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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13205 ***
+
+_Civics: as Applied Sociology_
+
+by Patrick Geddes
+
+
+
+
+Read before the Sociological Society at a Meeting in the School of
+Economics and Political Science (University of London), Clare Market,
+W.C., at 5 p.m., on Monday, July 18th, 1904; the Rt. Hon. CHARLES BOOTH,
+F.R.S., in the Chair.
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+This department of sociological studies should evidently be, as far as
+possible, concrete in treatment. If it is to appeal to practical men and
+civic workers, it is important that the methods advocated for the
+systematic study of cities, and as underlying fruitful action, be not
+merely the product of the study, but rather be those which may be
+acquired in course of local observation and practical effort. My problem
+is thus to outline such general ideas as may naturally crystallise from
+the experience of any moderately-travelled observer of varied interests;
+so that his observation of city after city, now panoramic and
+impressionist, again detailed, should gradually develop towards an
+orderly Regional Survey. This point of view has next to be correlated
+with the corresponding practical experience, that which may be acquired
+through some varied experiences of citizenship, and thence rise toward a
+larger and more orderly conception of civic action--as Regional Service.
+In a word, then, Applied Sociology in general, or [Page: 104] Civics, as
+one of its main departments, may be defined as the application of Social
+Survey to Social Service.
+
+In this complex field of study as in simpler preliminary ones, our
+everyday experiences and commonsense interpretations gradually become
+more systematic, that is, begin to assume a scientific character; while
+our activities, in becoming more orderly and comprehensive, similarly
+approximate towards art. Thus there is emerging more and more clearly
+for sociological studies in general, for their concrete fields of
+application in city after city, the conception of a scientific centre of
+observation and record on the one hand, and of a corresponding centre of
+experimental endeavour on the other--in short of Sociological
+Observatory and Sociological Laboratory, and of these as increasingly
+co-ordinated. Indeed, is not such association of observations and
+experiments, are not such institutions actually incipient here and
+elsewhere? I need not multiply instances of the correlation of science
+and art, as of chemistry with agriculture, or biology with medicine.
+Yet, on the strictly sociological plane and in civic application they
+are as yet less generally evident, though such obvious connections as
+that of vital statistics with hygienic administration, that of
+commercial statistics with politics, are becoming recognised by all. In
+the paper with which this Society's work lately opened, the intimate
+connection between a scientific demography and a practical eugenics has
+been clearly set forth. But this study of the community in the aggregate
+finds its natural parallel and complement in the study of the community
+as an integrate, with material and immaterial structures and functions,
+which we call the City. Correspondingly, the improvement of the
+individuals of the community, which is the aim of eugenics, involves a
+corresponding civic progress. Using (for the moment at least) a parallel
+nomenclature, we see that the sociologist is concerned not only with
+"demography" but with "politography," and that "eugenics" is inseparable
+from "politogenics." For the struggle for existence, though observed
+mainly from the side of its individuals by the demographer, is not only
+an intra-civic but an inter-civic process; and if so, ameliorative
+selection, now clearly sought for the individuals in detail as eugenics,
+is inseparable from a corresponding civic art--a literal
+"Eupolitogenics."
+
+
+
+A--THE GEOGRAPHIC SURVEY OF CITIES
+
+Coming to concrete Civic Survey, where shall we begin? Not only in
+variety and magnitude of civic activities, but, thanks especially to the
+work of Mr. Charles Booth and his collaborators in actual social survey
+also, London may naturally claim pre-eminence. Yet even at best, does
+not this vastest of world cities remain a less or more foggy labyrinth,
+from which surrounding [Page: 105] regions with their smaller cities can
+be but dimly descried, even with the best intentions of avoiding the
+cheap generalisation of "the provinces"? For our more general and
+comparative study, then, simpler beginnings are preferable. More
+suitable, therefore, to our fundamental thesis--that no less definite
+than the study of races and usages or languages, is that of the
+groupings of men--is the clearer outlook, the more panoramic view of a
+definite geographic region, such, for instance, as lies beneath us upon
+a mountain holiday. Beneath vast hunting desolations lie the pastoral
+hillsides, below these again scattered arable crofts and sparsely dotted
+hamlets lead us to the small upland village of the main glen: from this
+again one descends to the large and prosperous village of the foothills
+and its railway terminus, where lowland and highland meet. East or west,
+each mountain valley has its analogous terminal and initial village,
+upon its fertile fan-shaped slope, and with its corresponding minor
+market; while, central to the broad agricultural strath with its slow
+meandering river, stands the prosperous market town, the road and
+railway junction upon which all the various glen-villages converge. A
+day's march further down, and at the convergence of several such
+valleys, stands the larger county-town--in the region before me as I
+write, one of added importance, since not only well nigh central to
+Scotland, but as the tidal limit of a till lately navigable river.
+Finally, at the mouth of its estuary, rises the smoke of a great
+manufacturing city, a central world-market in its way. Such a river
+system is, as geographer after geographer has pointed out, the essential
+unit for the student of cities and civilisations. Hence this simple
+geographical method of treatment must here be pled for as fundamental to
+any really orderly and comparative treatment of our subject. By
+descending from source to sea we follow the development of civilisation
+from its simple origins to its complex resultants; nor can any element
+of this be omitted. Were we to begin with the peasant hamlet as our
+initial unit, and forget the hinterlands of pasture, forest, and chase
+(an error to which the writer on cities is naturally prone), the
+anthropologist would soon remind us that in forgetting the hunter, we
+had omitted the essential germ of active militarism, and hence very
+largely of aristocratic rule. Similarly, [Page: 106] in ignoring the
+pastoral life, we should be losing sight of a main fount of spiritual
+power, and this not only as regards the historic religions, but all
+later culture elements also, from the poetic to the educational. In
+short, then, it takes the whole region to make the city. As the river
+carries down contributions from its whole course, so each complex
+community, as we descend, is modified by its predecessors. The converse
+is no doubt true also, but commonly in less degree.
+
+In this way with the geographer we may rapidly review and extend our
+knowledge of the grouping of cities. Such a survey of a series of our
+own river-basins, say from Dee to Thames, and of a few leading
+Continental ones, say the Rhine and Meuse, the Seine and Loire, the
+Rhone, the Po, the Danube--and, if possible, in America also, at least
+the Hudson and Mississippi--will be found the soundest of introductions
+to the study of cities. The comparison of corresponding types at once
+yields the conviction of broad general unity of development, structure,
+and function. Thus, with Metschnikoff we recognise the succession of
+potamic, thalassic, and oceanic civilisations; with Reclus we see the
+regular distribution of minor and major towns to have been largely
+influenced not only by geographical position but by convenient journey
+distances. Again, we note how the exigencies of defence and of
+government, the developments of religion, despite all historic
+diversities, have been fundamentally the same. It is not, of course, to
+be forgotten how government, commerce, communications, have
+concentrated, altered or at least disguised the fundamental geographical
+simplicity of this descending hierarchy from mountain-hamlet to
+ocean-metropolis; but it is useful for the student constantly to recover
+the elemental and naturalist-like point of view even in the greatest
+cities. At times we all see London as still fundamentally an
+agglomeration of villages, with their surviving patches of common,
+around a mediaeval seaport; or we discern even in the utmost
+magnificence of Paris, say its Place de l'Etoile, with its spread of
+boulevards, but the hunter's tryst by the fallen tree, with its
+radiating forest-rides, each literally arrow-straight. So the narrow
+rectangular network of an American city is explicable only by the
+unthinking persistence of the peasant thrift, which grudges good land to
+[Page: 107] road-way, and is jealous of oblique short cuts. In short,
+then, in what seems our most studied city planning, we are still
+building from our inherited instincts like the bees. Our Civics is thus
+still far from an Applied Sociology.
+
+
+
+B--THE HISTORIC SURVEY OF CITIES
+
+But a city is more than a place in space, it is a drama in time. Though
+the claim of geography be fundamental our interest in the history of the
+city is supremely greater; it is obviously no mere geographic
+circumstances which developed one hill-fort in Judea, and another in
+Attica, into world centres, to this day more deeply influential and
+significant than are the vastest modern capitals. This very wealth of
+historical interests and resources, the corresponding multiplicity of
+specialisms, more than ever proves the need of some means by which to
+group and classify them. Some panoramic simplification of our ideas of
+history comparable to that of our geography, and if possible congruent
+with this, is plainly what we want. Again the answer comes through
+geography, though no longer in mere map or relief, but now in vertical
+section--in the order of strata ascending from past to present, whether
+we study rock-formations with the geologist, excavate more recent
+accumulations with the archaeologist, or interpret ruins or monuments
+with the historian. Though the primitive conditions we have above noted
+with the physiographer remain apparent, indeed usually permanent, cities
+have none the less their characteristic phases of historic development
+decipherably superposed. Thus below even the characteristically
+patriarchal civilisations, an earlier matriarchal order is often
+becoming disclosed. Our interest in exploring some stately modern or
+Renaissance city is constantly varied by finding some picturesque
+mediaeval remnant; below this some fragment of Roman ruin; below this it
+may be some barbarian fort or mound. Hence the fascinating interest of
+travel, which compels us ever to begin our survey anew. Starting with
+the same river-basin as before, the geographic panorama now gains a new
+and deeper interest. Primitive centres long forgotten start into life;
+pre-historic tumuli give up their dead; to the stone circles the [Page:
+108] worshippers return; the British and the Roman camps again fill with
+armed men, and beside the prosaic market town arises a shadowy Arthurian
+capital. Next, some moment-centuries later, a usurper's tower rises and
+falls; the mediaeval abbey, the great castles, have their day; with the
+Reformation and the Renaissance the towns again are transformed; and
+yet more thoroughly than ever by the Industrial Revolution, with its
+factories, railways, steamships, and all that they bring with them.
+Thus, for instance, almost more important than the internal
+transformation and concentration wrought by railway and telegraph, is
+the selection, amidst the almost innumerable seaports of the older
+order, of the very few adapted to the deep draught of modern ships. In a
+word, not only does the main series of active cities display traces of
+all the past phases of evolution, but beside this lie fossils, or linger
+survivals, of almost every preceding phase.
+
+Hence, after many years of experiment and practice in teaching sociology
+I still find no better method available than that of regional survey,
+historical as well as geographical. Beginning with some popular
+excursion of obvious beauty and romantic interest like that to Melrose,
+we see with every tourist how naturally and fully the atmosphere and
+tradition of the Border found its expression and world influence in Sir
+Walter Scott. Thence, passing by way of contrast through the long
+isolated peninsula of Fife, say to representative towns like Kirkcaldy
+and Largo, we still see the conditions of that individualism of which
+Adam Smith and Alexander Selkirk ("Robinson Crusoe") have each in his
+way become the very prototypes. In such ways the connection of regional
+geography, history, and social psychology becomes increasingly clear.
+Again, we explore the other old Fife seaports, a series of survivals
+like those of the Zuyder Zee, or again work out in the field the
+significance of Stirling, so often the strategic centre of Scotland.
+Again, Dunfermline, as early mediaeval capital and abbey, furnishes a
+convenient object lesson preparatory to the study of the larger
+Edinburgh. Here, again, its triple centre, in the port of Leith, the
+Royal Castle, the Abbey of Holyrood, are the respective analogues of the
+port of London, the Tower, and Westminster; while each city-group has
+its outlying circle of minor burghs, tardily and imperfectly
+incorporated into a civic whole. Again, such a marked contrast of civic
+origins and developments as those of Glasgow and Edinburgh has to be
+accounted for; and thus through such progessively complexer surveys we
+reach the plane of modern civic problems and policies. Understanding the
+present as the development of the past, are we not preparing also to
+understand the future as the development of the present?
+
+The impressiveness of the aspect of Edinburgh to its visitors is thus
+not [Page: 109] merely pictorial. Be the spectator conscious of this or
+no, it turns primarily upon the contrast of the mediaeval hill-city with
+its castle ramparts, its fretted cathedral crown, with park and
+boulevard, with shops, hotels and railway stations. But the historic
+panorama is unusually complete. See the hill-fort defended by lake and
+forest, becoming "_castrum puellarum_," becoming a Roman and an
+Arthurian citadel, a mediaeval stronghold of innumerable sieges, a
+centre of autocratic and military dictatures, oligarchic governments, at
+length a museum of the past. So in the city itself. Here the narrow
+ridge crowded into a single street all the essential organs of a
+capital, and still presents with the rarest completeness of
+concentration a conspectus of modern civic life and development; and
+this alike as regards both spiritual and temporal powers, using these
+terms in their broadest senses as the respective expressions of the
+material order and its immaterial counterparts. Thus the royal and noble
+castles of the Middle Age become with the Renaissance here as everywhere
+something of palaces, while with the industrial revolution they have
+become replaced by factories or transformed into breweries. So the
+guidance of speculative thought, once concentrated in the mediaeval
+abbey, becomes transferred to the Reformation assembly of divines, to
+the Renaissance college; and again at the Revolution, is largely taken
+over by the speculative encyclopædists, of whom Hume and Smith were but
+the most eminent. Nor are later developments less obvious. Of the
+following generation, we have the neo-classic architecture which
+everywhere dominated Europe after the French Revolution and during the
+First Empire, while of the next generation's reaction against all this
+in the romantic movement, the neo-Gothic monument of Scott is the most
+characteristic possible representative. Again, just as in the Oxford
+movement we had the (appropriately regional) renascence of the idealism
+of the Cavaliers, so in Edinburgh we have naturally the simultaneous
+renascence of the Puritan ideal, e.g., in the Free Church, whose
+monument accordingly rises to dominate the city in its turn. The later
+period of prosperous Liberalism, the heroic enthusiasms of Empire, have
+each left their mark; and now in the dominant phase of social evolution,
+that of Finance, the banks, the financial companies, the press are
+having their turn as monument builders. Our Old Edinburgh is thus the
+most condensed example, the visible microcosm of the social evolution
+which is manifest everywhere; so that as a teaching model of
+sociological development it may renew its educational attractiveness
+when its improving hygiene has lessened its medical advantages.
+
+Setting down now these phases of historical development in tabular form,
+we have a diagram such as the following:--
+
+
+            ANCIENT          |          RECENT                 |         CONTEMPORARY          | INCIPIENT
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Primitive | Matri- | Patri-  | Greek | Mediaeval | Renaissance | Revolution | Empire | Finance |   ? ? ?
+          | archal | archal  |  and  |           |             |            |        |         |
+          |        |         | Roman |           |             |            |        |         |
+
+
+which, were it placed erect, we might now compare to the increasing
+[Page: 110] nodes of a growing stem, or rather say the layers of a coral
+reef, in which each generation constructs its characteristic stony
+skeleton as a contribution to the growing yet dying and wearying whole.
+I have elaborated this example of the panoramic aspect of Old Edinburgh
+as a widely familiar instance of the method of literal survey with which
+social and civic studies may so conveniently begin; and I press the
+value of extending these even to the utmost elaborateness of
+photographic survey: in my view, indeed, a sociological society has at
+least as much use for a collection of maps, plans and photographs as of
+statistics, indeed scarcely less than one of books. Of course, in all
+this I am but recalling what every tourist in some measure knows; yet
+his impressions and recollections can become an orderly politography,
+only as he sees each city in terms of its characteristic social
+formations, and as he utilises the best examples from each phase towards
+building up a complete picture of the greatest products of civic
+evolution, temporal and spiritual, of all places and times up to the
+present. Such a parallel of the historic survey of the city to that of
+its underlying geological area is thus in no wise a metaphoric one, but
+one which may be worked out upon maps sections and diagrams almost
+completely in the same way--in fact, with little change save that of
+colours and vertical scale. The attempt to express the characteristic
+and essential life and thought of a given region in each period upon a
+series of maps is in fact the best method of understanding the everyday
+map at which we commonly look so unthinkingly.
+
+Much of the preceding, I am assured, must be most unsatisfactory to
+those who look at cities only from the standpoint of so many committees
+dealing with police, water, finance, and so on; or to those who are
+content to view the magnitude, the wealth and the population, the
+industries and the manufactures of a great city without considering
+whence these have come and whither they are leading; equally
+unsatisfactory also, I fear, to those to whom civic dignities and
+precedence, or the alternations of winning political colours, appear of
+prime importance. I can only hope that some of these may, on
+consideration, admit that the points of view I have endeavoured to
+outline above may be worth some thought and study as elementary
+preliminaries to their own more special and developed interests; and if
+the society permit. I hope to approach these more closely in a later
+paper.
+
+[Page: 111] The abstract economist or legalist, the moral or political
+philosopher may also resent the proposed mode of treatment as an attempt
+to materialise sociology by reducing it to concrete terms alone. But I
+would reply that observation, so far from excluding interpretation, is
+just the very means of preparing for it. It is the observant naturalist,
+the travelled zoologist and botanist, who later becomes the productive
+writer on evolution. It is the historian who may best venture on into
+the philosophy of history;--to think the reverse is to remain in the
+pre-scientific order altogether: hence the construction of systems of
+abstract and deductive economics, politics or morals, has really been
+the last surviving effort of scholasticism. Viewed as Science, Civics is
+that branch of Sociology which deals with Cities--their origin and
+distribution; their development and structure; their functioning,
+internal and external, material and psychological; their evolution,
+individual and associated. Viewed again from the practical side, that of
+applied science, Civics must develop through experimental endeavour into
+the more and more effective Art of enhancing the life of the city and of
+advancing its evolution. With the first of these lines of study, the
+concretely scientific, our philosophical outlook will not fail to widen;
+with the second, the practical, our ethical insight will not fail to
+deepen also.
+
+As primarily a student of living nature in evolution, I have naturally
+approached the city from the side of its geographic and historic survey,
+its environment and functional change; yet it is but a step from these
+to the abstract interpretations of the economist or the politician, even
+of philosopher and moralist. Again, since in everyday practice
+co-ordinating the literal maps of each civic surveys with even more
+concretely detailed plans as gardener and builder, I find less danger
+than may at first appear of ignoring the legitimate demands of the
+needed practical division of labour in the city's service. When the
+first mutual unfamiliarity is got over, there is thus also a greatly
+diminished distance between speculative thinkers and practical men, who
+at present, in this country especially, stand almost unrelated: the
+evolutionist student and worker thus begins to furnish the missing link
+between them.
+
+
+C--THE CITIZEN IN PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT
+
+Leaving now the external survey of the city by help of its material
+framework, its characteristic buildings and predominant styles, for the
+deeper psychological survey of the citizens themselves, we may
+conveniently begin with these also in their process of development--in
+fact, our method compels us to this course. We enter then a school; and
+if we bring fresh eyes we may soon be agreed that the extraordinary
+babel of studies its time-table and curriculum reveal, is intelligible
+from no single one of the various [Page: 112] geographic or historic
+points of view we have traversed from mountain to sea, or from past to
+present. But this unprecedented conflict of studies becomes at once
+intelligible when viewed apart from any and every definite theory of
+education yet promulgated by educationists, and even acquires a fresh
+theory of its own--that of the attempted recapitulation of the survivals
+of each and all preceding periods in their practical or speculative
+aspects, particularly the later legends and literatures, their rituals
+and codes. Thus, the inordinate specialisation upon arithmetic, the
+exaggeration of all three R's, is plainly the survival of the demand for
+cheap yet efficient clerks, characteristic of the recent and
+contemporary financial period.
+
+The ritual of examinations with its correlation of memorising and
+muscular drill is similarly a development of the imperial order,
+historically borrowed from the Napoleonic one; the chaotic "general
+knowledge" is similarly a survival of the encyclopædic period; that is,
+of the French Revolution and the Liberal Movement generally; the Latin
+grammar and verses are of course the survivals of the Renaissance, as
+the precise fidelity to absurd spelling is the imitation of its proof
+readers; the essay is the abridged form of the mediaeval disputation;
+and only such genuine sympathy with Virgil or Tacitus, with Homer or
+Plato as one in a thousand acquires, is truly Roman or Greek at all.
+The religious instruction, however, re-interpreted by the mediaeval
+Church or the Reformation, has still its strength in some of the best
+elements of patriarchal literature; while the fairy tale, by which all
+this superincumbent weight of learning is sometimes alleviated, is the
+child's inheritance from the matriarchal order. Finally, the apple and
+the ball, at the bottom of this whole burden of books, complete the
+recapitulation; as the one, the raw fruit; the other, the ready missile,
+of primeval man. Our child then is heir of all the ages more fully than
+he or his teachers commonly realise. The struggle for mastery of the
+schools is thus no temporary feud, but an unending battle; one destined
+to increase rather than diminish; for in this there is the perpetual
+clash of all the forces of good heredity and evil atavism, of all the
+new variations also, healthy or diseases.
+
+
+
+[Page: 113] D--THE APPLIED SOCIOLOGY OF THE PRESENT
+
+The city and its children thus historically present a thoroughly
+parallel accumulation of survivals or recapitulations of the past in the
+present. Few types nowadays are pure, that is, keep strictly to their
+period; we are all more or less mixed and modernised. Still, whether by
+temporal or spiritual compulsion, whether for the sake of bread or
+honour, each mainly and practically stands by his order, and acts with
+the social formation he belongs to. Thus now the question of the
+practical civics, that is, of the applied sociology, of each individual,
+each body or interests may be broadly defined; it is to emphasise his
+particular historic type, his social formation and influence in the
+civic whole, if not indeed to dominate this as far as may be. We are all
+for progress, but we each define it in his own way. Hence one man of
+industrial energy builds more factories or slums, another as naturally
+more breweries to supply them; and in municipal or national council his
+line of action, conscious or unconscious, remains congruent with these.
+Representative government fails to yield all that its inventors hoped of
+it, simply because it is so tolerably representative of its majorities;
+and there is thus great truth in the common consolation that our
+municipal governments, like larger ones, are seldom much worse than we
+deserve. Each social formation, through each of its material activities,
+exerts its influence upon the civic whole; and each of its ideas and
+ideals wins also its place and power. At one time the legal and
+punitive point of view, directing itself mainly to individual cases, or
+the philanthropic, palliating sufferings, dispute the foremost places;
+and now in their turn hygienic or educational endeavours arise, towards
+treating causes instead of waiting for consequences. Such endeavours are
+still undeniably too vague in thought, too crude in practice, and the
+enthusiast of hygiene or education or temperance may have much to answer
+for. But so, also, has he who stands outside of the actual civic field,
+whether as philistine or aesthete, utopist or cynic, party politician or
+"mug-wump." Between all these extremes it is for the united forces of
+civic survey and civic service to find the middle course. [Page: 114] We
+observe then in the actual city, as among its future citizens, that our
+action is generally the attempt to mould both alike to some past or
+passing social formation, and, therefore, usually towards the type to
+which our interest and our survey incline, be this in our own city or
+more probably in some earlier one. Even in the actual passing detail of
+party politics we are often reminded how directly continuous are the
+rivals with puritan London, with royalist Oxford; but still more is this
+the case throughout the history of thought and action, and the intenser
+the more plainly; for it is in his highest moments of conviction and
+decision that the Puritan feels most in sympathy with the law or the
+prophets of Jerusalem, the scholar with Athens; or that the man of
+action--be he the first French republican or the latest
+imperialist--most frankly draws his inspiration from the corresponding
+developments of Paris. It is a commonplace of psychology that our
+thought is and must be anthropomorphic; a commonplace of history that it
+has been Hebraomorphic, Hellenomorphic, Latinomorphic, and so on by
+turns.
+
+This view has often been well worked out by the historian of inventions
+and discoveries, of customs or laws, of policies or religions, as by the
+historian of language or the fine arts. What we still commonly need,
+however, is to carry this view clearly into our own city and its
+institutions, its streets and schools and homes, until either in the
+private spending or public voting of the smallest sum we know exactly
+whether we are so far determining expenditure and influence towards
+enlarging, say, the influence and example of renascent Florence in one
+generation or of decadent Versailles in another. There is no danger of
+awaking this consciousness too fully; for since we have ceased
+consciously to cite and utilise the high examples of history we have
+been the more faithfully, because sub-consciously and automatically,
+continuing and extending later and lower developments.
+
+
+E--CITIES, PRESENT AND FUTURE
+
+Hence, after a Liberal and an Imperial generation, each happy in their
+respective visions of wealth and expanding greatness [Page: 115], the
+current renewal of civic interests naturally takes the form of an
+awakening survey of our actual environment. First, a literal mapping of
+its regional elements, and then an historic interpretation of
+these--not, alas, merely or mainly in terms of the cities of sacred or
+classic tradition, nor of the Mediaeval or Renaissance cities which
+followed these, but as stupendous extensions of the mediaeval Ghetto, of
+the Wapping Stairs, of the Lancashire factories and of the Black
+Country, relieved by the coarse jollities of Restoration London, and
+adorned for the most part, with debased survivals from the Italian and
+the French Renaissance. There is thus no more question in our civic
+discussions of "bringing in" or "leaving out" geography or history; we
+have been too long unconscious of them, as was M. Jourdain of his
+speaking in prose.
