exceeding its +legal rights. + +In his dilemma, he called his foremen +together and explained the situation to them. +``Tell the men,'' he said. Many of these +<p 75> +<p 76> +had been members of his organization for +years, moving with him from one undertaking +to the next, looking to him for employment, +for help in dull seasons or in times of misfortune, +repaying him with interest in their +tasks and a certain rough attachment. + +He had been unusually considerate, adopting +every possible safeguard for their protection, +recognizing their union, employing three shifts +of men, paying more than the required scale +when conditions were hard or dangerous. + +A score of unions were represented in the +organization: miners, masons, carpenters, +plasterers, engineers, electricians, and many +grades of helpers. Learning his plight, they +rallied promptly to his aid. They appealed +to their trades and to the central body of +unions to intervene in his behalf with the city +officials. + +_How One Considerate Employer was protected +by his Men_ + +As taxpayers, voters, and members of an +organization potentially effective in politics, +<p 77> +they approached the mayor and the department +heads concerned. They pointed out-- +what was true--that the city's negligence in +prospecting and charting the course of the +tunnel was partly responsible for the contractor's +failure. They pleaded that the city +should make allowances rather than interrupt +their employment, and that the delay in the +work would counterbalance any advantage +contingent on forfeiture. They promised also +that if three additional months were given the +contractor, they would _*do all in their power to +push construction_. + +The mayor yielded; the extension was +granted. And the men made their promise +good literally, waiving jealously guarded rights +and sparing no effort to forward the undertaking. +The miners, masons, carpenters, and +specialists in other lines in which additional +skilled men could not be secured labored frequently +in twelve-hour shifts and accepted +only the regular hourly rate for the overtime. +With such zeal animating them, only one conclusion +was possible. The tunnel was entirely +<p 78> +completed before the ninety days of grace had +expired. + +Here was loyalty as stanch and effective +as that which wins battlefields and creates +nations. It increased the efficiency of the +individual workers; it greatly augmented the +effectiveness of the organization as a whole. +It was developed, without appeal to sentiment, +under conditions which make for division +rather than co<o:>peration between employer +and employee. The men were unionists; +wages, hours, and so on, were contract matters +with the boss. Yet in an emergency, the tie +between the tunnel builder and his men was +strong enough to stand the strain of the fatiguing +and long-continued effort necessary +to complete the job and save the former from +ruin. Like incidents, on perhaps a smaller +and less dramatic scale, are not uncommon; +but the historian of business has not yet risen +to make them known. + +<p 79> +_Loyalty, to Nation or Organization, shows itself +in an Emergency_ + +As with patriotism, business loyalty needs +some such crisis as this to evoke its expression. +In peace the patriotism of citizens is +rarely evident and is frequently called in +question. In America we sometimes assume +that it is a virtue belonging only to past +generations. But every time the honor or +integrity of the country is threatened, a multitude +of eager citizens volunteer in its defense. +Likewise, many a business man who has +come to think his workmen interested only in +the wages he pays them, discovers in his hour +of need an unsuspected asset in their devotion +to the welfare of the business, and their willingness +to make sacrifices to bring it past the +cape of storms. + +Study of any field, of any single house, or +of any of the periods of depression which have +afflicted and corrected our industrial progress, +will convince one of the unfailing and genuine +loyalty of men to able and considerate em- +<p 80> +ployers. So generally true is this, indeed, that +``house patriotism,'' ``organization spirit,'' or +``loyalty to the management'' is accepted +by all great executives as one of the essential +elements in the day-by-day conduct of their +enterprises. + +Striking exhibitions of this loyalty may wait +for an emergency. Unless it exists, however, +unless it is apparent in the daily routine, there +is immediate and relentless search for the +antagonistic condition or method, which is +robbing the force of present efficiency and +future power. Co<o:>peration of employees is +the first purpose of organization. Without +loyalty and team work the higher levels in +output, quality, and service are impossible. + +_Loyalty on Part of Employer begets Loyalty in +his Workers_ + +The importance of loyalty in business could +not readily be overestimated, even though its +sole function were to secure united action on +the part of the officers and men. Where no +two men or groups of men were working to +<p 81> +counter purposes, but all are united in a common +purpose, the gain would be enormous, even +though the amount of energy put forth by the +individuals was not increased in the least. +When to this fact of value in organized effort +we add the accompanying psychological facts +of increased efficiency by means of loyalty, +we then begin to comprehend what it means +to have or to lack loyalty. + +The amount of work accomplished by an +individual is subject to various conditions. +The whole intellect, feeling, and will must work +in unity to secure the best results. Where +there is no heart in the work (absence of +feeling) relatively little can be accomplished, +even though the intellect be convinced and the +will strained to the utmost. The employee +who lacks loyalty to his employer can at least +render but half-hearted service even though +he strive to his utmost and though he be convinced +that his financial salvation is dependent +upon efficient service. _The employer who +secures the loyalty of his men not only secures +better service, but he enables his men to accomplish_ +<p 82> +_more with less effort and less exhaustion_. The +creator of loyalty is a public benefactor. + +Such loyalty is always reciprocal. The +feeling which workmen entertain for their +employer is usually a reflection of his attitude +towards them. Fair wages, reasonable hours, +working quarters and conditions of average +comfort and healthfulness, and a measure of +protection against accident are now no more +than primary requirements in a factory or +store. Without them labor of the better, +more energetic types cannot be secured in the +first place or held for any length of time. +And the employer who expects, in return for +these, any more than the average of uninspired +service is sure to be disappointed. + +If he treats his men like machines, looks +at them merely as cogs in the mechanism +of his affairs, they will function like machines +or find other places. If he wishes to stir +the larger, latent powers of their brains and +bodies, thereby increasing their efficiency +as thinkers and workers, he must recognize +them as men and individuals and give in +<p 83> +some measure what he asks. He must identify +them with the business, and make them +feel that they have a stake in its success and +that the organization has an interest in the +welfare of its men. The boss to whom his +employees turn in any serious perplexity or +private difficulty for advice and aid is pretty +apt to receive more than the contract minimum +of effort every day and is sure of devoted +service in any time of need. + + +_The Effect of Personal Relations in creating +Loyalty in a Force_ + +It is on this personal relationship, this platform +of mutual interests and helpfulness, that +the success and fighting strength of many one- +man houses are built. As in the contractor's +dilemma already cited, it bears fruit in the +fighting zeal, the keener interest, and the extra +speed and effort which workers bring to bear +on their individual and collective tasks. All +the knowledge and skill they possess are +thrown into the scale; their quickened intelligences +reach out for new methods and short +<p 84> +cuts; when the crisis has passed, there may be +a temporary reaction, but there is likely to be +a permanent advance both in individual efficiency +and organization spirit. + +On the employer's side, this feeling is expressed +in the surrender of profits to provide +work in dull seasons; in the retention of +aged mechanics, laborers, or clerks on the +payroll after their usefulness has passed; +in pensions; in a score of neighborly and +friendly offices to those who are sick, injured, +or in trouble. A reputation for ``taking care +of his men'' has frequently been a bulwark of +defense to the small manufacturer or trader +assailed by a greedy larger rival. + +Personality is, beyond doubt, the primitive +wellspring of loyalty. Most men are capable +of devotion to a worthy leader; few are +ever zealots for the sake of a cause, a principle, +a party, or a firm. All these are too abstract +to win the affection of the average man. It is +only when they become embodied in an individual, +a concrete personality which stirs our +human interest, that they become moving +<p 85> +powers. The soldiers of the Revolution fought +for Washington rather than for freedom; +Christians are loyal to Christ rather than to +his teachings; the voter cheers his candidate +and not his party; the employee is loyal to the +head of the house or his immediate foreman +and not to the generality known as the House. +Loyalty to the individuals constituting the +firm may ultimately develop into house loyalty. +To attempt to create the latter sentiment, +however, except by first creating it for +the men higher up is to go contrary to human +nature--always an unwise expenditure of +energy. + + +_Human Sympathy as a Factor in developing +Loyalty in Men_ + +In developing loyalty, human sympathy is +the greatest factor. If an executive of a +company is confident that his directors approve +his policies, appreciate his obstacles, +and are ready to back him up in any crisis, +his energy and enthusiasm for the common +object never flag. If department heads and +<p 86> +foremen are assured that the manager is +watching their efforts with attention and regard, +approving, supporting, and sparing them +wherever possible, they will anticipate orders, +assume extra burdens, and fling themselves +and their forces into any breach which may +threaten their chief's program. + +If a workman, clerk, or salesman knows that +his immediate chief is interested in him personally, +that he understands what service is +being rendered and is anxious to forward his +welfare as well as that of the house, there is +no effort, inconvenience, or discomfort which +he will not undertake to complete a task which +the boss has undertaken. Throughout the +entire organization, the sympathy and co<o:>peration +of the men above with the men below +is essential for securing the highest degree of +loyalty. No assumed or manufactured sympathy, +however, will take the place of the genuine +article. + +<p 87> +_Personal Relationship with Workers as Basis +for creating Loyalty_ + +The effectiveness of human sympathy in +creating loyalty is most apparent in one-man +businesses where the head of the house is in +personal contact with all or many of his employees. +This personal touch, however, is +not necessarily limited to the small organization. +Many men have employed thousands +and secured it. Others have succeeded in impressing +their personalities, and demonstrating +their sympathy upon large forces, though +their actual relations were with a few. The +impression made upon these and the loyalty +created in them were sufficient to permeate and +influence the entire body. Potter Palmer, the +elder Armour, Marshall Field, and Andrew Carnegie +were among the hundreds of captains +who made acquaintance with the men in the +ranks the cornerstone on which they raised +their trade or industrial citadels. + +When the size of the organization precludes +personal contact, or when conditions remove +<p 88> +the executive to a distance, the task of maintaining +touch is frequently and successfully +intrusted to a lieutenant in sympathy with +the chief's ideals and purposes. He may +be the head of a department variously styled, +--adjustments, promotion and discharge, +employment, labor,--but his express function +is to restore to an organization the simple +but powerful human relation without which +higher efficiency cannot be maintained. In +factories and stores employing many women +this understudy to the manager is usually a +woman, who is given plenary authority in the +handling of her charges, in reviewing disputes +with foremen, and in finding the right position +for the misplaced worker. Whether man +or woman, this representative of the manager +hears all grievances, reviews all discharges, +reductions, and the like, and makes sure that +the employee receives a little more than absolute +justice. + +Many successful merchants and manufacturers, +however, disdain agents and intermediaries +in this relation and are always ac- +<p 89> +cessible to every man in their organizations; +holding that, since the co<o:>peration of employees +is the most important single element in +business, the time given to securing it is time +well spent. + +Even though human sympathy may well +be regarded as the most important consideration +in increasing loyalty, it is not sufficient +in and of itself. The most patriotic citizens +are those who have, served the state. They +are made loyal by the very act of service. +They have assumed the responsibility of promoting +the welfare of the state, and their +patriotism is thereby stimulated and given +concrete outlet. A paternalistic government +in which the citizens had every right but no +responsibility would develop beggars rather +than patriots. + +Similarly in a business house ideally organized +to create loyalty, each employee not +only feels that his rights are protected, but +also feels a degree of responsibility for the +success and for the good name of the house. +He feels that his task or process is an essen- +<p 90> +tial part of the firm's activity; and hence is +important and worthy of his best efforts. To +cement this bond and make closer the identification +of the employee with the house many +firms encourage their employees to purchase +stock in the company. Others have worked +out profit-sharing plans by which their men +share in the dividends of the good years and +are given a powerful incentive to promote +teamwork and the practice of the economies +from which the overplus of profit is produced. + +_Loyalty may be developed by Education in House +History and Policies_ + +The stability of a nation depends on the +patriotism of its citizens. Among methods +for developing this patriotism, _*education_ ranks +as the most effective. In the public schools +history is taught for the purpose of awakening +the love and loyalty of the rising generations. +The founders, builders, and saviors of the country, +the great men of peace and war who have +contributed to its advancement, are held up +for admiration. From the recital of what +<p 91> +country and patriotism meant to Washington, +Jefferson, Lincoln, Grant, and a host of lesser +heroes, the pupils come to realize what country +should, and does, mean to them. They +become patriotic citizens. + +_Grounding the New Employee in Company +Traditions and Ideals_ + +In like manner the history of any house can +be used to inspire loyalty and enthusiasm +among its employees. Business has not been +slow to borrow the methods and ideals of +education, but the writer has been unable to +discover any company which makes adequate +use of this principle. That this loyalty may +be directed to the house as a whole, and not +merely to immediate superiors, every employee +should be acquainted with the purposes and +policies of the company and should understand +that the sympathy which he discovers in +his foreman is a common characteristic of the +whole organization, clear up to the president. +The best way to teach this is by example-- +by incidents drawn from the past, or by a +<p 92> +review of the development of the company's +policy. + +To identify one's self with a winning cause, +party, or leader, also, is infinitely easier than +to be loyal to a loser. For this reason the +study of the history of the firm may well include +its trade triumphs, past and present; +the remarkable or interesting uses to which its +products have been put; the honor or prestige +which its executives or members of the +organization have attained; and the hundred +other items of human interest which can be +marshaled to give it house personality. All +this would arouse admiration and appreciation +in employees, would stir enthusiasm and +a desire to contribute to future achievements, +and would foster an unwillingness to leave the +organization. + +Some companies have begun in this direction. +New employees, by way of introduction, +listen to lectures, either with or without +the accompaniment of pictures, which review +what the house has accomplished, define its +standing in the trade, analyze its products and +<p 93> +their qualities or functions, sketch the plan and +purpose of its organization, and touch upon the +other points of chief human interest. Other +companies put this information in booklets. +Still others employ their house organs to recall +and do honor to the interesting traditions of +the company as well as to exploit the successful +deeds and men of the moment. An organized +and continuous campaign of education +along this line should prove an inexpensive +means of increasing loyalty and efficiency +among the men. To the mind of the writer, it +seems clear that the future will see pronounced +advances in this particular. + +Personality can be overdone, however. +Workers instinctively give allegiance to strong, +balanced men, but resent and combat egotism +unchecked by regard for others' rights. +Exploitation of the employer's or foreman's +personality will do more harm than good unless +attended by consideration for the personality +of the employee. The service of more than +one important company has been made intolerable +for men of spirit and creative ability +<p 94> +by the arrogant and dominating spirit of the +management. The men who continue to +sacrifice their individuality to the whim or the +arbitrary rule of their superiors, in time lose +their ambition and initiative; and the organization +declines to a level of routine, mechanical +efficiency only one remove from dry- +rot. + +_How Efficiency and Loyalty of Workers may be +Capitalized_ + +Conservation and development of individuality +in workers may be made an important +factor in creating loyalty as well as in directly +increasing efficiency. Great retail stores put +many department heads into business for +themselves, giving them space, light, buying +facilities, clerks, and purchasing and advertising +credit as a basis of their merchandising; +then requiring a certain percentage of profit +on the amount allowed them. The more successful +of Marshall Field's lieutenants were +taken into partnership and, as in the case of +Andrew Carnegie and his ``cabinet of young +<p 95> +geniuses,'' were given substantial shares of the +wealth they helped to create. + +Some industries and stores carry this practice +to the point of making specialized departments +entirely independent of the general +buying, production, and selling organizations +whenever these fall short of the service offered +outside; while the principle of stock distribution +or other forms of profit sharing has +been adopted by so many companies that it +has come to be a recognized method of promoting +loyalty. + +Regard for the employee's personality must +be carried down in an unbroken chain through +all the ranks. It may be broken at any step +in the descent by an executive or foreman +who has not himself learned the lesson that +loyalty to the house includes loyalty to the +men under him. + +It is not uncommon, in some American +houses, to find three generations of workers +--grandfather, father, and apprentice son-- +rendering faithful and friendly service; or to +discover a score of bosses and men who have +<p 96> +spent thirty or forty years--their entire +productive lives--in the one organization. +Where such a bond exists between employer +and employees, it becomes an active, unfailing +force in the development of loyalty, not only +among the veterans, but also among the newest +recruits for whom it realizes an illustration of +what true co<o:>peration means. + +_Many Examples of the Loyalty of Executives for +their Men in Danger_ + +This double loyalty--to the chief and to +the organization--is not a plant of slow +growth. Few mine accidents or industrial +disasters occur without bringing to merited, +but fleeting, fame some heroic superintendent +or lesser boss who has risked his own life to +save his men or preserve the company's +property. The same sense of responsibility +extends to every grade. Give a man the +least touch of authority and he seems to take +on added moral stature. The engineer who +clings to his throttle with collision imminent +has his counterparts in the ``handy man'' +<p 97> +who braves injury to slip a belt and save +another workman or a costly machine, and in +the elevator conductor who drives his car up +and down through flames and smoke to rescue +his fellows. Such efficiency and organization +spirit is the result of individual growth as well +as the impression of the employer's personality +upon his machine. + +_A Disloyal Sales Manager and his Influence on +his Force_ + +On the other hand, lack of loyalty on the +part of employers towards their men is almost +as common as failing devotion on the part of +workers. Too many assume that the mere +providing of work and the payment of wages +give them the right to absolute fidelity, even +when they take advantage of their men. The +sales manager concerned in the following incident +refused to believe that his attitude +towards his men had anything to do with the +lack of enthusiasm and low efficiency in his +force. + +An experienced salesman who had lost his +<p 98> +position because of the San Francisco fire +applied to the sales manager for a position. +He was informed that there were fifteen applicants +for the Ohio territory, but that the +place would be given to him because of his +better record. The manager laid out an +initial territory in one corner and ordered the +salesman to work it first. + +Working this territory, the salesman secured +substantial orders, but refrained from +``over-selling'' any customer, gave considerable +time to missionary work and to cultivating +the acquaintance of buyers. His campaign +was planned less for immediate results +than for the future and for the effect on the +larger field of the state. Having no instructions +as to pushing his wider campaign, in +about sixty days he asked for instructions. +In answer he was ordered home and discharged +on the ground that business was dull and that +he had been a loss to the house. During the +sixty days he had been working on a losing +commission basis with the expectation of +taking his profits later. Investigation dis- +<p 99> +closed that he was but one of five salesmen to +whom the Ohio territory had been assigned +simultaneously. Of the five, one other also +had made good and had been retained because +he could be secured for less money. + +This multiple try-out policy is entirely +fair when the applicants know the conditions. +But to lead each applicant to believe that he +has been engaged subject only to his ability +to make good is manifestly unjust. The facts +are bound to come out sooner or later and +create distrust among all employees of the +house. Loyalty is strictly reciprocal. If an +employee feels that he has no assurance of +fair treatment, his attitude towards the firm +is sure to be negative. Even the man who +secures the position will recognize the firm's +lack of candor and will never give his employers +the full measure of co<o:>peration which produces +maximum efficiency. + +The ``square deal,'' indeed, is the indispensable +basis of loyalty and efficiency in an +organization. The spirit as well as the letter +of the bargain must be observed, else the work- +<p 100> +men will contrive to even up matters by loafing, +by slighting the work, or by a minimum production. +This means a loss of possible daily +earnings. On the other hand, employees never +fail to recognize and in time respect the executive +who holds the balance of loyalty and justice +level between them and the business. + +Fair wages, reasonable hours, working quarters +and conditions of average comfort and +healthfulness, ordinary precautions against +accidents, and continuous employment are +all now regarded as primary requirements +and are not sufficient to create loyalty in the +men. More than this must be done. + +The chief executive should create such a +spirit that his officers shall turn to him for +help when in perplexity or difficulty. The +superintendent and officers or bosses should +sustain this same sympathetic relationship +toward their men that the executive has toward +his officers. A reputation for taking care of +his men is a thing to be sought in a chief +executive as well as in all underofficers. + +Personal relationships should be cultivated. +<p 101> +In some large organizations the chief executive +may secure this personal touch with individuals +through an agent or through a department +known as the department of ``promotion and +discharge,'' ``employment,'' or ``labor.'' In +others, occasional meetings on a level of equality +may be brought about through house picnics, +entertainments, vacation camps, and so +on, where employer and employee meet each +other outside their usual business environment. + +It is not worth while to attempt to develop +loyalty to the house until there has been +developed a loyalty to the personalities +representing the house. Loyalty in business is +in the main a reciprocal relationship. The +way to begin it is for the chief to be loyal to +his subordinates and to see to it that all officers +are loyal to their inferiors. When loyalty +from above has been secured, loyalty from the +ranks may readily be developed. + +The personality of the worker must be +respected by the employer. ``Giving a man +a chance'' to develop himself, allowing him +<p 102> +to express his individuality, is the surest way +of enlisting the interest and loyalty of a +creative man. + +To identify the interests of employees with +the interests of the house, various plans of +profit sharing, sale of stock to employees, +pensions, insurance against sickness and accident, +and so on, have been successfully applied +by many companies. + +So far as possible, responsibility for the +success of the house should be assumed by +all employees. In some way the workmen +should feel that they are in partnership with +the executives. We easily develop loyalty +for the cause for which we have taken responsibility +or rendered a service. + +_Creating Loyalty to Firm itself by Educational +Campaign_ + +A perpetual campaign of publicity should be +maintained for the benefit of every man in the +employ of the house. In this there should be +a truthful but emphatic presentation of acts +of loyalty on the part of either employers or +<p 103> +workmen. Everything connected with the +firm which has human interest should be included +in this history. This educational campaign +should change the loyalty to the _*men_ +in the firm into loyalty to the _*firm_ itself. It +should be an attempt to give the firm a personality, +and of such a noble character that it +would win the loyalty of the men. This could +be accomplished at little expense and with +great profit. + + + +CHAPTER V + +CONCENTRATION + +AS A MEANS OF INCREASING HUMAN EFFICIENCY + +THE owner of one of the largest and most +complex businesses in America handles +his day's work on a schedule as exacting +as a railway time-table. In no other way +could he keep in touch with and administer +the manifold activities of his industry and a +score of allied interests--buying of the day's +raw materials for a dozen plants in half as +many markets, direction of an organization +exceeding 20,000 men, selling and delivering +a multitude of products in a field as wide as +three continents, financing the whole tremendous +fabric. + +Every department of his business, therefore, +has its hour or quarter hour in the daily program +when its big problems are considered +<p 104> +<p 105> +and settled on the tick of the clock. This +schedule is flexible, since no two days bring +from any division of production, distribution, +or financing the same demands upon the owner's +attention. Yet each keeps its place and +comes invariably under his eye--through +reports and his own mastery of conditions +affecting the department. + +_To secure the high personal efficiency required +for this oversight and methodical dispatch of +affairs, the owner-executive is not only protected +from outside interruptions and distractions, but is +also guarded against intrusion of the vital +elements of his business--both men and matters +--except at the moment most advantageous for +dealing with them_. + +Analysis and organization have determined +these moments--just as they have eliminated +every non-essential in the things presented +for consideration and decision. Except when +emergencies arise there is no departure from +the rule: ``One thing at a time--the big +thing--at the right time.'' The task in hand +is never cheated, or allowed to cheat the next +<p 106> +in line. Management is as much a continuous +process, organized and wasteproof, as the +journey of raw materials through his plants. + +This is an illustration of remarkable individual +efficiency attained by concentration +--the power of the human mind which seems +inseparable from any great achievement in +business, in politics, in the arts, in education. +Through it men of moderate capacities have +secured results apparently beyond the reach +of genius. And in no field has this power of +concentration been displayed more vividly by +leaders or been more generally lacking in the +rank and file than in business. Analysis of +the conditions may suggest the reason and the +remedy. + +_The modern business man is exhausted no +more by his actual achievements than by the +things which he is compelled to resist doing_. + +Appeals for his attention are ceaseless. +The roar of the street, the ring of telephone +bells, the din of typewriting machines, the +sight of a row of men waiting for an interview, +the muffled voices from neighboring offices or +<p 107> +workers, the plan for the day's work which is +being delayed, the anxiety for the results for +certain endeavors, suspicion as to the loyalty +of employees--these and a score of other distractions +are constantly bombarding him. + +Every appeal for attention demands expenditure +of energy--to ignore it and hold +the mind down to the business in hand. The +simple life with its single appeal is not for the +business man. For him life is complex and +strenuous. To overcome distractions and focus +his mind on one thing is a large part of his +task. If this single thing alone appealed to +his attention, the effort would be pleasing and +effective. It is not the work that is hard; the +strain comes in keeping other things at bay +while completing the pressing duty. + +_He is exhausted, not because of his achievements, +but because of the expenditure of energy +in resisting distractions_. + +He is inefficient, not through lack of industry, +but from lack of opportunity or of ability +to concentrate his energy upon the single task +at hand. +<p 108> + +All sources of illumination--from the candle +to the sun--send out rays of light equally +in all directions. If illumination of only _*one_ +point is desired, the loss is appalling. The rays +may be assembled, however, by reflectors and +lenses and so brought to bear in great force +at a single point. + +This brilliancy is not secured by greater +expenditure of energy, but by utilizing the +rays which, except for the reflectors and lenses, +would be dissipated in other directions. + +_As any source gives off equally in all directions, +so the human intellect seems designed to respond +to all forms and sorts of appeal for attention_. + +To keep light from going off in useless directions +we use reflectors; to keep human energy +from being expended in useless directions we +must remove distractions. To focus the light +at any point we use lenses; to focus our minds +at any point we use concentration. + +Concentration is a state secured by the mental +activity called attention. To understand +concentration we must first consider the more +fundamental facts of attention. +<p 109> + +In the evolution of the human race certain +things have been so important for the individual +and the race that responses towards +them have become instinctive. They appeal +to every individual and attract his attention +without fail. Thus moving objects, loud +sounds, sudden contrasts, and the like, were +ordinarily portents of evil to primitive man, +and his attention was drawn to them irresistibly. +Even for us to pay attention to such +objects requires no intention and no effort. +Hence it is spoken of as _*passive_ or _*involuntary +attention_. + +The attention of animals and of children +is practically confined to this passive form, +while adults are by no means free from it. +For instance, ideas and things to which I +have no intention of turning my mind attract +me. Ripe fruit, gesticulating men, beautiful +women, approaching holidays, and scores of +other things simply pop up in my mind and +enthrall my attention. My mind may be so +concentrated upon these things that I become +oblivious to pressing responsibilities. In some +<p 110> +instances the concentration may be but momentary; +in others there may result a day +dream, a building of air castles, which lasts +for a long time and recurs with distressing +frequency. + +_Such attention is action in the line of least +resistance. Though it may suffice for the acts +of animals and children it is sadly deficient for +our complex business life_. + +Even here, however, it is easy to relapse +to the lower plane of activity and to respond +to the appeal of the crier in the street, the +inconvenience of the heat, the news of the ball +game, or a pleasing reverie, or even to fall +into a state of mental apathy. The warfare +against these distractions is never wholly +won. Banishing these allurements results in +the concentration so essential for successfully +handling business problems. The strain is +not so much in solving the problems as in retaining +the concentration of the mind. + +When an effort of will enables us to overcome +these