+
+But what of the opening Future? May its coming social developments not
+be discerned by the careful observer in germs and buds already formed or
+forming, or deduced by the thinker from sociological principles? I
+believe in large measure both; yet cannot within these limits attempt to
+justify either. Enough for the present, if it be admitted that the
+practical man in his thought and action in the present is mainly the as
+yet too unconscious child of the past, and that in the city he is still
+working within the grasp of natural conditions.
+
+To realise the geographic and historic factors of our city's life is
+thus the first step to comprehension of the present, one indispensable
+to any attempt at the scientific forecast of the future, which must
+avoid as far as it can the dangers of mere utopianism.
+
+
+F--LITERATURE OF CIVICS
+
+No discussion of the preliminaries and fundamentals of Civics can omit
+some consideration of the vast and ever growing literature of cities.
+But how are we to utilise this? How continue it? How co-ordinate it with
+the needed independent and first-hand survey of city by city? And how
+apply this whole knowledge of past and present towards civic action?
+
+The answer must plainly be a concrete one. Every city [Page: 116]
+however small, has already a copious literature of its topography and
+history in the past; one, in fact, so ample that its mere bibliography
+may readily fill a goodly volume,[1] to which the specialist will long
+be adding fresh entries. This mass of literature may next be viewed as
+the material for a comprehensive monograph, well enriched with maps and
+illustrations, such as many cities can boast; and this again may be
+condensed into a guide-book. Guide-books have long been excellent in
+their descriptive and historical detail, and are becoming increasingly
+interpretative also, especially since Mr. Grant Allen transferred his
+evolutionary insight and his expository clearness from natural to civic
+history.
+
+[1] e.g., Erskine Beveridge, LL.D., Bibliography of
+Dunfermline.--_Dunfermline, 1902._ 8vo.
+
+After this general and preliminary survey of geographic environment and
+historic development, there nowadays begins to appear the material of a
+complementary and contemporary volume, the Social Survey proper. Towards
+this, statistical materials are partly to be found amid parliamentary
+and municipal reports and returns, economic journals and the like, but a
+fresh and first-hand survey in detail is obviously necessary. In this
+class of literature, Mr. Booth's monumental Survey of London, followed
+by others, such as Mr. Rowntree's of York, have already been so widely
+stimulating and suggestive that it may safely be predicted that before
+many years the Social Survey of any given city will be as easily and
+naturally obtainable as is at present its guide-book; and the
+rationalised census of the present condition of its people, their
+occupation and real wages, their family budget and culture-level, should
+be as readily ascertainable from the one, as their antecedents
+understood or their monuments visited by help of the other.
+
+But these two volumes--"The City: Past and Present,"--are not enough. Is
+not a third volume imaginable and possible, that of the opening Civic
+Future? Having taken full note of places as they were and are, of things
+as they have come about, and of people as they are--of their
+occupations, families, and institutions, their ideas and ideals--may we
+not to some extent discern, then patiently plan out, at length boldly
+suggest, something of [Page: 117] their actual or potential development?
+And may not, must not, such discernment, such planning, while primarily,
+of course, for the immediate future, also take account of the remoter
+and higher issues which a city's indefinitely long life and
+correspondingly needed foresight and statesmanship involve? Such a
+volume would thus differ widely from the traditional and contemporary
+"literature of Utopias" in being regional instead of non-regional,
+indeed ir-regional and so realisable, instead of being unrealisable and
+unattainable altogether. The theme of such a volume would thus be to
+indicate the practicable alternatives, and to select and to define from
+these the lines of development of the legitimate _Eu-topia_ possible in
+the given city, and characteristic of it; obviously, therefore, a very
+different thing from a vague _Ou-topia_, concretely realisable nowhere.
+Such abstract counsels of perfection as the descriptions of the ideal
+city, from Augustine through More or Campanella and Bacon to Morris,
+have been consolatory to many, to others inspiring. Still, a Utopia is
+one thing, a plan for our city improvement is another.
+
+Some concrete, if still fragmentary, materials towards such a volume
+are, of course, to be found in all municipal offices, though scattered
+between the offices of the city engineer and health officer, the
+architect and park superintendent; while the private architect and
+landscape gardener, the artist, sometimes even the municipal voters and
+their representatives, may all have ideas of their own. But though our
+cities are still as a whole planless, their growth as yet little better
+than a mere casual accretion and agglomeration, if not a spreading
+blight, American and German cities are now increasingly affording
+examples of comprehensive design of extension and of internal
+improvement. As a specific example of such an attempt towards the
+improvement of a British city, one not indeed comprehending all aspects
+of its life, but detailed and reasoned so far as it goes, and expressing
+that continuity of past and present into future which has been above
+argued for, I am permitted by the courtesy of the Carnegie Dunfermline
+Trust to lay on the Society's library table an early copy of a recent
+study of practicable possibilities in a city typically suitable for
+consideration from the present standpoint, since presenting within a
+moderate and readily intelligible [Page: 118] scale a very marked
+combination of historic interests, and of contemporary and growing
+activity, both industrial and cultural, with hopeful civic outlook.
+
+That co-adjustment of social survey and social service which has been
+above argued for as the essential idea of civics as applied sociology is
+thus no abstract principle, but a concrete and practicable method. Yet
+it is one not lacking in generality of application. For what we have
+reached is really the conception of an _Encyclopædia Civica_, to which
+each city should contribute the Trilogy of its Past, its Present, and
+its Future. Better far, as life transcends books, we may see, and yet
+more, forsee, the growth of civic consciousness and conscience, the
+awakening of citizenship towards civic renascence. All this the
+production of such volumes would at one imply and inspire--life ever
+producing its appropriate expression in literature, and literature
+reacting upon the ennoblement of life.
+
+Apart altogether from what may be the quality and defects of particular
+volumes, such as those cited as examples of each part of such a proposed
+civic trilogy, one as yet nowhere complete, the very conception of such
+a possible threefold series may be of some service. For this would
+present a continuous whole, at once sociological and civic--the views
+and the resources of the scholar and the educationist with their
+treasures of historic culture, of the man of action with his mastery of
+immediate affairs, of the thinker with his vision of the opening future,
+now all co-ordinated by help of the design of the artist, and thence to
+be gradually realised in the growing heritage of the city, the enlarging
+life of the citizen.
+
+NOTE--As an example of the concrete application to a particular city, of
+the sociological methods and principles indicated in the above paper,
+Prof. Geddes exhibited an illustrated volume embodying the results of
+his studies and designs towards the improvement of Dunfermline, under
+the Trust recently established by Mr. Carnegie. This has since been
+published:
+
+P. GEDDES. City Development. Park Gardens and Culture Institutes; a
+Report to the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust. With 138 illustrations.
+Edinburgh, etc.. 1904.
+
+
+
+
+[Page: 119] DISCUSSION
+
+
+The Chairman (MR. CHARLES BOOTH) in opening the discussion said:
+
+The paper we have just heard read is one of the most complete and
+charming papers on a great and interesting subject I have ever heard. I
+think you will all agree in this, and I hope the discussion which
+follows will emphasise and, if that is possible, add to the wealth of
+ideas that this paper contains.
+
+
+
+MR EBENEZER HOWARD (Founder of the Garden City Association) said:
+
+I have read and re-read--in the proof forwarded to me--Professor Geddes'
+wonderfully luminous and picturesque paper with much interest. He has
+given us a graphic description of the geographic process which leads to
+the development of the city. We see vividly the gradual stages by which
+the city grows and swells, with the descent of the population from the
+hillsides into the valleys, even as the river which flows through the
+city is fed continually by the streams which flow down to it. But is
+there not this essential difference between the gathering waters of
+heaven, as they pour into the great city, and the gathering tide of
+population, which follows the path of the waters? The waters flow
+through the city on, on toward the mighty ocean, and are then gradually
+gathered upward into the soft embraces of the clouds and wafted back
+again to the hills, whence they flow down once more to the valleys. But
+the living stream of men, women, and children flows from the
+country-side and leaves it more and more bare of active, vigorous,
+healthy life: it does not, like the waters, "return again to cover the
+earth," but moves ever on to the great city, and from thence, at least
+for the great majority, there is no chance of more than, at best, a very
+short stay in the country. No: the tide flows resistlessly [Page: 120]
+onward to make more crowded our overcrowded tenements, to enlarge our
+overgrown cities, to cause suburb to spread beyond suburb, to submerge
+more and more the beautiful fields and hilly slopes which used to lie
+near the busy life of the people, to make the atmosphere more foul, and
+the task of the social reformer more and yet more difficult.
+
+But surely there must be a way, could we but discover it, of imitating
+the skill and bountifulness of Nature, by creating channels through
+which some of our population shall be attracted back to the fields; so
+that there shall be a stream of population pouring from the city into
+the country, till a healthy balance is restored, and we have solved the
+twin problems of rural depopulation and of the overcrowded, overgrown
+city.
+
+This brings me to the second branch of Prof. Geddes' paper, the
+historical. The Professor reminds us how vestiges of one civilisation
+lie super-imposed upon another, like geological strata, and asks.
+"Understanding the present as the development of the past, are we not
+preparing also to understand the future as the development of the
+present?" Following this line of thought, I venture to suggest that
+while the age in which we live is the age of the great,
+closely-compacted, overcrowded city, there are already signs, for those
+who can read them, of a coming change so great and so momentous that the
+twentieth century will be known as the period of the great exodus, the
+return to the land, the period when by a great and conscious effort a
+new fabric of civilisation shall be reared by those who knew how to
+apply the knowledge gained by "Social Survey to Social Service." What
+are the signs? What words can we place under the head of "Incipient" in
+Prof. Geddes' diagram? I would suggest, for one of Prof. Geddes'
+interrogation marks might be substituted "Decentralisation of
+Industry"--as a great, but yet incipient movement, represented by Port
+Sunlight, Bournville, Garden City. For there are now many agencies at
+work making for industrial decentralisation. Industries are being driven
+out of the great towns by the excessive rents and rates which have to be
+paid there--by the difficulty of obtaining adequate space for the modern
+factory, a one-storey building; and for the homes of our workers, which
+must be vastly different to what they now are if England is to maintain
+her place among the nations. And while factories are being driven from
+the city, they are also being attracted to the country by its
+newly-discovered potentialities. Thus Messrs. Lever Brothers, crowded
+out of Warrington, established an entirely new town on a new site at
+Port Sunlight; and, because the site was new and raw, it was therefore
+possible for Mr. Lever to plan his little town with a single eye to the
+best and most desirable conditions, alike from an industrial and a
+health and housing point of view. And the same is true of Bournville.
+Bournville is one of the most beautiful villages in the world, largely
+again because of the potentialities of a new site acquired for the
+definite purpose of building thereon a village in which overcrowding
+shall be deliberately and permanently prevented, [Page: 121] and in
+which work inside the factory may be varied by work in the garden. Now
+that these successful experiments have been carried out in this country,
+is it not time that the idea of establishing new industries on new
+sites, and of surrounding those industries with healthy homes, should be
+carried forward on a larger scale, with wider and more concerted
+aims--carried forward, too, in such a manner as to make it possible for
+the small manufacturer to take part in a movement which has proved to be
+so beneficial alike to employer and employed? It is out of this thought
+that the Garden City idea has grown, an idea now in course of being
+fulfilled. Three thousand eight hundred acres of land, or nearly ten
+times the area of Bournville or Port Sunlight, have been acquired in
+Hertfordshire, two miles west of the town of Hitchin, and on the branch
+line of railway between that town and Cambridge. State aid has not been
+sought; that would indeed be weary work. But a company has been formed,
+through the untiring efforts of the Garden City Association; plans for
+the town have been carefully prepared, plans which, of course, have
+regard to the contours of the land (which were first taken, showing
+every change of level of five feet), to the preservation of its natural
+beauties--its trees and the picturesque villages of Norton and Willian;
+to the necessity for railway sidings and railway station, now, thanks to
+the Great Northern Railway, already provided; to the making of roads of
+easy gradient and of suitable width, affording access to different parts
+of the estate, actual work on which is progressing; the careful guarding
+from contamination of our water supply, already proved to be abundant;
+the provision of a reservoir of suitable elevation, now in course of
+construction; a system of drainage, about to be started with; the
+provision of parks and playgrounds within the town, as well as a wide
+belt of agricultural land around it; sites for homes for 30,000 persons,
+with good sized gardens. About six cottages have already been built, not
+by the Company but by private enterprise, while many others are just
+about to be started upon; the setting apart of sites for schools,
+churches, and other public buildings, while plans are in preparation for
+lighting the town, as well as for providing it with motive power.
+
+The programme which I have sketched out is certainly not too bold or
+comprehensive for the British race. If a hundredth part of the
+organising skill which the Japanese and the Russians are showing in the
+great war now in progress were shown by ourselves as citizens in our
+great civil war against disease and dirt, poverty and overcrowding, we
+could not only build many new cities on the best models, but could also
+bring our old towns into line with the new and better order. Prof.
+Geddes wishes well, I know, to the Garden City Association, a
+propagandist body, and to its first child, the Garden City Company; and
+I am sure you will all unite with me in the hope that the best and most
+lasting success may crown the generous gift of Mr. Carnegie of £500,000
+to the City of Dunfermline, and reward the efforts of the Trustees and
+of Prof. Geddes to make, by the application of modern [Page: 122] skill,
+science and art, the ancient city of Dunfermline a centre of sweetness
+and light, stimulating us all to higher and yet higher efforts to secure
+civic, national and imperial well-being.
+
+MR. C.H. GRINLING said:
+
+Like most of the audience, doubtless, he came not to speak but to draw
+ever fresh inspiration from Prof. Geddes. But there was one aspect of
+the subject he would like to bring out and emphasise. He referred to the
+sociological institute, which, under the name of the Outlook Tower, had
+grown up in connection with the School of Sociology which Prof. Geddes
+had founded and developed in Edinburgh. That institute was at once an
+organisation for teaching and for research, for social education, and
+for civic action. It was, in fact, a concrete and working application of
+the principle indicated in the paper as the very foundation of
+Civics--"social survey for social service." And, seeing that the Outlook
+Tower was an institution designed in every respect for application to
+any given locality, he urged the Sociological Society to advocate its
+general extension, so that no region should be without its own
+sociological institute or Outlook Tower.
+
+If one individual could accomplish so much, what could not be
+accomplished by the sociologists of our day who would concentrate
+themselves, each on his own locality, not necessarily to do the work,
+but to give the inspiration which would call out the work of collecting
+just that material which Prof. Geddes suggested all through his paper
+was one of the great needs of our time? And so one hoped that papers of
+this kind would not merely lead to discussion, but to workers
+accumulating results of this kind, giving the inspiration to others, and
+thus laying up treasures for the sociologists of the future for their
+interpretation. Thus, the Sociological Society should be not only the
+one scientific society in constant touch with all the leading brains
+over the country, but it should be an inspiration, as Prof. Geddes has
+himself been, to groups of workers everywhere for just the kind of work
+which the Sociological Society has been founded to develop.
+
+
+MR. J.M. ROBERTSON said:
+
+I would first add my tribute to this extremely interesting and
+stimulating paper. It recalled confabulations I had with Prof. Geddes,
+many years ago, when he was first formulating in Edinburgh those ideas
+which have since become so widely known. I would like, however, to
+suggest a few criticisms. The paper is, broadly speaking, an application
+of the view of a biologist to Sociology. It is not so much an
+application of Darwin's view as that of Von Baer. Prof. Geddes has
+characterised his paper as one of elementary preliminaries, but he has
+really contributed a paper that [Page: 123] would form part of a
+preliminary study in a series of studies in Sociology. The paper does
+not quite bear out its title: "Civics: as Applied Sociology." The
+application has not begun. The somewhat disparaging remarks on
+encyclopædias of general knowledge, further, might well be applied to
+the scheme of an encyclopædia of the natural history of every city and
+every village as an original centre. This atomism will not help
+Sociology. Had he to master all that, the sociologist's life would be a
+burden not to be borne, and we would never get to applied sociology at
+all. There is a danger, too, in following this line, of fastening
+attention on one stage of evolution and leaving it there. The true
+principle is that evolution is eternal and continuous; and I think harm
+may be done, possibly, when you take, say, the phenomenon of the
+communication of general knowledge in schools and call it a derivation
+from the French _Encyclopedie_. Why leave it there? Where did that come
+from? If you are going to trace the simple evolution of civic forms, if
+you are to trace how they have come about, it will not do to stick at a
+given point. This is a survival of that. That is a survival of something
+else. The French _Encyclopedie_ will have to be traced back to the
+encyclopædia of the mediaeval period; and even to the still earlier
+period of Isidore of Seville. Then again, there is a danger, I think,
+analogous to the danger met with in early botany--the danger of
+confusing a resemblance with a relationship. It is extremely interesting
+to speculate that the Place de l'Etoile is an evolution from the plan of
+the game-forest, with its shooting avenues radiating from a centre, but
+it would be difficult to show that there is any historical connection.
+The thing is not proved.
+
+Of course, the vital question is not this tracing of evolution. The
+question is: Is "Civics" to be only the study of forms? If so, Sociology
+is a dead science, and will effect little practical good until it is
+vivified by such suggestions as Mr. Crane has put in his paper. Mr.
+Walter Crane brought in a vital question when he said: "How are you
+going to modify the values of your civic life unless you grapple with
+political problems?" I am not forgetting that Prof. Geddes promises to
+deal in another paper with the civics of the future; but I insist that
+it will have to grapple with political questions. As he says, a city is
+not a place, but "a drama in time." The question for the sociological
+student of history is: How has this inequality of wealth and of service
+arisen, and how is it to be prevented in the future? That is the problem
+we have to study if we wish to make sociology a vital interest. A
+definition of progress is really the first step in sociology. Prof.
+Geddes' next paper should give us a definition of progress, and it is
+better that we begin to fight over a definition of progress, in order to
+get a dynamic agreement, than that we should multiply the archaeological
+study of many towns. I admit that it is very interesting. In travelling
+in South Africa, I often tried to gather how communities began; what,
+for example, was the nucleus of this or that village. It was surprising
+how very few had an idea of any nucleus at all. I deprecate the idea,
+however, that [Page: 124] we are all to amass an enormous accumulation
+of such researches. Mr. Booth's single compilation for London is a study
+for years; but Mr. Booth's admirable investigation of the difficulties
+of life among the poor of London does not of itself give any new impulse
+to the solution of the problem of London. It merely gives exact
+knowledge in place of general knowledge. The problem of sociology arose
+on the general knowledge. I fear lest the work of sociology should run
+to an extension of this admirable study instead of to the stimulation of
+action taken on that particular knowledge, or on more general knowledge.
+We all knew there was plenty of poverty, and how it was caused. We all
+had Ideals as to how it was to be got rid of in the future; but the
+question is: Is the collection of detail or the prescription of social
+method the kind of activity that the Sociological Society is to take up?
+
+SIR THOMAS BARCLAY said:
+
+I am not sure that I agree with Mr. Robertson that it is desirable to
+define either "progress" or "civilisation." On the whole, their chances
+lie rather in the great variety of ideas of what constitutes them than
+in any hard-and-fast notion of their meaning. They are generalisations
+of what is, rather than an object towards which effort should tend. But
+neither do I agree with Prof. Geddes' restriction of "civics" to the
+mere outward part of municipal effort. In America the word "civics" is
+applied to the rights and duties of citizens, and I should like to see
+Prof. Geddes include in Civics the connection between citizen life and
+the outward improvement of cities. I am sure, however, Professor Geddes,
+as a practical man, will deal rather with realities than theoretical
+views on the subject for which he has done so much himself. Edinburgh
+owes more than many are willing to admit to Prof. Geddes. I think Ramsay
+Lodge one of the greatest embellishments of the Castle Hill in
+Edinburgh. I hope he will now be successful in doing something still
+more admirable for my native town of Dunfermline. My friend Mr.
+Carnegie, whose native town it also is, I believe intends to show by an
+object lesson what can be done for all cities. Prof. Geddes is helping
+him in this work with his suggestions. I hope they will be carried out.
+In America there are several very beautiful cities. No one can ever
+forget Washington, which is truly a garden city. No money is spared in
+America to beautify and healthify (excuse the barbarism) the habitations
+of the thousands. A beautiful city is an investment for health,
+intellect, imagination. Genius all the world over is associated,
+wherever it has been connected with cities, with beautiful cities. To
+grow up among things of beauty ennobles the population. But I should
+like to see Prof. Geddes extend his projects for Dunfermline to the
+population itself. Most of you know what Mr. Henderson did to utilise
+the Edinburgh [Page: 125] police in the care of children. The future of
+the country depends upon them. The subject is too serious to continue to
+be left to the haphazard mercies of indifferent parents. Every child
+born is an agent for good or for evil among the community, and the
+community cannot afford to neglect how it is brought up, the
+circumstances in which it has its being, the environment from which it
+derives its character and tendencies. Necessity may be the mother of
+invention, but need of food and insufficient clothing develop in the
+child an inventiveness that is not for the good of the community. It
+seems a matter of too great an importance to be left even to private
+initiative, as was done under Mr. Henderson's regime in Edinburgh; but
+everywhere else, or nearly so, very little is done by even private
+initiative for the protection of the children against their vicious
+environment. In short, I do not think that civics, in the sense in which
+my friend Prof. Geddes treats it, is a complete subject at all. Civics,
+to my mind, includes everything that relates to the citizen. Everywhere
+something is being done in one direction or another to make them
+capable, prosperous, and happy. In America happiness is taught in the
+schools. Every schoolmaster's and schoolmistress's first duty is to set
+an example of a happy frame of mind; smiling and laughing are
+encouraged, and it is not thought that the glum face is at all necessary
+for the serious business of life. In fact, the glum face is a
+disqualification; is associated with failure, and bad luck and
+ill-nature. In Germany the schoolmaster is in the first place a trainer
+of the body. One of his chief duties is to watch and prevent the
+deterioration of the eyesight, to promote the development of the lungs,
+to prevent spinal deviation. The second part of his business is to watch
+over the character of the child, and only the third part is to ram
+knowledge into the poor little mind. And wherever you go over the world
+you will find something in the course of being done in civics, as I
+understand the subject. I thank Prof. Geddes for what he is doing for
+Dunfermline, and hope he will understand "progress" without requiring to
+define it.
+
+
+DR. J. LIONEL TAYLER
+
+(Author of "_Aspects of Social Evolution_") said:
+
+While agreeing with Prof. Geddes in his belief in the importance of
+institutional and geographical studies as a basis for the investigation
+of the development of cities, it yet seems to me that these studies
+cannot prove of supreme value to society unless they are accompanied by
+a detailed examination of the _natural_ characteristics of all
+individuals who have been born into and existed in, or merely dwelt in,
+these surroundings. It is not enough to trace out, however accurately,
+the various stages of a town's growth from its commencement to the
+present time, because _the cause_ of [Page: 126] the evolution of any
+city aggregate lies deeper, is in large part animate, and not inanimate,
+in character. The value of the surroundings depends at least as much
+upon the capacity of the individual citizen, singly and collectively, to
+utilise what he or she is brought in contact with as upon the
+peculiarities of these surroundings themselves. Place, tradition, social
+organisation, individual development, education, are factors in town
+evolution that cannot safely be overlooked, and they all vary from age
+to age and in place and place.
+
+If it were possible to completely exchange the inhabitants of a large
+town in England with those of an equally large town in France two groups
+of changes would become more or less rapidly observable: (1) the French
+and English citizens would adapt themselves, as far as they desired and
+were able, to their altered conditions; (2) the characteristics of both
+towns would gradually change, in spite of geographical position, in
+response to the altered human needs. Similarly, a town composed of
+individuals who are naturally uncultured and unprogressive will tend to
+preserve its uncultured and unprogressive characters more than another
+that has alert citizens to carry on its activities. Every profession and
+every trade tends to foster its own social atmosphere; and towns will
+vary with their industrial life, and individuals favourably disposed to
+this atmosphere will come to the town, and those unfavourably inclined
+to it will leave. _These changing citizens, as they act upon and react
+to their surroundings and vary in their powers age by age, are the real
+evolvers of the conditions in which they dwell_; hence the citizen must
+not be omitted from our study if we are to understand city growth.
+
+In other words, I think that every investigation of civic, and for that
+matter country life should be studied from two aspects: (1) to note the
+peculiarities, growth and development of the material, non-living and
+non-thinking elements in the problem--the buildings, their geographical
+position, their age, their fitness for past and present life, and the
+distinctive local features that are evolving or retrogressing with the
+multiplication of some trades and industries and the decline of others
+in each area that is studied; (2) the change in the quality of the
+citizens themselves through racial, educational, and other factors,
+noting how far ideals are altering, not only in the mass of individuals
+taken as a whole, but also by examining the changing outlook in every
+trade and profession. With these two parallel lines of investigation to
+study, we could then determine how far environment--social and
+climatic--how far racial and individual characteristics have been
+powerful in the moulding of the fabric around us.
+
+With these two lines of study to our hands, we could predict the
+vitality, the growing power, and the future possibilities of the social
+life of which we are a tiny though not an insignificant part; we could,
+knowing something of the response that we make to that which surrounds
+us, form some estimate of how the future ages will develop, and, knowing
+the [Page: 127] intensity of the different national desires for progress
+_and the causes which are likely to arouse such desires_, we could
+realise what will stimulate and what will retard all that is best in our
+civic life.
+
+PROFESSOR EARL BARNES (in moving a vote of thanks) said:
+
+For years I have been accumulating a debt of obligation to Prof. Geddes
+for ideas, suggestions, and large synthesis of life, and it gives me
+special pleasure to voice the feeling of this meeting concerning the
+paper read to us this afternoon. To me, as an American, it is especially
+interesting to hear this presentation of life as an organic whole. Life
+is but a period of education, and if there is nothing behind this
+present moment of life it is all extremely insignificant. To an
+American, who has lived at No. 1067 in 63rd Street, Philadelphia, and
+at No. 1718 in G Street, in Washington, it is profoundly interesting to
+think of the possibility of a man's so living that his whole existence
+shall be significant, so that the realities of his world, geographical,
+geological, and material, and all that long development of humanity
+through the historic past--that all these things will be really and
+truly significant to him. Prof. Geddes has himself shown us that is
+possible. Any man who has gone to Edinburgh and seen the restoration of
+the old life that has been carried out there under his hand knows it can
+be done. I suppose we all came here to hear Professor Geddes speak on
+practical affairs because his name is now connected with the plans for
+making a city that shall be really expressive of all its potentialities
+to all of its people. I am personally profoundly grateful to him for his
+paper; and I move you that he be given a very hearty vote of thanks.
+
+The Chairman. (MR. CHARLES BOOTH), in closing the discussion, said: I
+myself entirely agree with what Mr Robertson has said as to the extreme
+difficulty of bringing investigations of the kind referred to, to
+practical conclusions--practical points. Practical work at present needs
+the most attention. I perhaps am too old to do it, but I feel the
+attraction of that kind of work, and that was one reason I was sorry Mr
+Loch had to leave before we could hear what he might have to say. The
+description I have given of London does seem to be a foggy labyrinth I
+agree, but nevertheless I cannot but think that we do require a complete
+conception if we are to do the definite work of putting different people
+in their proper places in an organic whole, such as a city is. I do not
+think we can do without it, and I regard the paper of this evening as an
+important contribution [Page: 128] to that complete conception which I
+feel we need. I should like each worker and thinker to have and to know
+his place in the scheme of civic improvement; and I think it perfectly
+possible for every man to know what it is that he is trying to do, what
+contribution it is that he ought to give to that joint life which is
+called here civics, which is the life of a city and the life in the
+city. One man cannot possibly concentrate it all in himself. Within a
+society such as the Sociological Society a general scheme is possible in
+which each individual and each society shall play its acknowledged and
+recognised part. It does not follow that the work done in one city can
+apply as an example to another. Individuality has too strong a hold;
+but each town may work out something for itself. I have been very much
+interested in the work which Mr. Rowntree has done in York, on which he
+was kind enough to consult me. He entered upon it on quite other grounds
+from mine, but so far as the ground was common between him and me we
+tried to have a common basis. Those of you who have not read Mr.
+Horsfall's volumes on Manchester would do well to do so. Prof. Geddes
+gave us a vivid picture of a larger regional unit which culminates
+geographically in the city as industrial climax. In his particular
+instance he referred, I take, to Dundee. In Dundee there is at this
+moment an inquiry being started, and I am in communication with those
+who are doing it, and I hope it will add something to the completeness
+of the picture we have of that city. In Dundee they have excessive
+difficulties in respect to crowding and female labour. What I suggested
+was, that they should make a special study of such circumstances as are
+special to Dundee. Labour there is very largely sack-making and jute
+manufacture, and there is a great deal of girl labour; and that is one
+of the special subjects that will be considered in that inquiry.
+
+Then, with regard to the preservation of such of the natural beauties
+that do remain even quite near to busy town centres, surely it is of the
+greatest importance that they should be watched and protected and
+preserved. Prof. Geddes has contributed a portion of his practical work
+to that practical question at Dunfermline. His charming volume on
+Dunfermline ("A Study in City Development") shows what beautiful
+features there are near Dunfermline, and how much may be done to
+preserve and improve them in ways that are most interesting to study.
+His use of photography in this matter is extraordinarily successful.
+Prof. Geddes has photographed a scene as it now is, with its background
+and distance and its squalid foreground, already ruined by the debris of
+the city--old tin pots and every [Page: 129] kind of rubbish--thrown
+down by the side of the stream, which is naturally beautiful. By
+manipulating the photographic plates he wipes out that which he does not
+want and introduces other features, including a little waterfall; and
+you have, instead of a miserable suburb, a dignified park. Well now,
+that is practical work. It has in it that element which he has described
+by a question-mark in his diagram, the element of forecast. You have the
+same idea in Manchester, in Mr. Horsfall's work. They have laid out
+their map of Manchester and shown in what way it may develop, so as not
+to spoil the beauty that remains on two sides of Manchester. There is
+really exquisitely beautiful natural scenery close to Manchester, which
+may be entirely spoiled or preserved, according as a forecast is made
+and forethought taken. This is not a question on which there is reason
+to think that people will disagree. The difficulties are always supposed
+to be financial. It is a sad thing that we should be so hampered by our
+methods of finance that we throw away opportunities to retain these
+actual beauties which undoubtedly add to the actual money value of a
+district. I cannot suppose that the way in which cities are laid out
+with narrow streets really results in an increase of value. The
+surroundings of our cities are undeveloped estates, which we have only
+to agree amongst ourselves how to lay out, and everybody would benefit
+by such joint action. There is an excellent illustration in regard to
+that in Mr. Horsfall's work in connection with Germany. It must be said
+that from Germany there is a great deal to learn in civic matters. In
+one of its towns the properties lie in extraordinarily long strips. It
+is the final result of properties having been measured by the length of
+the plough's run. When that method is applied to town sites, it is not
+convenient for streets; and there are some quarters in this German town
+ruined in this way, and the people have agreed together to improve
+matters. Every owner is to be given credit for his share in the total
+value of the improvement that is found to accrue from the re-arrangement
+of these undesirable divisions, and any difference of opinion as to the
+just share and proportion is to be referred to an impartial arbitrator.
+All the owners will gain, though some a little more than others. That is
+an example that we may do well to try and follow, and in some way or
+other improve the money value, and social value, and hygienic value of
+towns, and if necessary compel the carrying out of improvements when
+some few might be disposed to hold out against them.
+
+
+
+
+[Page: 130] WRITTEN COMMUNICATIONS
+
+From PROF. BALDWIN BROWN (Professor of Fine Art in the University of
+Edinburgh)
+
+
+I am glad of this opportunity of saying how cordially I agree with the
+method adopted by my friend Professor Geddes in dealing with the life of
+cities. He treats the modern community and its material shell as things
+of organic growth, with a past and a future as well as a present,
+whereas we too often see these wider considerations ignored in favour of
+some exigency of the moment. A historic British town has recently
+furnished a striking object-lesson in this connection. The town
+possesses portions of an ancient city wall and fosse that were made at a
+time when the town was, for the moment, the most important in Great
+Britain. Yet the Town Council, a year ago, destroyed part of this wall
+and filled a section of the fosse for the purpose of providing a site
+for a new elementary school. No doubt, in that school, books "approved
+by the Department" will instruct scholars in the past history of the
+burgh, but the living witness of that history must first of all be
+carefully obliterated. All the rest of this ancient and historic
+enceinte was condemned a few weeks ago to complete destruction, merely
+on the plea that the site would be convenient for workmen's dwellings.
+The monument has now been saved, but it has taken the whole country to
+do it!
+
+Here were chosen officials, governors of no mean city, absolutely
+oblivious of these important interests committed to their care, and all
+for want of having drilled into them these broader views which Professor
+Geddes puts forward so well.
+
+He has himself done practical work in Edinburgh on the lines he lays
+down, and I have lately had occasion to note, and call attention to the
+advantage to the city of much wise conservatism in regard to our older
+buildings which he and his associates have shown.
+
+In Edinburgh we have the advantage that our older monuments, [Page:
+131] in which so much of the past life of the city is enshrined, are
+firm and solid; and it takes some trouble to knock them down. Hence for
+some time to come we shall preserve here object-lessons in civic
+development that will be of interest to the country at large.
+
+
+From MR. WALTER CRANE (President of Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society)
+
+Professor Geddes' very interesting "Study in City Development" is highly
+suggestive, and shows how great a difference thoughtful and tasteful
+treatment might make in dealing with such problems. It is sad to think
+of the opportunities wasted, and of the more ignorant and often too
+hasty clearances for traffic which have often been apparently the sole
+motives in city improvement. The conservation of historic buildings,
+whenever possible, the planting of trees along our streets, the laying
+out of gardens, the insistence upon a proportional amount of air and
+open space to new buildings would go a long way towards making our
+bricks-and-mortar joyless wildernesses into something human and
+habitable.
+
+Whether, under favourable circumstances and the rare public spirit of
+private owners, much can be done, or to any wide extent, so long as
+absolute individual ownership in land and ground values is allowed,
+seems to me very doubtful. We cannot hope to see great social
+improvements without great economic changes, but every effort in the
+direction of improving the beauty of our cities is welcome to all who
+have the well-being of the community at heart; and such work as Prof.
+Geddes is doing should arouse the keenest interest and the earnest
+attention of all who realise its immense social importance.
+
+
+From MR. J.H. HARLEY, M.A.
+
+If sociology is ever to vindicate itself as an art, it must be able to
+analyse and explain the present, and to some extent at least to cast the
+horoscope of the future. It must feel its way through all the tangled
+labyrinths of city life, and show us where we have arrived and whither
+we are going. But this is exactly the part of Professor Geddes' Applied
+Sociology where he becomes most vague and unsatisfactory. "Enough for
+the present," we are told, "if it be admitted that the practical man in
+his thought and action in the present is mainly as yet the too
+unconscious child of the past, and that in the city he is still working
+within the grasp of natural conditions." Now we must all be willing to
+admit that the present is the child of the past, and that we cannot
+adequately understand [Page: 132] the present until we have led up to
+the present by the study of its antecedents more and less remote. But
+what Professor Geddes fails to bring out is that it is only in the
+present or the more immediate past that the City has really become a
+City in the modern sense of the word. The City as City is a product of
+the Industrial Revolution. Its huge and casual assemblages of human
+life, its overcrowding, its poverty line, its East End and its West End,
+its infantile mortality, its trades massed in their own particular
+districts, it aliens, its criminals and its vices--all these problems of
+social pathology arise from the fact that the conditions of modern
+industry have brought people together who have few interests in common,
+and who were compelled to arrange themselves in some kind of decent
+order within a limited area, without sufficient time being given to
+evolve a suitable environment, or to prepare themselves for the
+environment which they actually found on every side of them. London in
+the past, therefore, cannot help us so very much to solve the riddles of
+London in the present, because London in the past had not developed
+these social growths or offered a mature ground to those social
+parasites which make us sometimes despair of being able to get much
+insight into the London of the present.
+
+The fact seems to be that Prof. Geddes conceives sociology too much as a
+primary and too little as a secondary science. He defines applied
+sociology as the application of social survey to social science, when
+social ratiocination or social philosophy are needed before one can be
+said to have gauged the extent of the influence which this comprehensive
+science may have in our actual practice or on our Budget of the future.
+No doubt, "observation, so far from excluding interpretation, is just
+the very means of preparing for it," but this preparation must be made
+in the various specialisms which make up the complete or encyclopædic
+science of sociology. To me it seems an unwarrantable narrowing of the
+scope or significance of sociology to say that there is no better method
+available of teaching it "than that of regional survey, historical as
+well as geographical." Surely "regional survey" Is the appropriate
+method in the very simplest and most concrete parts of the complete
+science of sociology, and even when we come to history proper we must do
+very much more than make a regional survey. It is very interesting, no
+doubt, to "survey" history in the course of a summer ramble to the ruins
+of some old monastery, but unless the monks had kept records of what had
+been done there in bygone days, the mere outward survey will not carry
+us further than Prof. Geddes is carried in the very general map which he
+makes of the whole field of history. In other words, history, in any
+proper sense, demands more than "survey" in Prof. Geddes' sense of the
+word. It calls to its aid linguistics, criticism, archaeology,
+jurisprudence, and politics--there must be comparison and criticism as
+well as "survey." History is the laboratory in which the sociologist
+sees his social experiments working out their [Page: 133] results, and
+history is to the sociologist what experiment is to the physician, or
+the comparative method to the biologist.
+
+This being so, the scope of "civics" as "applied sociology" is immensely
+widened. The present is the child of the past, but we see that it is
+only in the present that such ancient groups as the colony of Hanseatic
+merchants in Old London have shown us what has been the ultimate
+significance of their embryological life. The modern city bristles with
+sociological problems which demand a knowledge of most of the
+specialisms included in the complete science of sociology, and almost
+invite us to cast the horoscope of the future. We see, as Booth and
+Rowntree saw before us, the poverty line like a fiery portent at every
+point of our study, and we are led finally to ask ourselves whether M.
+Arthur Bauer was not right in choosing the title "Les Classes Sociales"
+as the most characteristic title he could give to his recent and most
+suggestive analysis of the general characteristics of social life.
+
+
+From MR. T.C. HORSFALL
+
+(President, Manchester Citizen's Association, &c.)
+
+The teaching of the paper seems to me to be most sound and helpful. The
+town of the future--I trust of the near future--must by means of its
+schools, its museums, and galleries, its playgrounds, parks and
+gymnasia, its baths, its wide tree-planted streets and the belt of
+unspoilt country which must surround it, bring all its inhabitants in
+some degree under the _best_ influences of all the regions and all the
+stages of civilisation, the influences of which, but not the best
+influences, contribute, and have contributed, to make our towns what
+they are.
+
+
+From H. OSMAN NEWLAND
+
+(Author of "_A Short History of Citizenship_")
+
+The failures of democratic governments in the past have been
+attributable, in part, to the lack of intelligence and
+self-consciousness among the mass of those who were given a voice in the
+government of their country. Citizenship, like morality, was allowed to
+grow by instinct; it was never systematised as a science, or applied as
+an art. Sparta and Athens approached towards a system of civics much
+less elaborate than that expounded by Professor Geddes; but in Sparta
+citizenship became inseparable from Nationalism, and in Athens it
+scarcely rose above Municipalism. In more modern times, civic education
+has had to encounter the same difficulty as in America, where the young
+citizen's first duty is to salute his flag, and as in London, where
+"Civics" is distributed in doles of local [Page: 134] history in which
+the municipality plays a part altogether out of proportion to its
+relation to the country, the age, and the world. Civics, as the applied
+sociology of each individual and each body of interests, has but begun
+to be dreamed of; and before it can be properly developed it is
+desirable, if not necessary, that the general public should know
+something more than at present both of the historic development of the
+"civic" idea, and of the psychology of aggregations as differentiated
+from the psychology of the individual. Not until we can make "the man in
+the street" a conscious citizen, instead of a political automaton, shall
+we be able to enlist his sympathies with "Civics"; and without those
+sympathies the sociologist's "Civics" will, I fear, be but partial and
+inaccurate.
+
+
+From MR. G. BISSET SMITH
+
+(H.M. Registration Examiner for East of Scotland).
+
+There is an elusiveness here and there in this paper which has helped to
+confirm me in the opinion that it is well to emphasise the fact that
+Prof. Geddes is not only a dreamer of lofty dreams but a doer and a
+practical initiator. He has expressed himself not only in words but in
+art and in architecture, and in educational organisation; and he has in
+many ways, sometimes indirectly, influenced scholastic and civic
+activities.
+
+If from the Outlook Tower he dreams of an idealised Edinburgh he has
+only to reply to the scoffer who asks, "What have you done?"
+"_Circumspice!_" There stand the settlements he initiated, the houses
+beautiful, bright, delectable; and the tower itself is an embodiment of
+his ideas, an encyclopædia in stone and in storeys.
+
+We must, in criticising this paper, take into account these attempts
+towards realisation of its principles. The sociological evolutionist is
+"concerned primarily with origins, but ultimately and supremely with
+ideals," we were reminded in a recent paper read before this Society.
+And in the same paper it was affirmed that, "through the formulation of
+its larger generalisations as ideals, sociology may hope to achieve the
+necessary return from theory to practice." Thus, if Civics is applied
+Sociology, we must rest its claims on these criteria. What, then, we
+have to ask is:--(1) What actually are the generalisations of the
+present paper? (2) How far they are warranted by verifiable sociological
+testimony, and (3) What results do they yield when transformed by the
+touch of emotion into ideals of action? To attempt an adequate answer to
+these questions would perhaps transcend the limits of this discussion.
+But merely to raise these questions of presupposition should tend to
+clarify the discussion. Coming to detail, I may say, as one whose
+occupation is demographic, I regret the unavoidable briefness of the
+reference in "Civics" to a "rationalised census of the present condition
+of the people."
+
+[Page: 135] No one, however, who has studied the concluding portion of
+"The Evolution of Sex" can accuse Prof. Geddes of ignoring questions of
+_population_; and his eulogium, written ten years ago, of "Mr. Charles
+Booth as one of our own latest and best Economists," is familiar to all
+readers of "Education for Economics and Citizenship." In that extremely
+suggestive treatise, Prof. Geddes further points out that population
+must have a primary place in consideration, and that "our studies of the
+characteristic occupation of region by region are the essential material
+of a study of its whole civilisation."
+
+Accepting Mr. Branford's definition of _occupation_ as "any and every
+form of human endeavour, past, present, and future," we see that
+occupation must have a large place in the description, explanation, and
+forecasting of the evolution of cities--such as Edinburgh, Glasgow,
+Dundee--in the scheme of survey outlined so sweepingly in "Civics."
+
+"Life and Labour of the People in London" contains several general
+observations almost equally applicable to our largest Scottish cities,
+with the demographic conditions of which my official duties give me
+special opportunities for becoming familiar and for regional survey.
+
+In the concluding volume of that great contribution to sociology Mr.
+Booth (page 23) remarks:--
+
+"Many influences conspire to cause the poor to multiply almost in
+proportion to their poverty, and operate in the other direction in the
+case of the better off, almost in proportion to their wealth. But," says
+Mr. Booth, "when we bring the death-rate into account this law no longer
+holds."
+
+With the poor living under bad conditions in crowded homes the net
+increase is diminished. To those of us who are hopeful of improvement by
+eugenics it is pleasing to note that Mr. Booth--somewhat unlike Mr. Kidd
+in his well-known "Social Evolution"--is optimistic in his conclusion
+that "on the whole it may fairly be expected that concurrently with a
+rising standard of health we may see a fall in birth-rate as well as
+death-rate, and thus have no cause to fear, as the result of better
+sanitation, that the largest natural increase in population will ever be
+contributed by the lowest class." So the heritage of the city may grow
+not only in quantity but also in quality.
+
+From PROFESSOR W.I. THOMAS
+(Professor in the University of Chicago, U.S.A.)
+
+From the standpoint of its applicability to new countries like America,
+Professor Geddes' programme is inadequate because of its failure to
+recognise that a city under these conditions is formed by a rapid and
+contemporaneous movement of population, and not by the lapse of time.
+[Page: 136] The first permanent white settler came to Chicago precisely
+one hundred years ago, and the city has a population at present of about
+two and a quarter millions. It is here not a question of slow historic
+development but of the rapid drifting towards a certain point, of a
+population from all quarters of the globe, and the ethnological
+standpoint therefore becomes of more importance than the historical.
+
+PROFESSOR GEDDES' reply
+
+I am sincerely glad to be able to express myself in substantial
+agreement with the majority of my critics, only asking them in turn to
+recognise that this is but the first half of my subject--an outline of
+civics as in the first place a matter of science, a geographic and
+historic survey of past conditions, a corresponding census of present
+ones--here discussed and insisted on as affording the needful base for
+their demands upon civics as an art, that of effective social service.
+
+In this respect various critics have in fact anticipated large elements
+of this future portion of my paper, so that in general views, at least,
+critics and writer are not so far apart as would appear were the
+preceding pages submitted as a comprehensive outline of the subject,
+instead of as its scientific introduction merely.
+
+Of criticisms strictly applicable to this paper as it stands, there are
+really very few. I am confident that the chairman must be quite alone in
+too modestly applying to his great work that description of London
+itself, with which the paper (Section A, pp. 104-107) opens, since his
+volumes offer really our first effective clue to the labyrinth, and his
+method of intensive and specialised regional survey, the intensest
+searchlight yet brought to bear upon it.
+
+Taking, however, a concrete point of criticism, such as that of the
+monumental planning of modern Paris as derived from forest rides, the
+critic need only walk through any French forest, or even to consult a
+Baedeker, or other guide-book, with its maps of any historic dwelling
+and its surroundings, from Chantilly or Fontainebleau to minor ones, to
+see that this plan, originally devised for the pleasure, success and
+safety [Page: 137] of the hunt, and later adapted to domination and
+defence, became next appreciated as affording the finest possible
+perspectives of the palatially rebuilt chateau. So that it is not at all
+a fantastic hypothesis, but an obvious and inevitable conclusion that
+Napoleon's and Haussman's plans were not at all invented by them for
+Paris, but were directly imitated from the familiar landscape
+architecture of the preceding century, which again was but the simplest
+development from the spacious forest rides of older hunting nobles, laid
+out without any thought of the architectural and city developments they
+were destined in later centuries to determine.
+
+The citizen of Washington had till lately often forgotten that the
+magnificent perspectives of his city are due to the French
+landscape-architect (Major L'Enfant) whom Washington imported for the
+express purpose of laying out his capital; yet it is no less clear that
+this most magnificent of the New World city plans is derived from Old
+World forest rides, than that its monumental edifices descend from
+Renaissance and classic exemplars.
+
+I plead indeed for such studies of the plans of any and every city from
+the point of view of its natural development. The too purely abstract
+and subjective sociology of the dwellers of great cities like London
+would in this way be helped by the facts of their own topographic
+history, already well known and clearly explained by geographer and
+historian, towards again feeling with the naturalist that even the
+modern city is but the most complex evolutionary expression and
+development of the life of Nature.
+
+This view I take to be indeed a commonplace in France; but I account for
+its apparent unfamiliarity to English readers from the fact of our
+scanty forests in this island being left practically wild, our nobles
+not inhabiting them, but the cultivated pasture and arable regions
+below--planting trees indeed, "plantations," but seldom woods, and
+practically never forests at all. This again brings out the fact that
+the French nobles, despite our urban associations with regard to them
+have belonged far more than ours to the social formation and tradition
+of the hunter--while ours, despite their love of sports, are yet
+fundamentally squires, i.e., essentially and historically approximating
+to the peasants of their villages. The bearing of all this upon their
+respective history will be obvious. Here again we have the origins of
+the vivid contrast of the English or so-called naturalistic style of
+landscape-gardening with the more formal French tradition. Yet in a very
+true sense we see the former to be even more highly artificial than the
+latter. [Page: 138] The English citizen who may even admit this way of
+looking at the contrasted city plans of London and Paris may fail,
+unless he has appreciated the principle here involved, to see why London
+and Paris houses are so different--the one separate and self-contained,
+with its door undefended and open upon the street, while the normal
+Parisian house is a populous, high-piled tenement around a central
+court, with high _porte cochère_ closed by massive oaken doors and
+guarded by an always vigilant and often surly _concierge_.
+
+A moment of historical reflection suffices to see that the former is the
+architecture of a long-settled agricultural place, with its spreading
+undefended villages, in which each household had its separate dwelling,
+the other a persistence of the Continental fortified city crowded within
+its walls.
+
+But beyond this we must see the earlier historic, the simpler geographic
+origins of the French courtyard house as a defensible farmyard, of which
+the ample space was needed nightly for defence against wild beasts, if
+not also wilder men, against whom the _concierge_ is not only the
+antique porter but the primitive sentinel.
+
+I may seem unduly to labour such points, yet do so advisedly, in order
+to emphasise and make clearer the essential thesis of this portion of my
+paper--that every scientific survey involves a geographic and historic
+exploration of origins, but that of the still unwritten chapter, that
+the far-reaching forelook, idealistic yet also critical, which is
+needful to any true and enduring contribution to social service, is
+prepared for by habitually imaging the course of evolution in the past.