distractions and apply our minds to the +subject in hand, the strain soon repeats itself. +<p 111> +It frequently happens that this struggle is +continuous--particularly when the distractions +are unusual or our physical condition is +below the normal. No effort of the will is +able to hold our minds down to work for any +length of time unless the task develops interest +in itself. + +This attention with effort is known as _*voluntary +attention_. It is the most exhausting act +which any individual can perform. Strength +of will consists in the power to resist distractions +and to hold the mind down to even +the most uninteresting occupations. + +_Fortunately for human achievement, acts +which in the beginning require voluntary effort +may later result without effort_. + +The schoolboy must struggle to keep his +mind on such uninteresting things as the alphabet. +Later he may become a literary +man and find that nothing attracts his attention +so quickly as printed symbols. In commercial +arithmetic the boy labors to fix his +attention on dollar signs and problems involving +profit and loss. Launched in business, +<p 112> +however, these things may attract him more +than a football game. + +It is the outcome of previous application +that we now attend without effort to many +things in our civilization which differ from +those of more primitive life. Such attention +without effort is known as _*secondary passive +attention_. Examples are furnished by the +geologist's attention to the strata of the +earth, the historian's to original manuscripts, +the manufacturer's to by-products, the merchant's +to distant customers, and the attention +which we all give to printed symbols and scores +of other things unnoticed by our distant ancestors. +Here our attention is similar to passive +attention, though the latter was the result +of inheritance, while our secondary passive +attention results from our individual efforts +and is the product of our training. + +Through passive attention my concentration +upon a ``castle in Spain'' may be perfect +until destroyed by a fly on my nose. Voluntary +attention may make my concentration +upon the duty at hand entirely satisfactory +<p 113> +till dissipated by some one entering my office. +Secondary passive attention fixes my mind +upon the adding of a column of figures, and it +may be distracted by a commotion in my vicinity. +Thus concentration produced by any +form of attention is easily destroyed by a +legion of possible disturbances. If I desire +to increase my concentration to the maximum, +I must remove every possible cause of +distraction. + +_Organized society has recognized the hindering +effect of some distractions and has made +halting attempts to abolish them_. + +Thus locomotives are prohibited from sounding +whistles within city limits, but power +plants are permitted by noise and smoke to +annoy every citizen in the vicinity. Street +cars are forbidden to use flat wheels, but are +still allowed to run on the surface or on a +resounding structure and thus become a public +nuisance. Steam calliopes, newsboys, street +venders, and other unnecessary sources of +noise are still tolerated. + +In the design and construction of office +<p 114> +buildings, stores, and factories in noisy neighborhoods, +too little consideration is given to +existing means of excluding or deadening +outside sounds, though the newer office buildings +are examples of initiative in this direction; +not only are they of sound-proof construction, +but in many instances they have replaced the +noisy pavements of the streets with blocks +which reduce the clatter to a minimum. In +both improvements they have been emulated +by some of the great retail stores which have +shut out external noises and reduced those +within to a point where they no longer distract +the attention of clerks or customers +from the business of selling and buying. In +many, however, clerks are still forced to call +aloud for cash girls or department managers, +and the handling of customers at elevators is +attended by wholly unnecessary shouting and +clash of equipment. + +Of all distractions, sound is certainly the +most common and the most insistent in its appeal. + +The individual efforts towards reducing +it quoted above were stimulated by the hope +<p 115> +of immediate and tangible profit--sound- +proof offices commanding higher rents and +quiet stores attracting more customers. In +not a few cases, manufacturers have gone +deeper, however, recognizing that anything +which claims the attention of an employee +from his work reduces his efficiency and cuts +profits, even though he be a piece worker. In +part this explains the migration of many industries +to the smaller towns and the development +of a new type of city factory with sound- +proof walls and floors, windows sealed against +noise, and a system of mechanical ventilation. + +The individual manufacturer or merchant, +therefore, need not wait for a general crusade +to abate the noise, the smoke, and the other +distractions which reduce his employee's +effectiveness. In no small measure he can shut +out external noises and eliminate many of +those within. Loud dictation, conversations, +clicking typewriters, loud-ringing telephones, +can all be cut to a key which makes them virtually +indistinguishable in an office of any +size. More and more the big open office as +<p 116> +an absorbent of sound seems to be gaining in +favor. In one of the newest and largest of +these I know, nearly all the typewriting machines +are segregated in a glass-walled room, +and long-distance telephone messages can be +taken at any instrument in the great office. + +_Like sound in its imperative appeal for attention +is the consciousness of strangers passing +one's desk or windows_. + +Movement of fellow employees about the +department, unless excessive or unusual, is +hardly noticed; let an individual or a group +with whom we are not acquainted come within +the field of our vision, and they claim attention +immediately. For this reason shops or factories +whose windows command a busy street +find it profitable to use opaque glass to shut +out the shifting scene. + +This scheme of retreat and protection has +been carried well-nigh to perfection by many +executives. Private offices guarded by secretaries +fortify them against distractions and +unauthorized claims on their attention, both +from within and without their organizations. +<p 117> +Routine problems, in administration, production, +distribution, are never referred to them; +these are settled by department heads, and +only new or vital questions are submitted to +the executive. In many large companies, +besides the department heads and secretaries +who assume this load of routine, there are +assistants to the president and the general +manager who further reduce the demands +upon their chiefs. The value of time, the +effect of interruptions and distractions upon +their own efficiency, are understood by countless +executives who neglect to guard their +employees against similar distractions. + +_Individual business men, unsupported by +organizations, have worked out individual methods +of self-protection_. + +One man postpones consideration of questions +of policy, selling conditions, and soon until +the business of the day has been finished, and +interruptions from customers or employees are +improbable. Another, with his stenographer, +reaches his office half an hour earlier than his +organization, and, picking out the day's big +<p 118> +task, has it well towards accomplishment +before the usual distractions begin. The foremost +electrical and mechanical engineer in the +country solves his most difficult and abstruse +problems at home, at night. His organization +provides a perfect defense against interruptions; +but only in the silence, the isolation of +his home at night, does he find the complete +absence of distraction permitting the absolute +concentration which produces great results. + +This chapter was prefaced by an instance +where protection from distractions through +organization was joined with methodical +attack on the elements of the day's work. This +combination approaches the ideal; it is the +system followed by nearly all the great +executives of America. Time and attention are +equably allotted to the various interests, +the various departments of effort which must +have the big man's consideration during the +day. Analysis has determined how much of +each is required; appointments are made with +the men who must co<o:>perate; all other matters +are pushed aside until a decision is reached; +<p 119> +and upon the completion of each attention is +concentrated on the next task. + +A striking instance of this organization of +work and concentration upon a single problem +is afforded by the ``cabinet meetings'' of some +large corporations and the luncheons of groups +of powerful financiers in New York. There +are certain questions to be settled, a definite +length of time in which to settle them. In the +order of their importance they are allotted so +many minutes. At the expiration of that time +a vote is taken, the president or chairman +announces his decision, and the next matter is +attacked. + +_There is no royal method of training in +concentration. It is in the main developed by +repeated acts of attention upon the subject in +hand_. + +If I am anxious or need to develop the power +of concentration upon what people say, either +in conversation or in public discourse, I may +be helped by persistently and continuously +forcing myself to attend. The habit of +concentration may to a degree be thus acquired; +<p 120> +pursuing it, I should never allow myself to +listen indifferently, but I must force myself to +strict attention. + +Such practice would result ultimately in a +habit of concentration upon what I hear, +but would not necessarily increase my power +of concentration upon writing, adding, or other +activities. Specific training in each is essential, +and even then the results will be far short +of what might be desired. Persistent effort +in any direction is not without result, however, +and any increase in concentration is so valuable +that it is worth the effort it costs. If a man +lacks power of concentration in any particular +direction, he should force concentration in that +line and continue till a habit results. + +Our control over our muscles and movements +far exceeds our direct control over our +attention. An attitude of concentration is +possible, even when the desired mental process +is not present. Thus by fixing my eyes on a +page and keeping them adjusted for reading, +even when my mind is on a subject far removed, +I can help my will to secure concentration. I +<p 121> +can likewise restrain myself from picking up a +newspaper or from chatting with a friend when +it is the time for concentrated action on my +work. By continuously resisting movements +which tend to distract and by holding myself +in the position of attention, the strain upon +my will in forcing concentration becomes less. + +_Concentration is practically impossible when +the brain is fagged or the bodily condition is far +below the normal in any respect_. + +The connection between the body and the +mind is most intimate, and the perfect working +of the body is necessary to the highest efficiency +of the mind. The power of concentration is +accordingly affected by surroundings in the +hours of labor, by sleep and recreation, by the +quality and quantity of food, and by every +condition which affects the bodily processes +favorably. + +Recognition of this truth is behind the very +general movement, both here and abroad, to +provide the best possible conditions both in the +factories and the home environment of workers. +Employers are coming more and more to un- +<p 122> +derstand that conservation of physical forces +means maximum output. The foundation, +of course, is a clean, spacious, well-lighted, and +perfectly ventilated factory in a situation which +affords pure air and accessibility to the homes +of employees. In England and Germany the +advance towards this ideal has taken form in +the ``garden cities'' of which the plant is the +nucleus and the support. In America there is +no lack of industrial towns planned and built +as carefully as the works to which they are +tributary. + +Some have added various ``welfare'' features, +ranging from hot luncheons served at +cost, free baths, and medical attendance to +night schools for employees to teach them how +to live and work to better advantage. The +profit comes back in the increased efficiency +of the employees. + +_Even though the health be perfect and the +attitude of attention be sustained the will is +unable to retain concentration by an effort for +more than a few seconds at a time_. + +When the mind is concentrated upon an +<p 123> +object, this object must develop and prove +interesting, otherwise there will be required +every few seconds the same tug of the will. +This concentration by voluntary attention is +essential, but cannot be permanent. To secure +enduring concentration we may have to +``pull ourselves together'' occasionally, but the +necessity for such efforts should be reduced. +This is accomplished by developing interest +in the task before us, through application of +the fundamental motives such as self-preservation, +imitation, competition, loyalty, and +the love of the game. + +If the task before me is essential for my +self-preservation, I shall find my mind riveted +upon it. If I hope to secure more from speculation +than from the completion of my present +tasks, then my self-preservation is not +dependent upon my work and my mind will +irresistibly be drawn to the stock market and +the race track. If I wish my work to be +interesting and to compel my undivided attention, +I should then try to make it appeal +to me as of more importance than anything +<p 124> +else in the world. I must be dependent upon +it for my income; I must see that others are +working and so imitate their action; I must +compete with others in the accomplishment +of the task; I must regard the work as a service +to the house; and I must in every possible +way try to ``get into the game.'' + +_This conversion of a difficult task into an +interesting activity is the most fruitful method of +securing concentration_. + +Efforts of will can never be dispensed with, +but the necessity for such efforts should be +reduced to the minimum. The assumption +of the attitude of attention should gradually +become habitual during the hours of work, and +so take care of itself. + +The methods which a business man must +use to cultivate concentration in himself are +also applicable to his employees. The manner +of applying the methods is, of course, different. +The employer may see to it that as far as +possible all distractions are removed. He cannot +directly cause his men to put forth voluntary +effort, but he can see to it that they re- +<p 125> +tain the attitude of concentration. This may +require the prohibition of acts which are distracting +but which would otherwise seem indifferent. +The employer has a duty in regard +to the health of his men. Certain employers +have assumed to regulate the lives of their men +even after the day's work is over. Bad habits +have been prohibited; sanitary conditions of +living have been provided; hours of labor +have been reduced; vacations have been +granted; and sanitary conditions in shop and +factory have been provided for. + +_Employers are finding it to their interest to +make concentration easy for their men by rendering +their work interesting_. + +This they have done by making the work +seem worth while. The men are given living +wages, the hope of promotion is not too long +deferred, attractive and efficient models for +imitation are provided, friendly competition is +encouraged, loyalty to the house is engendered, +and love of the work inculcated. In addition, +everything which hinders the development of +interest in the work has been resisted. +<p 126> + +How will a salesman, for instance, develop +interest in his work if he makes more from his +``side lines'' than from the service he renders +to the house which pays his expenses? How +can the laborer be interested in his work if he +believes that by gambling he can make more +in an hour than he could by a month's steady +work? The successful shoemaker sticks to his +last, the successful professional man keeps out +of business, and the wise business man resists +the temptation to speculate. Occasionally a +man may be capable of carrying on diverse +lines of business for himself, but the man is +certainly a very great exception who can hold +his attention to the interests of his employer +when he expects to receive greater rewards +from other sources. + +_The power of concentration depends in part +upon inheritance and in part upon training_. + +Some individuals, like an Edison or a Roosevelt, +seem to be constructed after the manner of +a searchlight. All their energy may be turned +in one direction and all the rest of the world +disregarded. Others are what we call scatter- +<p 127> +brained. They are unable to attend completely +to any one thing. They respond constantly +to stimulation in the environment and to +ideas which seem to ``pop up'' in their minds. + +Some people can read a book or paper with +perfect satisfaction, even though companions +around them are talking and laughing. For +others, such attempts are farcical. + +Many great men are reputed to have had +marvelous powers of concentration. When +engaged in their work, they became so absorbed +in it that distracting thoughts had no access +to their minds, and even hunger, sleep, and +salutations of friends have frequently been +unable to divert the attention from the absorbing +topic. + +_There are persons who cannot really work except +in the midst of excitement_. + +When surrounded by numerous appeals to +attention, they get wakened up by resisting +these attractions and find superfluous energy +adequate to attend to the subject in hand. +This is on the same principle that governs +the effects of poisonous stimulants. Taken +<p 128> +into the system, the whole bodily activity is +aroused in an attempt to expel the poison. +Some of this abnormally awakened energy +may be applied to uses other than those intended +by nature. Hence some individuals +are actually helped in their work at least +temporarily by the use of stimulants. Most +of the energy is of course required to expel the +poison, and hence the method of generating +the energy is uneconomical. + +The men who find that they can accomplish +the most work and concentrate themselves +upon it the most perfectly when in the midst +of noise and confusion are paying a great price +for the increase of energy, available for profitable +work. To be dependent on confusion for +the necessary stimulation is abnormal and expensive. +Rapid exhaustion and a shortened +life result. It is a bad habit and nothing more. + +_Many persons seem able to disregard the common +and necessary distractions of office, store, or +factory_. + +Other persons are so constituted that these +distractions can never be overcome. Such +<p 129> +persons cannot hear a message through a telephone +when others in the room are talking; +they cannot dictate a letter if a third person is +within hearing; they cannot add a column of +figures when others are talking. Habit and +effort may reduce such disability, but in some +instances it will never even approximately +eliminate it. Such persons may be very +efficient employees, and their inability to concentrate +in the presence of distractions should +be respected. Every business man is careful +to locate every piece of machinery where it +will work best, but equal care has not been +given to locating men where they may work to +the greatest advantage. + +By inheritance the power of concentration +differs greatly among intelligent persons. By +training, those with defective power may improve, +but will never perfect the power to concentrate +amidst distractions. To subject such +persons to distractions is an unwise expenditure +of energy + +_Concentration by voluntary attention should be +avoided, but concentration by secondary passive_ +<p 130> +_attention cultivated. Organized business interests +should eliminate such public nuisances as +surface street cars, elevated trains, venders of +wares, screeching newsboys, smoking chimneys, +and the like_. + +In individual establishments walls may be +deadened to sounds, telephones may be muffled, +call bells may be replaced by buzzers with indicators, +clerks may have other methods than +that of calling aloud for ``cash'' or for floor +walkers, typewriters may be massed with a +view to reducing the general commotion, the +illumination at the desks may be increased, +discomforts should be reduced to a minimum, +work may be so systematized that only one +task at a time demands attention. + +At least the attitude of concentration should +be habitual. The bodily condition favorable +to the best concentration may make profitable +such devices as firm lunch rooms, the +building of industrial villages, and so on. + +Concentration is secured positively by bringing +into activity the various motives which +affect most powerfully the different individu- +<p 131> +als. There should be a universal taboo on +horse racing and all forms of gambling. Even +``side lines'' should be completely discouraged. +Some individuals are so hindered by the ordinary +and necessary distractions of business +that special protection should be granted to +them. + + + +CHAPTER VI + +WAGES + +AS A MEANS OF INCREASING HUMAN EFFICIENCY + +FIFTY years ago works on psychology +were devoted largely to discussion of +ideas and of concepts. To-day the +point of emphasis has changed, and we are +now paying much attention to a study of +``attitudes.'' It is doubtless important to +analyze my ideas or concepts, but it is of +much more importance to know my attitudes. +It is vital to know how to influence the ideas +of others; but to be able to influence their +attitudes is of still greater significance. + +We all know in a general way what we +mean by an attitude, but it is difficult to define +or to comprehend it exactly. I have one attitude +towards a snake and a totally different +one towards my students. If when hunting +<p 132> +<p 133> +quail I happen upon a little harmless snake, +I find that I respond to the sight in a most +absurd manner. Dread and repulsion overcome +me. I can hardly restrain myself from +killing the snake, even though doing so will +frighten the birds I am hunting. I am predisposed +to react in a particular way towards +a snake. I sustain a particular attitude towards +it. + +In the presence of my students I find that a +spirit of unselfish devotion and a desire to be +of assistance are likely to be uppermost. +That is to say, I sustain towards my students +an attitude of helpfulness, a predisposition +to react towards them in such a way that their +interests may be furthered. In fact, I find +that we all take particular attitudes towards +the people we know and towards every task of +our lives. These attitudes are very significant, +and yet they are often developed by circumstances +which made but little apparent impression +at the time, or may have been altogether +forgotten. I cannot recall, for instance, +the experience of my boyhood which developed +<p 134> +my present absurd attitude toward harmless +snakes. + +When witnessing a play, my attitude of +suspicion towards a particular character may +have been promoted by means of music and +color, by means of the total setting of the play, +or by some other means which never seemed to +catch my attention. These concealed agencies +threw me into an attitude of suspicion, even +while I was not aware that such a result was +being attempted. + +This modern conception of psychology +teaches us that in influencing others we are +not successful until we have influenced their +attitudes. Children in school do not draw +patriotism from mere information about their +country. Patriotism comes with the cultivation +of the proper attitude towards one's +native land. + +_Success or failure in business is caused more +by mental attitude even than by mental capacities_. + +Nothing but failure can result from the +mental attitude which we designate variously +as laziness, indifference, indolence, apathy, +<p 135> +shiftlessness, and lack of interest. All business +successes are due in part to the attitudes +which we call industry, perseverance, interest, +application, enthusiasm, and diligence. + +In any individual, too, these attitudes may +not be the same towards different objects +and may be subject to very profound changes +and developments. A schoolboy is frequently +lazy when engaged in the study of grammar, +but industrious when at work in manual +training. A young man who is an indolent +bookkeeper may prove to be an indefatigable +salesman. Another who has shown himself +apathetic and indifferent in a subordinate +position may suddenly wake up when cast +upon his own responsibility. + +Few men of any intelligence can develop +the same degree of interest in each of several +tasks. Personally I find that my shiftlessness +in regard to some of my work is appalling. +Touching my main activities, however, I +judge that my industry is above reproach. + +The preceding chapters (particularly the +chapters on Imitation, Competition, and Loy- +<p 136> +alty) were attempts to discover and to present +the most effective motives or factors in producing +in workers an attitude of industry. +Based on a study of psychology and of business, +methods were presented which may be +utilized with but little expense and yet are +effective in awakening instinctive responses in +the worker and hence greatly increasing his +efficiency. The present chapter will deal with +an even more effective means of securing an +attitude of industry since it appeals to three +of the most fundamental and irresistible of +man's instincts. + +_With most of us the degree of our laziness or +our industry depends partly upon our affinity +for the work, but chiefly upon the motives which +stimulate us_. + +For our ancestors, preservation depended +upon their securing the necessary means for +food, clothing, and shelter. In the struggle +for existence only those individuals and races +survived who were able to secure these necessary +articles. In climates and regions removed +from the tropics only the exceedingly +<p 137> +industrious survived. In warm and fertile +lands those who were relatively industrious +managed to exist. Because of the absence of +the necessity for clothing and because of the +abundance of available food, races have developed +in the tropics which are notoriously +lazy. The human race, individually and collectively, +works only where and when it is +compelled to. + +The energetic races, those which have advanced +in civilization, live in lands where the +struggle for existence has been continuous. +Necessity is a hard master, but its rule is +indispensable to worthy achievement. The instinct +of self-preservation and the industrious +attitude are responses which the human race +has learned to exercise, in the main, only in +case of need. Self-preservation is the first +law; where life and personal liberty are +dependent upon industry, idleness will not be +found. Wealth removes the obligation to +toil; hence the poor boy often outdistances +his more favored brother. + +Individuals work for pay as a means of +<p 138> +self-preservation, and unless that is satisfactory +other motives have but little weight +with them. The needs of the self which preservation +demands are continuously increasing. +The needs of the American-born laborer are +greater than those of the Chinaman. Regardless +of this higher standard of living and +the ever increasing number of ``necessities,'' +the instinct of self-preservation acts in connection +with them all. + +_Almost without exception the interest of workers +centers in the wage. If they could retain +their accustomed wage with less effort, they would +do so. If the retention and increase depend on +individual production, they will respond to the +compulsion_. + +Every student of psychology recognizes the +fact that the wage is more than a means of +self-preservation. Man is a distinctly social +creature. He has a social self as well as an +individual self. His social self demands social +approval as much as his individual self demands +bread, clothing, and shelter. In our +present industrial system this social distinc- +<p 139> +tion is most often indicated by means of monetary +reward. The laborer not only demands +that his toil shall provide the means for self- +preservation, but he seeks through his wages +the social distinction which he feels to be his +due. His desire for increase of wages is often +partly, and in some instances mainly, due to +his craving for distinction or social approval. + +In such instances the wage is to be thought +of as something comparable to the score of a +ball player. The desire for a high score is +sufficient motive to beget the most extreme +exertion, even though the reward anticipated +is nothing more than a sign of distinction and +without any relationship whatever to self- +preservation. + +In common with some of the lower animals +man has an instinct to collect and hoard all +sorts of things. This instinct is spoken of +in psychology as the hoarding or proprietary +instinct. In performing instinctive acts we +do so with enthusiasm, but blindly. We take +great delight in the performing of the act, +even though the ultimate result of the act +<p 140> +may be entirely unknown to us. The squirrel +collects and stores nuts with great delight and +industry. He has no idea of the approaching +winter, but gathers the nuts simply because +for him it is the most interesting process in his +experience. + +Most persons display a like instinctive +tendency to make collections and hoard articles. +This is particularly apparent in collections +of such things as canceled postage +stamps, discarded buttons, pebbles, sticks, +magazines, and other non-useful articles. + +When this hoarding instinct is not controlled +by reason or checked by other interests, we +have the miser. In a less degree, we all share +with the miser his hoarding instinct. We all +like to collect money just as the squirrel likes +to gather nuts. The octogenarian continues +to collect money with unabated zeal, even +though he be childless. He is probably not +aware that he is collecting merely for the pleasure +of collecting. + +_Since the wage is the means ordinarily employed +to awaken in workers the three instincts_ +<p 141> +_of self-preservation, of social distinction, and of +hoarding, it is not strange that an industrial +age should regard it as the chief means of increasing +efficiency_. + +The employer has not attempted to discover +what instincts were appealed to by the wage, +or the most economical method of stimulating +these instincts. He has not undervalued the +wage in securing efficiency, but rather has +assumed that the service secured must be in +direct proportion to the amount expended. + +Such an assumption is not warranted. +Of two employers with equal forces and payrolls +one may receive much more and better +service than the other. It is not a question +merely of how much is spent but how wisely +it is spent. The wage secures service to the +degree in which it awakens these fundamental +instincts under consideration. + +It is apparent, therefore, that other factors +than the amount of money expended in wages +are to be considered by every employer. Without +increasing the pay roll he may increase the +efficiency of his men. The employer who has +<p 142> +determined the number of men he needs and +the wages he must pay has only begun to solve +his labor problem. + +In the preparation of the present chapter a +large number of business men were interviewed +personally or by correspondence. + +One of the questions asked was: ``How do +you make the most of the wages paid your +men?'' + +As subsidiary to this general question three +other questions were asked: ``In paying them +do you base the amount to be received by each +man upon a fixed salary? By some of the +men upon actual output--commissions or +piecework rates? By some upon a combination +including profit-sharing or bonus?'' + +The answers to these latter questions were +not uniform even among employers engaged +apparently in the same business and under +very similar conditions. Some reported that +all the methods suggested were used in their +establishment. Factory hands were employed +on piecework or on a premium or bonus basis +where conditions permitted; office assistants +<p 143> +on fixed salaries; department managers upon +a combination including profit sharing. The +results reported, however, were far from uniform. +The astounding feature was the diversity +of opinion among successful managers +of employees. By various houses one or more +of the systems had been tried under apparently +favorable conditions and had been discarded. +On the other hand each of the systems was +advocated by equally successful business firms. + +In judging of the relative merits of fixed +salaries as compared with other methods the +experiences of individual firms offer no certain +data. The relative merits and demerits +are best disclosed by a psychological analysis +of the manner in which the various devices +appeal to the employee's instincts and reason. + +_When wages are based on commission, piece +rate, or a bonus or premium system, the stimulus +to action is constantly present. Every stroke +of the hammer, every sale made, every figure +added, increases the wage. The wage thus continuously +beckons the worker to greater accomplishment_. +<p 144> + +All other considerations lose in importance, +and the mind becomes focused on output. +The worker is blinded to all other motives, +and invariably sacrifices quality unless this +be guarded by rigid inspection. The piecework +or task system thus influences the worker +directly and incessantly without regard for +the particular instinct to which it may be appealing. +Every increase in rate adds directly +to the means of self-preservation, of social +distinction, and of the accumulation of +wealth. + +_The worker with a fixed salary or wage does +not feel as continuously the goad of his wage. +It is less in mind and does not control his attitude +toward his work. The man on a fixed +salary, therefore, will not produce so much_. + +If he be a workman, he may take better +care of his tools, keep his output up to a higher +standard of quality, prepare himself for more +responsible positions. If he be a salesman, he +may be more considerate of his customers and +hence really more valuable to his employer; +he may be more loyal to the house and hence +<p 145> +promote the ``team work'' of the organization, +and he may because of his more receptive state +of mind be preparing himself for much greater +usefulness to his house. If he be a superintendent, +he may be more thoughtful of his +men, or more scrupulous for the future of the +business. + +Production methods or labor conditions +are often such that piecework is impossible. +There are many functions and processes which +thus far have not been satisfactorily adjusted +to task systems; there are others (the inspection +service in a factory, for instance) where a +premium on increased output would defeat +the first purpose of the service. Where results +can be accurately measured, however, and the +quality of the service can be automatically +secured or is not sacrificed by concentration +upon quantity, the task system--whether +it take the form of piece rates, premiums, or +bonus--has such superior psychological advantages +that it will probably come more and +more into use. + +Under the general heading quoted above-- +<p 146> + +``How do you make the most of the wages +paid your employees?''