+
+Speaking personally, as one whose leisure and practical life have alike
+been largely spent in the study and the preservation of ancient
+buildings, I may say that this has not been solely, or even essentially,
+from an antiquarian interest in the historic past, but still more on
+behalf of a practical interest--that of the idealistic, yet economic,
+utilitarian, because educational and evolutionary, transformation of our
+old cities--old Edinburgh, old Dunfermline, and the like--from their
+present sordid unhygienic failure; and therefore industrial and
+commercial insufficiency, towards a future equalling if not transcending
+the recorded greatness of the civic past.
+
+It has, therefore, been to lay the broadest possible basis of
+evolutionary science, of geographic and historic fact, for what would
+otherwise be open to ridicule as a Utopian hope, that of Civics as
+Applied Social Art, that I have insisted at such length above upon
+Civics as Applied Social Science.
+
+
+
+
+[Page: 139] PRESS COMMENTS
+
+_The Times_ (July 20, 1904) in a leading article, said:
+
+In the paper read on Monday at a meeting of the Sociological Society by
+Professor GEDDES--an abstract of which we print--are contained ideas of
+practical value to be recommended to the study of ambitious
+municipalities. This is the age of cities, and all the world is
+city-building. Almost everywhere is a flow from the country town-ward.
+China and India may be still, in the main, lands of villages. But the
+West, Russia perhaps excepted, is more and more peopled by dwellers in
+cities. In a dim sort of way many persons understand that the time has
+come when art and skill and foresight should control what so far has
+been left to chance to work out; that there should be a more orderly
+conception of civic action; that there is a real art of city-making, and
+that it behoves this generation to master and practise it. Professor
+Geddes truly said the land is already full of preparation as to this
+matter; the beginnings of a concrete art of city-making are visible at
+various points. But our city rulers are often among the blindest to
+these considerations; and nowhere probably is to be seen a municipality
+fully and consistently alive to its duties in this respect. London may
+be left out of the question. Still a province rather than a city in the
+strict sense, wanting what, in the view of the early master of political
+science, was an essential of the true city, that it could "easily be
+overseen," with a vast floating population, it will be some time before
+it can be dealt with as an organic whole. But the rulers of such
+communities as Manchester and Newcastle and York ought long ago to have
+realised, much more than has been done, that they are not so much brick
+and mortar, so much rateable area, so many thousands of people
+fortuitously brought together. They have all a regional environment of
+their own which determined their origin and growth. They have all a rich
+past, the monuments of which, generally to be found in abundance by
+careful, reverent inquirers, ought to be preserved; a past which ought
+to be known more or less to all the dwellers therein, and the knowledge
+of which will make the present more interesting. Even when old buildings
+have disappeared, ancient roads, pathways, and streets can be traced;
+place names keep alive much history; and the natural features reveal to
+the practised eye what must have been the look and condition of a town
+in past ages. Professor Geddes gives a sketch of what he conceives the
+vast and ever-growing literature of cities will one day be. Even if the
+comprehensive monographs which he foreshadows are never [Page: 140]
+written, it is not surely fanciful to expect that, with education
+universal, almost every dweller in our old towns will acquire some sort
+of that feeling with which a member of an ancient family looks upon its
+ancestral house or lands--will, even without much reading, have some
+sort of notion of his predecessors and a certain pride in his membership
+of an ancient community. If he has not the good fortune to be a De Vere,
+a De Bohun, a Howard, Mowbray or Cavendish, he may perhaps be a citizen
+of a town which flourished when some of these families were unknown.
+
+Such pride, or, as the lecturer preferred to term it, such "growth of
+civic consciousness and conscience, the awakening of citizenship towards
+civic renascence," will be the best security for a worthy city of the
+future....
+
+Professor Geddes glanced at the opening civic future, "the remoter and
+higher issues which a city's indefinitely long life and correspondingly
+needed foresight and statesmanship involve," the possibilities which may
+be easily realised if only there be true civic pride, foresight, and
+unflagging pursuit of a reasonable ideal.... It remains to be seen what
+our cities will become when for some generations the same spirit of
+pride and reverence shown by old families as to their possessions has
+presided over all civic changes and developments.... Ruskin somewhere
+points out the mediaeval love of cities, unwholesome, dirty, and
+forbidding though they were. He did not teach his generation that that
+affection might with more reason attach to the modern city if its people
+knew what it had been and steadily strove to make it better, if there
+was in every large community patriotism and a polity.
+
+DR. J.H. BRIDGES in _The Positivist Review_ (Sept., 1904), said: Under
+the title, "Civics, as applied Sociology," Prof. Geddes read on July
+18th a very interesting paper before the Sociological Society. The
+importance of the subject will be contested by none. The method adopted
+in handling it, being in many ways original, invites remark ...
+
+What is wanted is first a survey of the facts to be dealt with--a
+regional survey. This point of view has next to be correlated with
+corresponding practical experience acquired by practical civic life, but
+"aiming at a larger and more orderly conception of civic action."....
+Students of Comte will not forget his well-known maxim, _Savoir pour
+prévoir, afin de pourvoir_.
+
+What is to be the area of survey? Prof. Geddes decides that the City may
+be taken "as the integrate of study." Whether any modern towns, and, if
+so, what, may be taken as integrates in the sense which would
+undoubtedly apply to ancient Athens or to mediaeval Florence, may be
+questioned; but it is too soon to interrupt our author.... Every one who
+heard the lecturer must have been fascinated by his picture of a river
+system which he takes for his unit of study; the high mountain tracts,
+the pastoral hillsides, the hamlets and villages in the valleys, the
+market town where the valleys meet, the convergence of the larger
+valleys into a county town, finally, the great city where the river
+meets the sea. The lecturer went on to advocate the systematic study of
+some of the principal river-basins of the world for the purpose of
+examining the laws which govern the grouping of cities. All would agree
+that much instruction might be derived from such [Page: 141] a survey,
+provided two dangers be avoided. One is the exaggeration of the
+influence of the environment on the social organism, an error into which
+the Le Play school have sometimes fallen; as when, for instance, it was
+sought to explain Chinese civilisation by the rice-plant. The other
+danger, which needs much care and thought to avoid, is the accumulation
+of such a mass of irrelevant detail as renders (perhaps sometimes it is
+intended to render) all generalisation impossible. Thinking men are at
+last beginning to regard the accumulation of memoirs as one of the
+principal obstacles to scientific progress. On the pretext of "more
+evidence," conclusions are adjourned, not merely _sine die_, but _sine
+spe diei_. Yet so long as man is man, he must, and will, have
+conclusions; be they final or otherwise.
+
+From the physiography of the city we pass to its history ...
+
+In this part of his subject he has, as we all know, many precursors and
+fellow-workers. The remarkable series, entitled "Historic Towns,"
+instituted by Prof. Freeman, is known to most. The study of towns was
+the life and soul of Mr. Green's historic labours. Eloquent and powerful
+pictures of the great cities of the world fill the greater part of Mr.
+Harrison's well-known volume, "The Meaning of History"; and the student
+of universal history (a few of these, it may be hoped, are still left)
+finds them very stimulating and helpful. The special note of Prof.
+Geddes' method is that he does not limit himself to the greater cities,
+but also, and perhaps by preference, deals with the smaller, and with
+their physical environment; and, above all, that he attempts not merely
+to observe closely and thoroughly, but to generalise as the result of
+his observation. In biology, the study of any single organism, however
+minute and accurate, could reveal no laws (i.e., no general facts) of
+structure or function. As for instance, many forms of heart must be
+examined before the laws governing blood-circulation could be revealed;
+so here. Countless, indeed, are the forms of cities; even limiting our
+field of observation to those that have grown up in the last century
+they are numerous enough. Their differences and analogies would
+doubtless repay analysis, always supposing that we are clear how far the
+modern town, as contrasted with the mediaeval or Graeco-Roman city, can
+usefully be treated as "an integrate." This raises large questions of
+nation, of groups of nations, finally of Humanity, which cannot here be
+touched.
+
+Meantime, from the teacher's standpoint, there can be no question at
+all, among those who look upon education as something more than a
+commercial asset, as to the utility of looking on every old town, with
+the neighbourhood around it, as a condensed record, here and there
+perfect, elsewhere lamentably blotted, yet still a record, of the
+history of our race. Historic memories survive in our villages far more
+widely than is thought. The descendants of the man who found the body of
+Rufus in the New Forest still live hard by. The builder whom the first
+William set to build Corfe Castle was Stephen Mowlem; and the
+Dorsetshire firm of Mowlem still pave London causeways. A poor woman in
+a remote hamlet, untouched by tourist or guide-book, has shown me the
+ash-tree under which Monmouth was seized after Sedgemoor; a Suffolk
+peasant, equally innocent of book-knowledge, has pointed Out "Bloody
+Mary's lane," through which that bugbear of Protestants passed three
+hundred years before on her way to Framlingham. The abbey immortalised
+in Carlyle's "Past and Present," and still the wonder of Eastern
+England, is surrounded now by the same villages that Jocelyn tells us
+of. The town named after St. Alban, with its memories of Cassivellaun
+and Julius Caesar, of an old Roman city, of the Diocletian persecution,
+of the great King Offa, founder of the abbey that was to become [Page:
+142] at once a school of historical research, and our best epitome of
+mediaeval architecture--all this, with the monument of the author of the
+"Novum Organum" crowning the whole--sums up for us sixteen centuries of
+history.
+
+Professor Geddes for more than twenty years has adopted this method of
+teaching sociology in the open air; "in the field," as geologists would
+say....
+
+This is much more than the study and the description of buildings and
+places of historical interest. His aim is first to study the way in
+which a city grows, always having due regard to its physical
+environment; secondly, by comparing like with like, as a naturalist
+compares the individuals of a species, or the species of a genus, to
+throw light on the laws which govern civic development, and thus to help
+forward and direct civic action.
+
+All this is set forth with greater fulness in the Report which Professor
+Geddes has been asked to write for the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust. The
+purpose of the Report (printed, but not yet published) was to suggest
+the way in which the revenue of the Trust, amounting to £25,000, should
+be spent for the benefit of this ancient and historic town. The scheme,
+with its many pictures, real and ideal, of workshops, parks,
+culture-institutes--physical, artistic, and historical--will deeply
+interest even those who reject much of it as Utopian. But it is at least
+a Utopia specially adapted to a given place and time, one in which every
+feature of landscape and history is made the most of, one in which a
+beginning can be made at once, leaving room for further developments as
+occasion may serve. Moreover, it is penetrated through and through with
+the Republican ideal of bringing the highest truth within the reach of
+all.
+
+Comte has pointed out, in the fifth chapter of his "General View of
+Positivism," and elsewhere, that it is not enough to enunciate sound
+principles of social renovation unless they can be rendered visible and
+palpable. "The principal function of art," he says, "is to construct
+types on the basis furnished by Science.... However perfectly the first
+principles of social renovation may be elaborated by thinkers, they will
+still not be sufficiently definite for the practical results.... But, at
+the point where Philosophy must always leave a void, Art steps in, and
+stimulates to practical action.... Hence, in the future, systematic
+formation of Utopias will become habitual; on the distinct understanding
+that as in every other branch of art, the ideal shall be kept in
+subordination to the real."
+
+Now, the Dunfermline Report is an admirable example of art thus allied
+with science for social service. It is an ideal picture, strictly
+adherent to local colour and conditions, of an ancient city prolonging
+its vitality into the present and future by providing a very high form
+of training for its citizens, a training not of intellect only, but of
+the senses, of manual dexterity, of imagination, of Republican
+sympathy--a training in which "laborious inacquaintance with dead
+languages," infusing into the few touched by it a tincture of caste and
+militarism, gives way to comprehensive study of the evolution of Man,
+preparing the whole, and not a section merely, of the new generation for
+social service.
+
+Such a Utopia as this may be looked upon as fulfilling the true social
+function of Art; standing midway between theory and practice; inspired
+by thought, and stimulating action. Only the social artist has to look
+to it that his thoughts be not merely true but adequate, lest he
+degenerate into a mere decorator. How far will a series of "regional
+surveys," like those of [Page: 143] Mr. Booth in London and Mr. Rowntree
+in York, carry us! Not so far, I fear, as Professor Geddes seems to
+hope. Cities in our modern life are organs inseparable from a larger
+whole, the nation; and before the life of cities can be much changed, we
+have to ask ourselves, What is the national life? What is its ethical
+and religious standard? What is its practice as to the acquisition and
+distribution of wealth? And, again, What is to be the intercourse of
+nations? Is it to be war or peace?
+
+Mr. Carnegie has given half a million for the benefit of a town of
+30,000 inhabitants. Magnificent as the donation is, it is not too much;
+not nearly enough, indeed, for the full realisation of Professor Geddes'
+scheme. Still, wisely used, it might accomplish great results. What we
+have recently sunk in the work of suppressing two free States in South
+Africa would have made it possible to do for three hundred towns what
+has been done for Dunfermline. Half of what we are now spending on our
+army and navy would enable us to endow thirty more of such towns
+annually.
+
+Mr. ISRAEL ZANGWILL in _To-day_ (Aug. 10, 1904), said: The Sociological
+Society is forging ahead at American speed; the professors jostle one
+another, and Geddes treads on the heels of Galton. After "Eugenics," or
+the Science of Good Births, comes "Civics," or the Science of Cities. In
+the former Mr. Galton was developing an idea which was in the air, and
+in Wells. In the latter Professor Geddes has struck out a more novel
+line, and a still more novel nomenclature. Politography, Politogenics,
+and Eu-Politogenics, likewise Hebraomorphic and Latinomorphic and
+Eutopia--quite an opposite idea from Utopia--such are some of the
+additions to the dictionary which the science of Civics carries in its
+train. They are all excellent words--with the double-barrelled
+exception--and still more excellent concepts. But I fancy the general
+idea of them all could be conveyed to the man in the street under the
+covering of "the human shell." This shell of ours is the city. It is the
+protective crust we have built round ourselves. In a smaller sense our
+house is our shell, but in a larger sense each house is only a lobe of
+the complex and contorted whole. Geography shapes our shells from
+without, and the spirit of our particular community shapes it from
+within. History tells us how it has been shaped in the past, Art tells
+us how it should be shaped in the future. Professor Geddes, in fact,
+envisages our civic shell as becomes a brilliant biologist, who also
+happens to be a man of historic imagination, ethical impulses, and
+aesthetic perceptions. For the human shell is not merely geometrical and
+architectural, like those of apian or beaverish communities; it holds
+and expresses all those differences by which we are exalted above the
+bee or the beaver. It is coloured with our emotions and ideals, and
+contorted with all the spirals of our history. And all these
+manifestations of humanity may be studied as systematically as those of
+the lower orders of creation, which have till recently monopolised the
+privilege of pin and label. The old lady who admired the benevolence of
+Providence in always placing rivers by the side of large towns was only
+expressing in an exaggerated way the general failure to think of Civics
+scientifically. The geographers, in whom may be found the bases of the
+science, have always pointed out that the river system is the essential
+unit for investigation. From source to sea goes the line of evolution.
+And yet even the peasant hamlet at the source depends, as [Page: 144]
+Professor Geddes reminds us, on the hinterland of pasture, forest, and
+chase; and the hunter is the germ of the soldier and the aristocrat. The
+whole region contributes to the ultimate city, as the whole river to the
+ultimate sea. The Professor says, justly enough, that we should try to
+recover the elemental or naturalist point of view, even for the greatest
+cities. He sees London as "fundamentally an agglomeration of villages
+with their surviving patches of common around a mediaeval seaport." This
+is accurate vision; but when he discerns "even in the utmost
+magnificence of Paris, say, its Place de l'Etoile, its spread of
+boulevards, but the hunter's tryst by the fallen tree, with its
+radiating forest rides, each literally straight," I cannot help
+suspecting the over-ingenuity of a prolific intellect. The view of
+London as a growth from embryos, and the view of Paris as the outcome of
+atavistic instinct, belong to different planes of scientific thinking.
+That Haussmann in reconstructing Paris was merely an unconscious hunter
+and woodlander, building as automatically as a bee, is a fantastic
+hypothesis; since cities, if they are to be built on a plan at all,
+cannot avoid some unifying geometrical pattern; and there are not very
+many possibilities.... In the department of Eu-Politogenics we shall be
+confronted with the problem of consciously overriding what evolution has
+unconsciously evolved, and building towards a fairer future. No doubt
+much of our creation will be imitation, and Professor Geddes is
+particularly suggestive in bidding us, at least, to be aware which of
+the tangled strands of influence we desire to follow; but a measure of
+artistic free-will remains. With the development of a corporate
+conscience we should be able to turn out far more satisfactory shells
+than many that have blundered into being. "Garden City" is only a
+particular application of the science of Civics....
+
+Eu-Politogenics concerns itself, however, with more than the mere
+configuration of our human shell. Its colour and the music it holds are
+considerations no less important. But they are too important to touch at
+the fag-end of an article. Professor Geddes must, however, be
+congratulated on a stimulating paper, and upon his discovery of Eutopia.
+For Eutopia (unlike Utopia, which is really Ou-topia, or no place) is
+merely your own place perfected. And the duty of working towards its
+perfection lies directly upon _you_. "Civics--as applied sociology"
+comes to show you the way.
+
+
+
+
+CIVICS: AS CONCRETE AND APPLIED SOCIOLOGY, PART II
+
+BY PROFESSOR GEDDES
+
+Read before the Sociological Society at a Meeting in the School of
+Economics and Political Science (University of London), Clare Market,
+W.C., on Monday, January 23rd, 1905, the Rt. Hon. CHARLES BOOTH, F.R.S.,
+in the Chair.
+
+
+A--INTRODUCTION: THE NEED OF CIVIC SURVEYS
+
+To the previous discussion of this subject[2] the first portion of this
+present title, "Civics as Concrete Sociology," would have been more
+suitable than the second, (that of "Civics as Applied Sociology")
+actually used. For its aim was essentially to plead for the concrete
+survey and study of cities, their observation and interpretation on
+lines essentially similar to those of the natural sciences. Since
+Comte's demonstration of the necessity of the preliminary sciences to
+social studies, and Spencer's development of this, still more since the
+evolution theory has become generally recognised, no one disputes the
+applicability of biology to [Page: 58] sociology. Many are, indeed,
+vigorously applying the conceptions of life in evolution, in
+geographical distribution and environment, in health and disease, to the
+interpretations of the problems of the times; while with the
+contemporary rise of eugenics to the first plane of interest, both
+social and scientific, these lines of thought, bio-social and
+bio-geographic, must needs be increasingly utilised and developed.
+
+[2] "Sociological Papers," Vol 1., pp. 103-118.
+
+But Comte and Spencer, with most other biologically-minded sociologists
+have been more at home among biological generalisations and theories
+than among the facts they arise from, and hence it is ever needful to
+maintain and extend a first-hand contact with these. I seek, therefore,
+to press home the idea that just as the biologist must earn his
+generalisations through direct and first-hand acquaintance with nature,
+so now must the sociologist work for his generalisations through a
+period of kindred observation and analysis, both geographic and
+historical; his "general laws" thus appearing anew as the abstract of
+regional facts, after due comparison of these as between region and
+region.
+
+May not much of the comparative sterility of post-Comtean (or at any
+rate post-Spencerian) sociology, which is so commonly reproached to us,
+and to which the difficult formation and slow growth of sociological
+societies and schools is largely due, be thus explained? Is it not the
+case that many able and persuasive writers, not only knowing the
+results, but logically using the generalisations of Comte or Spencer, as
+of old of Smith or now-a-days of List in the economic field, are yet
+comparatively sterile of fresh contributions to thought, and still more
+to action? In fact, must we not apply to much of the literature of
+recent sociology, just as to traditional economics, the criticism of
+Comte's well-known law of three states, and inquire if such writers,
+while apparently upon the plane of generalised science, are not really
+in large measure at least arrested upon Comte's "metaphysical stage,"
+Mill's "abstractional" one?
+
+Conversely, the revival of sociological interest in this country at
+present is obviously very largely derived from fresh and freshening work
+like that of Mr Francis Galton and of the Right Hon. Charles Booth
+especially. For here in Mr. Galton's biometrics and eugenics is a return
+to nature, a keen scrutiny of human beings, which is really an orderly
+fruition of that of the same author's "Art of Travel." Similarly, Mr.
+Booth's "Survey of London" is as truly a return to nature as was
+Darwin's Voyage, or his yet more far-reaching studies in his garden and
+farmyard at home. [Page: 59] Is it not the main support of the subtle
+theorisings and far-stretched polemic of Prof. Weismann that he can
+plague his adversaries with the small but literal and concrete mice and
+hydroids and water fleas with which his theories began? And is it not
+for a certain lack of such concrete matter of observation that the vast
+systematisations of M. de Greef, or M. de Roberty, or the original and
+ingenious readings of Prof. Simon Patten leave us too often unconvinced,
+even if not sometimes without sufficiently definite understanding of
+their meaning? The simplest of naturalists must feel that Comte or
+Spencer, despite the frequently able use of the generalisations of
+biology, themselves somewhat lacked the first-hand observation of the
+city and community around them, and suffered thereby; this part of their
+work obviously not being on a level with the historic interpretations of
+the one or the psychological productivity of the other. And if, without
+warlike intent, I may yet strike a conspicuous shield or two within
+these friendly lists, is it not this one element of concrete observation
+and illustration which is sometimes lacking to give its full effect to
+the encyclopædic learning and the sympathetic insight of one of our
+recent papers, to the historic and poetic interpretations of another, or
+to the masterly logic of a third?
+
+Before the polemics of our educationists, the voluminous argumentation
+and casuistic subtlety of our professors of economics and ethics, yet
+more before the profound speculations of the epistemologists, the mere
+naturalist observer can but feel abashed like the truant before his
+schoolmasters; yet he is also not without a certain deep inward
+conviction, born of experience, that his outdoor world is yet more real,
+more vast, and more instructive than is theirs. And this impression
+becomes strengthened, nay verified and established, when he sees that
+the initiative thinkers from whom these claim to descend, have had in
+each and every case no merely academic record, but also a first-hand
+experience, an impulse and message from life and nature. Hence the
+contributions of Locke, of Comenius, and of Rousseau. Hence the
+Physiocrats found economics in peasant life; and thus too Adam Smith
+renewed their science, with due academic logic, doubtless, but from his
+experience of Glasgow and Kirkcaldy manufactures and trade. Even the
+idealist Berkeley owed much of his theory to his iridescent tar-water;
+while surely the greater ethicists are those who have not only been
+dialecticians, but moral forces in the world of men.
+
+In such ways, then, I would justify the thesis that civics is no
+abstract study, but fundamentally a matter of concrete and descriptive
+sociology--perhaps the greatest field of this. Next, that such orderly
+study is in line with the preliminary sciences, and with the general
+doctrine of evolution from simple to complex; and finally with the
+general inquiry into the influence of geographical conditions on social
+development. [Page: 60] In short, the student of civics must be first of
+all an observer of cities; and, if so, of their origins and
+developments, from the small and simple beginnings of which the tiniest
+hamlet is but an arrested germ. The productive sociologist should thus
+be of all investigators a wandering student _par excellence_; in the
+first place, as far as possible, a literal tourist and traveller--and
+this although like the homely Gilbert White or the world voyaging
+Darwin, he may do his best work around his own home.
+
+
+B--INITIAL METHODS OF CONCRETE SURVEY
+
+Hence our civic studies began (vol. 1, p. 105) with the survey of a
+valley region inhabited by its characteristic types--hunter and
+shepherd, peasant and fisher--each on his own level, each evolving or
+degenerating within his own region. Hence the concrete picture of such a
+typical valley section with its types of occupation cannot be brought
+too clearly before our minds.[3]
+
+[3] Fig. 1.
+
+What now of the causes of progress or decay? Are not these first of all
+the qualities and defects inherent in that particular social
+formation?--though we must also consider how these different types act
+and react, how they combine with, transform, subjugate, ruin or replace
+each other in region after region. We thus re-interpret the vicissitudes
+of history in more general terms, those of the differentiation, progress
+or degeneracy of each occupational and social type, and the ascending
+and descending oscillations of these types. In short, these occupational
+struggles underlie and largely interpret even the conflict of races,
+upon which Mr. Stuart-Glennie and other sociologists have so ably
+insisted. The fundamental importance of these initial factors of region
+and occupation to all studies of races and types, of communities and
+institutions, of customs and laws, indeed of language and literature, of
+religion and art, even of ideals and individualities, must be my excuse
+if I seem to insist, in season and out of season, upon [Page: 61] the
+services of Le Play as one of the main founders of sociology; and this
+not only _(a)_ on account of his monographic surveys of modern
+industrial life--those "Monographies Sociales" from which our current
+economic studies of the condition of the worker, of the family budget,
+etc., descend--but _(b)_ yet more on account of his vital reconstruction
+of anthropology (albeit still far from adequately realised by most
+anthropologists) through his renewed insistence upon the elemental
+rustic origins of industry, family types, and social organisation alike,
+from these simplest reactions of man in his struggle for existence in
+varied and varying environment.