--the following question +was asked: ``What special method do +you employ to make men satisfied or pleased +with their wages?'' The answers were most +interesting and instructive. One manager +having many thousand men in his organization +narrated various methods by which he +kept in personal touch with his men, and +turned this personal relationship to the advantage +of the house. + +One illustration will make clear the line he +pursued. In the card catalogue of the employees, +the birthday of each is noted, the +executive recognizing that for the average +man this is an anniversary even more important +than New Year's. + +_If for any reason a member of the organization +deserves or requires the executive's personal attention, +his birthday may be chosen as the date +of the interview. Then whether the man merits +an advance for extra good work or needs help to +correct a temporary slump in efficiency, the reward +or the appeal takes on added meaning_ +<p 147> +_because it coincides with a turning point in his +life_. + +To facilitate the plan, the manager's file +of employment cards is arranged, not by +initials or departments, but by birthdays. +Each workman's name falls under his eye a +few days in advance, long enough to secure +a report from his foreman, if knowledge is +lacking of his progress. + +As I entered this manager's office, I met a +young man coming out. He had been in the +company's employ only a few months and his +relations with the organization had not yet +been established. Asked for a report, his +foreman gave him a good record and recommended +a small advance. Imagine the surprise, +the instant access of pride and loyalty, +the impulse towards greater effort and efficiency, +when the young man was called into the +manager's office on his birthday, congratulated +on his record, and informed that he would start +his new year with an advance in wages. +Double the advance, if allowed in the usual +way, would not have so impressed and satisfied +<p 148> +him. The increased wage made its appeal direct +to the instinct for social recognition, and +hence was very effective. + +Such a method does not admit of general +application. Practiced in cold blood, it might +even be harmful. But in this case, it struck +me not as an act of selfish cleverness, but as +the expression of a real sympathy and interest +which the manager felt for his men. The +cleverness lay in the recognition that no man is +ever so susceptible to counsel, to appreciation, +or to rebuke as on his birthday, when the social +self is especially alert. + +In other organizations, the effort to extend +this factor of human sympathy to each worker +and to see that full justice is rendered to him +takes the form of a department of promotion +and discharge. The head is the direct representative +of the ``front office'' and is independent +of superintendents and foremen. No +man can be ``paid off'' until the facts have been +submitted to the consideration of this department. +Here also the man may present his case +to an unprejudiced and sympathetic arbiter. +<p 149> + +_In actual practice the man ``paid off'' is +sometimes retained and the foreman, on the evidence +of prejudice, bad temper, or other incompetency, +is discharged. In consequence every +workman knows that his place does not depend +upon the whim of his immediate superior, but +that faithful service will certainly be recognized_. + +Furthermore, this department assumes the +task of shifting men from one department to +another and thus minimizing the misfits which +lower the efficiency of the whole organization. +Records of each man's performance are kept, +and promotions and discharge are more nearly +in accord with facts than would be possible in +a large house without some such agency. In +too many big establishments the individual +feels that he does not count in the crowd and +that he is helpless to do anything to advance +himself or to protect himself against an antagonistic +foreman. In large measure, such a department +reduces this feeling and bridges the +chasm between the men and the firm. + +In its effect on the attitude and efficiency +of employees, the method of fixing and ad- +<p 150> +justing wages is no less important than the +wages themselves. The steady trend of the +labor market has been upward and always upward; +it is one of the notable achievements of +trade and industry that this constant appreciation +in the price of man power has been +neutralized by increase in the efficiency of its +application. This increase in earning capacity +has been secured not alone by the development +of automatic machinery, but by the division +of labor, the subdivision of processes, and the +education of workers to accept the new methods, +and acquire expert skill in some specialty. + +Hardly a generation has passed since one +man, or perhaps two working together, built +farm wagons, steam engines, and a thousand +other articles entire. Now a hundred mechanics +or machine tenders may have contributed +to either wagon or engine before +it reaches the shipping department. Three +fourths of these workers are paid piece rates. +The substitution of these piece rates for day +wages, the striking of a satisfactory balance +between production and compensation, and +<p 151> +the endless changes in the scale as new parts +or faster or simpler processes are invented-- +have all been operations in which the tact and +man-handling skill of executives have played a +significant part. + +In the larger organization this knowledge or +skill is often supplied by a manager who has +``come up through the ranks'' and has not +forgotten his journeyman's dexterity on the +way or neglected to keep in touch with improved +methods. + +_Frequently the advantage of a small industry +or trading venture over its larger rivals depends +on the owner's mastery of all the processes or +conditions involved and his ability to deal with +his employees on a personal plane in fixing +wages or in establishing the standard day's work_. + +In a stove factory where four fifths of the +processes are paid by piece rates, it was necessary, +not long ago, to fix the remuneration for +the assembling of a new type of range. Most +of the operations were standard; the workmen +and the management differed, however, +on what should be paid for the setting and fas- +<p 152> +tening of a back piece with seventeen bolts. +The men asked fifteen cents a range. When refused, +they named twelve cents as an ultimatum. +The company was willing neither to pay +such a price nor to antagonize the workmen. + +The dispute was settled by a demonstration. +The superintendent was himself a graduate +from the bench and had been an expert workman. +The company's contract with the assemblers' +union set $4.50 a day as the maximum +wage. To prove his contention that even +twelve cents was too great a price, he set the +back pieces on ten ranges himself, under the +eyes of a committee, and proved that at six +cents a range he could easily earn the maximum +day wage. The price agreed upon was +eight cents, little more than half the original +demand. Without the demonstration the +men would have accepted twelve cents reluctantly. + +In the course of the interviews with employers, +it became evident that there was +agreement on one point--to educate the +worker to realize that the house's policy in +<p 153> +handling its men gave added value to the +sums paid out in wages. + +_The shiftless or unskilled man works mainly +for the next pay envelope, with little or no regard +for the continuity of employment, the possibility +of promotion, of pension, of sick or accident +benefits, of working conditions, or the like_. + +The skilled worker, on the contrary, and the +more desirable class of laborers, nearly always +rate their wages above or below par, according +to the presence or the absence of these contingent +benefits or emoluments. + +To the average man with a family, the +``steady job'' at fair wages is the first +consideration. It appeals more strongly to him +than intermittent employment at a much +higher rate; while the younger, restless, and +less dependable man, both skilled and unskilled, +gravitates to the shop where he can command +a premium for a little while. Just as managers +are always looking for the steady worker, +nearly all agree in assuring their employees +that faithful and efficient service will be rewarded +with continuous employment. +<p 154> + +To carry out this policy is sometimes difficult +in businesses where demand is seasonal +and where a large part of the product must +be made to order. Nevertheless, the manager +who adjusts his production program to cover +the entire year has the choice of the best +workers even when other factories offer higher +rates. Likewise, the employer who sacrifices +his profit in bad years to ``take care of his +men'' and hold his organization together recovers +his losses when the revival comes. + +So deeply rooted is this desire for a ``steady +job'' and so generally recognized as an essential +of the labor problem that several large industries +have developed ``side lines'' to which +they can turn their organization during their +slack seasons; while others in periods of depression +pile up huge stocks of standard products, +making heavy investments of capital, +for the primary purpose of keeping their men +employed. + +How such a policy reacts on the wage question, +and hence on the efficiency of employees, +is shown by an instance which lately fell under +<p 155> +my notice. By a long and persistent campaign +of education and demonstration, a small ``quality'' +house forced a rival ten times as large +to adopt the careful processes on which this +quality depended. Adopting the small man's +methods, the competitor, instead of training its +own operatives to the new standards, sought +to hire the other man's skilled workers. The +premium offered was a thirty per cent advance. +It was refused, however. The tempted mechanics, +analyzing the rival's proposal, hit on +the disloyalty contemplated towards its own +employees. They were to be discharged or +transferred to other departments to make +room for the new men. + +Measuring this cold-blooded policy against +the consideration, the unfailing effort of their +old employer to ``take care of them'' in bad +seasons, the workers decided to stick to the +smaller company and refuse the advance. + +_Next to continuous employment, among methods +of increasing the value of wages, is the policy +of making promotions from the ranks_. + +This practice seems to be commonly ac- +<p 156> +cepted as fruitful, although many firms believe +it impossible of application in filling some +of the higher as well as some of the more technical +positions. Where the system is applicable, +it acts as a powerful stimulus to the +men by adding to their present wages the +promise or possibility of better positions and +higher pay in the future. It gives assurance of +promotion for faithful service much greater +than in houses which fill the upper positions +from outside sources on the assumption that +they thus get ``new blood'' into the business. +The men secured from outside may be more +skilled or more productive of immediate results +than any available in the house organization. +By their importation, however, the +wages of all the men aspiring to the position +have been cheapened. Nor does the evil stop +there. + +_The assumption is naturally drawn that the +same practice is likely to be followed in filling +other vacancies. The stimulus to initiative and +activity is thus weakened for men in every grade +and their wages are shrunk below par_. +<p 157> + +The importance which some successful employers +attach to this principle of promotion +from the ranks is well illustrated by an incident +which recently occurred in a large manufacturing +establishment organized on a one-man +basis. During the president's absence it was +decided to open up a new zone of trade for a +new product. No one in the organization +knew the product and the field, so a new man +was put in charge. The work progressed +surprisingly well; the enterprise was in every +way successful. + +When the real head returned, he called his +managers together and told them that the +new man must be removed and the most deserving +man in the regular organization appointed +in his place. He was met with the protest +that no employee was capable of taking up the +work and reminded that the new man had +already achieved great success. The president +answered that he was willing to lose money +in the department for the first year rather than +cheapen and disorganize the service by taking +away the certainty of promotion and by re- +<p 158> +moving the incentive to study and self-development +which had increased the efficiency of +every ambitious employee. + +Innumerable examples of the same principle +in promotions could be gleaned from the +records of some of the oldest and most progressive +houses in the country. In one establishment +visited, the quality of whose wares +is strenuously guarded, it was discovered that +the chemist and metallurgist in charge of the +factory laboratory had been lifted out of one +of the departments and supplied with the +money to take a specialized course in physics, +chemistry, and metallurgy. The advertising +manager, the factory engineer, and two or three +of the foremen had been given leaves of absence +to study and fit themselves for the positions +to which their talents and inclinations +drew them. Even among the workmen there +was a fixed basis for advancement towards the +better jobs and the higher rates, dependent on +satisfactory service and output. + +To these major considerations in increasing +the worth of wages, those companies which +<p 159> +have given the longest attention to the problem +add many other inducements. + +_An efficient and contented employee has a +positive money value to any employer. To hold +him and keep him efficient, his personal comfort +and needs should be considered in every way +not detrimental to the company's interests_. + +As nearly as possible, the ideal in factory +location and construction is approached. Some +industries have removed bodily to country +towns, less for the sake of a cheap site than +for the purpose of establishing themselves +where housing conditions for workers were +good, rents low, the cost of living cheaper, and +other factors tending to _*add value_ to every dollar +paid in wages were present. Direct appeal +was made to the intelligence of employees, +whose health is part of their capital, by making +and keeping working conditions as healthful +and sanitary, as little taxing on eyesight and +bodily vigor as circumstances and judicious +investment of capital allowed. Scores of +towns have been built outright, to benefit +employees. +<p 160> + +In line with this policy are the systems of +benefit insurance for accident and sickness +maintained and partly supported by many +companies; the pension systems which have +been adopted within the last few years by +some of the greatest and most progressive +companies in America; the free medical service, +both in case of factory accidents and +sickness at home, which other firms provide +for employees; and various other activities +contributing to the welfare of workers, both +during working hours and afterwards. + +Employers are coming more and more to +see that this is the case and to devote both +thought and money to the elimination of conditions +which cut wages below par. + +_Whatever reduces hazard, discomfort, loss of +time, uncertainty, or the cost of living for workers +adds value to their wages and is a means of +influencing their attitude towards the company_. + +Some employers are continually exercised +to keep the wages of their men from falling +below par. Others are equally solicitous that +their men may regard their wages as above +<p 161> +par. This classification is a real one and was +made plain by some of the interviews referred +to above. Thus in answer to the question, +``What special method do you employ to make +men satisfied or pleased with their wages?'' +one employer immediately put his own interpretation +on the question. To him it meant, +``What method do you employ to keep your +men from being _*dissatisfied_ with their wages?'' + +His answer was: ``By paying them somewhere +near what they ask or expect. If we +don't,'' he added, ``they go out on strike and +we have to compromise.'' + +The majority of successful employers have +advanced beyond this negative, defensive +attitude and take a positive and aggressive +position in dealing with the problem. + +_Instead of assuming their work accomplished +when the men are not dissatisfied or rebellious, +they do not rest until every dollar paid out in +wages is above par in its influence upon efficiency_. + +Thus in innumerable ways the progressive +employer increases the value of all wages he +<p 162> +pays by making them appeal to the reason +and to the instincts of workers in a way un- +dreamed of by less enlightened men. The +purpose of wages is to produce a certain +psychological effect and to promote the most +favorable attitude on the part of the worker. +The methods of increasing the purchasing power +of money thus spent is one of the most interesting +and yet complex problems which the +business man has to face. + +This chapter shows the psychological ground +for the following statements:-- + +Employees differ in their response to piecework +rates and to salaries. Some respond +more satisfactorily to one and some to the +other. + +When the development of men for better +positions is of prime importance, the piecework +system is not to be adopted. If the +quantity of work per unit of wage is of greatest +importance, then some form of wage other +than fixed salary should be used. + +An employee should not be dismissed as +hopelessly lazy till he has shown this attitude +<p 163> +in more than one department or has failed to +respond to different forms of stimulation. + +Changes in wages may often be placed under +the authority of some person or committee +other than the immediate superiors of the +employees involved. This authority may be +vested in the direct representatives of the +executives or in such a committee as would +be formed by representatives of the executives +and also employees from the different departments +of the establishment. + +_Payment of wages, so far as possible, should +be made to appeal to the instincts for social distinction +and for acquisition as well as to the instinct +for self-preservation_. + +Wages should never be reduced without a +tactful and sincere attempt to convince the +men of the necessity of such an act. + +Increase in wages may well be made a personal +matter. Some firms, however, are most +successful with a mechanical wage system in +which employees know exactly the conditions +necessary for an increase in wages. + +All work should be thoroughly supervised +<p 164> +and inspected so that employees know that +good service will be recognized and rewarded. + +The policy of filling all positions from the +ranks seems growing in favor, since it gives +certain hope for advancement and hence +greater satisfaction with the present wage. + +The wage may well include a tacit insurance +for the future. Employees should be assured +that so long as they remain faithful to the +firm, their work and pay will continue, and +that in accident or old age they will be provided +for. Accepted thus, the wage secures +increased service. + + + +CHAPTER VII + +PLEASURE + +AS A MEANS OF INCREASING HUMAN EFFICIENCY + +TO prevent the usual ``summer slump'' +in output, the manager of a factory +employing a hundred or more sewing +girls on piecework tried various methods. +He began with closer individual supervision +by the forewomen. He set up a bulletin +board and posted daily the names of the five +highest operators. He added small cash prizes +weekly. He adopted a modified bonus system +framed so as not to interfere with the +established average of winter tasks. With +each his success was only partial. Ten or a +dozen of the more energetic girls responded to +the stimulus; on the majority the effect was +slight. + +The problem was serious. June, July, and +August comprised the season when his prod- +<p 165> +<p 166> +ucts were at a premium, when future orders +were frequently lost because partial deliveries +could not be made immediately. Studying +the question, he noted specifically, what he +already knew, that the output dropped as the +temperature rose. A cool day sandwiched +into a week of hot weather frequently equaled +the best winter records. This fact, coupled +with the observation that the spirit of his +working force seemed to change with the +change of temperature from warm to cold, +helped him to arrive at the right solution. + +He made the discovery sitting in the draught +of an electric fan. He looked up, made a +mental note; and next morning he moved his +office ``comforter'' out to the head of one file of +machines. The draught tangled the goods +under the seamstresses' hands at times, but +the half dozen girls within range showed a +decided increase in production over the day +before and over operators at other tables. + +He had found his remedy for the summer +slump. Within a week he had installed a +system of large overhead fans and an exhaust +<p 167> +blower and saw his production figures mount +to the winter's best average. From careless, +indifferent workers, on edge at trifles and difficult +to hold, his force developed steadiness +and efficiency. Not only was the output +increased twenty per cent over previous +summers, but the proportion of spoiled work +was considerably reduced. + +One of the women who had been a subject +of the first day's experiment struck close to +the reason of her greater efficiency in her +off-hand answer to his inquiry. + +``It was a pleasure to work to-day. It was +so comfortable after yesterday you just forgot +the other girls, forgot you wanted to rest, +forgot everything but the seams you were +running and the fact that it was a big day. +I'm not near so tired as usual either.'' + +_A successful day is likely to be a restful one, +an unsuccessful day an exhausting one. The +man who is greatly interested in his work and +who finds delight in overcoming the difficulties +of his calling is not likely to become so tired as +the man for whom the work is a burden_. +<p 168> + +The experience related summarizes the +experience of every worker who has studied, +either on his own initiative or at some other's +instance, the effect upon output secured by +the removal of distressing or displeasing conditions +from the workroom. + +The man who has been engaged in intellectual +or manual labor finds himself more or less +exhausted when the day's work is done. The +degree of exhaustion varies greatly from day +to day and is not in direct proportion to the +amount of energy expended or the results +attained. A comparatively busy day may +leave him feeling fresh, while at the end of a +day much less occupied he may be utterly +``dragged out'' and weary. + +Some men habitually find themselves fatigued, +while others ordinarily end the day +with a feeling of vigor. These contrary +effects are not necessarily due primarily +to disparity in the amount of energy spent +or to unequal stores of energy available. +The discrepancy in many instances is due to +diverse attitudes toward the work or varying +<p 169> +degrees of success which has attended the +work. + +Pleasure secured in and from work is the +best preventive and balm for tired muscles +and jaded brains. Dislike or discomfort, on +the other hand, adds to toil by sapping the +strength of the worker. + +Victory in intercollegiate athletic events +depends on will power and physical endurance. +This is particularly apparent in football. +Frequently it is not the team with the +greater muscular development or speed of +foot that wins the victory, but the one with the +more grit and perseverance. At the conclusion +of a game players are often unable to walk from +the field and need to be carried. Occasionally +the winning team has actually worked the +harder and received the more serious injuries. +Regardless of this fact, it is usually +true that the victorious team leaves the +field less jaded than the conquered team. +Furthermore the winners will report next day +refreshed and ready for further training, +while the losers may require several days to +<p 170> +overcome the shock and exhaustion of their +defeat. + +Recently I had a very hard contest at tennis. +Some hours after the game I was still too tired +to do effective work. I wondered why, until +I remembered that I had been thoroughly +beaten, and that, too, by an opponent whom I +felt I outclassed. I had been in the habit of +playing even harder contests and ordinarily +with no discomfort--especially when successful +in winning the match. + +What I have found so apparent in physical +exertion is equally true in intellectual labor. +Writing or research work which progresses +satisfactorily leaves me relatively fresh; +unsuccessful efforts bring their aftermath of +weariness. + +_Intellectual work which is pleasant is stimulating +and does not fag one, while intellectual +work which is uninteresting or displeasing is +depressing and exhausting_. + +We can readily trace the source of energy +in mechanical devices. The hands of a clock +continue in their course because of the energy +<p 171> +locked up in a compressed spring or elevated +weight. The gun projects the bullet because +of the sudden chemical union of carbon with +saltpeter and sulphur. The steam engine +takes its energy from the steam secured by +combustion of coal or other fuel. + +The work of the human organism is usually +classified as muscular or intellectual. In +either the expenditure of energy is as dependent +upon known causes as is the activity +of the mechanical devices mentioned +above. + +Every muscular activity is dependent upon +muscular cells ready for combustion; without +such combustion no muscular work is +performed. + +Every intellectual process is likewise dependent +upon brain cells ready for combustion, +and no intellectual work can be performed +without combustion of these brain cells. + +To secure continued activity the clock must +be rewound, the gun must be recharged, more +coal must be supplied to the engine. In like +manner the continuation of muscular and in- +<p 172> +tellectual activity depends upon the restoration +of muscle and brain cells. The necessity +for renewal is greater or less according to the +amount stored in reserve and the rapidity of +consumption. A maximum head of steam +may keep the engine running for a long time +unless the load is too heavy or the speed too +great. Though under certain conditions the +amount of muscle and brain energy stored in +reserve is large, continuous or rapid activity of +necessity expends the reserve and leads to +exhaustion. + +It is a simple process to rewind the clock, +to reload the gun, and to replenish the fuel. +To restore muscular and nerve cells is a very +delicate process. So wonderful is the human +organism, however, that the process is carried +on perfectly without our consciousness or +volition except under abnormal conditions. + +Food and air are the first essentials of this +restoration. Indirectly the perfect working of +all the bodily organs contribute to the process +--especially deepened breathing, heightened +pulse, and increase of bodily volume due +<p 173> +to the expansion of the blood vessels running +just beneath the skin. + +_Here pleasure enters. Its effect on the expenditure +of energy is to make muscle and brain +cells more available for consumption, and particularly +to hasten the process of restoration or +recuperation_. + +The deepened breathing supplies more air +for the oxidation of body wastes. The heightened +pulse carries nourishment more rapidly +to the depleted tissues and relieves the tissues +more rapidly from the poisonous wastes +produced by work. The body, the machine, +runs more smoothly, and fewer stops for repairs +are made necessary. + +In addition to these specific functions, +pleasure hastens all the bodily processes which +are of advantage to the organism. The hastening +may be so great that recuperation keeps +pace with the consumption consequent on +efficient labor, with the result that there is +little or no exhaustion. This is in physiological +terms the reason why a person can do more +when he ``enjoys'' his work or play, and can +<p 174> +continue his efforts for a longer period without +fatigue. The man who enjoys his work requires +less time for recreation and exercise, for +his enjoyment recharges the storage battery of +energy. + +Not only can I endure more and achieve +more when I take pleasure in the task, but I +can also secure better results from others by +providing for their interest and for their pleasure +in what they are doing. This is a fact +which wise merchants and employers have +felt intuitively, but in most instances the +principle has not been consciously formulated. +High-grade stores do much to add to the pleasure +of their customers. Every resource of art +and architecture is employed to make store +rooms appeal to the <ae>sthetic sense and the +appreciation of customers. Clerks are instructed +to be obliging and courteous. Employees +are not allowed to dress in a style +likely to offend a customer and they are +schooled in manners and in speech. Space +is devoted to the convenience and comfort +of customers. +<p 175> + +_The most successful establishments in the +world are the ones which do most to please their +patrons--not by cutting prices or simply by +supplying better goods, but by expediting and +making more pleasant the purchase of goods_. + +They have discovered that customers inducted +into a beautiful shop and surrounded +by tactful obliging clerks are more willing to +buy and are more likely to be satisfied with +what they purchase. By adding to their patrons' +comfort and pleasure they are able to +accomplish more than by any other selling +argument. In like manner, restaurants and +hotels have learned that splendid rooms, flowers, +spotless linen, well-dressed and courteous +waiters, good furniture, and so on, all attract +customers and induce them to order more +generously. + +Lawyers find in trying cases that it is quite +essential to regard the mood of clients, juries, +and judges. The pleased man is not suspicious; +he does not hesitate in coming to a conclusion, +and he is not likely to impute evil +motives to the actions of others. As has been +<p 176> +well said by Dickens, when speaking from the +viewpoint of the defendant, ``A good, contented, +well-breakfasted juryman is a capital +thing to get hold of. Discontented or hungry +jurymen always find for the plaintiff.'' + +The salesman with a pleasing personality +is able to sell more goods than others less +happily endowed. Some salesmen try to supplement +this power--or supply the lack of a +pleasing personality--by ``jollying'' the possible +customer in various ways. Dinners, +theaters, cigars, and various other devices +are thus used, and in many instances with success. + +Modern business employs such methods less +and less, chiefly because the customer recognizes +the purpose of the attempt, and either +refuses to accept the ``hospitality'' or is on +his guard to resist the effect. A pleasing +personality, however, inspires confidence, tends +to put the customer in a good humor and optimistic +mood, and results in sales. + +A cold, formal manner, ill temper, or a +pessimistic outlook, on the contrary, will +<p 177> +handicap the sale of the best merchandise +made. + +A man is said to be suggestible when he +comes to conclusions or acts without due +deliberation. Suggestion, then, is nothing but +the mental condition which causes us to believe +and respond without the normal amount +of weighing of evidence. While in a suggestible +condition we are credulous, responsive, +and impulsive. Such a mental condition is +favored and induced by pleasure. Discomfort +or dissatisfaction with the conditions or +surroundings prompts the opposing attitude; +we become suspicious and slow to act or believe. +While in a suggestible condition, we +place our orders freely and promptly. The +merchant who can please his customers and +bring them to a suggestible mood before he +displays his wares, therefore, has done much to +secure generous sales. + +Advantageous results from suggestion are +not limited to the relationship between buyer +and seller. + +_The pleased and satisfied employee is open_ +<p 178> +_to the suggestions of foreman and manager and +responds with an enthusiasm impossible of +generation in one dissatisfied from any cause_. + +Methods of insuring this pleasure in work +for employees are yet in the formative stage. +Until recently the want of such methods, indeed, +was not felt. The slave driver with the +most profane vocabulary and the greatest +recklessness in the use of fist and foot was +supposed to be the most effective type of boss. +The task system set an irreducible minimum +for the day's work; the employer exacted the +task and assumed that no better way of handling +men could be devised. Piecework rates +provided a better and more reasonable basis +for securing something like a maximum day's +work; bonus and premium systems have carried +the incentive of the wage in increasing efficiency +to the last point short of co<o:>perative +organization. But all of these systems fall +short in assuming that men are machines; +that their powers and capacities are fixed quantities; +that the efficiency of a well-disposed and +industrious employee ought to be proof against +<p 179> +varying conditions or environment; that a +man can achieve the desired standard, if only +he has the will to achieve it. + +_Discipline has become less brutal if not less +strict. The laborer works, not alone to avoid +poverty and hunger, but to secure the means of +pleasure_. + +It is not so long since harsh discipline was +common both in homes and in business. The +boy worked hard because he was afraid not to. +The man labored because poverty threatened +him if idle. We were in what might be called +a ``pain economy''; we worked to escape pain. +To-day this has largely been changed. + +Employers, too, are experimenting boldly +with the idea of creating pleasure in work. +The first step has been taken in the very +general elimination of the old wasteful, neglectful +elements of factory and office environment. +Comfort, the first neutral element +of pleasure, is provided for employees just as +solid foundations are provided for the factory +buildings. There is light, heat, and ventilation +where a generation ago there were tiny windows, +<p 180> +shadows, lonely stoves, and foul air. Cleanliness +is provided and preserved; not a few of +the larger industries employ a regular corps of +janitors to keep floors, walls, and windows clean. +The walls are tinted; the lights are arranged +so as to provide the right illumination without +straining the workers' eyes. The departments +are symmetrically arranged; the aisles are +wide; the working space is ample; there is +no fear to haunt machine tenders that a mis- +step or a moment of forgetfulness will entangle +them in a neighboring machine. The factory +buildings themselves, without being pretentious, +have pleasing, simple lines and unobtrusive +ornamentation. They look like, and +are, when the human equation does not interfere, +_*pleasant_ places to work in. + +This is the typical modern factory; thousands +can be found in America. On this +foundation of good working conditions and +pleasant environment, many companies have +built more or less elaborate systems of welfare +work, whose effectiveness in creating +pleasure and efficiency seem to depend on the +<p 181> +purpose and spirit of the men behind them. +These systems frequently begin with beautification +of the factory premises and workrooms +--window boxes, factory lawns, ivied walls, +trees, and shrubs--and advance by various +stages to lunch rooms for workers, factory +libraries, rest rooms for women workers, factory +nurses and physicians, and sometimes the +development of a social life among employees +through picnics, lectures, dances, night schools, +and like activities. The methods employed +are too diverse and too recent to permit an accurate +estimate of their work or a true analysis +of the elements of their success. It is incumbent +on the employer to find or work out for +himself the method best suited to his individual +needs. + +_To understand how pleasure heightens the +suggestibility of the individual it is but necessary +to consider the well-known effects which pleasure +has on the various bodily and mental processes_. + +The action of pleasure and displeasure upon +the muscles of the body is most apparent. +With displeasure the muscles of the forehead +<p 182> +contract; folds and wrinkles appear. The +corners of the mouth are drawn down; the +head bowed; the shoulders stoop and draw +together over the breast; the chest is contracted; +the fingers of the hand close, and there +is also a tendency to bend the arms so as to +protect the fore part of the body. In displeasure +the body is thus seen to contract and +to put itself on the defensive. It closes itself +to outside influences and attempts to ``withdraw +within its shell.'' + +With pleasure the forehead is smoothed +out; the corners of the mouth are lifted; the +head is held erect; the shoulders are thrown +back; the chest is expanded; the fingers of +the hand are opened, and the arm is ready to +go out to grasp any object. The whole body +is thrown into a receptive attitude. It is prepared +to be affected by outside stimulations +and is ready to profit by them. + +That these characteristic bodily attitudes +of pleasure and displeasure have an effect +on the mind is evident. Bodily and mental attitudes +have developed together in the history +<p 183> +of the race. The conditions which cause a +receptive attitude of body cause also a suggestible +state of mind. The conditions which +call for bodily protection also demand a suspicious +and non-responsive attitude of mind. +The bodily and the mental attitudes have become +so intimately associated that the presence +of one assures the presence of the other. + +_Pleasure and a particular attitude of body are +indissolubly united, and when these two are +present, a suggestible condition of mind seems of +necessity to follow_. + +Thus by the subtle working of pleasant +impressions the customer is disarmed of his +suspicion and made ready to respond to the +suggestions of the merchant. + +The effect of the suggestible attitude of the +body, as produced by pleasure, is increased +by certain other effects which pleasure produces +on the body. + +Muscular strength is frequently measured +by finding the maximum grip on a recording +instrument. The amount of the grip varies +from time to time and is affected by various +<p 184> +conditions. One of the phenomena which has +been thoroughly investigated is the effect of +pleasure and of pain on the intensity of the +grip. It is well established that pleasure +increases the grip or the available amount of +energy. Displeasure reduces the strength. + +The total volume of the body would seem +to be constant for any particular short interval +of time. Such, however, is not the case. + +_With pleasure the lungs are filled with air +from deepened breathing; the volume of the +limbs is increased by the increased flow of blood. +Pleasure thus actually makes us larger and displeasure +smaller_. + +This increase in muscular strength and bodily +volume due to pleasure has a very decided +effect upon the mind. The increase of muscular +strength gives us a feeling of power and +assurance, the increase in volume gives us a +feeling of expansion and importance. These +conditions produced by increase of muscular +strength and bodily volume contribute to the +general suggestible condition described above. + +If I am in a suggestible condition and if I +<p 185> +also feel an unusual degree of assurance in my +own powers and importance, I shall have such +confidence in the wisdom of my intended acts +that there will seem to be no ground for delay. +Furthermore the increased action of the heart, +due to the effect of pleasure, gives me a feeling +of buoyancy and invigoration which adds appreciably +to the tendency to action. + +We thus see why pleasure renders us more +suggestible and hence makes us more apt to +purchase proffered merchandise or to respond +to the suggestions of our foreman or our executive. +We also see why it is that a man may +increase his efficiency by pleasing those with +whom he has to work, whether they be customers +or employees. + + + +CHAPTER VIII + +THE LOVE OF THE GAME + +AS A MEANS OF INCREASING HUMAN EFFICIENCY + +THE motives discussed in previous chapters +are fairly adequate for developing +efficiency in all except the owner or +chief executive. The employee may imitate +and compete with his equals and his superiors; +he may work for his wage, and he may be loyal +to the house. To increase the industry and +enthusiasm of the head is a task of supreme +importance. Interest and enthusiasm must +be kindled at the top that the spark may be +passed down to the lower levels. It can never +travel in the opposite direction. + +How, then, is the president to light his fires +and transmit his enthusiasm to his managers +and other subordinates? Not by working for +<p 186> +<p 187> +money alone, nor through imitation, competition, +or loyalty to the works of his own hands. +All these may be essential, may be powerful +subordinate incentives to action, but singly or +collectively they are not adequate. In any +organization, the head who attains the maximum +of success must depend for his enthusiasm +upon an instinctive love of the game. + +The subordinate possessing such love of +the game and independent of others for his +enthusiasm is sure to rise. The subject is, +therefore, of vital importance both to the +executive and to the ambitious employee. +Every employer feels the need of such an attitude +towards work, both in himself and in his +men. + +An attempt will be made in this chapter +to comprehend this instinctive love of the +game, to discuss to what extent it is inherited +and to what extent subject to cultivation, and +to analyze the conditions most favorable for +its development in respect to one's own work +as well as that of his employees. + +The love of the game is in part instinctive, +<p 188> +and its nature is made clear by consideration +of certain of the instincts of animals. + +The young lion spends much time in pretended +stalking of game and in harmless +struggles with his mates. He takes great +delight in the exercise of his cunning and in his +strength of limb and jaw. Fortunately for the +young lion this is the sort of activity best +adapted to develop his strength of muscle +and his cunning in capturing prey. However, +it is not for the sake of the training that the +young lion performs these particular acts. +He does them simply because he loves to. In +like manner the young greyhound chasing his +mates and the young squirrel gathering and +storing nuts have no thought beyond the instinctive +pleasure they find in performing these +functions. To each there is no other form of +activity so satisfactory. + +Man possesses more instincts than any of +the lower animals. One pronounced instinct +in all normal males is the hunting instinct. +Grover Cleveland went fishing because he +loved the sport, not because of the value of +<p 189> +the fish caught. Theodore Roosevelt did not +hunt big game in Africa because he was in need +of luscious steaks or tawny hides. He was not +working solely in the interest of the Smithsonian +Institute nor to secure material for his +book. Doubtless these were subsidiary motives, +but the chief reason why he killed the +game was that he instinctively loves the sport. +He endured the hardships of Africa for the +same reason that fishermen spend days in the +icy water of a trout stream and hunters lie still +for hours suffering intense cold for a chance to +shoot at a bear. + +_For some men, buying and selling is as great a +delight as felling a deer. For others the manufacture +of goods is as great a joy as landing a +trout. For such a man enthusiasm for his work +is unfailing and industry unremittent_. + +He is suited to his task as is the cub to the +fight, the puppy to the chase, the squirrel to +the burying of nuts, or the hunter to the killing +of game. His labor always appeals to +him as the thing of supremest moment. His +interest in it is such that it never fails to in- +<p 190> +spire others by contagion. For such a man +laziness or indifference in business seems anomalous, +while industry and enthusiasm are as +natural as the air he breathes and as inexhaustible +as the air itself. + +By classifying the love of the game as an +instinct, we seem to admit that it is born +and not developed; that some men possess +it and others do not; that if a man possesses +it, he does not need to cultivate it, and that +if he does not possess, he cannot acquire it. +There is doubtless much truth in this, but +fortunately it is not the whole truth. + +Some instincts are specific--even stereotyped +--and not subject to cultivation or +change. Thus the bee's instinctive method of +gathering and storing honey is very specific +and definite. The bee is unable to modify its +routine to any great extent. The bee which +does not instinctively perform the different +acts properly will never learn to. + +There are other instincts not so stereotyped +in manner or constant in degree. The +instincts of man are much more variable than +<p 191> +those of the lower animals and are much more +subject to direction, inhibition, or development. +If this love of the game were solely a +matter of inheritance, if the business genius +were born and not made, and if it could not +be cultivated and developed, our hope for the +improvement of the race would be small. + +Potential geniuses exist in large numbers +but fail of discovery because they are not +developed. Instincts manifest themselves only +in the presence of certain stimulating conditions. +They are developed by exercise and +stimulated further by the success attending +upon their exercise. + +Thus certain conditions, more or less definite, +are effective in determining the line along which +instincts shall manifest themselves, and the +extent to which the instincts shall be developed +and then ultimately supplemented by +experience and reason. + +Fortunately we have reason to believe that +although the business genius must have a good +inheritance, yet the inheritance does not determine +what its possessor shall make of himself. +<p 192> +Many persons are inclined to overestimate +the influence of inheritance in determining +success in business. The folly of this attitude +is every day becoming more and more +apparent. + +The conditions essential for developing +the love of the game in business may be +summarized under three heads:-- + +First, a man will develop a love of the game +in any business in which he is led to assume a +responsibility, to take personal initiative, to +feel that he is creating something, and that he +is expressing himself in his work. + +As organizations become larger and more complex +in their methods, there is a corresponding +increase in the difficulty of making the employees +retain and develop this feeling of independent +and creative responsibility. Business +has become so specialized and the work of the +individual seems so petty that he is not likely +to feel that he is expressing himself through his +work or to retain a feeling of independence. +Properly conceived, there is no position in +trade or industry which does not warrant such +<p 193> +an attitude. To promote this attitude various +devices have been adopted by business firms. +Some try to put a real responsibility on each +employee and to make him feel it. Others +have devised forms of partnership which give +numerous employees shares in the business +and so help to develop this attitude. + +In developing men for responsible positions +this attitude must be secured and retained +even while they are occupying the lesser +positions. + +_Few things so stimulate a boy as the feeling +that he is responsible for a certain task, that he is +expressing himself in it, that he is creating something +worth while_. + +Many managers and more foremen are +unable to develop this feeling in their subordinates +because they assume all the responsibility +and allow those under them no share of +it. On the other hand, some executives have +the happy faculty of inspiring this attitude +in all their men. The late Marshall Field +made partners of his lieutenants and encouraged +them to assume responsibility and to do +<p 194> +creative work. As a result they developed +a love of the game--a fact to which he owed +much of his phenomenal success. + +The second condition or factor in the +development of the love of the game in business +is social prestige. + +We have but partially expressed the nature +of man when we have spoken of him as delighting +in independent self-expression, as +being self-centered and self-seeking. Man is +inherently social in his nature and desires +nothing more than the approval of his fellows. +That which society approves we do with enthusiasm. +We change our forms of amusements, +our manner of life, and our daily occupations +according to the whims of society. Fifteen +years ago the riding of bicycles was quite the +proper thing, and we all trained down till we +could ride a century. To-day we are equally +enthusiastic in lowering bogy on the golf +course. This change in our ambitions is +not because it is inherently more fun to beat +bogy than to ride a century. The change has +come about simply because of the change of +<p 195> +social prestige secured from the two forms of +amusement. + +We may expect to find enthusiastic industry +in the accomplishment of any task which +society looks upon as particularly worthy. +During the past few decades in America +society has given the capitalist unusual honor +and has allowed him monetary rewards unprecedented +in the history of the world. + +If the capitalist had been honored less than +the poet, the preacher, or the soldier, and his +material rewards fallen below theirs, our +money captains would have been fewer in +number. + +In spite of occasional muck rakings, society's +esteem for the capitalist has been unbounded. +He is in general the only man with +a national reputation. Society bestows upon +him unstinted praise and the most generous +rewards for his toil. His rewards are so extravagant +that the game seems worthy of every +effort he can put forth. Love of the game has +consequently been engendered within him, +and his enthusiasm has been unbounded. +<p 196> + +This motive of social prestige is less easy +of application to the humbler ranks of employees. + +Most men engaged in the industries are +entirely deprived of the stimulus because +their social group does not look with approval +upon their daily tasks. It may even despise +men for doing well work essential as preparatory +to better positions. There are many young +men engaged in perfectly worthy employment +who prefer that their social set should not +know of the exact nature of their work for +fear it would be regarded as menial and not +sufficiently ``swell.'' + +This disrespect for honest toil is due to +various causes. One cause is that nearly +all young men--and indeed most older men +too--look upon their present positions merely +as stepping stones. They look forward to promotion +and more interesting work. They and +their social group fail to accord dignity to the +work which they are doing at any time. + +Another reason why the motive of social +prestige has no effect in the more humble +<p 197> +positions is that in business we have practically +abandoned the standard of the artist +and adopted that of the capitalist. The +artist's standard is diametrically opposed to +the capitalistic standard. We honor the capitalist +not for what he does, but for the money +he gets for what he does. We honor the artist +for what he does and never because of the +monetary considerations which follow his +creation. + +_To substitute the standard of the artist for the +standard of the capitalist would be impossible +in business, yet a harmonious working of the +two is possible_. + +Such a harmony was probably present in the +old industrial guilds, which developed a class +consciousness creating its own ideals. Within +the guild the most skillful workman had the +highest honor. The work itself, independent +of the money which might be received for it, +was uppermost in the worker's mind. + +The executive seeking to stimulate love of +the game among his workmen should in some +way see that social approval attaches itself +<p 198> +to the work as such and not to the wage which +is secured by means of the work. The workmen +must be given an interest in the work as +well as in the wage. + +Executives everywhere find that ``getting +together'' with others engaged in the same +work is most stimulating. We are inspired +by the presence of others engaged in the same +sort of work and giving approval to success in +our particular field. + +_The third condition for securing a love of the +game is that the work itself must appeal to the +individual as something important and useful_. + +Its useful function must be apparent, and +the necessity and advantage of perfect +performance must be emphasized. I play golf +because the game permits me to assert myself +and engage in independent and exhilarating +activity. My devotion to my professional +tasks, however, is dependent upon the fact +that I regard psychology, whether the work +be in research or instruction, as of the greatest +importance to science and to mankind in +general. The work as a whole and all the +<p 199> +details of it seem to me to be important. In +performing my daily tasks they seem to me to +be worthy of the most persistent and enthusiastic +effort. + +Doubtless there are classes of work incapable +of appealing to individuals as does my work to +me. But in many instances work seems menial +and ignoble because it is not understood. It is +not seen in its relationships and broader aspects. +The single task as performed by the +individual is so small and so specialized that +it does not seem worth while. + +The dignity of labor demands that the +workman should respect the work of his +hands. + +He should look upon his accomplished +tasks as of inherent dignity independent +of the monetary recompense to be received. +To keep the workman's efficiency keyed up, +the employer should see to it that this broader +aspect of labor is emphasized and that the day +laborer finds some reason for his labor besides +his wage. It is the only game he may ever +have time to play. It is to the interest of +<p 200> +himself, his employer, and society at large that +he should enter enthusiastically into it and be +ennobled by it. + +_Professional, technical, and vocational schools +are serving a noble function in emphasizing the +dignity of the work for which they are preparing +young men_. + +They are more and more presenting the +broader aspects of the subjects taught. Even +the altruistic and extremely technical aspects +of the subject are found profitable. The narrower +and apparently the more practical course +does not result so successfully as the broader +and more cultural ones. + +The boy who goes direct into work from +the public school is not likely to c<o:>ordinate +his task with the general activity of the +establishment, and he is not likely to see how he +is in anyway contributing to the welfare of +humanity by his work. He needs to be shown +how each line of industry and profession serves +a great function, has an interesting history, and +is vitally connected with many of the most +important human interests. He should learn +<p 201> +to see how the different cogs are essential and +worthy factors in the total process. The boy +who thus comprehends his task looks upon it +and is inspired by it in a way that would +otherwise be quite impossible. + +Some of the most successful houses have +been so impressed with the importance of this +form of industrial education that at their own +expense they have established night schools for +new employees as well as for those who have +been years with the firm. Not only are the +students taught how to perform their respective +tasks, but a broader program is attempted. +Sometimes an attempt is made to lead the +students to appreciate the dignity of the particular +activity in which the firm is engaged. +The history of the firm is then fully presented +so that the employees will comprehend the part +the house has actually taken in the world. +Some firms try to show each man how his +work is related to the work of the house as a +whole and to other departments. In various +ways schools and individual firms are successfully +attempting to inject a nobler regard +<p 202> +and appreciation for labor. The result is most +gratifying and manifests itself in increased +enthusiasm and other expressions of the increased +love of the game. + +The three conditions which we have been +considering for developing the love of the +game are quite different, appeal to the different +sides of the individual, and are not all +equally applicable to the young man who +seeks to become a leader among his fellows or +to the manager of men who seeks to develop +leaders. + +The attitude of independent, creative responsibility +appeals to our individualistic and +self-centered self. It is an attitude that may +be assumed by the ambitious young man and +encouraged by the manager. It is absolutely +indispensable for developing this much-coveted +love of the game in any form of useful endeavor. +It is readily assumed or developed in the chief +executive, but may be developed in subordinates +with great difficulty. + +Social prestige appeals to our selfishly +social natures, and yet the desire to secure this +<p 203> +social favor is in the main ennobling. It is +of special value to the manager of large groups +of men. The manager may create the social +atmosphere which is most favorable to the +development of the love of the game in his +particular industry. + +The last condition discussed, regard for +the work as important and as useful, makes +its appeal to our nobler and what we might in +some instances speak of as our altruistic selves. +This condition is equally serviceable to the +ambitious youth and to the successful superintendent +of men. We all look out for number +one, but appeals made to the higher self +are not unavailing. We are most profoundly +stirred when we are appealed to from all sides. +However, the love of the game will never be +universal in the professional and industrial +world. We can scarcely imagine the millennium +when all employees would cease to despise +their toil and cease to serve for pay alone. + + + +CHAPTER IX + +RELAXATION + +AS A MEANS OF INCREASING HUMAN EFFICIENCY + +_Be not therefore anxious for the Morrow_ + +A STUDY of the lives of great men is +both interesting and profitable. In +such a study we are amazed at the +records of the deeds of the men whom the +world calls great. The results of the labors +of Hercules seem to be approximated according +to many of these truthful accounts. + +In studying the lives of contemporary business +men two facts stand out prominently. +The first is that their labors have brought about +results that to most of us would have seemed +impossible. Such men appear as giants, in +comparison with whom ordinary men sink to +the size of pygmies. + +The second fact which a study of successful +<p 204> +<p 205> +business men (or any class of successful men) +reveals is that they never seem rushed for +time. + +_Men noted for efficiency almost never appear to +be hurried. They have plenty of time to accomplish +their tasks, and therefore can afford to take +their work leisurely_. + +Such men have time to devote to objects in +no way connected with their business. It cannot +be regarded as accidental that this characteristic +of mind is found so commonly among +successful men during the years of their most +fruitful labor. + +According to the American Ideal, the man +who is sure to succeed is one who is continuously +``keyed up to concert pitch,'' who is ever +alert and is always giving attention to his business +or profession. As far as the captains of +industry are concerned, such is not the case. +They devote relatively few hours a day to their +strenuous toil, but they keep a cool head and a +steady hand. They are always composed, +never confused, but ever ready to attack a new +problem with their maximum ability. They +<p 206> +follow the injunction of Christ expressed in +His Sermon on the Mount: ``Be not therefore +anxious for the morrow.'' + +Of all the nations of the world, Americans +are supposed to be the hardest working. We +have attributed our industrial success to the +fact that there is a bustle and snap to our work +which are not equaled in any other country. +But recent students of the industrial world are +now telling us that even in the case of day +and piece labor this characteristic is frequently +a weakness rather than an advantage. They +say that the American product ``suffers from +hurry, want of finish, and want of solidity.''-- +``Industrial Efficiency,'' Arthur Shadwell, +Vol. 1, p. 26. + +_In the great middle class of American society, +there is a lack of repose and an absence of relaxation +which astonishes foreign observers_. + +They tell us that we are wild-eyed and too +intense. Dr. Clauston of Scotland is quoted +as saying:-- + +``You Americans wear too much expression +in your faces. You are living like an army +<p 207> +with all its reserves engaged in action. The +duller countenance of the British population +betokens a better scheme of life. They suggest +stores of reserved nervous force to fall +back upon, if any occasion should arise that +requires it. The inexcitability, this presence +at all times of power not used, I regard as the +great safeguard of our British people. The +other thing in you gives me a sense of insecurity, +and you ought somehow to tone yourselves +down. You do really carry too much expression, +you take too intensely the trivial moments +of life.'' + +The late Professor William James of Harvard +makes the following pertinent remark +concerning the overtension of Americans:-- + +``Your intense, convulsive worker breaks +down and has bad moods so often that you +never know where he may be when you most +need his help,--he may be having one of his +`bad days.' We say that so many of our +fellow-countrymen collapse, and have to be +sent abroad to rest their nerves, because they +work so hard. I suspect that this is an im- +<p 208> +mense mistake. I suspect that neither the nature +nor the amount of our work is accountable +for the frequency and severity of our breakdowns, +but that their cause lies rather in those +absurd feelings of hurry and having no time, +in that breathlessness and tension, that anxiety +of feature and that solicitude of results, +that lack of inner harmony and ease, in short, +by which with us the work is apt to be accompanied, +and from which a European who should +do the same work would nine times out of ten +be free. . . . It is your relaxed and easy +worker, who is in no hurry, and quite thoughtless +most of the while of consequences, who +is your efficient worker; and tension and anxiety, +and present and future, all mixed up together +in one mind at once, are the surest +drags upon steady progress and hindrances to +our success.''--``Talks to Teachers,'' pp. 214- +218. + +Mr. Joseph Lyons, who is recognized as one +of the particularly active and efficient men of +England, has taken great interest in the way +things are done in America. And after ob- +<p 209> +serving us at work here he expressed himself +as dissatisfied with the tension under which we +work. His words areas follows:-- + +``I do not believe in what Americans call +hustling. The American hustler in my opinion +does not represent the highest type of +human efficiency. He wastes a lot of nervous +power and energy instead of accomplishing +the greatest possible amount of work for the +force expended. Judging the American hustler +from my observation of him in his own country, +I should say that the American hustler +shows a lack of adaptation of means to ends +because he puts more mental, physical, and +nervous energy into his work at all times than +it demands. Regarded as a machine he is not +an economical one. He breaks down too often +and has to be laid off for repairs too often. +He tries to do everything too fast.'' + +When Mr. Lyons was asked to explain how +he had been able to accomplish so much without +hustling, he replied: ``By organizing myself +to run smoothly as well as my business; +by schooling myself to keep cool, and to do +<p 210> +what I have to do without expending more +nervous energy on the task than is necessary; +by avoiding all needless friction. In consequence, +when I finish my day's work, I feel +nearly as fresh as when I started.''-- Quoted +from _New York Herald_, Aug. 30, 1910. + + +RELAXATION A PHYSIOLOGICAL NECESSITY + +_The necessity for relaxation is adherent in the +human organism. Even those life processes +which seem to be constant in their activity require +frequent periods of complete rest_. + +The heart beats regularly and at short intervals, +but after each beat its muscles come +into a state of complete relaxation and enjoy +a refreshing rest, even though it be but for +a moment. Likewise the lungs seem to be +unceasing in their activity, but a careful study +of their action discloses the fact that every +contraction is followed by a perfect relaxation, +and that the rest secured between successive +respirations is adequate for recuperations. + +In all bodily processes the same alternation is +discovered. No bodily activity is at all con- +<p 211> +tinuous. Mental processes, too, can be continued +for but a very short time. By attempting +to eliminate these periods of rest for bodily +and mental acts, we merely exhaust without a +corresponding increase in efficiency. The laws +of nature are firm and countenance no infringement. + +The periods between activity and rest, +as well as the durations of the two processes, +may be changed. Thus, up to a certain limit, +the periods devoted to activity may follow +more rapidly and endure longer. There is, +however, a danger point which may not be +passed with impunity. The danger signal +may manifest itself in several ways: The over- +trained athlete becomes ``stale''; the over- +worked brain worker becomes nervous; the +overworked laborer becomes indifferent and +generally inefficient. + +In all these and in similar instances, the +amount of energy expended is out of proportion +to the results of the labor. The athletic +trainer has learned to guard against overtraining +and is severely condemned for making +<p 212> +such a mistake. The brain worker often +regards overwork as a commendable thing. +However, sentiment is changing. The employer +of labor is finding that rest and relaxation +are essential to the greatest efficiency. +Employees accomplish as much in a week of +six days as they do in one of seven. The reduction +in the hours of daily toil has not decreased +the total efficiency. + +The periods devoted to rest are not as +profitable as they should be unless they are +actually devoted to recuperation. It may be +that some of the time supposed to be devoted +to rest should be devoted to thoughts of toil. +Again during the hours of work there should +be a freedom from jerkiness, breathlessness, +nervousness, and anxiety. It is not necessarily +true that the greatest and most constant display +of energy accompanies the greatest presence +of energy. The tugboat in the river is +constantly blowing off steam and making a +tremendous display of energy, while the ocean +liner proceeds on its way without noise and +without commotion. The still current runs +<p 213> +deep, and the man who is actually accomplishing +the most is frequently--perhaps always the +man who is making the least display of his +strength. He can afford to be calm and collected, +for he is equal to his task. The man +who frets and fumes, who is nervous and excited, +who is strung up to such a pitch that +energy is being dissipated in all directions-- +such a man proclaims his weakness from the +housetop. + +_Many business men know they are going at a +pace that kills, and at the same time they feel +that they are accomplishing too little. For such, +the pertinent question is, How may I reduce the +expenditure of energy without reducing the +efficiency of my labor_? + + +The ability to relax at will and to remain in +an efficient condition, but free from nervousness, +is a thing which may be acquired more +or less completely by all persons. It is accomplished +by a voluntary control of the muscles +of the arms, legs, and face, by breathing +slowly and deeply, and by placing the body in a +condition of general relaxation. +<p 214> + +This antecedent condition of relaxation +brings all the forces of the mind and body more +completely under control and makes it possible +to marshal them more effectively. It also +gives one a feeling of control and assurance, +which minimizes the possibility of confusion +and embarrassment in the presence of an important +task. The possibility of developing +the power of relaxation by means of special +training is being taken advantage of in teaching +acts of skill, in all forms of mental +therapeutics, and in numerous other instances +where overtension hinders the acquisition or +accomplishment of a useful act. By assuming +the attitude of assurance and composure, the +actual condition is produced in a manner most +astonishing to those who have never attempted +it. No man can do his best when he is hurried +and fearful, when he is expending energy in a +manner as useless as a tug blowing off steam. +That relief is within his own power seems to +him impossible. He is not aware of his power +of will to change from his state of anxiety to +one of composure. +<p 215> + +That the gospel of relaxation is more important +to the chief executive than to the day +laborer is quite apparent. Even in the case of +the day laborer the crack of the lash and the +curse of the driver may have been capable of +securing a display of activity among the laborers, +but such means are not comparable in +efficiency to the more modern methods. Laborers +are now given more hours of rest, are +not kept fearful and anxious, but are given +short hours of labor and long hours of rest. +They are judged by the actual results of their +labor rather than by their apparent activity. + +_When accomplishing intellectual work of any +sort, it is found that worry exhausts more than +labor_. + +Anxiety as to the results is detrimental to +efficiency. The intellectual worker should +periodically make it a point to sit in his chair +with the muscles of his legs relaxed, to breathe +deeply, and to assume an attitude of composure. +Such an attitude must not, of course, +detract from attention to the work at hand, +but should rather increase it. Upon leaving +<p 216> +his office, the brain worker should cultivate +the habit of forgetting all about his business, +except in so far as he believes that some particular +point needs special attention out of +office hours. The habit of brooding over +business is detrimental to efficiency and is +also suicidal to the individual. + +It is, of course, apparent to all that relaxation +may mean permanent indifference, and +such a condition is infinitely worse than too +great a tension. An employer who is never +keyed up to his work, and an employee who +goes about his work in an indifferent manner, +are not regarded in the present discussion. + +A complete relaxation of the body often +gives freedom to the intellect. The inventor +is often able, when lying in bed, to devise his +apparatus with a perfection impossible when +he attempts to study it out in the shop. The +forgotten name will not come till we cease +straining for it. Very many of the world's +famous poems have been conceived while +the poet was lying in an easy and relaxed condition. +This fact is so well recognized by some +<p 217> +authors that they voluntarily go to bed in the +daytime and get perfectly relaxed in order +that their minds may do the most perfect +work. Much constructive thinking is done +in the quiet of the sanctuary, when the monotony +of the liturgy or the voice of the speaker +has soothed the quiet nerves, and secured a +composed condition of mind. The preacher +would be surprised if he knew how many costumes +had been planned, how many business +ventures had been outlined, all because of the +soothing influence of his words. + +_This relaxation of the body not only gives +freedom to the intellect, but it is the necessary +preliminary condition for the greatest physical +exertion and for the most perfect execution of +any series of skillful acts_. + +Mr. H. L. Doherty not only held the world's +championship in tennis, but he was the despair +of his opponents, because of the apparent lack +of exertion which he put forth to meet their +volleys. So far as an observer could judge, +Mr. Doherty kept only those muscles tense +that were used in the game. The muscles +<p 218> +especially necessary for tennis were also, so +far as possible, kept lax except at the instant +for making the stroke. Partly because of this +relaxation, his muscles were free from exhaustion +and under such perfect control that at the +critical moment he was able to exert a strength +that was tremendous and a skill that was +amazing. + +In a very striking paragraph Professor James +has shown the reason why poise and efficiency +of mind are incompatible with tenseness of +muscles:-- + +``By the sensations that so incessantly pour +in from the overtense excited body the overtense +and excited habit of mind is kept up; and +the sultry, threatening, exhausting, thunderous +inner atmosphere never quite clears away. If +you never give yourself up wholly to the chair +you sit in, but always keep your leg and body +muscles half contracted for a rise; if you +breathe eighteen or nineteen instead of sixteen +times a minute, and never quite breathe out at +that,--what mental mood can you be in but +one of inner panting and expectancy, and how +<p 219> +can the future and its worries possibly forsake +your mind? On the other hand, how can they +gain admission to your mind if your brow be +unruffled, your respiration calm and complete, +and your muscles all relaxed?''--``Talks to +Teachers,'' p. 211. + +In ancient Greece, one of the chief functions +of the school was to prepare citizens to profit +by the hours of freedom from toil. Herbert +Spencer, in his great work on Education, gives +a prominent place to training for leisure hours. +Such training is attracting the attention of +the American educator to-day as never before. +A few decades ago the majority of the American +population lived on farms, spent long hours of +the day in toil, and scarcely thought of recreation. +We have now become an urban population, +the hours of labor have been greatly reduced +during the days of the week, and Sunday +is a day in which the laborer is found in +neither the factory nor the church. + +The employer of laborers fears the effect of +long hours of freedom from toil. He has +prophesied that such hours would be spent +<p 220> +in dissipations. He feared that as a result +his laborers would enter their shops with unsteady +hands and sleepy brains. That such +results are all too often due to freedom from +toil, no one would deny. That they are not +necessary will also be admitted. One of the +problems of the American people as a whole, +and of employers of labor in particular, is to +train up the rising generations so that they +may make the best use of the increasing hours +of freedom from labor. + +To this end the schools are doing much. +Settlement workers are contributing their +part. Welfare work is becoming popular in +certain places. Local clubs are being organized +to develop interest in local improvement, +literature, politics, ethics, religion, music, +athletics. These agencies are so beneficial +in results that they are being generously +encouraged by business men. + +_Upon entering business every young man +should select some form of endeavor or activity +apart from business to which he shall devote a +part of his attention. This interest should be so_ +<p 221> +_absorbing that when he is thus engaged, business +is banished from mind_. + +This interest may be a home and a family; +it may be some form of athletics; it may be +club life; it may be art, literature, philanthropy, +or religion. It must be something +which appeals to the individual and is adapted +to his capabilities. Some men find it advisable +to have more than a single interest for the +hours of recreation. Some form of athletics +or of agriculture is often combined with an +interest in art, literature, religion, or other +intellectual form of recreation. Thus Gladstone +is depicted as a woodchopper and as an +author of Greek works. Carnegie is described +as an enthusiast in golf and in philanthropy. +Rockefeller is believed to be interested in golf +and philanthropy, but his philanthropy takes +the form of education through endowed schools. +Carnegie's philanthropy is in building libraries. +If the lives of the great business men +are studied it will be found that there is a +great diversity in the type of recreation chosen; +but philanthropy, religion, and athletics are +<p 222> +very prominent--perhaps the most popular +of the outside interests. + +These interests cannot be suddenly acquired. +Many a man who has reached the years of +maturity has found to his sorrow that he is +without interests in the world except his specialty +or business. With each succeeding year +he finds new interests more difficult to acquire. +Hence young men should in their youth +choose wisely some interests to which they +may devote themselves with perfect abandon +at more or less regular intervals throughout +life. + +The more noble and the more worthy the +interest, the better will be the results when +considered from any point of view. Indeed, +the interests which we call the highest are +properly so designated, because in the history +of mankind they have proved themselves to be +the most beneficial to all. + + + +CHAPTER X + +THE RATE OF IMPROVEMENT IN EFFICIENCY + +NO novice develops suddenly into an +expert. Nevertheless the progress +made by beginners is often astounding. +The executive with experience is +not deceived by the showing made by new +men. He has learned to accept rapid initial +progress, but he does not assume that this +initial rate of increase will be sustained. + +The rate at which skill is acquired has been +the subject of many careful studies. The results +have been charted and reduced to curves, +variously spoken of as ``efficiency curves,'' +``practice curves,'' ``learning curves,'' according +to the nature of the task or test. Some of +these dealt with the routine work of office and +factory. In others typical muscular and mental +activities were observed in a simpler form +than could be found in actual practice. +<p 223> +<p 224> + +Five of my advanced students joined me in +strenuous practice in adding columns of figures +for a few minutes daily for a month. Our +task was to add 765 one-place figures daily in +the shortest possible time. No emphasis was +placed on accuracy, but each one tried to make + + +{illust. caption = FIG. 1.} + + +the highest daily record for speed. The +results of our practice are graphically shown in +Curve A of Fig. 1. As shown in that curve +for the first day our average speed was only +forty-two combinations per minute, but for the +thirtieth day our average was seventy-four +combinations per minute, We did not quite +<p 225> +double our speed by the practice, and we made +but little improvement in accuracy. The most +rapid gain was, as anticipated, during the first +few days. We made but little progress from +the sixteenth to the twenty-third day, and +also from the twenty-fourth to the thirtieth +day. + +Of the six persons practicing addition, five +of us also practiced the making of a maximum +grip with a thumb and forefinger. Just before +beginning the adding each day this maximum +grip (or pinch) was exerted once a second for +sixty seconds, first with the right hand and +then with the left. Likewise at the completion +of the addition sixty grips were taken by +the right hand and sixty by the left. The total +pressure exerted by each individual in the 240 +trials (four minutes) was then recorded and +expressed in kilograms. The result of the +experiment is shown in curve B of Fig. 1. +The average total pressure for each of the +five persons was for the first day 620 kilograms; +for the twenty-fourth day 1400 kilograms. +Our increase was very rapid for the +<p 226> +first few days, and no general slump was encountered +till the last week of practice. In +one particular our results in the test on physical +strength were not anticipated--we did not +suppose that by practicing four minutes daily +for thirty days we could double our physical +strength in any such a series of maximum +grips with the thumb and forefinger. + +It is a simple matter to measure day by day +the accomplishment of one learning to use the +typewriter. All beginners who take the work +seriously and work industriously pass through +similar stages in this learning process. Figure +2 represents the record for the first eighty- +six days of a learner who was devoting, in all, +sixty minutes daily to actual writing. The +numbers to the left of the figure in the vertical +column indicate the number of strokes (including +punctuations and shifts) made in ten +minutes. The numbers on the base line indicate +the days of practice. Thus on the ninth +day the learner wrote 700 strokes in the ten +minutes; on the fifty-fourth day 1300 strokes; +on the eighty-sixth day over 1400 strokes. +<p 227> + +Figure 3 represents the results of a writer +of some little experience who spent one hour a +day writing a special form of copy. + +In this curve it will be observed that the + + +{illust. caption = FIG. 2.} + + +increase in efficiency was very great during +the first few weeks, but that during the +succeeding weeks little improvement was +made.--BOOK, W. R, ``The Psychology of +Skill,'' p. 20. +<p 228> + +The progress of a telegraph operator is +determined by the number of words which he + + +{illust. caption = FIG. 3.} + + +can send or receive with accuracy per minute. +In learning telegraphy, progress is rapid for a +few weeks and then follow many weeks of less +rapid improvement. Figure 4 presents the +<p 229 +history of a student of telegraphy who was +devoting all his time to sending and receiving +messages. His speed was measured once a +week from his first week to the time when he + + +{illust. caption = FIG. 4.} + + +could be classed as a fully accomplished operator. +By the twentieth week this operator +could receive less than 70 letters a minute, +although he could send over 120 letters a minute. +At the end of the fortieth week he had +<p 230> +reached a speed of sending which he would +probably never greatly excel even though +his speed was far below that attained by many +operators. The receiving rate might possibly +rise either slowly or rapidly until it equaled +or exceeded the sending rate.--BRYAN & +HARTER, ``Studies in the Physiology and Psychology +of the Telegraphic Language,'' _Psychological +Review_, Vol. IV, p. 49. + +There are certain forms of learning and +practice which do not readily admit of quantitative +determinations. Nevertheless very successful +attempts have been made even in the +most difficult realms of learning. A beginner +with the Russian language spent 30 minutes +daily in industrious study and then was tested +for 15 minutes as to the number of Russian +words he could translate. Figure 5 shows +diagrammatically the results of the experiment. +Thus on the thirteenth day 22 words +were translated; on the fiftieth day 45 words. +Improvement was rather rapid until the nineteenth +day, and then followed a slump till the +forty-sixth day. Improvement was very ir- +<p 231> +regular.--SWIFT, E. J., ``Mind in the Making,'' +p. 198. + +These five figures are typical of nearly all + + +{illust. caption = FIG. 5.} + + +practice, or learning, curves. They depict the +rate at which the beginner increases his +efficiency. In every case we discover very great +<p 232> +fluctuations. On one day or at one moment +there is a sudden phenomenal improvement. +The next day or even the next moment the +increase may be lost and a return made to a +lower stage of efficiency. + +There are certain forms of skill which cannot +be acquired rapidly in the beginning. In +such instances a period of time is necessary +in which to ``warm up'' or in which to acquire +the knack of the operation or the necessary +degree of familiarity and self-confidence before +improvement becomes possible. This is +true particularly in the ``breaking in'' of new +operators on large machines like steam hammers, +cranes, and the like, where the mass and +power of the machine awes the new man, even +though he has had experience with smaller +units of some kind. It applies also to new +inspectors of mechanical parts and completed +products in factories--especially where the +factor of judgment enters into the operation. +Such instances are exceptions, however, and +differ from those cited only in having a period of +slow advance preliminary to the rapid progress. +<p 233> + +Apparently, improvement should be continuous +until the learner has entered into the +class of experts or has reached his possible +maximum. As a matter of fact the curve +which expresses his advance towards efficiency +never rises steadily from a low degree to a high +one. Periods of improvement are universally +followed by stages of stagnation or retrogression. +These periods of little or no improvement +following periods of rapid improvement +are called ``plateaus'' and are found in the experience +of all who are acquiring skill in any +line. + +These plateaus are not all due to the same +cause. + +They differ somewhat with individuals and +even more with the nature of the task in which +skill is being acquired. With all, however, the +following four factors are the most important +influence:-- + +1. _The enthusiasm dependent upon novelty +becomes exhausted_. + +2. _All easy improvements have been made_. + +3. _A period of ``incubation'' is needed in_ +<p 234> +_which the new habits under formation may +have time to develop_. + +4. _Voluntary attention cannot be sustained +for a long period of time_. + +These four factors are not only the causes +of the first plateau, but, as soon as any +particular plateau is overcome and advance +again begun, they are likely to arrest the advance +and to cause another period of recession +or of no advance. These four factors +are therefore most significant to every man +who is trying to increase his own efficiency or +promote the progress of others. + +_When the interest in work is dependent on +novelty, the plateau comes early in the development, +and further progress is possible only by the +injection of new motives to action_. + +Many young persons begin things with enthusiasm, +but drop them when the novelty has +worn off. They develop no stable interests +and in all their tasks are superficial. They +often have great potential ability, but lack +training in habits of industry and of continued +application. They change positions +<p 235> +often, acquire much diversified experience, +and frequently, in a new position, give promise +of developing unusual skill or ability. This +is due to the fact that during the first weeks or +months of their new employment the novelty +of the work stimulates them to activity, and the +methods or habits learned in other trades are +available for application to the new tasks. +When the novelty wears off, however, they +become wearied and cast about for a fresh and +therefore more alluring field. Such nomads +prove unprofitable employees even when they +are the means of introducing new methods or +short cuts into a business. They strike a +plateau and lose interest and initiative just +at the point where more industrious and less +superficial men would begin to be of the +greatest value. + +Plateaus are not confined to clerks and other +subordinates. Executives frequently ``go +stale'' on their jobs and lose their accustomed +energy and initiative. Sometimes they are +able to diagnose their own condition and +provide the corrective stimulus. Again the +<p 236> +man higher up, if he has the wisdom and +discernment which some gain from experience, +observes the situation and prescribes +for his troubled lieutenant. In the majority +of cases, however, the occupant of a +plateau, if he continues thereon for any +length of time, either resigns despondent or +is dismissed. + +Such a case, coming under my notice recently, +illustrates the man-losses suffered by +organizations whose heads do not realize that +salaries alone will not buy efficiency. + +A young advertising man had almost grown +up with his house, coming to it when not yet +twenty in a minor position in the sales department. +Enthusiastic about his possibilities, +with the friendship and co<o:>peration of +his immediate superior, he carried out well the +successive duties put to him. Promotion was +rapid. No position was retained more than +six months. In five years he had occupied +nearly every subordinate position in the sales +department, and was promoted to the head of +the mail-order section. +<p 237> + +His fertility in originating plans, his schemes, +his booklets, and advertising copy brought +results with regularity. He became known as +a man who could ``put the thing over'' in a +pinch, with a vigor and enthusiasm that +seemed irresistible. He fairly earned his +standing as the live wire among executives +of the second rank. + +So, when the general sales manager resigned, +there was no question but that this young man +should succeed him. He had been a personal +friend of his predecessor, had co<o:>perated with +him in many phases of his work, and knew his +new duties well; in fact, he took them up with +little necessity for ``breaking in.'' + +This apparently favorable condition was the +very reason for his lack of success in the new +work. There was not the novelty in this position +that there had been in his former successive +positions. In such an executive position, +it was not a question of taking care of an emergency +demand, but of organization, of establishing +routine, of organizing bigger campaigns. +Before the end of the first season it became evi- +<p 238> +dent that the new sales manager was not making +good. Everything--organization, discipline, +routine system, ginger--had deserted +him. Neither he himself nor his employers, +however, found the real cause. ``I have lost +my grip,'' he told the general manager. ``I +am worn out and of no further use to this +business.'' + +Furthermore he thought he was of no use +to any business. But he made a connection +with a big house which had a large advertising +campaign on its hands. He threw himself +into the task of recasting the firm's selling +literature, the planning of new campaigns, +and the reorganization of the correspondence +department. Within the year, he had duplicated +on a magnified scale his early triumphs +with his first employers. Moreover, he continued +this record of efficiency the second year, +thus entirely refuting the fear of himself +and his friends that he would ``last less +than a year'' and that he lacked staying +power. + +His first employer described the case for me +<p 239> +the other day, requesting that I discover the +reason for the young man's initial failure among +friends and his subsequent triumph in a new +environment. He had kept in close touch with +the other's progress and supplied a hundred +details which helped to make the situation +clear. Finally, after consideration, he agreed +with my diagnosis that his young friend's +falling off in efficiency--his plateau--had +been due to the exhaustion of novelty interest +in his work. + +His first success was built on a long series +of separate plans or ``stunts,'' each of which +was begun and executed in a burst of creative +enthusiasm. His first few months' achievement +as sales manager was due to the same +stimulus, but as the months went by the spur +of novelty became dulled. Lacking the discipline +which would have enabled him to +force voluntary attention and the resulting +interest in his tasks, he failed also to trace the +cause of his flagging invention and energy and +assumed that this was due to exhaustion of his +resources. +<p 240> + +This is further borne out by his experience +in his present position. Addressing a succession +of new tasks, the interest of novelty has +stimulated him to an uncommon degree and +produced an unbroken record of high efficiency. +That this has continued over a considerable +period is partly due, beyond doubt, to the +sustained interest in his work excited by the +broadness of the field before him, the bigness +of the company, the size of the appropriation +at his disposal, the unusual experience of scoring +hit after hit by comparison with the +house's low standards, the frank and prompt +appreciation of his superiors, and substantial +advances in salary. + +It is only human to be more or less dependent +upon novelty. If I am to stir myself to continuous +and effective exertion, I must frequently +stimulate my interest by proposing new +problems and new aspects of my work. If +I am to help others to increase their efficiency, +I must devise new appeals to their interest and +new stimulations to action. If I have been +dependent upon competition as a stimulus +<p 241> +I must change the form of the contest--a +fact which receives daily recognition and +application by the most efficient sales organization +in the country. If I have been depending +upon the stimulating effect of wages, +there is profit occasionally in varying the +method of payment or in furnishing some new +concrete measure of the value of the wage. To +the average worker, for example, a check means +much less than the same amount in gold. In +deference to this common appreciation of +``cold cash,'' various firms have lately abandoned +checks and pay in gold and banknotes, +even though this change means many hours +of extra work for the cashier. + +_At every stage of our learning, progress is aided +by the utilization of old habits and old fragments +of knowledge_. + +In learning to add, the schoolboy employs +his previous knowledge of numbers. In learning +to multiply he builds upon his acquaintance +with addition and subtraction. In solving +problems in percentage his success is +measured by the freedom with which he can +<p 242> +use the four fundamental processes of addition, +subtraction, Multiplication, and division. In +computing bank discount, his skill is based on +ability to employ his previous experience with +percentage and the fundamental processes of +arithmetic. + +The advance here is typical of all learning +processes. In mastering the typewriter no +absolutely new movement is required. The +old familiar movements of arm and hand are +united in new combinations. The student has +previously learned the letters found in the copy +and can identify them upon the keys of the +typewriter. Scrutiny enables him to find any +particular key, and in the course of a few hours +be develops a certain awkward familiarity with +the keyboard and acquires some speed by +utilizing these familiar muscular movements +and available bits of knowledge. All these +prelearned movements and associations are +brought into service in the early stages of +improvement, and a degree of proficiency is +quickly attained which cannot be exceeded +so long as these prelearned habits and asso- +<p 243> +ciations alone are employed. Further advance +in speed and accuracy is dependent +upon combinations more difficult to make +because they involve organization of the old +and acquisition of new methods of thought or +movement. When such a difficulty is faced, a +plateau in the learning curve is almost inevitable. + +The young man who enters upon the work +of a salesman can make immediate use of a +multitude of previous habits and previously +acquired bits of knowledge. He performs by +habit all the ordinary movements of the body; +by habit he speaks, reads, and writes. During +his previous experience he has acquired some +skill in judging people, in addressing them, and +in influencing them. His general information +and his practice in debate and conversation-- +however crude--enable him to analyze his +selling proposition and unite these selling +points into an argument. He learns, too, to +avoid certain errors and to make use of certain +factors of his previous experience. Thus +his progress is rapid for a short time but soon +<p 244> +the stage is reached where his previous experience +offers no more factors which can be easily +brought to his service. In such an emergency +the novice may cease to advance--if indeed +there is not a positive retrogression. + +Nor is this tendency to strike a plateau +confined to clerks in the office and to semi- +skilled men in the factory. Often the limitations +of a new executive are brought out +sharply by his failure to handle a situation +much less difficult than scores which he has +already mastered and thereby built up a reputation +for unusual efficiency. His collapse, +when analyzed, can usually be traced to the +fact that his previous experience contained +nothing on which he could directly base a +decision. His prior efficiency was based on +empirical knowledge rather than on judgment +or ability to analyze problems. + +The office manager of an important mercantile +house is a case in point. Though +young, he had served several companies in +the same capacity, making a distinct advance +at each change. He was a trained accountant, +<p 245> +a clever employment man, and a successful +handler of men and women. His association +with the various organizations from which he +had graduated gave him an unusual fund of +practical knowledge and tried-out methods to +draw upon. + +His first six months were starred with brilliant +detail reorganizations. The shipping +department, first; the correspondence division +next; the accounting department third, and he +literally swept through the office like the +proverbial new broom, caught up all the loose +ends, and established a routine like clockwork. +So successful was his work that the directors +hastened to add supervision of sales and collections. + +Forthwith the new manager struck his +plateau. His previous experience offered little +he could readily use in shaping a sales policy +or laying out a collection program. He +plunged into the details of both, effected some +important minor economies, but failed altogether +--as subsequent events showed--to +grasp the constructive needs and opportunities +<p 246> +of management. He puzzled and irritated his +district managers by overemphasizing details +when they wanted decisions or policies or +help in handling sales emergencies. In the +same way, he neglected collections,--chiefly +because he could not distinguish between +detail and questions of policy,--but escaped +blame for more than six months because the +season was conceded to be a poor one. + +Not till he resigned and the general manager +investigated the sales and collection departments +did the real cause of the failure become +evident. Important and numerous as had +been the economics instituted, they all fell +under the head of the ``easy improvements '' +based on previous experience and observation. +When problems outside this experience presented +themselves, the manager encountered +his plateau. + +In the acquisition of skill, days of progress +are followed by stationary periods. ``Time +must be taken out'' to allow the formation of a +habit or the organization of this new knowledge +or skill. +<p 247> + +All trees and plants have periods of growth +followed by periods of little or no growth. In +May and June the leaves and branches shoot +forth very rapidly, but the new growth is +pulpy and tender. During succeeding days +or months, these tender shots are filled in and +developed. In learning and in habit formation +a similar sequence is lived through. We +have days of swift advancement followed by +days in which the new stage or method of +thinking and acting takes time to become +organized and solidified. The nervous system +has to adjust itself to the new demands, and +such adjusting requires time. + +Although periods of incubation are essential +for every specific habit, practically every act +of skill is dependent upon a number of simpler +habits. At any one time progress may be made +in utilizing some of these habits, even though +others could not be advantageously hastened. +Thus the period of incubation should not +necessarily cause any profound slump in the +advance. Almost invariably, however, it produces +a plateau which persists until the worker +<p 248> +has mastered the expert way. The golf +player, for example, usually finds he is able +to drive longer and straighter balls at the beginning +of the season than a little later. The +reason is that in golf the perfect stroke is the +product of almost automatic muscular action. +In the first round the swing of the driver or +iron is not consciously governed, and the muscular +habit of the previous year controls. +Later, as the player concentrates on his task +of correcting little faults or learning more +effective methods, his stroke loses its automatic +quality, his game falls off, and it is not +until he masters his new form that he attains +high efficiency. + +The same cycle is repeated in office and factory +operations, where efficiency is possible +only when the hands carry out automatically +the desired action. In typewriting and telegraphy, +in the handling of adding machines, +in the feeding of drill presses, punch presses, +and hundreds of special machines, the learner +passes through three distinct phases: first, +swift improvement in which prelearned move- +<p 249> +ments and skill are brought to bear on the task +under the stimulus of both novelty interest and +voluntary interest; second, arrested progress-- +the period of incubation or habit formation; and +the final stage of automatic skill and efficiency. + +_Since increase of efficiency is dependent upon +continued efforts of will, slumps are inevitable. +Voluntary attention cannot be sustained for a +long period_. + +Work requiring effort is always subject +to fluctuations. The man with a strong will +may make the lapses in attention relatively +short. He may be on his guard and ``try to +try'' most faithfully, but no exertion of the will +can keep up a steady expenditure of effort in +any single activity. All significant _*increases_ +in efficiency, however, are dependent upon +voluntary attention--upon extreme exertions +of the will. + +No man can develop into an expert without +great exertion of the will. Such exertions of +the will are recognized by authorities as being +very exhaustive and unstable. One of the +greatest of the authorities and one who in +<p 250> +particular has emphasized the necessity of +a ``do-or-die'' attitude of work concludes his +discussion with the following significant admission: +``All this suggests that if one wants +to improve at the most rapid rate, he must +work when he can feel good and succeed, then +lounge and wait until it is again profitable to +work. It is when all the conditions are favorable +that the forward steps or new adaptations +are made.'' + +Voluntary attention must be employed in +making the advance step, in improving our +method of work, and in making any sort of +helpful changes. But voluntary attention +must not be depended