+
+It does not suffice to recognise, with many economists, hunting,
+pastoral and agricultural formations, as states _preliminary_ to our
+present industrial and commercial, imperial, and financial order of
+civilisation. This view, still too commonly surviving, is rather of
+hindrance than help; what we need is to see our existing civilisation as
+the complex struggle and resultant of all these types and their
+developments to-day. So far, therefore, from leaving, as at present,
+these simple occupational types to the anthropologist, or at best giving
+him some scant hospitality within our city museum, we are learning to
+see how it is at one time the eager miner, or the conservative shepherd,
+or at another the adventurous fisher or hunter who comes concretely upon
+the first plane of national, imperial or international politics, and who
+awakens new strife among these. We not only begin to see, but the
+soldier frankly tells us, how the current sports of youth, and the
+unprecedented militarism of the past century, are alike profoundly
+connected with the hunting world. Hence the hope of peace lies not only,
+as most at present think in the civilised and civilising development of
+international law, or of culture intercourse, excellent though these
+are, but also in a fuller and complete return to nature than has been
+this recent and persistent obsession of our governing classes with the
+hunter world almost alone; in short, in adding the gentler, yet wider,
+experiences of the naturalist, the sterner experiences of other
+occupations also. Nor does such elementary recognition of these main
+social formations content us; their local differentiations must be noted
+and compared--a comprehensive regional survey, therefore, which does
+justice to each local variety of these great types; speaking henceforth
+of no mere abstract "hunter," but of the specific hunting types of each
+climate, and distinguishing these as clearly as do our own milder
+sportsmen of deer-forest and the turnip field from themselves and from
+each other. After such needed surveys in detail, we may, indeed must,
+compare and generalise them.
+
+Similarly for the pasture, the forest. Every tourist in this country is
+struck by the contrast of Swiss towns and cities with our own, and notes
+[Page: 62] too that on the Swiss pasture he finds a horde of cattle,
+while in Scotland or Yorkshire he left a flock of sheep. And not only
+the tourist, but the historian or the economist too often fail to see
+how Galashiels or Bradford are developments of the wool hamlet, now
+familiar to many in R.L. Stevenson's native Swanston. Again, not only
+Swiss wealth, but Swiss character and institutions, go back essentially
+to the high pasture and the well-filled byre. That this rich Swiss
+cow-pasture rests on limestone, and the poor Scottish sheep-grazing upon
+comparatively unmouldering and impermeable gneiss, is no mere matter of
+geologist's detail; it affords in each case the literal and concrete
+foundation-stone of the subsequent evolution of each region and
+population, and this not only in material and economic development, but
+even in higher and subtler outcomes, aesthetic, intellectual and
+moral.[4] It is for such reasons that one must labour and re-labour this
+geographic and determinist aspect of sociology, and this for no merely
+scientific reason, but also for practical ones. Nowhere perhaps have
+more good and generous souls considered how to better the condition of
+their people than in Swiss, or Irish, or Scottish valleys; yet it is one
+main reason of the continual failure of all such movements, and of such
+minds in the wider world as well, that they do not first acquaint
+themselves with the realities of nature and labour sufficiently to
+appreciate that the fundamental--I do not say the supreme--question is:
+what can be got out of limestone, and what can be got out of gneiss?
+Hence the rare educative value of such a concrete sociological diagram
+and model as was the Swiss Village at the Paris Exposition of 1900, for
+here geographic and economic knowledge and insight were expressed with
+artistic skill and sympathy as perhaps never before. Only as similar
+object-lessons are worked out for other countries, can we adequately
+learn, much less popularly teach, how from nature comes "rustics," and
+from this comes civics. But civics and rustics make up the field of
+politics; they are the concrete of which politics become the
+abstract--commonly the too remotely abstract.
+
+[4] For a fuller justification of this thesis as regards Switzerland,
+see the writer's "International Exhibitions," in _International
+Monthly_, October, 1900.
+
+For final illustration, let us descend to the sea-level. There again,
+taking the fisher, each regional type must be traced in his contribution
+to his town. Take for instance the salmon fisher of Norway, the whaler
+of Dundee, the herring-fisher of Yarmouth, the cod-fisher of
+Newfoundland, the coral fisher of the Ægean; each is a definite varietal
+type, one developing or at least tending to develop characteristic
+normal family relations, and corresponding social outcomes in
+institutions; in which again the appropriate qualities and defects must
+be expressed, even as is the quality and twist of the hemp in the
+strength of the cable, or as is the chemistry and the microscopic
+structure of the alloy in the efficiency of the great gun. [Page: 63]
+Our neighbouring learned societies and museums geographical, geological
+and the rest, are thus avowedly and consciously so many winter shelters
+in which respective groups of regional surveyors tell their tales and
+compare their observations, in which they meet to compare their
+generalisations from their own observations made in the field with those
+made by others. So it must increasingly be for this youngest of
+societies. We may, we should, know best our Thames valley, our London
+basin, our London survey; but the progress of our science implies as
+increasingly varied and thorough an inquiry into rustic and civic
+regions and occupations and resultants throughout the whole world
+present and past, as does the corresponding world survey with our
+geologic neighbours.
+
+I plead then for a sociological survey, rustic and civic, region by
+region, and insist in the first place upon the same itinerant field
+methods of notebook and camera, even for museum collections and the
+rest, as those of the natural sciences. The dreary manuals which have
+too long discredited those sciences in our schools, are now giving place
+to a new and fascinating literature of first-hand nature study.
+Similarly, those too abstract manuals of civics which are at present
+employed in schools[5] must be replaced by concrete and regional ones,
+their abstract counsels of political or personal perfection thus also
+giving place to a corresponding regional idealism which may then be
+supplemented from other regions as far as needs demand and circumstances
+allow.
+
+[5] For a fuller review of these, compare the writer's "City
+Development," in _Contemporary Review_, October, 1904.
+
+C--GEOGRAPHICAL DETERMINISM AND ITS DIFFICULTIES
+
+To interpret then our tangle of ideas, both of the city and its
+citizens, let us now bring more fully to our transverse valley sections,
+and to each occupation separately, the geographical view-point which we
+have found of service to elucidate the development of towns and cities
+upon its longitudinal [Page: 64] slope. But this is neither more nor
+less than the method of Montesquieu, whose classic "Esprit des Lois"
+anticipates and initiates so much of that of later writers--Ritter,
+Buckle, Taine, or Le Play. Once more then let their common, or rather
+their resultant, doctrine be stated in terms expressing the latest of
+these more fully than the first. Given the region, its character
+determines the nature of the fundamental occupation, and this in turn
+essentially determines the type of family. The nature and method of the
+occupation must normally determine the mode of its organisation, e.g.,
+the rise and character of a specialised directive class, and the nature
+of these occupational chiefs as contrasted with the people and with each
+other. Similarly, the types of family tend to develop their appropriate
+types of institutions, e.g., for justice, guidance, and of course
+notably in response to social environment as regards defence or attack.
+
+Thus at this point in fact we seem to be pressing upon the student of
+sociology the essential argument of geographical and evolutionary
+determinism, in fact inviting him to adopt a view, indeed to commit
+himself to a method, which may be not only foreign to his habits, but
+repugnant to his whole view of life and history. And if able advocacy of
+this determinist view of society for at least the past five generations
+has not carried general conviction, why raise so controversial a
+suggestion, in the guise too of a method professing to harmonise all
+comers? Yet this is advisedly done; and as no one will deny some civil
+importance to geographical factors, let patience be granted to examine
+this aspect of the city's map and shield, and to get from it what it can
+teach, under the present assurance to the philosophic and idealist
+critic that his view of other factors, higher and deeper, as supreme in
+human life, and therefore in city making, will not be forgotten, nor
+excluded from consideration when we come to them. All that is really
+insisted upon here is that if anything of naturalistic method of
+evolutionary conception is to be permitted at all, we must obviously
+proceed from this simple towards the more complex, and so begin with it
+here and now.
+
+It is the appropriate slope or steppe, the needful rainfall, that
+conditions the growth of grass, this which conditions the presence of
+herds or flocks, and these again which determine the very existence of
+shepherds. These granted then, not only do the pastoral arts and crafts
+arise, but the patriarchal type and family develop, and this not only
+with their hospitality and other virtues, with their nomadic tendencies,
+at any rate, their unfixed land-tenure, very different from the
+peasant's, but their slow and skilful [Page: 65] diplomacy (till the
+pasture is bared or grown again, as the negotiator's interests incline).
+The patriarch in his venerable age, the caravaneer in his nomadic and
+exploring youth, his disciplined maturity, thus naturally develop as
+different types of chief and leader; and it is therefore not until this
+stage, when all is ready for the entry of Abraham or Job, of Mohammed
+the camel-driver, or Paul the tent-maker, that any real controversy can
+arise between the determinist and his opponent, between the democratic
+and the great-man theories of history, towards which these respectively
+incline.[6] And at that stage, may not the controversy stimulate a
+fruitful analysis? After all, what is the claim of free-will but to
+select among the factors afforded by a given set of circumstances? And
+the utmost stretch of determinism to which geography and civics may lead
+us obviously cannot prove the negative of this. But whether the
+psychologic origins of new ideals be internal to the mind of genius, or
+imparted by some external source, is a matter obviously beyond the scope
+of either the geographer or the historian of civics to settle. Enough
+surely for both controversialists if we use such a means of tabulating
+facts as to beg the question for neither view; and still better if we
+can present the case of each without injustice to either, nay, to each
+with its clearness increased by the sharp edge of contrast. If the
+geographical determinist thesis on one hand, and its ethical and
+psychological antithesis on the other, can thus clearly be defined and
+balanced, their working equilibrium is at hand, even should their
+complete synthesis remain beyond us.
+
+[6] A fuller study, upon this method, of the essential origins of
+pastoral evolution, and of its characteristic modern developments, will
+be found in the writer's "Flower of the Grass," in _The Evergreen_,
+Edinburgh and Westminster, 1896. See also "La Science Sociale,"
+_passim_, especially in its earlier vols. or its number for Jan. 1905.
+
+
+D--NEED OF ABSTRACT METHOD FOR NOTATION AND FOR INTERPRETATION
+
+Not only such general geographical studies, but such social
+interpretations as those above indicated have long been in progress:
+witness the labours of whole schools of historians and critics, among
+whom Montsquieu and his immediate following, or in more recent times
+Buckle and Taine, are but the most prominent; witness the works of
+geographers like Humboldt, Ritter, Reclus, or of developmental
+technologists like Boucher de Perthes and regional economists like Le
+Play. The main lines of a concrete and evolutionary sociology (or at
+[Page: 66] least _sociography_) have thus been laid down for us; but the
+task now before us, in our time, in such a society as this--and indeed
+in such a paper as the present one--its that of extracting from all this
+general teaching its essential scientific method, one everywhere latent
+and implicit, but nowhere fully explicit, or at least adequately
+systematised.
+
+It is in fact only as we can agree upon some definite and orderly method
+of description that our existing literature of social surveys can be
+adequately compared or new ones co-operatively undertaken. Hence the
+importance of discussions of scientific method such as those who have so
+largely occupied our first volume. Yet, I submit, here lies the means of
+escaping from these too abstract (and consequently too static)
+presentments of the general methodology of social science into which
+sociologists are constantly falling; and to which must be largely
+ascribed the prevalent distaste for sociology so general in this
+would-be practical-minded community in which we find ourselves, as
+indeed also the comparative unattractiveness of our studies to the body
+of specialist scientific workers, not even excepting those within what
+we consider sociological fields.
+
+The history of each science, be it mathematics or astronomy, botany,
+zoology or geology, shows us that it is not enough to have the
+intelligent observer, or even the interpretative thinker with his
+personally expressed doctrine. This must be clearly crystallised into a
+definite statement, method, proposition, "law" or theory, stated in
+colourless impersonal form before it is capable of acceptance and
+incorporation into the general body of science. But while astronomer and
+geologist and naturalist can and do describe both the observational
+results and their general conceptions in literary form, requiring from
+the ordinary reader but the patience to master a few unfamiliar terms
+and ideas, they also carry on their work by help of definite and orderly
+technical methods, descriptive and comparative, analytic and synthetic.
+These, as far as possible, have to be crystallised beyond their mere
+verbal statement into formulae, into tabular and graphic presentments,
+and thus not only acquire greater clearness of statement, but become
+more and more active agencies of inquiry--in fact, become literal
+_thinking-machines_. But while the mathematician has his notations and
+his calculus, the geographer and geologist their maps, reliefs and
+sections, the naturalist his orderly classificatory methods, it has been
+the misfortune and delay of political economy, and no small cause of
+that "notorious discord and sterility" with which Comte reproached it,
+that [Page: 67] its cultivators have so commonly sought to dispense with
+the employment of any definite scientific notations; while even its
+avowed statisticians, in this country especially, have long resisted the
+consistent use of graphic methods.
+
+I submit, therefore, for discussion, as even more urgent and pressing
+than that of the general and abstract methodology of the social
+sciences, the problem of elaborating a concrete descriptive method
+readily applicable to the study and comparison of human societies, to
+cities therefore especially. To do justice to this subject, not only the
+descriptive labours of anthropologists, but much of the literature of
+sociology would have to be gone through from the "Tableau Economique" of
+the Physiocratic School to the "Sociological Tables" of Mr. Spencer, and
+still more fruitfully to more recent writers. Among these, besides here
+recognising specially the work of Mr. Booth and its stimulus to younger
+investigators, I would acknowledge the helpful and suggestive impulse
+from the group of social geographers which has arisen from the
+initiative of Le Play[7], and whose classification, especially in its
+later forms[8], cannot but be of interest and value to everyone whose
+thought on social questions is not afloat upon the ocean of the abstract
+without chart or bearings.
+
+[7] La Nomenclature Sociale (Extrait de La Revue, "La Science Sociale,"
+Dec. 1886) Paris, Firmin-Diact, 1887.
+
+[8] Demoulins, La Science Sociale d'apres F. Le Play 1882-1905;
+Classification Sociale, "La Science Sociale," Jan. 1905.
+
+Yet with all respect to each and all these classifications and methods,
+indeed with cordially acknowledge personal obligation and indebtedness
+to them from first to last, no one of these seems fully satisfactory for
+the present purpose; and it is therefore needful to go into the matter
+afresh for ourselves, though utilising these as fully as we can.
+
+
+E--THE CITY-COMPLEX AND ITS USUAL ANALYSIS
+
+In the everyday world, in the city as we find it, what is the working
+classification of ideas, the method of thought of its citizens? That
+the citizens no more think of themselves as using any particular
+sociological method than did M. Jourdain of talking prose does not
+really matter, save that it makes our observation, both of them and it,
+easier and more trustworthy.
+
+They are speaking and thinking for the most part of [Page: 68] People
+and of Affairs; much less of places. In the category of People, we
+observe that individuals, self and others, and this in interest, perhaps
+even more than in interests, commonly take precedence of groups.
+Institutions and Government are, however, of general interest, the state
+being much more prominent than is the church; the press, for many,
+acting as the modern substitute for the latter. In the world of Affairs,
+commerce takes precedence of industry, while sport runs hard upon both.
+War, largely viewed by its distant spectators as the most vivid form of
+sport, also bulks largely. Peace is not viewed as a positive ideal, but
+essentially as a passive state, at best, of non-war, more generally of
+latent war. Central among places are the bank, the market (in its
+financial forms before the material ones). Second to these stand the
+mines then the factories, etc.; and around these the fixed or floating
+fortresses of defence. Of homes, that of the individual alone is
+seriously considered, at most those of his friends, his "set," his
+peers, but too rarely even of the street, much less the neighbourhood,
+at least for their own sake, as distinguished from their reaction upon
+individual and family status or comfort.
+
+This set of views is obviously not easy of precise analysis of exact
+classification. In broad outline, however, a summary may be made, and
+even tabulated as follows:--
+
+THE EVERYDAY TOWN AND ITS ACTIVITIES.
+
+PEOPLE                    AFFAIRS                    PLACES
+(a) INDIVIDUALS        (a) COMMERCE          (a) MARKET, BANK, etc.
+(Self and others).         INDUSTRY, etc.        FACTORY, MINE, etc.
+                           SPORT.
+
+(b) GOVERNMENT(S)      (b) WAR               (b) FORT, FIELD, etc.
+Temporal and Spiritual  and Peace
+(State and Church).    (Latent War).
+
+Next note how from the everyday world of action, there arises a
+corresponding thought-world also. This has,
+[Page: 69] of course, no less numerous
+and varied elements, with its resultantly complex local colour; But a
+selection will suffice, of which the headings may be printed below those
+of the preceding scheme, to denote how to the objective elements there
+are subjective elements corresponding--literal reflections upon the
+pools of memory--the slowly flowing stream of tradition. Thus the
+extended diagram, its objective elements expressed in yet more general
+terms, may now be read anew (noting that mirror images are fully
+reversed).
+
+
+              PEOPLE                AFFAIRS           PLACES
+
+"TOWN"    (a) INDIVIDUALS      (a) OCCUPATIONS      (a) WORK-PLACES
+          (b) INSTITUTIONS     (b) WAR              (b) WAR-PLACES
+
+"SCHOOLS" (b) HISTORY          (b) STATISTICS AND   (b) GEOGRAPHY
+            ("Constitutional")     HISTORY
+                                 ("Military")
+          (a) BIOGRAPHY       (a) ECONOMICS         (a) TOPOGRAPHY
+
+
+Here then we have that general relation of the town life and its
+"schools," alike of thought and of education, which must now be fully
+investigated.
+
+Such diagrammatic presentments, while of course primarily for the
+purpose of clear expression and comparison, are also frequently
+suggestive--by "inspection," as geometers say--of relations not
+previously noticed. In both ways, we may see more clearly how prevalent
+ideas and doctrines have arisen as "reflections upon" the life of
+action, and even account for their qualities and their defects--their
+partial truth or their corresponding inadequacy, according to our own
+appreciative or depreciative standpoint. Thus as regards "People," in
+the first column we see expressed briefly how to (a) the individual
+life, with the corresponding vivid interest in biography, corresponds
+the "great man theory" of history. Conversely with _(b)_ alone is
+associated the insistance upon institutional developments as the main
+factor. Passing to the middle column, that of "Affairs," we may note in
+connection with _(b)_ say the rise of statistics in association with
+the needs of war, a point connected with its too empiric character; or
+note again, a too common converse weakness of economic theory, its
+inadequate inductive [Page: 70] verification. Or finally, in the column
+of "Place," the long weakness of geography as an educational subject,
+yet is periodic renewal upon the field of war, is indicated. We might in
+fact continue such a comparison of the existing world of action and of
+ideas, into all the schools, those of thought and practice, no less than
+those of formal instruction; and thus we should more and more clearly
+unravel how their complexity and entanglement, their frequent
+oppositions and contradictions are related to the various and warring
+elements of the manifold "Town" life from which they derive and survive.
+Such a fuller discussion, however, would too long delay the immediate
+problem--that of understanding "Town" and its "School" in their origins
+and simplest relations.
+
+
+F--PROPOSED METHODICAL ANALYSIS
+
+(1) THE TOWN
+
+More fully to understand this two-fold development of Town and School we
+have first of all apparently to run counter to the preceding popular
+view, which is here, as in so many cases, the precise opposite of that
+reached from the side of science. This, as we have already so fully
+insisted, must set out with geography, thus literally _replacing_ People
+and Affairs in our scheme above.
+
+Starting then once more with the simple biological formula:
+
+
+     ENVIRONMENT ... CONDITIONS ... ORGANISM
+
+this has but to be applied and defined by the social geographer to
+become
+
+
+     REGION ... OCCUPATION ... FAMILY-type and Developments
+
+which summarises precisely that doctrine of Montesquieu and his
+successors already insisted on. Again, in but slight variation from Le
+Play's simplest phrasing _("Lieu, travail, famille")_ we have
+
+
+     PLACE ... WORK ... FOLK
+
+It is from this simple and initial social formula that we have now to
+work our way to a fuller understanding of Town and School. [Page: 71]
+Immediately, therefore, this must be traced upward towards its
+complexities. For Place, it is plain, is no mere topographic site. Work,
+conditioned as it primarily is by natural advantages, is thus really
+first of all _place-work_. Arises the field or garden, the port, the
+mine, the workshop, in fact the _work-place_, as we may simply
+generalise it; while, further, beside this arise the dwellings, the
+_folk-place_.
+
+Nor are these by any means all the elements we are accustomed to lump
+together into Town. As we thus cannot avoid entering into the manifold
+complexities of town-life throughout the world and history, we must
+carry along with us the means of unravelling these; hence the value of
+this simple but precise nomenclature and its regular schematic use.
+Thus, while here keeping to simple words in everyday use, we may employ
+and combine them to analyse out our Town into its elements and their
+inter-relations with all due exactitude, instead of either leaving our
+common terms undefined, or arbitrarily defining them anew, as economists
+have alternately done--too literally losing or shirking essentials of
+Work in the above formula, and with these missing essentials of Folk and
+Place also.
+
+Tabular and schematic presentments, however, such as those to which we
+are proceeding, are apt to be less simple and satisfactory to reader
+than to writer; and this even when in oral exposition the very same
+diagram has been not only welcomed as clear, but seen and felt to be
+convincing. The reason of this difficulty is that with the spoken
+exposition the audience sees the diagram grow upon the blackboard;
+whereas to produce anything of the same effect upon the page, it must be
+printed at several successive stages of development. Thus our initial
+formula,
+
+
+     PLACE ... WORK ... FOLK
+
+readily develops into
+
+                                                    FOLK
+
+    PLACE-WORK                WORK               FOLK-WORK
+(Natural advantages)                            (Occupation)
+
+       PLACE
+
+This again naturally develops into a regular table, of which the [Page:
+72] filling up of some of the squares has been already suggested above,
+and that of the remaining ones will be intelligible on inspection:--
+
+   PLACE FOLK           WORK-FOLK             FOLK
+  ("Natives")         ("Producers")
+
+   PLACE-WORK              WORK             FOLK-WORK
+
+     PLACE              WORK-PLACE         FOLK-PLACE
+
+So complex is the idea of even the simplest Town--even in such a rustic
+germ as the "farm-town" of modern Scottish parlance, the _ton_ of
+place-names without number.
+
+The varying development of the Folk into social classes or castes night
+next be traced, and the influence and interaction of all the various
+factors of Place, Work, and Family tabulated. Suffice it here, however,
+for the present to note that such differentiation does take place,
+without entering into the classification and comparison of the protean
+types of patrician and plebeian throughout geography and history.
+
+
+G--ANALYSIS CONTINUED.--(2) THE SCHOOL
+
+Once and again we have noted how from the everyday life of action--the
+Town proper of our terminology--there arises the corresponding
+subjective world--the _Schools_ of thought, which may express itself
+sooner or later in schools of education. The types of people, their
+kinds and styles of work, their whole environment, all become
+represented in the mind of the community, and these react upon the
+individuals, their activities, their place itself. Thus (the more
+plainly the more the community is a simple and an isolated one, but in
+appreciable measure everywhere and continually) there have obviously
+arisen local turns of thought and modes of speech, ranging from shades
+of accept and idiom to distinctive dialect or language. Similarly, there
+is a characteristic variety of occupational activity, a style of
+workmanship, a way of doing business. There are distinctive [Page: 73]
+manners and customs--there is, in short, a certain recognisable
+likeness, it may be an indefinably subtle or an unmistakably broad and
+general one, which may be traced in faces and costumes, in tongue and
+literature, in courtesy and in conflict, in business and in policy, in
+street and in house, from hovel to palace, from prison to cathedral.
+Thus it is that every folk comes to have its own ways, and every town
+its own school.