upon to secure steady +and continuous utilization of the improved +method or rate of work. To secure this end, +an attempt should be made to reduce the +work to habit so far as possible and also to secure +spontaneous interest either from interest +and pleasure in the work itself or because of +the reward to be received. + +The case of the young sales manager, described +in the first part of this article, suggests +<p 251> +some of the methods by which this interest +can be secured. The chief factor in his progress +was the interest in the work itself due to +the novelty of his successive tasks--an element +impossible to introduce into the average +man's job. Yet there were other and powerful +motives stimulating his interest: the responsibility +of organizing a big department and of +directing the expenditure of large sums of +money; the prompt credit given him and the +growing confidence extended to him; and the +expression of their appreciation in the concrete +shape of salary increases. + +It is quite true that these various stimulating +factors cannot be produced indefinitely; +tasks must ``stale,'' praise grow monotonous, +salaries touch their top level. But ``making +good'' and finding interests in work crystallize +into habits which endure as long as conditions +remain fair. The rise of the efficiency curve +thus depends upon recurrent periods of successful +struggle followed by periods of habit +formation and by the development of powerful +spontaneous interests. +<p 252> + +Voluntary interest is a valuable thing to +possess, but a difficult thing to secure either +within ourselves or in those under our charge. + +In its psychological aspect, scientific +management enters here. By working out and +establishing a standard method and standard +time for various ``repeat'' operations a workman +is engaged in, it encourages--and even +enforces--the formation of new efficiency +habits. The bonus paid for the accomplishment +of the task in the specified time supplies +an immediate and powerful motive to the effort +necessary to master the ``right way'' of doing +things. + +In the main, employees do their best to acquire +efficiency; but their humanness must +not be forgotten, and the burden of increasing +efficiency must be carried largely by the executive. +His part it is to supply interest, if +the nature of the work forbids the finding of +it there, he must introduce it from outside +either by competition, by emphasizing the +connection between the task and the reward, +as in piecework, or by provision of a bonus +<p 253> +for the achievement of a certain standard of +efficiency. + +He must eliminate the factors in environment +or organization which distract employees +and make voluntary interest more difficult. +He must provide the means of training and +must understand the possibilities and the +limitations of training. If a man ``slumps'' +in efficiency, he must look for the cause and +make sure this is not beyond the man's control +before he punishes him. In a word, he must +allow for periods of incubation or unconscious +organization before expecting maximum results +from a new employee or an old man assigned +to a new job. + +_The man who by persistent effort has developed +himself into an expert has greatly enhanced +his value to society. The boss who demands expert +service from untrained men is either a tyrant +or a fool. But the executive who develops novices +into experts and the company which transforms +mere ``handy men'' into mechanics are public +benefactors because of the service rendered to the +country and their men_. + + + +CHAPTER XI + +PRACTICE PLUS THEORY + +THE demand for trained and experienced +men is never supplied. Most business +and industrial organizations find their +growth impeded by the dearth of such men. +To employ men trained by competitors +or by inferior organizations is expensive and +unsatisfactory. A man trained till he has +become valuable to his ``parent'' organization +is not likely to be equally valuable to other +organizations that might employ him at a +later time. In general, the most valuable +men in any organization are the men who +have grown up in it. + +The man who is ``a rolling stone'' secures, +in a way, more experience than the man who is +developed within a single organization, but his +wider experience does not of necessity make +him a more valuable man. It is not mere +<p 254> +<p 255> +experience that educates, develops, and equips +men, but experience of particular sorts, and +acquired under very well defined conditions. + +``Scientific management'' has taken seriously +the problem of providing and utilizing +the most valuable experiences. But the viewpoint +of the leaders in this modern movement +is that of the employer seeking the most valuable +experiences for those employees whose +work is mainly mechanical, _e.g_. machine +tenders, stenographers, etc. Scientific management +has conclusively demonstrated the +fact that it is poor economy to depend upon +haphazard experiences for the development +of those employees whose excellence depends +upon the speed and accuracy of their occupation +habits. It has thus done great service +in demonstrating the kind of experience most +valuable in developing men for positions of +routine work. But it has done little for men +whose welfare depends upon judgment--in +making new adjustments and in solving the +new problems continually arising in all positions +of responsibility. It has left for others +<p 256> +to consider the experiences most profitable +for developing executives. + +_The most valuable experience in acquiring +an act of skill is frequent repetition in performing +the act_. + +The value of the experience continues till +by frequent repetition the act has become so +mechanical that it is performed without attention. +Further experience has little or no +value. + +On the other hand it is true that every +worthy calling demands forms of activity which +could not and should not be mechanized. +There are emergencies in every form of occupation +that call for new adjustments. The +ability to make such new adjustments depends +upon richness of experience and width +of view as well as upon skill in performing +the old processes. + +The difference between a machine and a +man is that the man is capable of adjusting +himself to the changed situation, while a +machine cannot do so. The machine may work +more accurately and more rapidly than the man +<p 257> +in routine work, but it is capable of nothing +but routine work. There is a need for much +experience to make the man approximate the +skill and accuracy obtained by a machine. +But there is also need of experience to develop +the man in that particular in which he surpasses +a machine, _i.e_. in a broad experience +that enables him to form judgments and hence +to make a multitude of different adjustments +when a need for a change occurs. + +A machine is constructed to perform a +particular kind of routine work in a stereotyped +way, but so soon as there is discovered a +better way of performing this work the machine +is thrown to the scrap heap because it +cannot be adjusted to new requirements. + +_Experience which renders human activity +machine-like is a form of experience that increases +the probability that the possessor will be +discarded and his work accomplished by the +introduction of some new tool or some new +method of work_. + +Experience therefore which merely increases +the skill of action without increasing the width +<p 258> +of horizon is necessary, but it is inadequate. +In addition to skill in routine work the man +should secure the broader experience that will +enable him to adjust himself to changed conditions +in his occupation and that will develop +the judgment necessary to enable him to +adjust his vocation to new demands. Every +form of occupation has many possibilities, a +few of which are from time to time discovered +to be significant. Advance in any sphere of +work depends upon the discovery of these +possibilities which the untrained eye of +inexperience does not detect. Although a broad +experience may enable the man to grasp the +possibilities of his occupation, it fails to secure +skill in the particulars that have already been +found to be important. While a broad experience +leaves a man incapable of present +competition, the narrow experience jeopardizes +his future. + +The most valuable experience is therefore +one that equips the man to compete with the +skillful in the present and to comprehend his +task so that he may from time to time adjust +<p 259> +it to new relationships. It emphasizes the +formation of necessary habits, but does not +neglect the development of the judgment. +Such an experience is both intensive and +extensive; informal and formal; mechanical +and theoretical; practical and scientific. Such +experience alone meets the demands of the +increasing complexity of industrial and commercial +life. + + +HOW MAY THE MOST VALUABLE EXPERIENCE +BE SECURED AND UTILIZED + +_I. Haphazard Experience_ + +But little attention is given to providing +those experiences that most adequately prepare +one for commercial and industrial life. +The boy who is to become a skilled workman +is compelled to ``pick up'' his experience as +best he can. The same is true of the boy who +aspires to a position as salesman, banker, or +manufacturer. Every employer seeks only +experienced men, and but few places are available +where such experience can be economically +and honorably secured. +<p 260> + +The youth without experience, desiring to +become a skilled machinist, may secure some +experience with machinery in a second-rate +factory during the rush season. Because of +his incapacity, he is laid off as soon as the rush +is over. Thereupon he applies as an experienced +machinist in a better shop. If he is +lucky, he may secure a position. If the supervision +is inadequate, or the demand for labor +unusual, he may retain his position for several +hours, or days, or even weeks. After years +of such distressing experiences, the youth succeeds +in ``stealing his trade.'' In the meantime +he has been an economic loss to his many +employers, and his experience may have depraved +his character. + +The condition found in the industrial world +is no worse than that in the commercial world. +The selling force is recuperated by green hands. +In most selling organizations no instruction is +given and no experience provided except what +is picked up haphazard behind the counter or +on the road. Most new men fail, are dismissed, +employed by another firm and dis- +<p 261> +missed again, etc. We have here nothing but +a struggle for existence and the survival of the +fittest in a crude and destructive form. + +The burnt child avoids the fire, and his +experience is most effective. However, the +wise parent arranges conditions so that the +burn shall not be too serious. The machinist +who ``steals'' his trade profits greatly by his +mistakes, and the new salesman never forgets +some of his most flagrant errors. Such experiences +are practical, lasting, effective, but +uneconomical. But such experiences are of +necessity unsystematic and inadequate to +modern industrial and commercial demands. + + +_II. Apprenticeship Experience_ + +The waste in the Haphazard method of +securing experience in the industrial world +has long been apparent and has led to attempts +to provide systems of apprenticeships which +would enable the youth to secure educative +experiences with a minimum of cost to himself +and his employer. + +In theory the youth who becomes an ap- +<p 262> +prentice is bound or indentured to serve his +master for a period of years. During that +time the master agrees to see to it that the +apprentice practices and becomes proficient in +performing all the processes of the trade. +The employer (master) is rewarded in that +he secures the continuous service of the boy +for the period of years upon the payment of +little or no wages. Furthermore the apprentice +when developed into a journeyman is +likely to become a valuable employee. The +apprentice is rewarded for his years of service +by the practical experience which he has been +permitted to secure in actual work with all the +various processes involved in the trade. + +Although the apprenticeship system has +many excellent points, it has been found +inadequate to meet the needs of modern commercial +and industrial institutions. At least +in its primitive form it is decadent in every +industry which has been modernized. All +forms of commerce and industry have become +so complicated and each part demands such +perfection of skill that an apprentice can +<p 263> +scarcely secure sufficient experience in even +the essentials of the trade to render him expert +in these various processes. In short, the +traditional apprenticeship system is unable to +give either the general comprehension of the +industry or the skill in the specialized processes. + + +_III. Theoretical-practical Experience_ + +In contrast with the two methods discussed +above (Haphazard Experience and +Apprenticeship Experience) schools must be +considered as a method of providing experiences +preparatory to industrial life. The first +two methods secure skill, but the schools secure +learning. The first two might be said to +educate the hands and the latter the head. +The comparative advantages of these contrasted +systems is the theme of unceasing +debate. The man skilled in one thing can at +least do that one thing well. The man who is +learned but not skilled in any activity of his +chosen occupation is unable to compete with +the boys who at the expense of schooling, +``went to work'' in that particular occupation. +<p 264> + +An advanced general school education has +very distinct advantages. But skill in reading +Latin does not greatly increase one's ability +to read instruments of precision. Skill in +applying mathematical formul<ae> will not greatly +assist in estimating the value of merchandise. +A knowledge of general psychology will not +insure ability in selecting employees. Even +great proficiency in discoursing upon ethical +theories does not protect one from the temptation +to be dishonest in business. + +Skill in one thing does not insure skill in +other and even in similar things. Learning +in one field is not incompatible with gross +ignorance in other and related fields. We +have discovered that skill and learning are +largely specialized, and accordingly we see the +necessity of acquiring skill and learning in the +particular fields in which the skill and learning +are desired. To meet these demands +various modifications in our schools have been +made. To meet the needs of training for the +industries we have the manual training schools, +industrial schools, trade schools, continuation +<p 265> +schools, correspondence schools, night schools, +technological schools, etc. To provide the +appropriate experiences for commercial life +we have commercial schools, business colleges, +store schools, schools of commerce, etc. + +These schools have rendered invaluable +service and are rapidly increasing in number, +yet they do not provide either the skill or the +learning which should be possessed by the +employee. + + +_IV. Practical-theoretical Experience_ + +The weakness of the Haphazard and Apprenticeship +methods of securing experience +is twofold: (1) They cease too early. So soon +as the man really enters into his occupation his +education ceases. (2) They are too narrow, +they fail to provide experiences that give proper +perspective; they do not give adequate +theoretical comprehension of the work being +accomplished from day to day; they do not +develop the judgment. + +The weakness with the Theoretical-practical +method of providing experience resembles +<p 266> +the weakness of the Haphazard and the Apprenticeship +methods in that it ceases too +early. It ceases _*before_ the individual begins +his life work. It may have the special weakness +of not being closely organized with the +vocation for which it is assumed to be a preparation, +hence of being impracticable. + +The Practical-theoretical form of providing +experience is based on two assumptions: The +first assumption is that the practical and the +theoretical should be equally emphasized; +that they should be closely organized; and +that the theory should be deduced from the +practice. The second assumption is that the +educative processes should continue so long +as the man is engaged in his occupation. + +A concrete illustration will make clear the +difference between the four different methods of +acquiring experience as given above. + +During the present summer vacation I have +been spending a few weeks in a boarding house. +Some previous boarder had bequeathed to the +house an intricate Chinese block puzzle. +During this summer one lad in the house spent +<p 267> +eight hours in solving the puzzle. He worked +by the Haphazard method, trying blindly, till +he just happened to get it right. The next +attempt did not take so long, but it was many +days before he could solve the problem rapidly. + +As soon as the lad had learned to solve the +puzzle, my son watched him solve it many +times, and kept trying to do it as he saw it +done. My son learned to solve the puzzle in +perhaps two hours by thus watching another +and then trying it himself. He was employing +the Apprenticeship method, and his education +was accomplished in one fourth the time required +by the Haphazard method. + +In the boarding house was an expert mechanical +engineer. He took up the task of +solving the problem and was most scientific +in his procedure. He figured out the principles +that he thought might be involved, +tried them, and immediately abandoned methods +that proved unsuccessful. He was able +to solve the puzzle in a half hour. Later trials +were all successful and rapid. He knew just +how he had solved the puzzle, and therefore +<p 268> +did not have to experiment or take chances on +later trials. This engineer employed the +Theoretical-practical method of learning. + +The engineer volunteered to instruct me in +the problem. I took up the blocks and began +trying to unite them. As one difficulty after +another arose, I was given instruction in the +principle for overcoming it. No principle +was presented to me till I had faced a situation +demanding that particular principle. The +practice and the theory went together, and so +far as the instruction was concerned the practice +preceded the theory step by step. I was +therefore employing the Practical-theoretical +method. As a result I was enabled to solve +the problem in fifteen minutes. Furthermore +I knew just how I had done it and could do it +again and could apply the same principles +to other puzzles. + +A comparison of these results is most instructive. +The lad who went at it blindly by +the Haphazard method required eight hours +and even then did not analyze out the principles +that would help him solve later prob- +<p 269> +lems. My son, who employed the Apprenticeship +method, accomplished his task in two +hours but discovered no principles. His work +was blindly mechanical. The engineer worked +according to the Theoretical-practical method, +completed his task in thirty minutes, and understood +perfectly what he had done. By employing +the Practical-theoretical method I was +enabled to accomplish the task in fifteen +minutes and to understand also how it was +done. + +Whether I have in mind my own development +or that of my employees, if I am seeking +to utilize the Practical-theoretical method of +capitalizing experience, I am confronted with +two problems: (1) How shall I secure or +provide the requisite practical experiences? +(2) How shall I secure or provide the appropriate +theoretical interpretation of such experiences? + +During recent years in the educational, +industrial, and commercial world serious attempts +have been made to answer these two +questions, and the results are most significant. +<p 270> + +The College of Engineering of the University +of Cincinnati believes that it has solved +the problem for certain fields of activity by +``co<o:>perative courses.'' In these courses the +students spend one week in some manufacturing +plant and the next week in the college. +This weekly alternation of practical and theoretical +is kept up for six years. The number +of students in the college and the number of +workers in the manufacturing plant is kept +constant by dividing each group of students +into two sections which alternate with each +other, so that when one section is at the college +the other is at the shop. The college teaches +the principles that are necessary for understanding +and solving the problems arising +from week to week in the shop. As the Dean +of the college expresses it, ``It aims to teach +the theory underlying the work, to teach the +intent of the work, to give such cultural subjects +as will tend to make him a more intelligent +civic unit.'' It is thought that such +co<o:>perative courses could be arranged by +schools of different ranks of advancement and +<p 271> +that the students could spend their alternate +weeks in almost any class of industrial or commercial +institution of importance. + +One of the most conspicuous attempts to +provide Practical-theoretical experiences of an +educative sort is that of the General Electric +Company of West Lynn, Massachusetts. This +institution has provided a corps of instructors +and rooms devoted exclusively to instruction +within the plant itself. The theoretical instruction +is assumed to be perfectly co<o:>rdinated +with the practical. In fact the young +apprentice spends much of his time almost +daily in constructing commercial articles and +under the same conditions that will confront +him in later years. His theoretical instruction +is thus planned to help him to accomplish +his practical task more quickly, perfectly, and +with more perfect understanding. The training +is so broad that the graduate is prepared to +become an industrial foreman in any mechanical +establishment. + +The John Wanamaker Commercial Institute +of Philadelphia is a school conducted +<p 272> +within the store and for the benefit of the +employees of the store. In this school theoretical +instruction is given that is designed to +give the principles underlying commercial +life. The results are said to be most gratifying +both to the employer and the employees. + +The Practical-theoretical form of education +is not limited to the apprentice or to the new +employee but is equally valuable to the expert, +the oldest employees, and the employer. +This fact is taken advantage of most wisely +by the National Cash Register Company. +This company provides instruction suited to +the needs of all its salesmen, whether they are +new and inexperienced or whether they are the +oldest, most efficient salesmen. By means of +letters, books, demonstrations, and conventions +the salesmen are constantly provided with +educative experiences and are kept from the +narrowness and lack of progress so characteristic +of men in the commercial life after they +have become thoroughly established and relatively +efficient in their work. + +In keeping with this modern tendency to +<p 273> +supplement practical experience with theoretical +interpretation, we find a very pronounced +increase in the utilization of all agencies that +interpret and enrich the daily toil. Men who +are fully employed (_e.g_. journeymen and salesmen) +have realized the necessity of some form +of theoretical instruction to enable them to +profit by their daily practical experience. +This fact is almost pathetically demonstrated +by the multitudes who are seeking for such +instruction through correspondence and evening +schools. Every progressive engineer, +teacher, physician, and lawyer keeps abreast +of the best thought of the day by means of +frequent conventions, conferences, books, and +periodicals. The experience secured from such +agencies is essential to progress; only by such +agencies can he learn the latest and most perfect +interpretation of the experience of his +professional life. Likewise the non-professional +man engaged in commerce or industry +finds the modern world to be so complex that +mere practical experience is no longer adequate +to enable him to meet the demands made +<p 274> +upon him. The theoretical training of his +youth (even though it include the college and +the technical school) is totally inadequate to +interpret for him the new relationships which +arise from day to day. He needs a theory +that grows out of his practical experience and +that enables him to understand and to improve +upon his practical work. The most common +means for providing him with such experience +he finds in his conventions and informal conferences +with his peers and in his trade +journals and technical books. + +There is no warfare between theory and +practice. The most valuable experience demands +both, and the methods of procuring +the most valuable experience in business and +industry demand that the theory should supplement +the practice and not precede it. +The environment most conducive to securing +and utilizing the most valuable experience is +in the work-a-day world. But this is the very +environment in which men become engulfed +in the practical and neglect the theoretical. +To the extent to which men thus neglect the +<p 275> +theoretical do they lower themselves and class +themselves with mere machines, and so hasten +the day when they shall be discarded. Whether +we be apprentices or experts, employees or +employers, we are all in a similar condition. +In every case advance is dependent upon +the proper utilization of practical and theoretical +experiences--upon the practical experience +which is adequately interpreted. + + + +CHAPTER XII + +MAKING EXPERIENCE AN ASSET: JUDGMENT +FORMATION + +WHY is it that of two men who are +working at the same desk or bench +the one acquires valuable experience +rapidly and the other slowly? + +Why is it that of two houses each employing +a thousand men the one sees its employees +securing experiences that enhance their earning +capacity rapidly, but the other house is +compelled periodically to secure new blood by +importing men from rival firms? + +Modern psychology teaches that experience +is not merely the best teacher but the only +possible teacher. All that any instructor can +do is to select and to provide the conditions +necessary for appropriate experiences and to +stimulate the learner to make the most of +them. The ignorant is changed into the learned +<p 276> +<p 277> +by means of the utilization of profitable +experiences. By the same method the novice is +changed into the expert; the amateur into the +professional; the inefficient into the efficient; +and the errand boy into the manager. + +One of the most important questions any +man can ask is this: What experience am I +actually getting from day to day and what experience +might my situation offer? + +One of the most important questions the +employer of men can ask is this: How much +more efficient will my men be to-morrow because +of the experience of to-day? How +might their experience be changed or utilized +so that their efficiency might be increased +more rapidly? + +In planning to secure permanent increase in +efficiency, whether for one's self or for one's +employees, we simplify our problem by considering +it under the two following subdivisions:-- + +What Experiences are Most Valuable? + +How may these Most Valuable Experiences +be Secured and Utilized? +<p 278> + +Preparatory to the answering of these two +questions it will simplify matters to consider +the general conditions which affect the value +of experience. + + +GENERAL CONDITIONS GIVING VALUE TO +EXPERIENCE + +1. Health and Vigor. + +The mind and body are so intimately connected +that the value of an experience is seriously +affected by depletion or exhaustion of +the body. The experiences acquired when one +is fresh and vigorous are remembered; those +acquired when one is tired are forgotten. Most +college students find that lessons gotten in the +morning are better remembered and are more +readily applied than those learned after a day +of exhaustive work. We get most out of those +experiences secured when we are feeling the +most vigorous, whether the vigor be dependent +upon age, rest, or general health. + +2. Experience is valuable proportionately as +we apply ourselves to the task on hand. By +intensity of application we not only accomplish +<p 279> +more, but each unit of work contributes more +to our development. Under the stress of voluntary +and spontaneous attention, under the +stimulus of personal efficiency-ideals, and under +such social demands as competition and imitation +we develop new methods of thought and +action which are thereupon adopted as the +methods for future action. + +3. The value of an experience depends upon +what has been called the ``personal attitude'' +sustained during the experience. Three forms +of ``personal attitudes'' have been distinguished +and are designated as follows:-- + +(_a_) The submissive or suggestible attitude. + +(_b_) The self-attentive attitude. + +(_c_) The objective or the problem attitude. + +(_a_) One is likely to be thrown into the submissive +attitude when a new situation arises +(a business problem), if one knows that he is +in the presence of others who could solve the +problem with relative ease or accuracy. In +such a situation the individual is hampered +in his thinking by the presence of those who +are more expert than he. His thinking is +<p 280> +therefore futile for the present difficulty and is +devoid of educative value. + +(_b_) The self-attentive attitude is similar +to the submissive attitude, but is not to be +confused with it. If when confronted with a +difficult problem my attack upon it is weakened +by the expectation of assistance from others, I +am in a submissive attitude. If, however, my +attack is weakened by my realization that I +am on trial,--that what I do with the problem +will be observed by others,--then I become +self-conscious and am thrown into the self- +attentive attitude. If I am conscious that I +am being watched, it is quite difficult for me to +hit a golf ball, to add a column of figures, or +to deliver a lecture on psychology. So long +as I am self-attentive my efficiency is reduced; +I hit on no improved methods of thought or +action, and my experience therefore has no +permanent value. + +(_c_) So soon as I can forget others and myself +and can take the objective, or the problem +attitude, the chances of efficient action are +greatly increased. I find it relatively easy +<p 281> +to assume this attitude when I feel that I +stand on my own responsibility; that the +problem cannot possibly be referred to any +higher authority, but that the solution depends +upon me alone. My chances of solving the +problem would be much reduced, if it were proposed +to me at a time when I felt domineered +by a superior, or when I felt that he knew much +more about it and could settle it much more +easily and surely than I. If the problem demanded +previous experience and the possession +of knowledge which I did not possess, it would +be likely to make me self-conscious and hence +incapable of utilizing even the experience and +the knowledge that I do possess. Past success, +the possession of wide experience, and +technical instruction keep me from assuming +the self-attentive attitude and enable me to +take the problem or objective attitude. This +is the only attitude consistent with improved +form of thought or action, and hence is the +attitude essential for valuable experience. + +4. That experience is the most valuable that +is acquired in dealing with conditions similar +<p 282> +to those in connection with which improvement +is sought. Experience in wood-chopping makes +one a better chopper but does not necessarily +increase his skill in sawing wood. Experience +in bookkeeping increases one's ability in +that particular, but does not appreciably increase +his ability to handle men. Speed and +accuracy of judgment secured in inspecting one +sort of goods cannot be depended upon, if a +different sort of goods is to be inspected. + +The experience secured in responding to one +situation will be valuable in responding to a +similar situation because of the three following +facts:-- + +(_a_) Two similar conditions may secure identical +factors in our activity. Thus school life +and the executive's work secure such identical +activities as are involved in reading, in writing, +or in arithmetic, and so forth, whether accomplished +in the schoolroom or the office. + +(_b_) The method developed in one experience +may be applied equally well to another activity. +In connection with a course in college, a +student may acquire a scientific method of +<p 283> +procedure. At a later time he may (or he may +not) apply this same method to the problems +arising in his business or industrial life. + +(_c_) Ideals developed in one experience may +be projected into other experiences. If the +ideals of promptness, neatness, accuracy, and +honesty are developed in one relationship of +life, the probabilities are somewhat increased +that the same ideals will be applied to all +experiences. + +Provided that the four general conditions +discussed are secured, we then have the more +specific and important question to ask:-- + + +WHAT EXPERIENCES ARE THE MOST VALUABLE? + +Only those experiences are valuable that in +an appreciable degree modify future action. +One way in which an experience or a series of +experiences modifies future action is in the +formation of habits. + +_Habit Formation_ + +Habit has a beneficial influence on future +action in five particulars:-- +<p 284> + +(_a_) Habit reduces the necessary time of +action. Repeating the twenty-six letters of +the alphabet has become so habitual that I can +repeat them forward in two seconds. To repeat +them in any other than an habitual order, +_e.g_. backwards, requires sixty seconds. + +(_b_) Habit increases accuracy. I can repeat +the alphabet forward without danger of error, +but when I try to repeat it backward I am +extremely likely to go astray. + +(_c_) Habit reduces the attendant exhaustion. +Reading English is for me more habitual than +reading French. Hence the latter is the more +exhausting process. + +(_d_) Habit relieves the mind from the necessity +of paying attention to the details of the +successive steps of the act. When piano +playing has been completely reduced to habit, +the finger movement, the reading of the notes, +etc., are all carried on successively with the +minimum of thought. + +(_e_) Habit gives a permanency to experience. +For many years in playing tennis I served the +ball in a way that had become for me perfectly +<p 283> +habitual. For an interval of three years I +played no tennis, but when I began again I +found that I could serve as well as ever. If +the manner of service had not been so perfectly +reduced to habit, I would have found +after an interval of three years that I was completely +out of practice, _i.e_. that my previous +experience did not have a permanent value. + +(The subject of habit formation will be more +completely presented in Chapter XIII.) + +A second form of experience that is capitalized +and so predetermines a man's capacity to +act and to think is the formation of what is +known as practical judgments. + + +_Practical judgments_ + +By a practical judgment is meant the conscious +recall of a concrete past experience and +the determination of some action by means of +this consciously recalled event. I find that it +will be necessary for me to secure a new stenographer. +I solve the problem by consciously +recalling how I got one before. Upon the +basis of that consciously recalled previous +<p 286> +experience I decide how to act now. This is a +practical judgment. + +In strictness what is capitalized is not the +practical judgment itself but the original +concrete experience that is recalled at a later +time, and upon the basis of which a practical +judgment is formed. + +Practical judgments cannot be more +comprehensive than one's previous experience. +The necessary condition for fertility in the +formations of practical judgments is therefore +richness of previous experience. Indeed one's +practical judgments are much more restricted +than one's actual experiences. A practical judgment +is dependent not merely upon having had +the necessary experience, but upon the recall +of it at the appropriate occasion. The key to a +side door of my house was temporarily lost. +After trying scores of keys, I found that a key +to a room in the attic would also open the side +door. This side-door key was again carried +off last week. After much vexation and after +trying numerous keys, I again discovered that +the key to the room in the attic would open the +<p 287> +side door. I failed to make the necessary +practical judgment. If when the key was lost +the second time I had recalled my former experience +and had taken advantage of it, I would +have formed a practical judgment and would +have saved myself much inconvenience. + +The formation of practical judgments is not +a high form of thought. Indeed it is held by +many that the animals are capable of some +form of practical judgment. A much more +effective form of thought is the formation of +reflective judgments. + + +_Reflective judgments_ + +A practical judgment is based on a single +concrete case. A reflective judgment is based +on a generalization, an abstraction, or a principle +derived from many previous experiences. + +Last night a salesman tried to induce me to +purchase an interest in an Idaho apple orchard. +Thereupon I recalled an instance of a friend +who a year ago had made such a purchase and +had found it a profitable investment. If on +the basis of this or some other concrete case I +<p 288> +had accepted or rejected his offer, I would have +made a practical judgment. As a matter of +fact I caused several concrete instances to +pass through my mind, made the generalization +that most professional men lose when they invest +in distant properties, and upon the basis of this +generalization made my reflective judgment +and rejected his proposition. + +Last week on the golf links I saw a Bohemian +peasant woman wearing clothes full of small +holes. I tried to figure out how the clothing +had become so injured. I recalled seeing a +coat that had been left all summer in an attic +till it had been eaten to pieces by the moths. +On the basis of that recalled incident I satisfied +myself by means of the practical judgment +that she was wearing moth-eaten clothing. A +few days later I saw three of these women +working on one of the greens, and each of +them had on clothing full of small holes. I +began to reflect as to the cause of the holes. I +observed that each woman held a bottle in +her hand and was apparently applying the contents +of the bottle to the roots of the dandelion +<p 289> +plants. I inferred that the liquid must be +an acid. Then of all the qualities of an acid I +considered merely its corrosiveness. With +that abstraction in mind I made the reflective +judgment that the women were working with +an acid and that from time to time particles +of the acid got on their clothes and corroded +them. + +A manager of a large manufacturing and +selling organization made a study of the conditions +affecting the prosperity of his organization. +From his observations he deduced the +principle that for him it is more important to +increase the loyalty of the men to the organization +than to reduce the apparent labor cost. +With this principle in mind he made various +reflective judgments in upbuilding his organization. + +In these illustrations of theoretical or reflective +judgments it will be observed that no +previous single experience was in the mind of +the one forming the judgment but merely a +generalization, an abstraction, or principle. + +The experience that is really capitalized is +<p 290> +the formation of the generalizations, abstractions, +and principles which are thereafter available +for reflective judgments and can be applied +to a multitude of novel situations but situations +in which the generalization, abstraction, +or principle is a factor. + +The significance of reflective judgments in +increasing human efficiency was manifested +in a striking manner by the following experiment. +A group of individuals were tested +as to their ability to solve a number of mechanical +puzzles. The time required for each +individual was recorded. The subjects then described +as completely as possible how they had +solved the problem (worked the puzzle). In +some instances the subjects kept trying blindly, +till by accident they hit upon the right method. +In such cases the second and third trials might +take as long or even longer than the first trial. +If, however, the subject had in mind the right +principle or principles for solving the problems, +the time required for succeeding attempts fell +abruptly. Curve A of Figure 6 is a graphic +representation of the results of A with one of +<p 291> +the puzzles. To solve the problem the first +time required 1476 seconds. While solving +it this first time A discovered a principle upon +which success depended. The second attempt +consumed 241 seconds. While solving the +problem this second time he discovered a second +principle. With these two principles in +mind succeeding attempts were rendered rapid +and certain. + +Another young man, B, in solving his problem. +(Chinese Rings Puzzle) succeeded after +working 1678 seconds. At the completion of +this successful attempt he had in mind no principle +for working it. The second trial was not +so successful as the first and lasted 2670 +seconds. With succeeding trials he reduced +his time but not regularly and was still working +``in the dark.'' His method was one of +extreme simplicity and probably not different +from the ``try, try again'' method employed +by animals in learning. The results of his +first ten trials are graphically shown in Curve +B of Figure 6. + +A comparison of Figure 6 with the five + + +<p 292> +{illust. caption = FIG. 6.} + + +<p 293> +figures of Chapter X will show how rapidly increase +of efficiency is when dependent upon +judgments as contrasted with improvement +dependent upon habit. + +A judgment once having been made may be +utilized again and again. The process of +applying these preformed judgments is known +as an intuitive or perhaps better called an expert +judgment. + + +_Expert judgments_ + +Just as appropriate concrete experiences determine +the nature and the range of practical +judgments, and as the formation of generalizations, +abstractions, and principles determine +the possibilities of reflective judgments, so the +actual formation of the practical and reflective +judgments determine the nature and the range +of the intuitive or expert judgments. + +Some years ago I had a need for an attorney +to perform for me a petty service. Just +at that critical moment I met a friend who was +a lawyer. I employed him forthwith. At a +later time I needed a lawyer again, recalled my +<p 294> +former experience, and called up the same +attorney. This employing him the second +time was clearly a practical judgment. If I +have frequent need for an attorney, I shall +probably make use of my preformed practical +judgment and employ this same attorney. +This act will never become a habit, but it will +approximate more and more a habitual action, +and will seem to be performed intuitively, and +will be an illustration of an expert judgment. + +This morning I was asked to find a cook and +man of general utility for an outing camp. I +had no preformed practical judgment which I +could apply to the case and did not even possess +a remembrance of any experience upon +which I might base a practical experience. In +such a case therefore I am not only not an +expert but I do not possess the necessary preliminary +experiences for developing such ability. + +During the last decade I have given much +thought to this question: Does the efficiency +of one's thinking depend at all upon the clearness +and distinctness of the mental image used +<p 295> +in the thinking? I settled the question in the +negative. The formation of this principle +(clear thinking does not depend upon clear +visual image) was an act of reflective judgment. +But now the application of this preformed +judgment has developed into an expert judgment. +Recently I was given the manuscript +of a course in psychology and asked to appraise +it. One of the chief points of the author was +to advise all business men to develop clear +visual images. In fact he asserted that clearness +of thinking was in proportion to clearness +of the visual image with which the thinking is +carried on. Without again weighing the evidence +for my principle, I applied my preformed +judgment and by means of this expert judgment +condemned the course. + +A man is expert only in those fields in which +he has developed the appropriate habits, the +necessary, practical, and reflective judgments, +and has had some practice in applying these +judgments. + +We find that four classes of experiences are +valuable, _i.e_. such experiences as result in the +<p 296> +formation of habits; such as result in practical +judgments, in reflective judgments, and in +expert judgments. Our final task is to consider +methods for increasing the probabilities +that such experiences may be secured and +utilized. + + +SECURING AND UTILIZING THESE MOST +VALUABLE EXPERIENCES + +The conditions best adapted for procuring +and utilizing one class of these most valuable +experiences may not be the best for the other +three classes. Our final problem must therefore +be subdivided into four parts corresponding +to the four classes of valuable experience. + + +_Special Conditions Favorable to Habit Formation_ + +The essential condition for habit formation +is repetition with intensity of application. +The modern movement in the industrial world +known as scientific management supplies this +need for repetition by standardizing all activities +so that they will be repeated over and +<p 297> +over in identical form; and it secures the intensity +of application by means of the task and +bonus system. By these means the most +valuable experiences for habit formation are +secured and utilized. + +The working out of this fact is so admirably +described in recent reports upon scientific +management that further description here +would be superfluous. + + +_Special Conditions Favorable to the Formation +of Practical judgments_ + +In addition to the four general conditions +discussed on pages 278 to 283@@@ the special +conditions most favorable to the formation of +practical judgments are the three following:-- + +1. The experiences most effective in arousing +practical judgments are those that are most +recent. A few days ago I purchased a piece +of real estate and was asked how I wanted the +property transferred. I replied immediately +that I wanted a warranty deed and a guarantee +policy. This was a practical judgment made +upon the basis of a recent previous experience. +<p 298> +As a matter of fact there are three distinct +methods of transferring real estate, but until +after my judgment had been made I was perfectly +oblivious of the other methods, although +I had had experience with them some years +before. Thus I utilized only my recent experience +in making my practical judgment. + +2. Other things being equal, those experiences +are most valuable in arousing practical +judgments that have been the most frequent. +I have seen burns dressed many times and in +many ways, but most often they have been +dressed with soda and water. When I was +called upon recently to dress a burn I recalled +the method which I had seen most often and +formed a practical judgment based thereupon +and was helped out of my difficulty. + +3. Our most vivid and intense experiences +are the ones most likely to be recalled and to +be utilized in the formation of practical judgments. +The mistakes that I have to pay for +and the deed that secured my promotion are +the experiences most fertile in the formation of +practical judgments. + +<p 299> +_Special Conditions Favorable to the Formation +of Reflective judgments_ + +In addition to the general conditions mentioned +on page 278@@@ the special conditions favorable +for the formation of reflective judgments +are as follows:-- + +1. A theoretical education. Proverbially +schools teach generalizations, abstractions, and +principles. The scholar and the student are +compelled to practice in this most effective form +of thinking. A justifiable criticism of the +schools is that they are inclined to neglect the +lower forms of thinking--the dealing with the +concrete--in their zeal for the highest forms of +thinking. However, a school education not +only gives practice in handling generalizations, +abstractions, and principles, but it provides +the conditions necessary to stimulate the learners +to amass a useful stock of concepts that at +a later time will be used in reflective judgments. + +2. Suggestions from others. Reflective +judgments depend upon condensed experience. +The condensation is not produced by compres- +<p 300> +sion but by selecting the common though essential +element from various former experiences +and by uniting these elements into a new unity. +This breaking up of former experiences by +analyzing out the essential factor is a difficult +task and one in which no man can proceed far +without assistance from others. + +At a recent meeting of psychologists a +speaker presented a paper on the most helpful +order of presentation of topics for a course in +psychology. He simply called our attention to +certain facts which we had all experienced as +teachers of psychology. He then combined +these abstracted elements in a new unity in +such a way that I was enabled to form a reflective +judgment as to the order of presenting +topics in psychology. Without his suggestion +I probably never would have been able to make +the analysis necessary for the reflective judgment. + +We need all the help we can get to assist us +to analyze our own experiences. To this end +we employ with great profit such agencies as +conferences with fellow-workmen, conventions, +<p 301> +visitations, trade journals, and technical discussions +upon our own problem (cf. Chapter +XI). + +3. Verbal expression. We cannot well unite +factors of previous experience into a new whole +unless we have some symbol to stand for the +new unity. As such a symbol, a word is the +most effective. Animals never carry on reflective +judgments and never can, since they do +not possess a language adequate to such demands. +The attempt to express one's thought +in words is in reality often a means for creating +the thought as well as a means for its expression. +A few years ago I prepared a paper on +the subject, ``Making Psychology Practical.'' +In my attempt to express myself I clarified +my thinking, formed new generalizations, and +therefore was enabled to do with full consciousness +(with reflective judgments) what previously +I had done but blindly. + +It is a most helpful practice to attempt to +express in words just what one is trying to +accomplish; what are the conditions necessary +for success; what the conditions that are lower- +<p 302> +ing efficiency; and what are the possibilities of +the work, etc. The method of analysis and +expression assists wonderfully in abstracting +the aspects of one's experience necessary for +the generalization, abstraction, and principle +used in reflective judgments. + + +_Special Conditions Favorable to the Formation +of Expert judgments_ + +There are no clearly defined special conditions +for increasing one's capacity to apply expert +judgments. The general conditions discussed +on page 278@@@ seem to cover the case. If I have +provided, as an executive, for all these conditions +for developing expert judgments:-- + +(1) if I have good vigorous health, + +(2) if I am working with enthusiastic application, + +(3) if I have the right attitude towards my +work, + +(4) and finally, if I am having frequent +experience in making practical and theoretical +judgments,--I am then fulfilling the conditions +most favorable for the development of expert +judgments. + + + +CHAPTER XIII + +CAPITALIZING EXPERIENCE--HABIT FORMATION + +AFTER spending four years in an Eastern +college, a young graduate was put in +charge of a group of day laborers. He +assumed toward them the attitude of the athletic +director and the coach combined. He set +out to develop a winning team, one that could +handle more cubic yards of dirt in a day than +any other group on the job. + +He had no guidebook and no official records +to direct him. He did not know what the +best ``form'' was for shoveling dirt, and he +did not know how much a good man could +accomplish in an hour. With stop watch +and notebook in hand, he began to observe +the movements of the man who seemed the +best worker in the group. He counted the +different movements made in handling a +<p 303> +<p 304> +shovelful of dirt, and the exact time required +for each of the movements. He then made similar +observations upon other men. He found +that the best man was making fewer movements +and faster movements than his companions. +But he also discovered that even +this best workman was making movements +which were not necessary, and that he was +making some movements too slowly and thus +losing the advantage of the momentum which a +higher speed would have produced, and which +would have enabled him to accomplish the task +with less effort. + +The young collegian then set about to standardize +the necessary movements and the most +economical speed for each movement required +in the work of his group. He instructed his +best man in the improved method of working, +and offered him a handsome bonus if he would +follow the specifications and accomplish the +task in the estimated time. The man, eager +to earn the increase, followed the directions +closely, and in a few weeks was enabled to +accomplish more than twice the work of the +<p 303> +average workman. The improved habit of +working was then taught the other workmen, +and the result was a winning team. + +The success of the young collegian did not +get into the colored supplements of the daily +press, but it was heralded by mechanical engineers +as marking an epoch in the industrial +advance of humanity. It made manifest +the necessity of a study of habits, the elimination +of the useless ones, and the acquisition +of those most beneficial. + +The study of habit has not received from the +practical business man the attention which it +deserves because he has too often looked upon +habit as something detrimental to efficiency. +The possession of any and of all habits has at +times been regarded as a misfortune. + +An employer of men for responsible positions +recently made this inquiry concerning each +applicant for a position, ``Does he have any +habits? If so, what are they?'' This employer +confused all habits with such things +as habits of intemperance, habits of slovenliness, +habits of dishonesty, and habits of loafing. +<p 306> +Little did he suspect that the habits of the men +were in reality their strongest recommendation. +He did not realize that the capitalized experience +of these men was funded in the masses of +useful habits which they had acquired. + +Habits are but ways of thinking and of acting +which by reason of frequent repetition +have become more or less automatic. We are +all creatures of habit; we all possess both good +and bad habits. + +In performing an habitual act we do not pay +attention to the individual separate steps included +in the act. So we are liable to think of +our habitual acts as those done _*carelessly_, and +of other acts as those performed with caution +and consideration. The folly of such a criticism +of habit is made apparent by the study of +any act which may be performed by one person +as a habit and by another person as an act +every step of which demands attention. A +barber stropping his razor is a familiar +illustration of the working of habit. An adult +attempting to strop a razor for the first time +and compelled to give attention to each step +<p 307> +in the process is a typical illustration of an act +demanding attention in contrast with an +habitual act which needs no such attention. + +We are also inclined to deprecate habits on +the ground that the man in the grip of habit +is hopelessly in the _*rut_, that the man who has +reduced his work to habit ceases to be original +and is incapable of further improvement. +On the contrary, the grip of habit is but a +support. The editor could not write his +trenchant editorials, and the advertiser could +not write his compelling copy, unless in the act +of writing each could turn over to habit the +manipulation of the pen, the formation of the +letters, and the spelling of the words. The +attorney cannot make his most logical arguments +and the salesman cannot make the best +presentation of his goods, unless they can depend +upon habit for correct verbal expressions, +unless their thoughts clothe themselves +automatically in appropriate verbal forms. +When we are in the grip of habit, if it be a good +habit, we are not so much in a rut as on the +steel rails where alone the greatest progress is +<p 308> +made possible. We are not enslaved by good +habits, but rather might it be said that no +man is truly free to advance and to make +rapid progress till he has succeeded in establishing +a mass of useful habits. + + +HOW HABITS ARE FORMED + +Modern physiological psychology has dealt +with the problem of explaining the possibility +of the formation and maintenance of habits. +The explanation is found in the mutual development +of the mind and the nervous system +and in the dependence of thought and +action upon the nervous system, and particularly +upon the brain. To understand habit +we must look beyond thought and action and +consider some of the fundamental characteristic +features of the nervous system. One +such characteristic is the plasticity of the nervous +substance. If I bend a piece of paper and +crease it, the crease will remain even after the +paper is straightened out again. The paper is +plastic, and plasticity means simply that the +substance offers some resistance to adopting a +<p 309> +new form, but that when the new form is once +impressed upon the substance it is retained. +Some effort is required to overcome the plasticity +of the paper and to form the crease, but +when it is once formed the plasticity of the +paper preserves the crease. + +Modern conceptions of psychology have +emphasized the intimate relationship existing +between our thoughts and our brains. Every +time we think, a slight change takes place in +the delicate nerve-cells in some part of the +brain. Every action among these cells leaves +its indelible mark, or crease. Just as it is +easy for the paper to bend where it has been +creased before, it is likewise easy for action to +take place in the brain where it has taken place +before. + +The brain may also be likened to the cylinder +or disk used in a dictating machine and in +phonographs, and a thought likened to the +needle making the original record. It takes +some energy to force the needle through the +substance of the cylinder, but thereafter it +moves along the opened groove with a mini- +<p 310> +mum of resistance. In a similar way it is +easy to think the old thought or to perform +the old act, but it is most difficult to be original +in thinking and in acting. When an idea +has been thought or an act performed many +times, the crease or groove becomes so well +established that thinking or acting along that +crease or groove is easier than other thoughts +or actions, and so this easier one may be said +to have become habitual. In a very real sense +the thoughts and actions form the brain by +means of the delicate physical changes which +they produce; and then, when the brain is +formed, its plasticity is so great that it determines +our future thinking and acting. + + +HABIT SHORTENS THE TIME NECESSARY FOR A +THOUGHT OR AN ACT + +Human efficiency depends in part upon the +rapidity with which we are able to accomplish +our tasks. It is surprising to us all when we +find how rapidly we can accomplish our habitual +acts and how slowly we perform the tasks to +which we are compelled to give specific atten- +<p 311> +tion. I find that I can repeat the twenty-six +letters of the alphabet in two seconds. I do +not give attention to the order of the letters) +but all I seem to do is to start the process, and +then it says itself. If, however, I attempt to +pronounce the alphabet backward, my first +attempt takes a full minute. If I attempt to say +the alphabet forward but to insert after each +letter a single syllable, such as ``two,'' it takes +sixteen seconds. Thus, a 2, b 2, C 2, d 2, etc., +requires eight times as many seconds as the +simple alphabet, a, b, c, d, e, etc. The +sequence which has become most perfectly +habitual requires but two seconds; the process +which employs the old habit in part requires +sixteen seconds; but the act which +has never been reduced to a habit at all (repeating +the alphabet backward) requires at +least sixty seconds. + +Some time ago I could pick out the letters +on a typewriter at the rate of about one per +second. Writing is now becoming reduced +to a habit, and I can write perhaps three +letters a second. When the act has been +<p 312> +reduced to the pure habit form, I shall be +writing at the rate of not less than five letters +per second. + +I can send a telegraph message at a rate but +little faster than one contact per second. +Those who have reduced the transmission of +messages to a habit are capable of making +twelve contacts per second. + +In multiplying one three-place number by +another I have the fixed habit of writing the +multiplier under the multiplicand, the partial +products under these, and the final product +beneath all. If I reverse all these positions, +the multiplying should be no more difficult, +but as a matter of fact this simple reversal +increases the time of operation about eighty-five +per cent. All mathematical operations are +rapid in proportion to the degree to which they +are habitual. + +The speed of thought is slow unless it follows +the old creases and the old grooves. No +adequate speed is possible so long as attention +must be given to the succeeding stages of the +thought or act. This is true of all acts and +<p 313> +of all thoughts, whether in the home or upon +the street, in the shop or in the office. + +Great speed of thought and action must +not be confused with hurried thought and +action. Speed which is habitual is never +hurried. There are many acts of skill which +can be done much more easily if performed +rapidly than if performed slowly. When +working hurriedly, there is a speeding up of +all movements whether necessary or unnecessary; +but the speed secured from correct habits +is primarily dependent upon the elimination of +useless movements and the concentration of +energy at the essential point. + + +HABIT INCREASES ACCURACY OF ACTING AND +THINKING + +Where machinery can be employed we find +greatly increased accuracy of work. The +product of the loom and the lathe are more +perfect, more uniform, and more accurate in all +details than similar work produced by hand. +The product of the printing press thus attains +a greater degree of accuracy in details than +<p 314> +was ever attained by the ancient monk in the +printing of his scrolls. + +In general, our work becomes accurate, as +well as swift, in the degree to which we are +able to mechanize it into habits. The beginner +in piano playing or typewriting pays +attention to the striking of each key. When +he is in this stage of development he is liable +at any time to strike the wrong key and certainly +cannot be depended upon for regularity +of touch. As soon as he has reduced the +striking of the keys to a habit, he ceases to +strike the wrong keys and secures uniformity of +touch. + +The expert marksman has reduced to a habit +the necessary steps of shooting and gives no +special attention to the position of the fingers, +the tension of the hands, the angle of the head, +the closing of the eye, and the pulling of the +trigger. He has reduced all these to habit +before he is able to secure his expert skill. + +The reliable bookkeeper has reduced to +habit the combining of all the ordinary sums +of the ledger. The man of accuracy of speech +<p 315> +is the one whose thoughts clothe themselves +in the verbal expressions by habit but with +no conscious selection of words. The man of +the most accurate judgment in any field is the +one who has succeeded in reducing to habit most +of the steps of the judgments in that field, the +one who has the largest stock of intuitive +judgment. + + +HABIT RELIEVES THE ATTENTION FROM DETAILS + +Attention cannot be directed to more +than one thing at a time. It is doubtless +true that the ``one thing'' may be very complex, +_e.g_. four letters or even four words. +So long as the performance of an act demands +attention, this one act is practically all that +can be done at that time. As soon as this +thing is reduced to habit, it may go on automatically, +and the attention may be turned +to other things. + +When I begin to learn to play the piano, +the finger movements require all my attention +so that I cannot read the notes on the +scale and make the proper execution at the +<p 316> +same time. Gradually, the reading of notes +and the execution are reduced to habit, and +I can then turn my attention to the reading +of the words of the air. As each essential detail +is reduced to habit, I acquire the ability to +read the score, to make the correct finger and +foot movements, to read the words of the +song, to sing it correctly, and at the same +time to be thinking more or less of other +things. + +My use of the pen has become so reduced +to habit that I need pay no attention to the +writing, but am enabled to give my entire +attention to the thought which I am attempting +to formulate. So every useful habit +becomes a power or a tool which may be used +for multiplying the efficiency of the individual. +Habit formation is the greatest labor saving +device in the human economy. No one has +expressed this truth so forcefully as the late +Professor William James. + +``The great thing, then, in all education, +is to make our nervous system our ally instead +of our enemy. It is to fund and capitalize +<p 317> +our acquisitions, and live at ease upon the +interest of the fund. For this we must make +automatic and habitual, as early as possible, +as many useful actions as we can, and guard +against the growing into ways that are likely +to be disadvantageous to us as we should +guard against the plague. The more of the +details of our daily life we can hand over to the +effortless custody of automatism, the more our +higher powers of mind will be set free for their +own proper work. There is no more miserable +human being than one in whom nothing is +habitual but indecision, and for whom the +lighting of every cigar, the drinking of every +cup, the time of rising and going to bed every +day, and the beginning of every bit of work, +are subjects of express volitional deliberation. +Full half the time of such a man goes to the +deciding or regretting of matters which ought +to be so ingrained in him as practically not to +exist for his consciousness at all. If there be +such daily duties not yet ingrained in any one +of my readers, let him begin this very hour to +set the matter right.'' + +<p 318> +HABIT REDUCES EXHAUSTION + +The various acts connected with my morning +toilet have been reduced to sheerest habit. +I do not think of the different acts as I perform +them--they seem to perform themselves. +The sequence of the various acts and the manner +of performing them are not particularly +good, but I do not seem inclined to change +them. I put on my left shoe before my right, +my right sleeve before my left. I have the +absurd habit of washing my teeth after I +have washed my face. That my habits may +execute themselves automatically, all the articles +of my toilet must be in their proper +places. I am thwarted in carrying out my +habits unless my laundry has been properly +placed, unless towels, brushes, etc., are all +where they should be. If everything is in its +place, I get down to breakfast refreshed and +recuperated. If the toilet articles are so located +that I am compelled to do consciously +what I might have done subconsciously, I get +down to breakfast irritated and nervously +<p 319> +depleted. The peace and restfulness of an +orderly and systematic household are in part +dependent upon the fact that it is only in such +a household that we are enabled to turn over +to habit the accomplishment of untold recurrent +acts. + +The experienced accountant can add figures +continuously for eight hours a day, and +at the end of the day may feel no great +exhaustion. The man who has not reduced +to habit the necessary steps in addition +cannot add continuously for two hours +without a degree of exhaustion so great that +it paralyzes effort. The same is true with +typewriting, telegraphing, and with all forms +of manipulations which may be reduced to +habit. + +The habit of reading in a foreign language +is rarely so well established as the habit of +interpreting the printed symbols of the mother +tongue. Even when I seem to be reading +German as easily as English, a few hours spent +in reading German is to me much more exhausting +than the same amount of time spent +<p 320> +with an English book. Attending lectures +delivered in German is to me more exhausting +than the same lectures would be if delivered +in English. + +Work that requires much constructive thinking +cannot be continued for many hours a day. +This is due to the fact that such thinking does +not admit of complete reduction to specific +habits. The executive who accomplishes much +is the man who has formed