+
+While the complex social medium has thus been acquiring its
+characteristic form and composition, a younger generation has been
+arising. In all ways and senses, Heredity is commonly more marked than
+variation--especially when, as in most places at most times, such great
+racial, occupational, environmental transformations occur as those of
+modern cities. In other words, the young folk present not only an
+individual continuity with their organic predecessors which is heredity
+proper, but with their social predecessors also. The elements of organic
+continuity, which we usually think of first of all as organic though of
+course psychic also, are conveniently distinguished as the
+_inheritance_--a term in fact which the biologist seeks to deprive of
+its common economic and social senses altogether, leaving for these the
+term _heritage_, material or immaterial alike. This necessary
+distinction between the inheritance, bodily and mental, and the
+heritage, economic and social, obviously next requires further
+elaboration, and with this further precision of language also. For the
+present, let us leave the term heritage to the economist for the
+material wealth with which he is primarily concerned, and employ the
+term _tradition_ for these immaterial and distinctively social elements
+we are here specially considering. This in fact is no new proposal, but
+really little more than an acceptance of ordinary usage. Broadly
+speaking, tradition is in the life of the community what memory is for
+its individual units. The younger generation, then, not only inherits an
+organic and a psychic diathesis; not only has transmitted to it the
+accumulations, instruments and land of its predecessors, but grows up in
+their tradition also. The importance of imitation in this process, a
+matter of common experience, has been given the fullest sociological
+prominence, by M. Tarde especially.[9] Thanks to these and other
+convergent lines of thought, we no longer consent to look at the
+acquirement of the social tradition as a matter requiring to be imposed
+upon reluctant youth almost entirely from without, and are learning anew
+as of old, with the simplest and the most developed peoples, the
+barbarians and the Greeks, to recognise and respect, and, if it may be,
+to nourish the process of self-instruction, viewed as normal
+accompaniment of each developing being throughout the phases of its
+[Page: 74] organic life, the stages of its social life. Upon the many
+intermediate degrees of advance and decline, however, between these two
+extremes of civilisation, specific institutions for the instruction of
+youth arise, each in some way an artificial substitute, or at least a
+would-be accelerant, for the apprenticeship of imitation in the school
+of experience and the community's tradition, which we term a school in
+the restricted and pedagogic sense. This whole discussion, however, has
+been in order to explain and to justify the present use of the term
+"School" in that wide sense in which the historian of art or
+thought--the sociologist in fact--has ever used the term, while yet
+covering the specialised pedagogic schools of all kinds also.
+
+[9] Tarde, "L'imitation Sociale," and other works.
+
+Once more, then, and in the fullest sense, every folk has its own
+tradition, every town its school.
+
+We need not here discriminate these unique and characteristic elements
+to which the art-historians--say of Venice and of Florence, of Barbizon
+or Glasgow--specially attend from those most widely distributed ones, in
+which the traditions and schools of all towns within the same
+civilisation broadly agree. Indeed, even the most widely distributed of
+these--say from Roman law to modern antiseptic surgery--arose as local
+schools before they became general ones.
+
+Similarly for the general social tradition. The fundamental occupations
+and their division of labour, their differentiation in detail and their
+various interactions up to our own day, at first separately considered,
+are now seen to be closely correlated with the status of woman; while
+all these factors determine not only the mode of union of the parents,
+but their relation to the children, the constitution of the family, with
+which the mode of transmission of property is again thoroughly
+interwoven.
+
+
+H--TOWN AND SCHOOL COMPARED
+
+
+"TOWN"                          FOLK
+
+
+
+               WORK
+
+PLACE
+
+SURVEY
+
+               CRAFT-KNOWLEDGE
+
+"SCHOOL"                         CUSTOM
+
+We may now summarise and tabulate our comparison of Town and
+School,[10] and on the schema (p.75) it will be seen [Page: 76]
+that each element of the second is printed in the position of a
+mirror-reflection of the first. This gives but the merest outline, which
+is ready, however, to be applied in various ways and filled up
+accordingly. A step towards this is made in the next and fuller version
+of the scheme (p. 77). It will be noted in this that the lower
+portion of the diagram, that of School, is more fully filled up than is
+the upper. This is partly for clearness, but partly also to suggest that
+main elements in the origins of natural sciences and geography, of
+economics and social science, are not always so clearly realised as they
+might be. The preceding diagram, elaborating that of Place, Work, Folk
+(p. 75), however, at once suggests these. Other features of the
+scheme will appear on inspection; and the reader will find it of
+interest and suggestiveness to prepare a blank schedule and fill it up
+for himself.
+
+[10] For the sake of brevity, an entire chapter has been omitted,
+discussing the manifold origins of distinct governing classes, whether
+arising from the Folk, or superimposed upon them from without, in short,
+of the contrast of what we may broadly call patricians and plebeians,
+which so constantly appears through history, and in the present also.
+These modes of origin are all in association respectively with Place,
+Work, and Family, or some of the various interactions of these. Origin
+and situation, migration, individual or general, with its conflict of
+races, may be indicated among the first group of factors; technical
+efficiency and its organising power among the second; individual
+qualities and family stocks among the third, as also military and
+administrative aptitude, and the institutional privileges which so
+readily arise from them. Nor need we here discuss the rise of
+institutions, so fully dealt with by sociological writers. Enough for
+the present then, if institutions and social classes be taken as we find
+them.
+
+These two forms of the same diagram, the simple and the more developed,
+thus suggest comparison with the scheme previously outlined, that of
+People, Affairs, Places (p. 68), and is now more easily reconciled
+with this; the greater prominence popularly given to People and Affairs
+being expressed upon the present geographic and evolutionary scheme by
+the ascending position and more emphatic printing (or by viewing the
+diagram as a transparency from the opposite side of the leaf).
+
+In the column of People, the deepening of custom into morals is
+indicated. Emphasis is also placed upon the development of law in
+connection with the rise of governing classes, and its tendency to
+dominate the standards previously taken as morals--in fact, that
+tendency of moral law to become static law, a process of which history
+is full.
+
+                                  GOVERNING
+                                  =========
+                                  =========
+                                  CLASSES
+                                  =======
+                                  =======
+                                     ^
+                                     |
+                                  FAMILY TYPES
+                                  ============
+----------------------------------------------
+               INDUSTRIES
+               ==========
+               ----------
+----------------------------------------------
+                                  (FOLK-PLACE)
+REGION         (WORK PLACE)       ------------
+======         ------------       (TOWN)
+  |                               ======
+  |
+  V
+--------------------------------------------
+  |
+  V
+SURVEY                            ("SCHOOL")
+======                            ==========
+!--LANDSCAPE   (CRAFT-TRADITION)
+               -----------------
+                                  (FOLK-LORE)
+?--TERRITORY                      -----------
+   |
+   |
+   V
+---------------------------------------------
+   |
+   V
+[NATURAL       [APPLIED           [SOCIAL
+--------       ========           =======
+SCIENCES]      SCIENCES]          SCIENCES]
+---------      =========          =========
+   |
+   |
+   V
+-------------------------------------------
+   |                               CUSTOMS
+   V                               -------
+                                   MORALS
+                                   ======
+GEOGRAPHY      ECONOMICS           ------
+---------      =========           &
+                                   LAWS
+                                   ====
+                                   ====
+
+In the present as in the past, we may also note upon the scheme the
+different lines of Place, Work and Folk on which respectively develop
+the natural sciences, the applied or [Page: 78] technical sciences, and
+finally the social sciences, and the generalising of these respectively.
+
+Thus, as we see the popular survey of regions, geography in its literal
+and initial sense, deepening into the various analyses of this and that
+aspect or element of the environment which we call the natural
+sciences--but which we might with advantage also recognise as what they
+really are, each a _geolysis_--so these sciences or geolyses, again, are
+tending to reunite into a higher geography considered as an account of
+the evolution of the cosmos.
+
+Again, in the column of School, corresponding to Work, we have the
+evolution of craft knowledge into the applied sciences, an historic
+process which specialist men of science and their public are alike apt
+to overlook, but which is none the less vitally important. For we cannot
+really understand, say Pasteur, save primarily as a thinking peasant; or
+Lister and his antiseptic surgery better than as the shepherd, with his
+tar-box by his side; or Kelvin or any other electrician, as the thinking
+smith, and so on. The old story of geometry, as "_ars metrike_," and of
+its origin from land-surveying, for which the Egyptian hieroglyph is
+said to be that of "rope stretching," in fact, applies far more fully
+than most realise, and the history of every science, of course already
+thus partially written, will bear a far fuller application of this
+principle. In short, the self-taught man, who is ever the most fertile
+discoverer, is made in the true and fundamental school--that of
+experience.
+
+The need of abbreviating the recapitulation of this, however, sooner or
+later develops the school in the pedagogic sense, and its many
+achievements, its many failures in accomplishing this, might here be
+more fully analysed.
+
+Still more evident is this process in the column of Folk. From the
+mother's knee and the dame's school of the smallest folk-place, the
+townlet or hamlet, _ton_ or home, up to the royal and priestly school of
+the law of ancient capitals, or from the "humanities" of a mediaeval
+university to the "Ecole de Droit" of a modern metropolis, the series of
+essential evolutionary stages may be set down. Or in our everyday
+present, [Page: 79] the rise of schools of all kinds, primary,
+secondary, higher up to the current movement towards university
+colleges, and from these to civic and regional universities, might again
+be traced. The municipalisation of education is thus in fact expressed,
+and so on.
+
+Leaving the schools in the main to speak for themselves of their
+advancing and incipient uses, a word may be said upon the present lines.
+
+As a first and obvious application of this mode of geographic study of
+cities appears the criticism, and; when possible, the amendment of the
+city's plan, the monotonous rectangularity of the American city, and the
+petty irregularity more common in our own, being alike uneconomic and
+inartistic because ungeographic, irrational because irregional. With the
+improvement of communications, the physicist's point of view thus
+introduced--that of the economy of the energies of the community--is
+only beginning; the economy of fuel, the limitation of smoke and fogs
+being symptoms of this and pointing to a more economic organisation of
+industrial activities generally. But this next carries with it the
+improved efficiency of the producers themselves, with whom, however, the
+standpoint changes from the mere economisation of physical energies to
+the higher economy of organic evolution. The convention of traditional
+economics, that the productive capacity of the actual labourer is the
+sole concern of his science, thus gives place to what is at once the
+original conception of economics and the evolutionist one, viz., that
+the success of industry is ultimately measured neither by its return in
+wealth of the capitalist nor in money wages of the labourer, nor even by
+both put together, but in the results of industry upon the concrete
+environment, the family budget, the home, and the corresponding state of
+development of the family--its deterioration or progress. The
+organisation of industrial groups or of representative institutions
+found conducive to the well-being and progress of these prime civic
+units, the families, may now be traced into its highest outcome in city
+government. The method of analysis and graphic statement thus outlined
+may be shown to be even capable of useful application towards the
+statement of the best [Page: 80] arguments of both progressive and
+moderate parties in city politics.
+
+Passing from Politics to Culture. Culture, the needs of this also become
+clearer; each community developing a similar general series of culture
+institutions, from the simplest presentation of its geography,
+landscape and architecture, to the complex development of industrial,
+technical and scientific instruction; and for provision also for the
+institutions of custom and ethic in school, law, and church. Just as
+place, occupation, and family are intimately connected in the practical
+world, so their respective culture institutions must more and more be
+viewed as a whole. Civic improvers will find their ideals more
+realisable as they recognise the complex unity of the city as a social
+development of which all the departments of action and thought are in
+organic relation, be it of health or disease. The view of theoretic
+civics as concrete sociology, and of practical civics as applied
+sociology may be more simply expressed as the co-adjustment of social
+survey and social service, now becoming recognised as rational, indeed
+in many cities being begun.
+
+
+I--DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL, AND ITS REACTION UPON TOWN
+
+The reactions of the School upon the Town are observed in practice to be
+of very different values;--how are these differences to be explained?
+
+From the very first the school is essentially one of memory, the impress
+of the town-life, even at its best and highest individual quality and
+impressiveness, as in the work of a great master, the observation and
+memory of which may long give his stamp to the work of his followers.
+The fading of this into dullness, yet the fixing of it as a convention,
+is familiar to all in arts and crafts, but is no less real in the
+general lapse of appreciation of environment. Most serious of all is the
+fixation of habit and custom, so that at length "custom lies upon us
+with a weight heavy as death, and deep [Page 81] almost as life." This
+continual fixation of fashionable standards as moral ones is thus a
+prime explanation of each reformer's difficulty in making his moral
+standard the fashionable one, and also, when his doctrine has succeeded,
+of the loss of life and mummification of form which it so speedily
+undergoes.
+
+Of conventional "education," considered as the memorisation of past
+records, however authoritative and classic, the decay is thus
+intelligible and plain, and the repetition of criticisms already
+adequately made need not therefore detain us here.
+
+For this process is there no remedy? Science here offers herself--with
+senses open to observe, and intellect awake to interpret. Starting with
+Place, she explores and surveys it, from descriptive travel books at
+very various levels of accuracy, she works on to atlas and gazetteer,
+and beyond these to world-globe and "Geographie Universelle." With her
+charts and descriptions we are now more ready for a journey; with her
+maps and plans we may know our own place as never before; nay, rectify
+it, making the rough places plain and the crooked straight; even
+restoration may come within our powers.
+
+Similarly as regards Work. Though mere empiric craft-mastery dies with
+the individual, and fails with his successors, may we not perpetuate the
+best of this? A museum of art treasures, a collection of the choicest
+examples of all times and lands, will surely raise us from our low level
+of mechanical toil; nay, with these carefully observed, copied,
+memorised, and duly examined upon, we shall be able to imitate them, to
+reproduce their excellencies, even to adapt them to our everyday work.
+To the art museum we have thus but to add a "School of Design," to have
+an output of more and less skilled copyists. The smooth and polished
+successes of this new dual institution, responding as they do to the
+mechanical elements of modern work and of the mechanical worker-mind,
+admitting also of ready multiplications as patterns, ensure the wide
+extension of the prevalent style of imitating past styles, designing
+patchwork of these; and even admit of its scientific reduction to a
+definite series of grades, which imitative youth may easily pass onwards
+from the age of rudest innocence to that of art-knowledge and
+certificated art-mastery. Our School of Design thus becomes a School of
+Art, a length a College, dominating the instruction of the nation, to
+the satisfaction not only of its promoters, but of the general public
+and their representatives, so that annual votes justly increase. Lurking
+discontent may now and then express itself, but is for practical
+purposes negligible.
+
+[Page: 82] The example of art accumulation and art instruction is thus
+naturally followed in other respects. For the commercial information of
+the public, varied representative exhibitions--primarily, therefore,
+international ones--naturally suggest themselves; while so soon as
+expansion of imperial and colonial interests comes upon the first plane,
+a corresponding permanent Exhibition is naturally instituted. But when
+thus advancing commercial instruction, we must also recognise the claims
+of industry in all its crafts and guilds, and in fact the technical
+instruction of the community generally. Hence the past, present, and
+promised rise of technical institutes upon increasing scales of
+completeness.
+
+In the rise of such a truly encylopædic system of schools, the
+university cannot permanently be forgotten. Since from the outset we
+have recognised the prime elements of the school in observation and
+memory, the testing of these by examinations--written, oral, and
+practical--however improvable in detail, must be fairly recognised, and
+the examining body or university has therefore to be adopted as the
+normal crown of our comprehensive educational system. Teaching, however
+is found to be increasingly necessary, especially to examination, and
+for this the main field left open is in our last column, that of People.
+Their lore of the past, whether of sacred or classical learning, their
+history, literature, and criticism, are already actively promoted, or at
+any rate adequately endowed at older seats of learning; while the
+materials, resources, conditions and atmosphere are here of other kinds.
+Hence the accessibility of the new University of London to the study of
+sociology, as yet alone among its peers.
+
+Hence, beside the great London, maritime, commercial and industrial,
+residential and governmental, there has been growing up, tardily indeed,
+as compared with smaller cities, yet now all the more massively and
+completely, a correspondingly comprehensive system of schools; so that
+the historic development of South Kensington within the last half
+century, from International Exhibitions of Work, Natural History Museums
+of Place onwards to its present and its contemplated magnitude, affords
+a striking exemplification of the present view and its classification,
+which is all the more satisfactory since this development has been a
+gradual accretion.
+
+Enough then has been said to show that the rise of schools, their
+qualities and their defects, are all capable of treatment upon the
+present lines; but if so, may we not go farther, and ask by what means
+does thought and life cope with their defects, especially that fixation
+of memory, even at its best, that evil side of examination and the like,
+which we often call Chinese in the bad sense, but which we see arises so
+naturally everywhere?
+
+
+[Page: 83] J--FROM "SCHOOL" TO "CLOISTER"
+
+The preceding view is, as yet, too purely determinist. The due place of
+ideals, individual and corporate, in their reaction upon the function
+and the structure of the city, and even upon its material environment,
+has next to be recognised. For where the town merely makes and fixes its
+industry and makes its corresponding schools, where its habits and
+customs become its laws, even its morality, the community, as we have
+just seen, sinks into routine, and therefore decay. To prevent this a
+twofold process of thought is ever necessary, critical and constructive.
+What are these? On the one hand, a continual and critical selection
+among the ideas derived from experience, and the formulation of these as
+Ideals: and further, the organisation of these into a larger and larger
+whole of thought; in fact, a Synthesis of a new kind. This critical
+spirit it is which produced the prophets of Israel, the questioning of
+Socrates, and so on, to the journalistic and other criticism of life
+to-day. The corresponding constructive endeavour is now no mere School
+of traditional learning or of useful information. It is one of science
+in a new and reorganised sense; one of philosophy also, one of ideals
+above all.
+
+As from the Schools of the Law, as over against these, arise the
+prophets, so from the technical and applied sciences, the descriptive
+natural sciences, should arise the scientific thinkers, reinterpreting
+each his field of knowledge and giving us the pure sciences--pure
+geometry henceforth contrasted with mere land surveying, morphology with
+mere anatomy, and so on; while instead of the mere concrete encyclopædia
+from Pliny or Gesner to Diderot or Chambers, vast subjective
+reorganisations of knowledge, philosophic systems, now appear.
+Similarly, the mere observations of the senses and their records in
+memory become transformed into the images of the poet, the imagery too
+of the artist, for art proper is only thus born. That mere imitation of
+nature, which so commonly in the graphic arts (though happily but rarely
+in music) has been mistaken for [Page: 84] art, thus modestly returns to
+its proper place--that of the iconography of descriptive science.
+
+Thus from the Schools of all kinds of knowledge, past and present, we
+pass into the no less varied Cloisters of contemplation, meditation,
+imagination. With the historian we might explore the Cloisters of the
+past, built at one time from the current ideals of the Good, at another
+of the True, at another of the Beautiful; indeed, in widely varying
+measures and proportions from all of these. How far each of these now
+expresses the present, how far it may yet serve the future, is
+obviously a question of questions, yet for that very reason one
+exceeding our present limits. Enough if in city life the historic place
+of what is here generalised under this antique name of Cloister be here
+recognised; and in some measure the actual need, the potential place be
+recognised also. Here is the need and use, beyond the fundamental claims
+of the material life of the Town, and the everyday sanity of the
+Schools, with all their observations and information, their commonsense
+and experience, their customs and conventions, even their morals and
+their law, for a deeper ethical insight than any rule or precedent can
+afford, for a fuller and freer intellectual outlook than that which has
+been derived from any technical experience or empiric skill, for an
+imagery which is no mere review of the phantasmagoria of the senses. In
+our age of the multiplication and expansion of towns, of their
+enrichment and their impoverishment, of the multiplication and
+enrichment of schools also, it is well for the sociologist to read from
+history, as he then may more fully see also around him that it is ever
+some fresh combination of these threefold products of the
+Cloister--ideal theory, and imagery--emotional, intellectual,
+sensuous--which transforms the thought-world of its time.
+
+The philosopher of old in his academic grove, his porch, the mediaeval
+monk within his studious cloister's pale, are thus more akin to the
+modern scientific thinker than he commonly realises--perhaps because he
+is still, for the most part, of the solitary individualism of the hermit
+of the Thebaid, of Diogenes in his tub. Assuredly, they are less removed
+in essential psychology than their derived fraternities, their [Page:
+85] respective novices and scholars, have often thought. It is thus no
+mere play of language which hands on from the one to the other the
+"travail de Bénédictin," though even here the phrase is inadequate
+savouring too much of the school, into which each cloister of every sort
+declines sooner or later, unless even worse befall.
+
+The decay of the cloister, though thus on the one hand into and with the
+school, may also take place within itself, since imagination and ideal
+may be evil, and theory false. That examples of all these decays abound
+in the history of religion, of philosophy, of art also, is a commonplace
+needing no illustration. Nor should the modern investigator think his
+science or himself immune to the same or kindred germs in turn.
+
+
+K--THE CITY PROPER
+
+Now, "at long last," we are ready to enter the city proper. This is not
+merely the Town of place and work and folk, even were this at their
+economic best. It is not enough to add the School, even at its
+completest; nor the cloister, though with this a yet greater step
+towards the city proper is made. For though this is not itself the City,
+its ideals of human relations, its theory of the universe and man, its
+artistic expression and portrayal of all these, ever sooner or later
+react upon the general view and conduct of life. Hence the Academe of
+Plato and the Lyceum of Aristotle, the mediaeval cloister and the modern
+Research Institute, have been so fertile, so creative in their influence
+upon the city's life, from which they seemed to be retired. Hence it is
+ever some new combination of the threefold product of the
+cloister--ideal, idea, and image--which transforms the world, which
+opens each new epoch. Each new revelation and vision, each system of
+thought, each new outburst of poetry and song, has moved the men of its
+age by no mere mechanical pressure of economic need or external force,
+by no mere scholastic instruction, but in a far subtler way, and into
+new and unexpected groupings, as the [Page: 86] sand upon Chladon's
+vibrating plate leaps into a new figure with each thrill of the
+violinist's bow.
+
+Instead of simply developing our morals from custom, and therefore
+codifying them into law as in the school they are now boldly criticised,
+as in part if not in whole, hindrances to a better state of things. As
+this becomes more and more clearly formulated as an ideal, its ethic
+transcendence of convention and law not only becomes clear, but the
+desire for its realisation becomes expressed. This may be with all
+degrees of clearness of reason and vividness of imagery, yet may remain
+long or altogether in the plane of literature, as has Plato's Republic
+or More's Utopia--standard and characteristic types of the cloister
+library as we may call it, one of inestimable value to the world in the
+past, and perhaps in our time needed as much as ever to help us to see
+somewhat beyond the output of the busy presses of town and school. Yet
+our ideal, our "Civitas Dei," "Civitas Solis," need not remain
+unrealised: it may be not only seriously planned towards realisation, as
+was Platonopolis of old, but bravely founded, as has been done in cases
+without number, from the ancient world to modern communities, by no
+means wholly unsuccessful. Though in our great industrial towns, our
+long settled regions, such new departures seem less easy, the
+principle remains valid--that it is in our ideal of polity and
+citizenship, and in our power of realising this, that the city proper
+has its conception and its birth. Again, instead of simply deriving our
+thought from experience we now project our clarified thought into action
+and into education; so that from cloister of philosophy, and from its
+long novitiate of silence, there grows up the brotherhood of culture,
+the culture city itself. Similarly in art, we no longer imitate nature,
+nor copy traditional designs. Art proper appears, shaping bronze and
+marble into images of the gods, and on a burnt and ruined hill-fort
+renewing the Parthenon. In general terms, instead of simply adjusting,
+as in the school, our mental picture to the outward facts, we reverse
+the process; and with a new art conception, be it good or bad, we
+transform the outward world, like wax under the seal. Thus from the
+[Page: 88] cloister and chapel of the musician, the studio-cell of the
+artist, the scriptorium of the poet, comes forth the architect,
+remodelling the city around his supreme material expression and home of
+its moral and material reorganisation, its renewed temporal and
+spiritual powers. Of this, the city proper, the Acropolis of Athens, the
+Temple of Jerusalem, the Capitol and Forum of Rome are classic and
+central examples, and in the mediaeval city, pre-eminently the
+cathedral; though beside this we must not forget the town house and its
+belfry, the guild houses, the colleges, the great place, the fountains,
+the city cross, and if last, still best if good at all, the streets and
+courts and homes. Returning once more to the history of educational
+development, we have here a means of unravelling the apparently
+perplexing history of universities. For the university past or present
+has but its foundations in the school, with its local and its general
+tradition, whatever may be the accordance of these with well-ascertained
+fact, its true novitiate can only be afforded in the cloister of
+reflection and research, of interpretation and synthesis; while for its
+full development it needs the perpetual renewal of that generous social
+life--that inspiring intercourse "of picked adolescents and picked
+senescents"--which has marked the vital periods of every university
+worthy of the name.
+
+                                         Realisation in
+                                         ACROPOLIS  }
+                                         CATHEDRAL  } CITY
+                                         UNIVERSITY }
+(EU)-POLITY
+   ^
+   |                   CULTURE
+   |                      ^
+Rise towards              |
+Formulation               |                 ART
+and Realisation,       Rise through          ^
+through                                      |
+  { Politics            { Action          Rise to
+  { Church Militant     { Education       expression
+   ^                      ^                  ^
+   |                      |                  |
+   |                      |                  |
+   |                      |                  |
+   |                      |              "IMAGERY"
+   |                      |              AESTHETICS
+   |                      |              (Beautiful)
+SOCIAL. ECON. POL.     "IDEAS"
+   ^                  SYNTHETICS
+   |                   (True)
+"IDEALS"
+ ETHICS
+ (Good)                                  Criticism, Selection,
+                                         Re-synthesis, in
+                                           HERMITAGE
+                                           ACADEME
+                                           CLOISTER, etc.
+
+In summary then, to the town has been added the school, with its
+advantages, its increasingly obvious limitations also, which it is for
+the cloister to remedy--even the advantages of the barrack finding a
+main element of its claim in this no less than in its professed training
+as regards citizenship. But here also it is for few to remain, albeit
+free for each to return at will. Ideals, to survive, must surely live,
+that is, be realised; hence for full life one needs "to meditate with
+the free solitary; yet to live secular, and serve mankind."
+
+  TOWN                       |                      CITY
+                    FOLK     |    POLITY
+                             |
+         WORK                |               CULTURE
+                             |
+PLACE                        |                         ART
+-----------------------------+--------------------------------
+SURVEY                       |                         IMAGERY
+                             |
+         KNOWLEDGE           |               IDEAS
+                             |
+                    MORALS   |    SOC. ECON.
+                             |    IDEALS
+                    LAW      |    ETHICS
+  SCHOOL                     |                      CLOISTER
+
+
+L--THE CITY COMPLIED: TOWN, SCHOOL, CLOISTER, AND CITY PROPER
+
+In course of this fourfold analysis, it is plain that we have reached
+the very converse--or at all events the [Page: 90] complement--of that
+geographical determinism with which we started, and that we have
+returned to a view corresponding to the popular one (of "People,
+Affairs, Places," p. 69), which we then set aside for the reasons given.
+The "great man theory" of history, at best less crudely stated, thus
+reappears; in short, to the initial thesis we have now the distinct
+antithesis. It is time, therefore, to bring these together towards the
+needed synthesis. Hence to the page (p. 77) on which was summarised the
+determinist view of Town and School, we now require the complemental
+statement upon page (p. 87) of Cloister and City proper. Nor must we be
+content, with too many controversialists hitherto, to keep in view only
+one at a time; but by folding back the pages of print between these two
+half-schemes, as the book lies open, to take in both together.
+
+We may thus finally compress the essentials of this whole paper into a
+simple formula--
+
+TOWN                  |                   CITY
+                      |
+               FOLK   |  POLITY
+                      |
+        WORK          |          CULTURE
+                 |    |    ^
+PLACE            |    |    |              ART
+-----------------|----|----|----------------------
+LORE             |    |    |              IMAGERY
+                 v    |    |
+        LEAR          |           IDEA
+                      |
+               LOVE   |  IDEAL
+                      |
+SCHOOL                |                   CLOISTER
+
+or most briefly--
+
+|  TOWN   | CITY     ^
+|  -------+--------- |
+v  SCHOOL | CLOISTER |
+
+[Page: 91]--noting in every case the opposite direction of the arrows.
+The application of this formula to different types of town, such as
+those already indicated in the former instalment of this paper (Vol. I.,
+p. 107) or in the present one, will not be found to present any
+insuperable difficulty. It must, however, be kept clearly in view that
+the city of each day and generation subsides or decays more or less
+completely into the mere town anew, as the cloister into the schools.
+The towns and cities of the world are thus classifiable in terms of
+their past development and present condition.
+
+
+Summary
+
+Condensing now this lengthy, yet compressed and abbreviated series of
+analyses into a single page of summary, we may briefly define the main
+aspects and departments of civics from the present point of view. First
+then, comes the study of civics as fundamentally (and ever anew) an
+orderly development--at once geographic, economic, and anthropologic in
+its nature--a survey of place, work, and folk--and these not merely or
+mainly as broken up into the fine dust of censuses and statistics, nor
+even of the three too separate sciences above named, but as a living
+unity, the human hive, the Town.
+
+Corresponding to this objective and organic life we reorganise its
+fundamental subjective life. This is fundamentally, and ever partially,
+the record and reflex of the life of the hive, the Town: of all its
+general and particular environment and function, its family type and
+development; and however overlaid by imported culture or by decayed
+ideals, it is fundamentally expressed in local knowledge, in craft
+tradition, in kinship and its associated kindness, in habits and
+customs, and their developments up to morals and laws. Simple terms
+corresponding to place, work, and folk, are hard to find; say, however,
+till better be suggested, that in close relation to the maternal arms in
+which general social thought and its utmost pedagogic developments
+alike begin, it is place-lore, work-lear, and folk-love, which are the
+essentials of every [Page: 92] School.[11] That existing educational
+machineries may not adequately recognise these is not of course the
+question here.
+
+[11] The use of _lore_ as primarily empirical, and derived from the
+senses, it is traditional; it is well therefore to restrict it to this,
+and to revive the old word _lear_, still understood in Scotland in these
+precise senses--intellectual, rational, yet traditional, occupational
+also.
+
+These three terms, lore, lear, and love are thus well related to their
+respectively deepening levels of sense, intelligence and feeling; and
+their respective relation is thus more plain to the imagery, the theory,
+and the idealism above defined as the essentials of the Cloister. The
+psychology of the processes of poetic, philosophic and spiritual
+awakening and renewal is in these days being approached anew, both from
+the individual and social side, but cannot here be entered upon.
+
+Finally and supremely arises the City proper--its individuality
+dependent upon the measure and form in which ideals are expressed and
+harmonised in social life and polity, ideas synthetised in culture, and
+beauty carried outwards from the study or chamber of the recluse into
+the world of art.
+
+
+
+Practical conclusion
+
+
+The investigation of the City thus tends towards the practice of
+citizenship. Thus social survey prepares for social service, as
+diagnosis towards treatment and hygiene; and these react fruitfully upon
+our knowledge and understanding anew. Beyond social observations, and
+the needed observatories for making them more adequately, we need social
+activities and the laboratories for preparing them, or at least the
+leavens of them; or, again, in happier phrase, at once simple and more
+synthetic, we need some shelter[12] into which to gather the best
+[Page: 93] seed of past flowerings and in which to raise and tend the
+seedlings of coming summers. We need definitely to acquire such a centre
+of survey and service in each and every city--in a word, a Civicentre
+for sociologist and citizen.
+
+[12] Without forgetting the many institutions and workers in almost all
+departments of the field of civics, the rise of definite surveys and of
+scientific groupings like this Society, without ignoring also the many
+admirable workers and institutions of social endeavour, and their
+progressive integration into Social Unions, Institutes of Service, and
+the like, I may be permitted to press for the need of uniting both
+types, the scientific and the practical, into a single one--a civic
+museum and active centre in one. Of this type, my own Outlook Tower at
+Edinburgh is, so far as I am aware, the earliest beginning; and, despite
+its rudimentary condition, may thus serve to suggest a type of
+institution which will be found of service alike to the sociologist and
+the citizen.
+
+
+M--THE HISTORIC CITY-COMPLEX
+
+The criticism may have already arisen in the reader's mind that the
+"Town" and "School" of our analysis are by no means so simple as we have
+assumed them. Our surveys of antique towns ever disclose the material
+survivals, at least the vestiges, of the cloister or the acropolis of
+the past, of its cathedral or its forum. The processes of our
+industries, in what is now their daily artisan routine, include, repeat,
+condense, what were yesterday or longer ago living inventions, each
+instinct with Promethean fire. The hackneyed ornament of our homes was
+once glowing with beauty, radiant or dark with symbolism. So it is for
+our everyday customs and institutions, and so for living languages; our
+own, perhaps, most of all. These, of course, are facts made familiar by
+investigators of all orders, from the scholar and antiquary of old, the
+historian and philologist of yesterday, to the geographer or the
+sociologist of our own time: witness Mr. Spencer's masterly treatment of
+their main results. How, then, shall we correlate this process of all
+things growing old with the analysis of cities above attempted? In other
+words, how shall we interpret the course of their historic evolution,
+their renewed growth and decay, progress and degeneracy, their present
+condition, crowded with residues of the past, with those potentialities
+which our outline discloses? This is the more necessary since this
+fourfold analysis applies in principle to all human groupings from the
+simplest village to the Eternal City. To this, indeed, we have in
+principle already traced it, onwards from our primitive valley section
+with its humble hamlets, its fundamental occupations. Returning then to
+our main diagram, with its four-fold analysis of the City so soon as we
+have completed this, and [Page: 94] carried its progress up to the level
+of city life proper, we must next turn over the leaf and begin a new
+page, with place and work and folk once more. This simplest of acts
+expresses with graphic significance the very process of history; for in
+closing our diagram page its "Cloister" has been folded down on the
+"School," our cathedral and forum, our "City" proper upon the "Town."
+Thus it is that the ideals and the achievements of one day and
+generation and city are ever melting away, and passing out of sight of
+the next; so that to the joy or sorrow of the successors the new page
+seems well nigh bare, though ever there comes faintly through some image
+or at least blurred suggestion of the fading past. Hence each page of
+history is a palimpsest. Hence our modern town, even when yesterday but
+prairie, was no mere vacant site, but was at once enriched and
+encumbered by the surviving traditions of the past; so that even its new
+buildings are for the most part but vacant shells of past art, of which
+now only the student cares to trace the objective annals, much less
+penetrate to the inner history. So for the decayed Renaissance learning
+of our schools, for the most part so literally dead since the
+"Grammarian's Funeral"; and so, too, for the unthinking routines, the
+dead customs and conventions, and largely too the laws and rituals of
+our urban lives. Hence, then, it is that for the arrest and the decay of
+cities we have no need to go for our examples to the ancient East. These
+processes, like those of individual senility and death, are going on
+everywhere day by day.
+
+Upon the new page, then, it is but a complexer "Town" and "School" anew:
+we have no continuing City. This too commonly has existed at its best
+but for the rare generation which created it, or little longer; though
+its historic glories, like those of sunset and of after-glow, may long
+shed radiance and glamour upon its town, and linger in the world's
+memory long after not only these have faded, but their very folk have
+vanished, their walls fallen, nay their very site been buried or
+forgotten. Upon all these degrees of dying, all these faint and fading
+steps between immortality and oblivion, we may arrange what we call our
+historic cities. Obviously in the [Page: 95] deeper and more living
+sense the city exists only in actualising itself; and thus to us it is
+that the ideal city lies ever in the future. Yet it is the very essence
+of this whole argument that an ideal city is latent in every town. Where
+shall we in these days find our cloistered retreats to think out such
+ideals as may be applicable in our time and circumstances: the needed
+kinetic ethics, the needed synthetic philosophy and science, the needed
+vision and imagery and expression of them all?
+
+
+N--THE EVILS OF THE CITY
+
+Disease, defect, vice and crime
+
+I have spoken little of town evils, and much of town ideals, primarily
+for the reason that even to recognise, much less treat, the abnormal, we
+must know something of the normal course of evolution. Hence, the old
+and useful phrase by which physiology used to be known, that of "the
+institutes of medicine." Sociology has thus to become "the institutes of
+citizenship."
+
+Often though philanthropists forget this, diagnosis should precede
+treatment. The evils of the city, by the very nature of our hypothesis,
+demand special survey, and this no less thoroughly than do the normal
+place and work and industry. It is only our most permanent intellectual
+impulse, that of seeking for unity, which excuses the cheap unitary
+explanations so often current; as, for instance, that social evils are
+mainly to be explained by intemperance, as for one school of reformers;
+by poverty or luxury, for a second and third; by Tammany or other form
+of party government, by socialism or by individualism for yet others;
+that they are due to dissent or to church, to ignorance or to the spread
+of science, and so on almost indefinitely--doubtless not without
+elements of truth in each!
+
+Yet let me offer as yet another explanation of civic evils, this more
+general one--distinguished from the preceding by including them all and
+more--that not only is our "Town" in itself imperfect, but the other
+three elements we have been characterising as school, cloister and city,
+are yet more imperfect, since disordered, decayed, or undeveloped anew.
+It is because of each and all of these imperfect realisations of our
+civic life, that the evils of life sink down, or flame out, into these
+complex eruptions of social evils with which our human aggregations are
+as yet cursed.
+
+Hence, to those who are struggling with disease and pain, with ignorance
+and defect, with vice, and with crime, but for the most part too
+separately, it is time to say that all these four evils are capable of
+being viewed together, and largely even treated together. They are not
+unrelated, but correspond each as the negative to that fourfold
+presentment of ideals we have hitherto been raising. To this ideal unity
+of healthy town, with its practical and scientific schools of all kinds,
+with its meditative cloister of ethical and social idealism, of unified
+science and philosophy, of imagination and drama, all culminating in
+the polity, culture, and art which make a city proper, we have here the
+corresponding defects in detail.
+
+The evils of existing city life are thus largely reinterpreted; and if
+so more efficiently combated; since the poverty, squalor and ugliness of
+our cities, their disease and their intemperance, their ignorance,
+dulness and mental defect, their vice and crime are thus capable not
+only of separate treatment but of an increasingly unified civic hygiene,
+and this in the widest sense, material and moral, economic and idealist,
+utilitarian and artistic. Even the most earnest and capable workers
+towards civic betterment in these many fields may gain at once in hope
+and in efficiency as they see their special interests and tasks
+converging into the conception of the city as an organic unity, and this
+not fixed and settled, nor even in process of progress or degeneration
+from causes beyond our ken, but as an orderly development which we may
+aid towards higher perfection, geographic and cultural alike.
+
+Our modern town is thus in a very real sense, one not hopeless, but as
+hopeful as may be, a veritable purgatory; that is a struggle of lower
+and higher idealisms, amid the respective expressions and outcomes of
+these. Indeed, in our own present [Page: 97] cities, as they have come
+to be, is not each of us ever finding his own Inferno, or it may be his
+Paradise? Does he not see the dark fate of some, the striving and rising
+hope of others, the redemption also?
+
+The supreme poetic utterance of the mediaeval world is thus in great
+measure, as each thoughtful reader sees, an expression of impassioned
+citizenship and this at one of the golden moments of the long history of
+city life. This expression--this exiled citizen's autobiographic
+thought-stream--is resumed at every level, from youthful home and local
+colour, from boyish love and hopes, from active citizenship and party
+struggle, to the transfiguration of all these. Hence these mystic
+visions, and these world ambitions, temporal and spiritual; hence this
+rise from cloistered faith and philosophy into many-sided culture; hence
+the transformation of all these through intensest symbol-visions into
+enduring song.
+
+Am I thus suggesting the _Divina Comedia_ as a guide-book to cities?
+Without doubt, though not necessarily for beginners. Yet who can see
+Florence without this, though we may pack below it Baedeker and Murray?
+Or who, that can really read, can open a volume of Mr. Booth's severely
+statistical Survey of London, with all its studious reserve, its
+scientific repression, without seeing between its lines the Dantean
+circles; happy if he can sometimes read them upward as well as down?
+
+
+O--A CIVIC SYMBOL AND ITS MEANING
+
+But such books of the city, whether of the new and observant type, from
+Baedeker to Booth, or of the old and interpretative Dantean one, are too
+vast and varied to keep open before us. Even the preceding open page of
+diagram is complex enough with its twofold, indeed four-fold city; and
+we are called back to our daily work in the first of these divisions,
+that of the everyday town. Since its subjective aspects of school and
+cloister may fade from memory, its higher aspect also, that of city
+proper, how can we retain this fourfold [Page: 98] analysis, and how
+test if it be true? Take then one final illustration; this time no mere
+logical skeleton, however simple or graphic, but an image more easily
+retained, because a concrete and artistic one, and moreover in terms of
+that form of life-labour and thought-notation--that of current
+coin--which, in our day especially, dominates this vastest of cities;
+and hence inherits for the region of its home and centre--"the Bank"
+which has so thoroughly taken precedence of the town-house and
+cathedral, of the fortress and palace--the honoured name of "City." The
+coinages of each time and place combine concrete and social use with
+statements of historic facts; and they add to both of these a wealth of
+emblematic suggestions: but that is to say, they express not only their
+town, and something of its _school_, but much of its thought also, its
+_cloister_ in my present terminology.
+
+So before me lies an old "bawbee" of my own home city. On one side
+stands the hammerman at his anvil, below him the motto of his guild,
+"_Non marte sed arte_." Here then the industrial "Town" and its "School"
+express themselves plainly enough, and precisely as they have been above
+defined. But on the other side spreads the imperial double eagle; since
+Perth _(Bertha aurea)_ had been the northmost of all Rome's provincial
+capitals, her re-named "Victoria" accordingly, as the mediaeval herald
+must proudly have remembered, so strengthened his associations with the
+Holy Roman Empire with something of that vague and shadowy historic
+dignity which the Scot was wont to value so much, and vaunt so high. On
+the eagle's breast is a shield, tressured like the royal standard,
+since Perth was the national capital until the "King's Tragedy" of
+1457; but instead of the ruddy lion the shield bears the lamb with the
+banner of St. John, the city's saint. This side, too, has its motto, and
+one befitting an old capital of King and Commons, both in continual
+strife with the feudal nobles, "_Pro Rege, Lege, et Grege_." Here then,
+plain upon this apparent arbitrarily levised trifle, this petty
+provincial money-token, this poor bawbee, that is, this coin not only of
+the very humblest order, but proverbially sordid at that, we find
+clearly set down, long generations ago, the whole [Page:99] four-fold
+analysis and synthesis of civic life we have been above labouring for.
+For what makes the industrial Town, what can better keep it than
+strenuous industry at its anvil? How better express its craft school,
+its local style and skill, its reaction too upon the town's life in
+peace and war, than by this Hal o' the Wynd by his forge? Nay, what
+better symbol than this hammer, this primitive tool and ever typical
+one, of the peaceful education of experience, form Prometheus to Kelvin,
+of the warlike, from Thor to modern cannon-forge? Turning now from Town
+and School to Cloister, to the life of secluded peace and
+meditation--from which, however, the practical issues of life are ever
+renewed--what plainer symbol, yet what more historic or more mystic one
+can we ask than this of the lamb with the banner? While of the
+contrasted yet complemental civic life of fullest, broadest action, what
+expression like the Roman eagle--the very eyes of keenness, and the
+spreading wings of power?
+
+So rarely perfect then is this civic symbol, that I must not omit to
+mention that it has only come to my notice since the body of this paper,
+with its four-fold analysis of cities as above outlined, was essentially
+finished. Since it thus has not in any particular suggested the
+treatment of cities here advocated, it is the more interesting and
+encouraging as a confirmation of it. It is also to my mind plain that in
+this, as in many other of our apparent "advances in science," and
+doubtless those in social studies particularly, we are but learning to
+think things anew, long after our forefathers have lived them, even
+expressed them--and these in their ways no less clear and popular than
+can ever be ours. That we may also again live them is once more
+curiously expressed by the same symbol; for its re-appearance is due to
+its having been appropriately revived, in a fitting art form, that of
+the commemorative and prize medal of the local arts and crafts
+exhibition, held in the new Public Library, under civic auspices. Little
+scrutiny of this last sentence will be needed to see the four-fold
+completeness of the civic event which it describes.
+
+For just as we have seen on the old coin the hammerman [Page: 100] and
+his motto answer to the town and school; so now on its reissue to the
+renascent local arts and crafts, with their commemoration in this
+library. And as the greater motto, that of widest policy, corresponds to
+the cloister of reflection and resolve, so we note that this new impulse
+to civic betterment is associated with the new library--no mere
+school-house of memory, but also the open cloister of our day. Finally,
+note that this impulse is no longer merely one of aesthetic purpose, of
+"art for art's sake," nor its execution that of a cultured minority
+merely; it announces a re-union of this culture and art with the civic
+polity. What fitter occasion, then, for the striking of a medal, than
+this renewal of civic life, with municipal organisation and polity, art
+and culture, renascent in unison. That such events are nowadays far from
+exceptional is so true that we are in danger of losing sight of their
+significance. Yet it is amid such city developments that the future
+Pericles must arise.
+
+We thus see that our analysis is no mere structural one, made
+post-mortem from civic history; but that it applies to the modern
+functioning of everyday life in an everyday city, so soon as this
+becomes touched anew towards cultural issues. Furthermore, it is thus
+plain that civic life not only has long ago anticipated and embodied our
+theories of it, but once more outruns them, expressing them far better
+than in words--in life and practice. In this way the reader who may most
+resent these unfamiliar methods of exposition, alternately by abstract
+diagram or concrete illustration--which may seem to him too remote from
+ordinary life and experience, perhaps too trivial--may now test the
+present theory of the city, or amend it, by means of the ample
+illustrations of the processes and results of social life which are
+provided by his daily newspaper, and these on well-nigh all its fields
+and levels.
+
+Note finally that it is the eagle and lamb of temporal and spiritual
+idealism that form the "head" of this coin, the craftsman and anvil but
+the modest "tail." The application is obvious.
+
+Thus even numismatics revives from amid the fossil [Page: 100] sciences.
+For from this to our own common coinage, or notably to that of France,
+America, Switzerland, etc., the transition is easy, and still better to
+that of the noblest civic past, both classic and mediaeval. Without
+pursuing this further here my present point is gained, if we see, even
+in the everyday local details of work and people, the enduring stamp,
+the inextinguishable promise, of the flowering of our everyday
+industries and schools into worthier ideals than they at present
+express, and of the fruition of these in turn upon nobler heights of
+life and practice. It expresses the essential truth of the popular view
+of the city; that in terms of the formula--People ... Affairs ...
+Places--above referred to (page 69). It also explains the persistent
+vitality of this view, despite its frequent crudity, and lack of order
+in detail, in face of the more scientific treatment here at first
+employed, that in the elementary geographic order--Place ... Work ...
+People. For though this objective order be fundamental, it is the
+complementary subjective evolution which throughout history has ever
+become supreme; so that our scheme must combine the outward geographic
+presentment with the inward psychological one. This may be graphically
+expressed by changing the order of presentment from that used
+hitherto:--
+
+Town    |   City                   City    |  Town
+--------------------     to     ----------------------
+School  | Cloister                Cloister |  School
+
+
+P--FORECAST OF CITY DEVELOPMENT. SPECIAL AND GENERAL
+
+The dual and four-fold development of the city, as above sketched, is by
+no means far advanced in most of our present towns or cities, which have
+obviously but scanty expression of the ideas shadowed forth for the
+modern equivalents of cloister and cathedral, of academe and acropolis.
+But this is to say that such towns, however large, populous and rich
+according to conventional economic standards, are to that extent small
+and poor, indeed too often little better than cities by courtesy. Yet
+their further development, upon this [Page: 102] four-fold view of civic
+evolution, though in principle the same for each and all, has always
+been, and let us hope may always be, in large measure an individual
+(because regional) one. For if each human individuality be unique, how
+much more must that of every city?
+
+In one concrete case, that of Dunfermline, I have already submitted
+definite suggestions towards the realisation of the civic Utopia, and
+even architectural designs towards its execution,[13] so that these may
+at any rate suffice to show how local study and adaptive design are
+needed for each individual city, indeed for every point of it. It is
+thus, and thus only, that we can hope to have a city development truly
+evolutionary, that is, one utilising the local features, advantages, and
+possibilities of place, occupation, and people. Of course, it is needful
+to supplement these by the example of other cities; but it is no less
+needful to avoid weighting down the local life with replicas of
+institutions, however excellent elsewhere, if really irregional here.
+With the re-awakening of regional life in our various centres, and of
+some comprehension of its conditions among our rulers, they will cease
+to establish, say, a school of mines in Piccadilly, or again one of
+engineering and the like in South Kensington. The magistrates of
+Edinburgh have long abandoned their old attempt to plant mulberries and
+naturalise silk culture upon their wind-swept Calton Hill; albeit this
+was a comparatively rational endeavour, since a population of Huguenot
+refugee silk weavers had actually come upon their hands.
+
+[13] Cf. the writer's "City Development," Edinburgh and Westminster,
+1904.
+
+Similarly, it is plain that we must develop Oxford as Oxford, Edinburgh
+as Edinburgh, and so on with all other cities, great or small--York or
+Winchester, Westminster or London. And so with Chelsea or Hampstead,
+with Woolwich or Battersea. Has not the last of these grown from a mere
+outlying vestry, like so many others, into a centre of genuine vitality
+and interior progress, indeed of ever-widening interest and example; and
+all this in half a generation, apparently through the sagacious
+leadership--say, rather the devoted, the [Page: 103] impassioned
+citizenship--of a single man? And does not his popular park at times
+come near giving us a vital indication of the needed modern analogue of
+cathedral and forum? Civic development is thus no mere external matter,
+either of "Haussmannising" its streets, or of machine-educating its
+people; the true progress of the city and its citizenship must alike
+grow and flower from within albeit alive and open to every truly
+fertilising impulse from without.
+
+Yet since national interests, international industry, commerce,
+science, and therefore progress are nowadays and increasingly so
+largely one, may we not in conclusion foresee something at least of the
+great lines of development which are common to cities, and generalise
+these as we are accustomed to do in history? Witness the Classical,
+Mediaeval, and Renaissance types to which historic cities
+preponderatingly belong, and within which we group their varied
+individualities, as after all of comparative detail.