many useful habits +and who is able to fall back on them for a large +part of his work. His decisions are reached +in a habitual manner. Investigations take a +regular, automatic course. All the details +of the office are reduced to mechanical system. +No useless energy is spent in giving attention +to details that can be better done by habit, +and the mind is thus freed from exhaustion +and left fresh for attacking the problems +arising for solution. + +The performance of every new act and the +thinking of every new idea is of necessity exhausting, +and they become easy to the extent +to which they utilize old habits. Although +<p 321> +constructive thinking is most stimulating and +exciting, no man can continue it for more than +a few hours or a few minutes unless it depends +mainly upon old habits. + +Some of the most constructive thinkers of +the world have been men who could work at +their original work for but a few minutes at +a time. One brilliant contemporary writer +accomplishes most when he works not more +than fifteen minutes at a time. Charles +Darwin is famous for the originality of his +thinking, and hence we are not surprised when +we find that he was able to work but three +hours out of the twenty-four. + + +PERSONAL HABITS + +Personal habits are the most apparent and +those by which we most often judge an individual. +Manner of dress becomes so much a +matter of habit that the wearing apparel is +sometimes spoken of as the habit, and, as +Shakespeare says, it oft betrays the man. +Cleanliness and neatness of appearance, the +tone and accent of voice, the manner of walk- +<p 322> +ing and of carrying the head, and the use of +language are personal habits which are acquired +early in life, but which mean much in +the chances of success. The manner of eating, +of sleeping, and of caring for all the needs +of body and mind are for most persons mainly +a matter of habit, yet they, to a large extent, +determine the condition of health and the +length of days. + +We become fond of doing things in the +manner to which we have become habituated. +This tendency manifests itself to an abnormal +degree in the drinking and the smoking habit. +In a lesser degree we see the same thing in the +attachment of the babe for his pacifier and the +child for his chewing gum. Habit creates a +craving for the good as well as for the bad. +The ways to which we have become habituated +seem pleasing to us whether they be good or +bad. There is truth in the proverb, ``Train +up a child in the way he should go and when +he is old, he will not depart from it.'' It might +be added that the child will not want to depart +from the way to which he has been trained, for +<p 323> +the habits thus acquired beget a fondness for +the acts themselves. + +It is very unusual for any one to acquire +a language after the age of twenty so as to +speak it without a foreign accent. All other +personal habits are like the use of language in +that they are acquired during the early years +and are not easily changed. So far as personal +habits are concerned, but little change +need be anticipated after the twentieth year. + + +SOCIAL HABITS + +Our treatment of others is largely a matter +of habit. We are affable or gruff according +to habit. Honesty and dishonesty in dealing +with others is, in the main, a matter of habit. +The honest man is the one who takes honesty +for granted and acts honestly from habit. +So soon as he begins to observe that he is an +honest man, to call attention to the fact, and +to be much impressed by the honor of his +choices--at that moment suspicion of him +should be entertained, for honesty has with +him ceased to be a habit. +<p 324> + +We classify individuals largely by means +of their personal and social habits. By these +the gentleman is recognized as surely as the +boor. By means of them we select our friends +and engage new employees. Efficiency in +every life calling depends upon our success in +dealing with people. Such success is largely +dependent upon the social habits that we +acquire. + + +OCCUPATION HABITS + +Until the recent rise of interest in psychology, +relatively little attention had been given +to the study of those habits which are developed +in business. When proper care is not +given to the formation of these habits developed +in connection with one's daily occupation, +wrong habits are certain to appear. The mason +makes two motions with his trowel where +he should make but one. The accountant +substitutes ``short cuts'' in adding where all +the operations should be taken in regular order +and made as automatic as the few short cuts +previously developed. The executive has the +<p 325> +habit of depending upon ``desultory'' memory +where the logical should be developed. The +salesman in speaking to a critical customer +says ``he don't,'' instead of saying ``he doesn't''; +``gents' goods'' instead of ``men's goods.'' +Every investigation into the human actions +and the human methods of thinking as involved +in business reveals the presence of unfortunate +habits such as the examples here cited. + +Therefore, one of the most noteworthy events +in the business and industrial world of the last +twenty years is the study of the occupation +habits of the workman to which reference was +made in the first paragraphs of this chapter. +The research has been especially successful +in dealing with the occupation habits of mechanics. + +The fundamental discovery was made that +the workman's occupation habits are not such +as enable him to accomplish his task in an +economical and efficient manner. To discover +what occupation habits should be developed, +experts in each of several typical +establishments were assigned the task of +<p 326> +making a careful study of every movement of +eye, hand, foot, and body, and the rate and +sequence of all the movements necessary for +performing single tasks most easily and efficiently. +The experts were also to study the +tools, the materials, and conditions best +adapted to the work. In general, the experts +found the greatest opportunity for improvement +in the _*movements_ of the men. As a +result of this research, numerous processes +have been scientifically standardized. The +workmen have been taught the new and better +way and have been drilled till the processes +have been, so far as possible, reduced to occupation +habits. The workmen have been easily +induced to acquire the new habits, as their +earning capacity is thereby greatly increased. +Ordinarily, a considerable bonus is awarded to +all workmen who develop the desired habits +and perform the task exactly as prescribed by +the expert. + +An investigation into the results secured +from the adoption of this scientific attempt +to study and to regulate the occupation +<p 327> +habits of workmen reveals most gratifying +success. + +Mr. H. R. Hathaway, an expert engineer, +testifies that ``under this system a workman +can turn out from two to four times as much +work'' as he was able to accomplish when +working with his old habits, + +Mr. Lewis Sanders, of the General Engineering +Company, New York, reports most +satisfactory results from the introduction of +this systematic attempt to regulate the occupation +habits of employees. A typical example +which he reports is the following: It +regularly took a man one minute and forty +seconds to set a piece in a jig. ``After a study +of the exact motions required to pick the piece +up and set it accurately, we showed the same +man how to do it in twenty seconds.'' This +workman soon reduced the correct movement +to habit, attained the specified speed, and +without in any way working harder than formerly +was assisted to increase his efficiency four +hundred per cent. + +A well-known engineering company re- +<p 328> +quired the reading of twelve thermometers, +each every two minutes. The man assigned +to the task could rarely read so many as +eight of them in the two minutes. An expert +took up the problem and at first could +do no better than the first man. The expert +studied the most favorable position of the +head and eyes for reading, eliminated all +useless motions, and discovered that the +twelve thermometers could then be read in +one minute and fifty seconds. The workman +who previously had with difficulty read +eight thermometers in two minutes soon +acquired the proper occupation habits and +was enabled to read the twelve with perfect +ease. His efficiency was increased forty per +cent, and the task was rendered less exacting +than before. + +Typewriting is carried on by habits. The +habit of writing most naturally formed is +that known as the sight system. Recently, +attempts have been successfully made to enable +the operators to form the habit of writing +by touch rather than by sight. The +<p 329> +operator who acquires the habit of locating +the keys by touch writes much faster and +with less nervous strain than the operator +who writes from sight. + +No one has been more successful in studying +occupation habits than Mr. Frank B. +Gilbreth, an expert in the building trades. +He discovered that in constructing a brick +wall a good mason can lay one hundred +and twenty bricks in an hour and that in +laying each brick he makes eighteen distinct +motions. The motions were not made in an +economical sequence; some of them were +useless, and merely exhausted the energy +of the workman. Mr. Gilbreth attempted +to apply to the industry of bricklaying the +principles of billiard playing. Every motion +of the mason should be a ``play for position.'' +He should make each motion so +as to be ready for the next. For example, +the motion of placing the mortar for the end +joint should end with the trowel in position +ready to cut off the hanging mortar. When +the motions are made in the correct sequence, +<p 330> +two or more of them can be combined and +performed in but little more time than would +be required to make each of the separate +motions. Thus, cutting off mortar, buttering +the end of the laid brick, and reaching for +more mortar can all be performed as a single +movement. In this way the motions of the +mason have been reduced from eighteen to +five per brick. All this change has been +brought about from a study of the occupation +habits of masons. In discussing the results, +Mr. Gilbreth says: ``It has changed the entire +method of laying bricks by reducing the kind, +number, sequence, and length of motions. +The economic value of motion study has been +proved by the fact that we have more than +tripled the workman's output in bricklaying +and at the same time lowered cost and increased +wages simultaneously, and the end +is not yet.'' + +Attempts to develop beneficial occupation +habits in executives have not yet been +exhaustively and scientifically carried out. +Such experiments are, however, sure to be +<p 331> +successful, and it is quite probable that before +another decade has passed the habits +of executives will have been as successfully +studied and controlled as have the occupation +habits of mechanics cited above. + +The introduction of physics and chemistry +have led to marvelous results in methods +of manufacture and transportation. Those +who have given most attention to the advances +of psychology during the past two +decades are confident that by the proper +application of psychology the efficiency of +men is to be increased beyond the idle dream +of the optimist of the past. Since by a study +of habits the efficiency of men in fundamental +occupations has been increased from forty +to four hundred per cent, it is hard to prophesy +what results are to be secured from more extensive +studies. + + + + +{The remaider of this etext (Index + Advert.) is raw OCR} +INDEX + +Ability, potential, 231. +Accidents, mine, 96. +Acclimated, 17. +Acclimatization, 18. +Accountant, experienced, 319. +Advance, periods of, 232; of +learning, 242. +Africa, 189. +Air, 172; foul, 180. +Alertness, mental, 44. +Alphabet, repeating, 284. +Altruistic, 203. +American, business, 24; steel- +makers, 48, 206; executives, +118; ideals, 205; people, 209 f., +219. +Architecture, 174. +Armour, 87. +Athletic, contest, 9; events, 169; +trainer, 2 11. +Attention, 3; passive, 109 f.; +secondary passive, 112 ff.; +voluntary, III ff., 123, 234, +249 ff., 279. +Attitudes, 132 ff., 177; receptive, +182, 183, 187; promotion of, +193, 202, 215; ``do-or-die,'' +250; personal, 279 ff. +Authority, plenary, 88. + +``Bad days,'' 207. +Bessemer converters, 48. +Bicycles, 194. +``Big'' selling months, 72. +``Bogy'' in golf, 55 f. +Bohemian woman, 288. +Bonus, 35, 142, 145, 165, 178, +252, 304; system, 297, 326. +Book, W. F., ``Psychology of +Skill,'' 227. +Bookkeeping, experience in, 282. +Boor, 324. +Boss, 49, 83, 178, 253. +Boy, messenger, 7; errand, 277. +Brain, 309. +Breakdowns, 208. +`` Breaking in,'' 41, 232, 237. +British Iron and Steel Institute, +49. +Brooding, habit of, 216. +Bryan & Harter, _Psychological +Review_, 230. + +Cabinet meetings,'' 119. +Campaign, educational, 102, 155; +advertising, 238. +Capacities, mental, 134, 178. +Capitalizing +experience, 303 ff. +Carnegie, +Andrew, 49 ff.; mills, +57 f., 87; his cabinet, 94 f., +221. +Caution in competition, 61. +Cells, brain and muscle, 172, +173. +<p 333> +<p 334> +Chemistry, 4, 7, 331. +Christ, +85, 206. +Clauston, Dr., 206. +Cleveland, Grover, 188. +Clubs, local, 220. +Coach, 9, 303. +Coaching, effect of, 9, 10. +College grades, 16. +Combustion, 171. +Commendation in competition, +62 f., 73. +Competition, 48 ff . +Concentration, +104 ff . +Connection, +body and mind, 121. +Consciousness, 172. +Conservation of individuality, +94. +Consumption, +comparative, 50, +172,173. +Contests, 68; shooting match, 69; +balloon race, 70. +Co<o:>peration of employees, 80. +Cost of living, 160. +Courses, co<o:>perative, 270 f; in +college, 282; automatic, 320. +Crane, R. P., 20. +Curve practice, 224 ff. + +Danger signal, 211. +Darwin, Charles, 22 ff. +Devices, mechanical, 170. +Dickens, C., 176. +Discipline, 11, 179. +Discomfort, +165, 177. +Disparity, 168. +Dissipations, 220. +Distinction, social, 141. +Distribution, +1, 3, 4- + +Doherty, H. L., 217. +``Dragged out,'' 08. +Drill, 3. + +``Easy improvements,'' 246. +Edison, 14, 37. +Education, industrial, 201; work +on, 21Q; school, 264; theoretical, +299. +Efficiency, see Chap. 1, 7, A; +personal, io5, 18o, 186; curve +Of, 223, 251; high, 240; slumps +in, 253. +Effort, voluntary, 111[, 124. +Electric, fans, YL66; lights, 2. +`` Employment,'' ioi. +Energies, 16; mental, 20; expenditure +Of, 21. +Engines, gas, 2; steam turbine, 2. +English, ironmasters, 48, 319, +320. +Enthusiasm, 186, 1187, 190. +Environment, physical, 2, 179 f., +18o; factors in, 253. +Establishments, 49, 158; successful, +175. +European, 208. +Exhaustion, A8, 172, 173, 284. +Experience, see Chaps. XI-XII; +most valuable, 296. +Expression, verbal, 3oi. + +``February sale,'' 53. +Field, Marshall, 87, 94, 193. +Fluctuations, in learning, 232; +subject to, 249. +Food, 172. +Football, 9. +<p 335> +Forfeiture of bond, 75. +French, reading, 284. +Fulton, +37. +``Garden cities,'' 122. +General Electric CO., 271. +Generations, rising, 220. +Geniuses, potential, T.9i; business, +igi. +German, 319, 320. +`` Getting together,'' 198. +Gilbreth, F. B., 329 f. +Girls, sewing, 05. +Gladstone, 113, 2 2 1. +Golf, 54; bogy, 194, 248. +``Go stale,'' 235, 251. +Government, paternalistic, 8o. +Grant, 9r. +Grasp, intellectual, 22. +Great Lakes, 48. +Greece, +ancient, 219. +Grip, maximum, 225 f. +Guilds, industrial, 1197- + +Habit formation, see Chap. XIII; +special conditions, 296 ff., 3o8; +social, 323; personal, 3 2 1 +reduce exhaustion, 318. +Handicaps, +in competition, 61; +principle of, 61 f. +Handy men,'' o6, 253. +Harriman, +E. H., 17. +Hathaway, +H. R., 327. +Health and vigor, 278. +Herculean, 14, 205. +Hill, +J. J., 20, +Hours, reasonable, 82; of freedom, +219. + +House organs,'' see papers, +35; photographs in, 63, 67, 69, +House patriotism,'' 8o; history +and policies, go; picnics, +101. +Human sympathy, as a factor, +85 ff. + +Idaho orchard, 287. +Ideas, management, 44. +Illumination, i8o. +Imitation, 26 ff., 53; voluntary, +30. +Improvements, +periods Of, 233. +Incubation, periods Of, 233, 247, +249, 253. +Industrial +towns, 122. +Industry, attitude of, 136. +Injuries, 16q. +Instincts, to collect, 139, 188; +hunting, 188; specific, igo; +of man, igo; of competition, +64. +Institute, Smithsonian, r8g. +Insurance, 16o. +Interests, outside, 222; novelty, +239, 249; sustained, 240; +appeals to, 240; spontaneous, +251. +In the running,'' 71. +Instruction, +270 f. +Invention, 3, 48, 217; flagging, +239. + +James, Professor William, 207, +218) 30. +Jefferson, +gi. +Jones, W. R.) A 50 f. +<p 336> +Judgments, practical, 285 ff.; +reflective, 287 ff. ; expert, +293 ff. + +Knowledge, empirical, 244; acquired, +243. + +Labor, hand, 3, 101; intellectual, +168, 70; manual, r68; dignity +of, 19q. +Law, 7. +Lawyers, 175. +Learning, +rate Of, 231. +Lincoln, +9r. +Love of the game, 186 ff.; +classifying, 19o; summarized, +192; social prestige, 194, 1195; +tostimulate, 97; developing, +202. +Loyalty, 75 ff . +Lyons, +Joseph, 208, 209. + +McCormick, C. H., 24. +Machinist, skilled, 26o. +Magician, i. +Making Experience an Asset, +276 ff. +Making good,'' 71, 25T. +Making Psychology Practical,'' +301. +Manager, 6, 154; successful, 143; +office, 244. +Marketing, 3. +Medium of competition, 64. +Memory, desultory, 325. +Methods, business, i; specific, 25; +of training, iig; improved, 181, +304; acquisition Of, 243, 266 ff. + +Millennium, 203. +Miser, i4o. +Models, energetic, 2, 33. +Mood, +mental, 218. +Movements, preleamed, 246; +necessary, 303 ff. +Muck +raking, 195- + +National Cash Register CO., 272. +Nature, laws Of, 211. +Need,'' 73. +New blood,'' 156, 276. +New York Herald, 210. +Nourishment, 18. +Nervous system, 12. +Novice, 244, 277. + +Ohio territory, o8. +One thing,'' 315. +Organization spirit,'' 8o, 84. +Ornamentation, unobtrusive, i8o. +Output, 158, 165, 167, 08. +`` Overselling,'' 98. +Overtension, 214. + +Pace, 2. +Pacemaker, 52. +`` Pain economy,'' 179. +Palmer, +Potter, 87. +Papers, weekly or monthly, 35. +Peers, rivalry between, 56. +Perseverance, 16q. +Personal relations in loyalty, 83. +Personal +relationship with workers, +87 ff . +Personality, +84, 87, 93~ 176. +Philanthropy, 221 f. +Physics, 7, 331. +<p 337> +Piano playing, 284. +``Pick Up,'' 259. +Piecework, 142,143, 145) 162,178, +252. +Plans, profit-sharing, go. +Plateau, 233 ff., 239, 243 ff. +Pleasure, +165 ff . +Policy, +house's, 152; Multiple +tryout, 99. +Population, British, 207. +`` Pop Up,'' 127. +Poverty, +179. +Practice +plus Theory, 254 ff . +Press, +printing, 2; punch, 3. +Preventive, 16q. +Prizes in competition, 62, 67, +165. +Production, instruments of, i. +Profits, surrender of, 84. +Promotions, 73, 101, 155, 156, +157. +Prostrations, nervous, 21. +Psychology, 6, 7; law Of, 25; +modem, 20; work on, 132; +conception Of, T34; student of, +x38; research, iog; course, +295, 300, 3o8 ff.; interest in, +324, 331. +Public opinion, 75. +Puzzle, +Chinese block, 266 ff.; +mechanical, 290; results Of, 291. + +Quarters, working, 82. +Quota, 72. + +Rate of Improvement in Efficiency, +223 ff. +Recognition, social, 148. + +Recreation, 174; hours Of, 221. +Recruits, new, 46, 96. +Regiments, 57. +Relaxation, +204 ff.; necessity for, +210; power Of. 214; gospel Of. +215; +complete, 216. +Research, 14. +Resistance, line of, i io. +Reward, monetary, 139. +'' +Right way, 11 252. +Rockefeller, 221. +R6oms, work, 181; lunch, 181. +Roosevelt, Theodore, 13, 189. +``Rush'' months, 65; seasons, +72. + +Sales quota,'' 65 ff . +Sanders, +Lewis, 327. +San +Francisco fire, 98. +School, night, 181, 201 ; life, 282 +engineering, 270, 299; sales. +men +training, 28 f. +Scientific manage-it,'' 252 +Scientific study, 5. +Second wind, 12. +Self-preservation, means of, 139, +139, 144; instincts of, 1141 . +Self-protection, methods of, iij. +Selling, haphazard, 5o. +Settlement workers, 220. +Shadwell, Arthur, 206. +Ships, steam, 2. +`` Showing how,'' 46. +`` Sidelines,'' 26, 131Y 154. +Simmons, +E. C., 20. +Sixth sense, 6. +Skill, special, 43; acquisition of, +246; act of, 256; in perform- +<p 338> +ing, 256 ff.; perfection Of, 262, +264 f. +Sleep, 14. +``Slowing down'' process, 32. +Slump, summer, 165 f.; general, +226 ; profound, 247. +Social, Y94; prestige, 202; demands, +279. +Social approval, desire for, 72. +Society, organized, 113; whims +Of, 194. +Speed, extra, 83; daily record for, +224; average, 224, 282; economical, +304. +Speeding up, 34, 313. +Spencer, +Herbert, 219. +`` Sporting editor,'' 69, 73. +`` Square deal,'' 99. +Stability, native, 2 2 f. +Stagnation, periods of, 233. +Standard, of artist, 197; Of +capitalist, 197; method, 252; +of efficiency, 253. +`` Star'' club, 67. +``Steady job,'' 154. +`` Stealing his trade,'' 26o ff. +Steel Corporation, 5o ff. +Stephenson, 37. +Stepping stones, 196. +Stimulus, YL96; personal efficiencyideals, +279. +Storage battery, 174. +Strength, +muscular, 7, 183, 184; +physical, 226. +Strike, 161. +Students, 16, 133; colleges, 278. +Subordinate, 187. +Success, first, 239- + +Suggestible, 177. +Suggestion, 177, 178, 183, 185. +Sunday,219. +`` Swell,'' 196. +Swift, E. J., ``Mind in the +Making,'' 231. +System, apprentice, 26; suggestion, +44; premium, 178. + +Talks to Teachers,'' 208, 219. +Taylor, F. W., 5 ff., 24. +Teachers, college, 270. +Team work, go, 145. +Telegraph, 7; operator, 226 f. +Telephone, 2, 7. +Temperature, +165. +Tennis, 284 f. +Therapeutics, mental, 214. +Thompson, Edgar, works, Si. +Torrid zone, 17 f. +Traditions and ideals, or. +Trifles, I. +Trips, educational, 44 ff. +Tugboat, 213, 2X4, + +Union, assemblers', 152. +Union Pacific, 17. + +Vacation camps, iox. +Vacations, 14. +Ventilation, 179. + +Wages, fair, 82, 153,~ cOrAmiFsions, +143; piece rates for, i5o; +maximum, 152; sums paid in, +153; value, 241; little or no, +262. +Wanamaker, John, 271. +<p 339> +Warming up, I 1, 12, 232. +``Wars,'' 68. +Washington, 85) 91. +Waste, +elimination of, 6; body, +173; poisonous, 173; in methods, +261. +Watson, E. P., 13 f. +Weariness, 12; aftermath of, 177- + +``Welfare,'' features, 122. +Westinghouse, 37. +Will, effort of, 111, 124; strength +Of, ITLI. +Wizard, I. + +Yawning, contagion of, 31. + + + +--------------------------------------- +The following pages are advertisments of +THE MACMILLAN STANDARD LIBRARY +THE MACMILLAN FICTION LIBRARY +THE MACMILLAN JUVENILE LIBRARY +--------------------------------------- + + +THE MACMILLAN STANDARD LIBRARY + +This series has taken its place as one of the most important popular- +priced editions. 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By HENRY CHURCHILL KING. + +``I know no other study of the ethical teaching of Jesus so scholarly, +so careful, clear, and compact as this.''--G. H. PALMER, Harvard +University. + +King-The Laws of Friendship- Human and Divine. By +HENRY CHURCHILL KING. + +This book is full of sermon themes and thought-inspiring sentences +worthy of being made mottoes for conduct.''--Chicago +Tribune. +<p 5> +King--Rational Living. By HENRY CHURCHILL KING. + +``An able conspectus of modern psychological investigation, +viewed from the Christian standpoint.''--Philadelphia Public +Ledger. + +London -The War of the Classes. By JACK LONDON. + +``Mr. London's book is thoroughly interesting, and his point of +view is very different from that of the closest theorist.''- Springfield +Republican. + +London- Revolution and Other Essays. BY JACK LONDON. +`` Vigorous, socialistic essays, animating and insistent.'' + +Lyon--How to Keep Bees for Profit. By EVERETT D. 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By SHAILER +MATHEWS. + +11 A succinct statement -f the essentials of the New Testament.'' +- Service. + +Nearing -Wages in the United States. By SCOTT NEARING. + +``The book is valuable for anybody interested in the main question +of the day--the labor question.'' + +Patten--The Social Basis of Religion. By SIMON N. PATTEN. +A work of substantial value.''--Continent. +<p 6> +Peabody--The Approach to the Social Question. By FRANCIS +GREENWOOD PEABODY. + +This book is at once the most delightful, persuasive, and sagacious +contribution to the subject.''--Louisville Courier-Journal. + +Pierce--The Tariff and the Trusts. By FRANKLIN PIERCE. + +``An excellent campaign document for a non-protectionist.'' +Independent. + +Rauschenbusch--Christianity and the Social Crisis. BY WALTER +RAUSCHENBUSCH. + +It is a book to like, to learn from, and to be charmed with.'' New +York Times. + +Riis- The Making of an American. BY JACOB RIIS. + +``Its romance and vivid incident make it as varied and delightful +as any romance.''--Publisher's Weekly. + +Riis--Theodore Roosevelt, the Citizen. By JACOB RIIS. +`` A refreshing and stimulating picture.''--New York Tribune. + +Ryan--A Living Wage; Its Ethical and Economic Aspects. By +REV. J. A. RYAN. + +it The most judicious and balanced discussion at the disposal of the +general reader.''--World To-day. + +Scott--Increasing Human Efficiency in Business. BY WALTER +DILL SCOTT. + +it An important contribution to the literature of business psychology.''- +The American Banker. + +St. Maur- The Earth's Bounty. BY KATE V. ST. MAUR. +`` Practical ideas about the farm and garden.'' + +St. Mar- A Self-supporting Home. BY KATE V. ST.MAUR. + +``Each chapter is the detailed account of all the work necessary +for one month -in the vegetable garden, among the small fruits, +with the fowls, guineas, rabbits, and in every branch of husbandry +to be met with on the small farm.''--Louisville Courier-Journal. + +Sherman- What is Shakespeare? BY L. A. SHERMAN. + +``Emphatically a work without which the library of the Shakespeare +student will be incomplete.''--Daily Telegram. + +Sidgwick--Home Life in Germany. By A. SIDGWICK. +`` A vivid picture of social life and customs in Germany to-day.'' + +Simons- Social Forces in American History. BY A. W. SIMONS. +A forceful interpretation of events in the light of economics.'' +<p 7> +Smith- The Spirit of American Government. By J. ALLEN SMITH. + +``Not since Bryce's ' American Commonwealth ' has a book been +produced which deals so searchingly with American political institutions +and their history.''--New York Evening Telegram. + +Spargo--Socialism. By JOHN SPARGO. + +``One of the ablest expositions of Socialism that has ever been +written.''--New York Evening Call. + +Tarbell--History of Greek Art. By T. B. TARBELL. + +``A sympathetic and understanding conception of the golden age +of art.'' + +Trask--In the Vanguard. By KATRINA TRASK. + +``Katrina Trask has written a book--in many respects a wonderful +book--a story that should take its place among the classics.'' +- Brooklyn Daily Eagle. + +Valentine--How to Keep Hens for Profit. BY C. S. VALENTINE. + +``Beginners and seasoned poultrymen will find in it much of +value.''--Chicago Tribune. + +Van Dyke--The Gospel for a World of Sin. By HENRY VAN +DYKE. + +One of the basic books of true Christian thought of to-day and of +all times.''--Boston Courier. + +Van Dyke- The Spirit of America. BY HENRY VAN DYKE. + +``Undoubtedly the most notable interpretation in years of the real +America. It compares favorably with Bryce's ' American Commonwealth.' +``--Philadelphia Press. + +Veblen- The Theory of the Leisure Class. By THORSTEIN B. +VEBLEN. +The most valuable recent contribution to the elucidation of this +subject.''--London Times. + +Vedder- Socialism and the Ethics of Jesus. By HENRY C. +VEDDER. +A timely discussion of a popular theme.''--New York Post. + +Walling -Socialism as it Is. By WILLIAM ENGLISH WALLING. + +``. . . the best book on Socialism by any American, if not the best +book on Socialism in the English language.'' -Boston Herald. + +Wells--New Worlds for Old. By H. G. WELLS. + +``As a presentation of Socialistic thought as it is working to-day, +this is the most judicious and balanced discussion at the disposal of +the general reader.''--World To-day. +<p 8> +Weyl -The New Democracy. By WALTER E. WEYL. + +``The best and most comprehensive survey of the general social +and political status and prospects that has been published of late +years.'' + +White--The Old Order Changeth. By WILLIAM ALLEN WHITE. + +``The present-status of society in America. An excellent antidote +to the pessimism of modern writers on our social system.'' +Baltimore Sun. + +======== +AN IMPORTANT ADDITION TO THE MACMILLAN +FICTION LIBRARY + +THE WAVERLEY NOVELS. By Sir Walter Scott + +THE PORTRAIT EDITION + +The authentic edition of Scott revised from the interleaved set of +the Waverley Novels in which Sir Walter Scott noted corrections +and improvements almost to the day of his death. The present +edition has been collated with this set, and many inaccuracies, some +of them ludicrous, corrected. 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BY MARION CRAWFORD. + +``A story of modern life in Italy, visualizing the country and its +people, and warm with the red blood of romance and melodrama.'' Boston +Transcript. + +Davis- A Friend of C<ae>sar. By WILLIAM STEARNS DAVIS. + +``There are many incidents so vivid, so brilliant, that they fix themselves +in the memory.''--NANCY HUSTON BANKS in The Bookman. + +Drummond- The justice of the King. By HAMILTON DRUMMOND. + +``Read the story for the sake of the living, breathing people, the +adventures, but most for the sake of the boy who served love and the +King.''--Chicago Record-Herald. +<p 10> +Elizabeth and H er German Garden. + +``It is full of nature in many phases--of breeze and sunshine, of +the glory of the land, and the sheer joy of living.''--New York +Times. + +Gale--Loves of Pelleas and Etaffe. By ZONA GALE. + +11 , * . full of fresh feeling and grace of style, a draught from the +fountain of youth.''--Outlook. + +Herrick--The Common Lot. By ROBERT HERRICK. + +``A story of present-day life, intensely real in its picture of a young +architect whose ideals in the beginning were, at their highest, <ae>sthetic +rather than spiritual. It is an unusual novel of great interest.'' + +London -Adventure. By JACK LONDON. + +11 No reader of Jack London's stories need be told that this abounds +with romantic and dramatic incident.''-Los Angeles Tribune. + +London- Burning Daylight. BY JACK LONDON. + +``Jack London has outdone himself in ' Burning Daylight.' +The Springfield Union. + +Loti--Disenchanted. By PIERRE LOTI. + +``It gives a more graphic picture of the life of the rich Turkish +women of to-day than anything that has ever been written.'' +Brooklyn Daily Eagle. + +Lucas--Mr. Ingleside. By E. V. LUCAS. + +``He displays himself as an intellectual and amusing observer of +life's foibles with a hero characterized by inimitable kindness and +humor.''--The Independent. + +Mason--The Four Feathers. By A. E. W. MASON. + +``' The Four Feathers ' is a first-rate story, with more legitimate +thrills than any novel we have read in a long time.''--New York +Press. + +Norris -Mother. By KATHLEEN NORRIS. +`` Worth its weight in gold.''--Catholic Columbian. + +Oxenham- The Long Road. BY JOHN OXENHAM. + +``I The Long Road' is a tragic, heart-gripping story of Russian +.political and social conditions.''--The Craftsman. + +Pryor- The Colonel's Story. By MRS. ROGER A. PRYOR. + +``The story is one in which the spirit of the Old South figures +largely; adventure and romance have their play and carry the plot +to a satisfying end.'' +<p 11> +Remington -Ermine of the Yellowstone. By JOHN REMINGTON. + +``A very original and remarkable novel wonderful in its vigor and +freshness.'' + +Roberts--Kings in Exile. By CHARLES G. D. ROBERTS. + +``The author catches the spirit of forest and sea life, and the reader +comes to have a personal love and knowledge of our animal friends.'' +- Boston Globe. + +Robins -The Convert. By ELIZABETH ROBINS. + +``' The Convert ' devotes itself to the exploitation of the recent +suffragist movement in England. It is a book not easily forgotten +by any thoughtful reader.''--Chicago Evening Post. + +Robins--A Dark Lantern. By ELIZABETH ROBINS. + +A powerful and striking novel, English in scene, which takes an +essentially modern view of society and of certain dramatic situations. + +Ward- The History of David Grieve. By MRS. HUMPHREY WARD. +`` A perfect picture of life, remarkable for its humor and extraordinary +success at character analysis.'' + +======== +THE MACMILLAN JUVENILE LIBRARY + +This collection of juvenile books contains works of standard quality, +on a variety of subjects--history, biography, fiction, science, and +poetry--carefully chosen to meet the needs and interests of both +boys and girls. + +Each volume, cloth, 12mo, 50 cents net; postage, 10 cents extra + +Altsheler--The Horsemen of the Plains. By JOSEPH A. ALTSHELER. + +A story of the West, of Indians, of scouts, trappers, fur traders, +and, in short, of everything that is dear to the imagination of a healthy +American boy.''--New York Sun. + +Bacon--While Caroline Was Growing. By JOSEPHINE DASKAM +BACON. + +Only a genuine lover of children, and a keenly sympathetic +observer of human nature, could have given us this book.'' +Boston Herald. +<p 12> +Carroll--Alice's Adventures, and Through the Looking Glass. By +LEWIS CARROLL. +One of the immortal books for children.'' + +Dix- A Little Captive Lad. By MARIE BEULAH Dix. + +``The human interest is strong, and children are sure to like it.'' Washington +Times. + +Greene--Pickett's Gap. BY HOMER GREENE. + +``The story presents a picture of truth and honor that cannot fail +to have a vivid impression upon the reader.''--Toledo Blade. + +Lucas--Slowcoach. By E. V. LUCAS. + +``The record of an English family's coaching tour in a great old- +fashioned wagon. A charming narrative, as quaint and original as +its name.''--Booknews Monthly. + +Mabie--Book of Christmas. By H. W. MABIE. + +``A beautiful collection of Christmas verse and prose in which all +the old favorites will be found in an artistic setting.''--The St. +Louis Mirror. + +Major- The Bears of Blue River. BY CHARLES MAJOR. +`` An exciting story with all the thrills the title implies.'' + +Major--Uncle Tom Andy Bill. BY CHARLES MAJOR. + +``A stirring story full of bears, Indians, and hidden treasures.'' Cleveland +Leader. + +Nesbit--The Railway Children. By E. NESBIT. + +``A delightful story revealing the author's intimate knowledge of +juvenile ways.''--The Nation. + +Whyte- The Story Book Girls. BY CHRISTINA G. WHYTE. + +``A book that all girls will read with delight--a sweet, wholesome +story of girl life.'' + +Wright- Dream Fox Story Book. BY MABEL OSGOOD WRIGHT. + +``The whole book is delicious with its wise and kindly humor, its +just perspective of the true value of things.'' + +Wright- Aunt Jimmy's Will. BY MABEL OSGOOD WRIGHT. +Barbara has written no more delightful book than this.'' +<p 13> + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg Etext Increasing Human Efficiency In Business + diff --git a/1319.zip b/1319.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0729871 --- /dev/null +++ b/1319.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. 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