+
+Here then it is time to recall the presentment of ancient, recent and
+contemporary evolution already outlined in the part of this paper
+previously read (Vol. I, p. 109), dealing with the historic survey of
+cities. We have now to face the question, then postponed, indeed left in
+interrogation-marks--that of seeking not indeed sharply to define the
+future order of things, yet in some measure to discern such elements of
+progress as may be already incipient in the existing order, if not yet
+largely manifest there. Such elements may be reasonably expected to grow
+in the near future, perhaps increasingly, and whatever be their rate of
+growth are surely worthy of our attention.
+
+Contemporary science, with its retrospective inquiries into origins in
+the past, its everyday observation of the present, is apt practically to
+overlook that the highest criterion and achievement of science is not to
+decipher the past, nor record the present, not even to interpret both.
+It is to foresee: only thus can it subserve action, of which the present
+task ever lies towards the future, since it is for this that we have to
+provide. Why then should not Comte's famous aphorism--"_Voir pour
+prévoir, prévoir pour pourvoir_," become applicable in our civic studies
+no less than in the general social and political fields to [Page: 104]
+which he applied it? In navigation or engineering, in agriculture or
+hygiene, prevision and provision alike are ever increasing; yet these
+are no mere combinations of the preliminary sciences and the fundamental
+occupations, but obviously contain very large social elements.
+
+It is proverbially safe to prophesy when one knows; and it is but this
+safe prediction which we make every day of child or bud, where we can
+hardly fail to see the growing man, the coming flower. Yet do not most
+people practically forget that even now, in mid-winter, next summer's
+leaves are already waiting, nay, that they were conceived nine months
+ago? That they thus grow in small, commonly unnoticed beginnings, and
+lie in bud for a period twice as long as the summer of their adult and
+manifest life, is yet a fact, and one to which the social analogies are
+many and worth considering.
+
+While recognising, then, the immense importance of the historic element
+of our heritage, renaissance and mediaeval, classic and earlier;
+recognising also the predominance of contemporary forces and ideas,
+industrial and liberal, imperial and bureaucratic, financial and
+journalistic, can we not seek also, hidden under all these leaves, for
+those of the still-but-developing bud, which next season must be so much
+more important than they are to day? It is a commonplace, yet mainly of
+educational meetings, to note that the next generation is now at school;
+but how seldom do we recognise its pioneers, albeit already among our
+own contemporaries? At any rate we may see here and there that their
+leaven is already at work.
+
+In this respect, cities greatly differ--one is far more initiative than
+another. In the previous paper (vol. I, p. 109), we saw how individuals,
+edifices, institutions, might represent all past phases; these,
+therefore, often predominate in different cities sufficiently to give
+its essential stamp. Why then should we not make a further survey and
+seek to see something of the cities of the future; though we may have to
+look for these in quarters where at first sight there may seem as yet
+scanty promise of flower?
+
+[Page: 105] To recall an instance employed above, probably every member
+of this Society is old enough to remember incredulous questionings of
+whether any good thing could come out of Battersea. Again, how few, even
+in America, much less than in Europe, a few years ago, forsaw the rapid
+growth of those culture-elements in St. Louis, of which the recent
+World-Exposition will not have been the only outcome?
+
+Only a few years earlier, it was Chicago which, for New England no less
+than for the Old World, seemed but the byword of a hopelessly
+materialised community. So Birmingham or Glasgow has won its present
+high position among cities in comparatively recent times; so it may now
+be the turn of older cities, once far more eminent, like Newcastle or
+Dundee, to overtake and in turn, perhaps, outstrip them. But all this is
+still too general and needs further definition; let us attempt this,
+therefore, somewhat more fully, in the concrete case of Glasgow.
+
+
+Q--GLASGOW AS TYPICAL OF CIVIC TRANSITION--FROM "PALEOTECHNIC" TO
+"NEOTECHNIC"
+
+My own appreciation of the significance of Glasgow was first really
+awakened over twenty years ago by William Morris, who in his vivid way
+pointed out to me how, despite the traditional culture--superiority of
+Edinburgh, Glasgow was not only the Scottish capital, but, in his view,
+in real progressiveness the leading and initiative city of the whole
+United Kingdom. And this for him was not merely or mainly in its
+municipal enterprise, then merely in its infancy--although he expressed
+this development in the phrase "In London, people talked socialism
+without living it; but in Glasgow, they were socialists without knowing
+it!" Despite all the ugliness which had so repelled Ruskin, the squalor
+which moved Matthew Arnold to the fiercest scorn in all his writings,
+Morris's appreciation arose from his craftsman's knowledge and respect
+for supreme craftsmanship. The great ships building upon the Clyde were
+for him "the greatest achievement of [Page: 106] humanity since the days
+of the cathedral-builders," nay, for him actually surpassing these,
+since calling forth an even more complex combination and "co-operation
+of all the material arts and sciences" into a mighty and organic whole;
+and correspondingly of all their respective workers also, this being for
+him of the very essence of his social ideal.
+
+For these reasons he insisted, to my then surprise that the social
+reorganisation he then so ardently hoped for "was coming faster upon the
+Clyde than upon the Thames": he explained as for him the one main reason
+for his then discouragement as to the progress of London that there East
+and West, North and South, are not only too remote each from the other,
+but in their occupations all much too specialised--there to finance,
+there to manufactures, or here to leisure, and so on; while on the Clyde
+industrial organisation and social progress could not but develop
+together, through the very nature of the essential and working unity of
+the ship.
+
+Since Morris's day, a local art movement, of which he knew little, has
+risen to eminence, a foreign critic would say to pre-eminence, in this
+country at least. Since Ruskin's savage response to a Glasgow invitation
+to lecture--"first burn your city, and cleanse your river,"--a new
+generation of architects and hygienists have not a little transformed
+the one, and vigorous measures have been taken towards the purification
+of the other. That the city and university pre-eminently associated
+with the invention of the steam-engine, and consequently with the advent
+of the industrial revolution throughout the world, should, a century
+later, have produced a scarcely less pre-eminent leader of applied
+science towards the command of electricity is thus no isolated
+coincidence. And as political economy, which is ever the theory
+corresponding to our phase of industrial practice, and there some of
+its foremost pioneers, and later its classical exponent, Adam Smith
+himself, so once more there are signs at least of a corresponding wave
+of theoretic progress. Students of primitive civilisation and industry
+have now long familiarised us with their reinterpretation of what was
+long known as the stone age, into two very distinct [Page: 107] periods,
+the earlier characterised by few and rough implements, roughly used by a
+rude people, the second by more varied tools, of better shape, and finer
+edge, often of exquisite material and polish. We know that these were
+wielded more skilfully, by a people of higher type, better bred and
+better nourished; and that these, albeit of less hunting and militant
+life, but of pacific agricultural skill, prevailed in every way in the
+struggle for existence; thanks thus not only to more advanced arts, but
+probably above all to the higher status of woman. This distinction of
+Paleolithic and Neolithic ages and men, has long passed into the
+terminology of sociological science, and even into current speech: is it
+too much then, similarly, to focus the largely analogous progress which
+is so observable in what we have been wont to generalise too crudely as
+the modern Industrial Age? All are agreed that the discoveries and
+inventions of this extraordinary period of history constitute an epoch
+of material advance only paralleled, if at all, in magnitude and
+significance by those of prehistory with its shadowy Promethean figures.
+Our own advance from a lower industrial civilisation towards a higher
+thus no less demands definite characterisation, and this may be broadly
+expressed as from an earlier or _Paleotechnic_ phase, towards a later or
+more advanced _Neotechnic_ one. If definition be needed, this may be
+broadly given as from a comparatively crude and wasteful technic age,
+characterised by coal, steam, and cheap machine products, and a
+corresponding _quantitative_ ideal of "progress of wealth and
+population"--towards a finer civilisation, characterised by the wider
+command, yet greater economy of natural energies, by the predominance of
+electricity, and by the increasing victory of an ideal of qualitative
+progress, expressed in terms of skill and art, of hygiene and education,
+of social polity, etc.
+
+The Neotechnic phase, though itself as yet far from completely replacing
+the paleotechnic order which is still quantitatively predominant in most
+of our cities, begins itself to show signs of a higher stage of
+progress, as in the co-ordination of the many industries required for
+the building of a ship, or in the yet more recent developments which
+begin to renew for us the conception of the worthy construction of a
+city. As [Page: 108] the former period may be characterised by the
+predominance of the relatively unskilled workman and of the skilled, so
+this next incipient age by the development of the chief workman proper,
+the literal _architectos_ or architect; and by his companion the rustic
+improver, gardener and forester, farmer, irrigator, and their
+correspondingly evolving types of civil engineer.
+
+To this phase then the term _Geotechnic_ may fairly be applied. Into its
+corresponding theoretic and ideal developments we need not here enter,
+beyond noting that these are similarly of synthetic character; on the
+concrete side the sciences unifying as geography, and on their more
+abstract side as the classification and philosophy of the
+sciences,--while both abstract and concrete movements of thought are
+becoming more and more thoroughly evolutionary in character.
+
+But evolutionary theories, especially as they rise towards
+comprehensiveness, cannot permanently content themselves with origins,
+or with classifications merely, nor with concentrating on nature rather
+than on man. Nature furnishes after all but the stage for evolution in
+its highest terms; of this man himself is the hero; so that thus our
+Geotechnic phase, Synthetic age (call it what we will) in its turn gives
+birth to a further advance--that concerned with human evolution, above
+all subordinating all things to him; whereas in all these preceding
+industrial phases, even if decreasingly, "things are in the saddle and
+ride mankind." This age, now definitely evolutionist in policy, as the
+geotechnic was in theory and in environment we may term the _Eugenic_.
+For its theory, still less advanced, the term _Eupsychic_ may complete
+our proposed nomenclature.
+
+Thus then our conception of the opening future may be increasingly
+defined, since all these apparently predicted phases are already
+incipient among us, and are thus really matters of observed fact, of
+social embryology let us say; in short, of city development.
+
+In summary, then, the diagram of the former instalment of this paper
+(vol. 1, p. 109)
+
+              ANCIENT                 ||
+Primitive | Matriarchal | Patriarchal ||
+
+                 RECENT                   ||
+Greek and Roman | Mediaeval | Renaissance ||
+
+        CONTEMPORARY          ||
+Revolution | Empire | Finance ||
+
+         INCIPIENT
+         ?   ?   ?
+
+[Page: 109] has thus its interrogations filled up. Omitting the
+left-hand half, that generalised as Ancient and Recent in the above
+diagram, so as to give more space to the Contemporary and Incipient
+phases, these now stand as follows:--
+
+          CONTEMPORARY           ||           INCIPIENT
+Revolution | Revolution | Empire ||Neotechnic | Geotechnic | Eugenic
+
+To elaborate this farther would, of course, exceed my present limits;
+but I may be permitted to say that long use of this schematic outline,
+especially of course in more developed forms, has satisfied me of its
+usefulness alike in the study of current events and in the practical
+work of education and city betterment. I venture then to recommend it to
+others as worth trial.
+
+
+R--A PRACTICAL PROPOSAL--A CIVIC EXHIBITION
+
+How shall we more fully correlate our theoretic civics, i.e., our
+observations of cities interpreted as above, with our moral ideas and
+our practical policy--i.e., our Applied Civics. Our ideals have to be
+selected, our ideas defined, our plans matured; and the whole of these
+applied; that is realised, in polity, in culture, and in art. But if
+this be indeed the due correlation of civic survey and civic service,
+how may we now best promote the diffusion and the advancement of both?
+At this stage therefore, I venture to submit to the Society a practical
+proposal for its consideration and discussion; and if approved, I would
+fain hope for its recommendation to towns and cities, to organisations
+and to the public likely to be interested.
+
+Here then is my proposal. Is not the time ripe for bringing together the
+movements of Civics and Eugenics, now here and indeed everywhere plainly
+nascent, and of setting these before the public of this country in some
+such large and concrete ways, as indeed, in the latter subject at
+least, have been so strongly desiderated by Mr. Galton? As regards
+Civics, such have been afforded to America during the summer of 1904 by
+the Municipal Section of the St. Louis Exhibition; in [Page: 110]
+Dresden also, at the recent Towns Exhibition; and by kindred Exhibitions
+and Congresses in Paris and elsewhere.
+
+All these have taken form since the Paris Exposition of 1900, with its
+important section of social economy and its many relevant special
+congresses. Among these may be specially mentioned here as of popular
+interest, and civic stimulus, the _Congres de L'Art Public_; the more
+since this also held an important Exhibition, to which many Continental
+cities sent instructive exhibits.
+
+Other exhibitions might be mentioned; so that the fact appears that in
+well-nigh every important and progressive country, save our own, the
+great questions of civics have already been fully opened, and vividly
+brought before their public, by these great contemporary museums with
+their associated congresses.
+
+With our present Chairman, the Rt. Hon. Charles Booth, with Canon
+Barnett, Mr. Horsfall, and so many other eminent civic workers among us;
+with our committee and its most organising of secretaries, might not a
+real impulse be given in this way by this Society towards civic
+education and action?
+
+Let me furthermore recall the two facts; first, that in every important
+exhibition which has been held in this country or abroad, no exhibits
+have been more instructive and more popular than have been (1) the
+picturesque reconstructions of ancient cities, and the presentment of
+their city life, and (2) the corresponding surveys of the present
+conditions of town life, and of the resources and means of bettering
+them.
+
+Even as a show then, I venture to submit that such a "Towneries" might
+readily be arranged to excel in interest, and surpass in usefulness, the
+excellent "Fisheries," "Healtheries", and other successful exhibitions
+in the record and recent memory of London. The advantages of such an
+exhibition are indeed too numerous for even an outline here; but they
+may be easily thought out more and more fully. Indeed, I purposely
+abstain for the present from more concrete suggestion; for the
+discussion of its elements, methods, plans, and scale will be found to
+raise the whole range of civic questions, and to set these in freshening
+lights.
+
+[Page: 111] At this time of social transition, when we all more or less
+feel the melting away of old divisions and parties, of old barriers of
+sects and schools, and the emergence of new possibilities, the continual
+appearance of new groupings of thought and action, such a Civic
+Exhibition would surely be specially valuable. In the interest, then, of
+the incipient renascence of civic progress, I plead for a Civic
+Exhibition.[14]
+
+[14] Since the preceding paper was read, it is encouraging to note the
+practical beginnings of a movement towards a civic exhibition,
+appropriately arising, like so many other valuable contributions to
+civic betterment, from Toynbee Hall. The Cottages Exhibition initiated
+by Mr. St. Loe Strachey at Garden City, and of course also that
+admirable scheme itself, must also be mentioned as importance forces in
+the directions of progress and propaganda advocated above.
+
+Of such an exhibition, the very catalogue would be in principle that
+_Encyclopædia Civica_, into which, in the previous instalment of this
+paper (vol. I, p. 118) I have sought to group the literature of civics.
+We should thus pass before us, in artistic expression, and therefore in
+universal appeal, the historic drama of the great civic past, the
+mingled present, the phantasmagoria and the tragi comedy of both of
+these. We should then know more of the ideals potential for the future,
+and, it may be, help onward some of the Eutopias which are already
+struggling towards birth.
+
+
+
+
+DISCUSSION
+
+
+The Chairman (THE RT. HON. CHARLES BOOTH) said:
+
+I feel always the inspiring character of Professor Geddes' addresses. He
+seems to widen and deepen the point of view, and to widen and deepen
+one's own ideas, and enables us to hold them more firmly and better than
+one can do without the aid of the kind of insight Professor Geddes has
+given into the methods of his own mind. I believe that we all hold our
+conceptions by some sort of tenure. I am afraid I hold mine by columns
+and statistics much underlined--a horrible prosaic sort of arrangement
+on ruled paper. I remember a lady of my acquaintance who had a place for
+everything. The discovery of America was in the left-hand corner; the
+Papacy was in the middle; and for everything she had some local
+habitation in an imaginary world. Professor Geddes is far more ingenious
+than that, and it is most interesting and instructive and helpful to
+follow these charming diagrams which spring evidently from the method he
+himself uses in holding and forming his conceptions. That it is of the
+utmost value to have large conceptions there can be no doubt--large
+conceptions both in time and place, large conceptions of all those
+various ideas to which he has called our attention. By some means or
+other we have to have them; and having got them, every individual,
+single fact has redoubled value. We put it in its place. So I hope that
+in our discussion, while we may develop each in his own way, the mental
+methods we pursue, we may bring forward anything that strikes us as
+germane, as a practical point of application to the life of the world,
+and especially anything having an application to the life of London. I
+would make my contribution to that with regard to a scheme that has been
+explained to me by its originator, Mrs. Barnett, the wife of Canon
+Barnett of Toynbee Hall. The idea concerns an open [Page: 113] space
+which has recently been secured in Hampstead. It is known to you all
+that a certain piece of ground belonging to the trustees of Eton College
+has been secured, which extends the open space of Hampstead Heath in
+such a way as to protect a great amount of beauty. The further proposal
+is to acquire an estate surrounding that open space which has now been
+secured for ever to the people, and to use this extension to make what
+is called a "garden suburb." It is a following out of the "garden-city"
+idea which is seizing hold of all our minds, and it seems to me an
+exceedingly practical adaptation of that idea. Where it comes in, in
+connection with the address we have just heard, is that the root idea is
+that it shall bring together all the good elements of civic life. It is
+not to be for one class, or one idea, but for all classes, and all
+ideas--a mixed population with all its needs thought for and provided
+for; and above everything, the beauty of those fields and those hills is
+not to be sacrificed, but to be used for the good of the suburb and the
+good of London. I hope that out of it will come an example that will be
+followed. That is a little contribution I wish to make to the discussion
+to-day, and if I can interest any one here in forwarding it, I shall be
+exceedingly glad.
+
+
+MR. SWINNY said:
+
+Towards the close of his lecture, Professor Geddes remarked that the
+cities of America inherited a great part of their civilisation from
+Greece and Rome and the Europe of the Middle Age. I believe that thought
+will lead us to consider the point whether this geographical survey
+should precede or follow a general historical survey. Now, if we
+consider that a river valley in England, with the towns in that valley,
+are part of the English nation, and that the English nation has shared
+in the general historical evolution of Western Europe, it would seem
+that the first simplification the question allows of is: What is there
+in the historical development of that city that is common to the whole
+of Western Europe, and what is peculiar to its position as an English
+city? And the second simplification that the problem allows of is to
+consider what part of the evolution of a particular city is due to its
+peculiar position in that river valley? So that it seems necessary first
+to get a general idea of the historical evolution of England and the
+West; and then you can proceed to consider what is due to the part
+played by the city in that evolution. Thus you have to consider not so
+much the city as a result of its immediate environment, but the effect
+of its environment in modifying the general course of civilisation as it
+affected that city.
+
+
+DR. J.L. TAYLER,
+
+[Page: 114] referring to Professor Geddes' remarks on the working
+craftsman and the thinking craftsman, said he believed that in a country
+like England, where the prevailing tendencies of thought and action were
+of an essentially practical nature, many people who now felt contempt
+for higher mental ideals would alter their views, if this idea of the
+_causal_ relationship between thinkers and workers could be driven home.
+If business men and women could be made to realise that in the higher
+regions of pure science there were always to be found some thinkers who
+belonged to the same craft or trade as they themselves, they would
+naturally tend to rely on these thinkers when dealing with problems that
+necessitate a wide mental outlook.
+
+Moreover, the thought that students of great mental powers studied the
+objects with which working craftsmen were in daily contact, could not
+fail to deepen, refine and purify their more practical and, in some
+respects, grosser aims; while the knowledge that every science-study had
+an industrial as well as a scientific aspect would make the thinking
+craftsmen more alive to the needs of everyday existence.
+
+Such conceptions, if spread through all classes of our community, would
+inevitably change the feeling of distrust of learning into one of
+healthful enthusiasm, and give in addition a unity and direction to our
+various life pursuits which might in time generate a true modern
+national spirit; for it is precisely this divorce of mental and
+physical, of theoretical and practical, class and individual
+effort--which such a thinking and working craft theory would
+rectify--that destroys our efficiency by creating an unreal chasm
+between refined and unrefined, learned and unlearned, where there should
+be only a progressive evolution from the lower to the higher, from the
+immediate practical to the ultimate ideal.
+
+
+THE REV. DR. AVELING said:
+
+There was one point that the lecturer made which, I think, might be a
+fit and fruitful subject for discussion. He said that we were the
+product of the city. To a great extent that is undoubtedly true; but on
+the other hand, he advocated an improvement in the conditions of
+environment, to be brought about by our own endeavours. Therefore, the
+city can be shaped and made by us. What, then, is the exact value to be
+given to the seemingly contradictory doctrines that the individual is
+the product of the city and also that the city is the product of the
+citizen? The establishing of some fixed relation between--or the
+adjusting of the relations of--these two causes of social progress would
+be, I think, interesting to the philosopher, and useful to the
+economist. The problem is [Page: 115] without doubt a difficult one, but
+its solution would be of great value. I do not venture to offer any
+answer to the question I raise--I merely state it.
+
+
+MR. A.W. STILL said:
+
+We have been passing through a period in which the city has created a
+type of man so wholly absorbed in the promotion of his own individual
+interests that he tends almost entirely to forget the social obligations
+which ought to make the greatest appeal to him. We may take some hope
+from what Professor Geddes has said, that the time is coming when we
+shall bring the force of our own characters to bear on our environment,
+and endeavour to break away from conditions which have made us the
+slaves of environment. I know the lovely little garden city of
+Bourneville intimately, and some of the experiments in other quarters.
+But in the common expansion of cities, I have seen that as the people
+get away from one set of slums, they are creating new areas which will
+become as degraded and abominable as those which are left behind. It has
+always seemed to me that there is room for good work by some committee,
+or some body of men, who would be voluntary guardians of the city's
+well-being, who would make it their business to acquire all that
+knowledge which Professor Geddes has just put before us in terms so
+enchanting, and would use all the ability that they possess in order to
+lead the minds of the community towards the cultivation of the best and
+highest ideals in civic life. I do not think it need be regarded as
+impossible that, from an association of this kind, such a movement as I
+have mentioned should spring. I conceive the possibility of each group
+developing into a trust, capable of acting in the interests of the city
+in years to come, exercising a mighty influence, being relied upon for
+guidance, and administering great funds for the common good. If we could
+get in each of our populous centres a dozen thoroughly intelligent
+broad-minded men, capable of watching all the streams of tendency--all
+the developments of civic life, bringing their judgment to bear on its
+progress, and urging the public to move in the right direction, a great
+service might be rendered. At least once a year, these little groups of
+men might meet together at some general conference, and, by the exchange
+of their opinions and by the mutual helpfulness of intellectual
+intercourse, raise up and perfect civic ideals which would be a boon to
+this country. We suffer at present, I think, from the too great
+particularisation of our efforts. We get one man devoting himself
+exclusively to a blind asylum, another seeming to take no interest in
+anything but a deaf-and-dumb institute or the like, and yet another
+devoting himself to charity organisation. It is all excellent work, but
+the difficulty is to get broad, comprehensive views taken of the common
+good. To reduce poverty and to check physical degeneracy, there must be
+an effort continuously made to [Page: 116] raise the tone of the
+environment in which we live. The home and the city need to be made
+wholesome and beautiful, and the people need to be encouraged to enlarge
+their minds by contact with nature, and by the study of all that is
+elevating and that increases the sum of social responsibility.
+
+
+MR. E.S. WEYMOUTH said:
+
+He found it somewhat difficult to see what was to be the practical
+outcome of civics if studied in the way proposed. Would Professor Geddes
+consider it the duty of any Londoner, who wished to study sociology
+practically, to map out London, and also the surrounding districts, with
+special reference to the Thames River Basin, as appeared to be suggested
+in both Professor Geddes' papers? Looking at civics in its practical or
+ethical aspect, he was bound to confess that, though he had acquired a
+tolerable knowledge of the geography of the Thames Basin, he did not
+feel it helped him materially towards becoming a better citizen of
+London. Would Professor Geddes wish them to study, first, London with
+its wealth side by side with its squalor and filth, and then proceed to
+study another large town, where the same phenomena presented themselves?
+What gain would there be in that proportionate to the labour entailed?
+In his own case, so disheartened had he felt by observing that all their
+efforts, public and private, for the improvement of their civic
+conditions seemed to end in raising considerably the rents of the ground
+landlords of London, while leaving the bulk of the population engaged in
+a hard struggle for their existence, that he had for years past found it
+difficult to take much interest in municipal affairs, so long as the
+rates and taxes were--as it seemed to him--put upon the wrong shoulders.
+And for the study of civics, he had preferred to turn to those cities
+where efforts were being made to establish communal life on what seemed
+to him juster conditions. In 1897, he was struck with the title of an
+article in the "Daily Telegraph." It was headed, "The Land of Beauty,
+Society without Poverty, Life without Care." He found the article was a
+description of Durban in Natal. The writer attributed the prosperity of
+this town to the fact that the suburbs were kept in the hands of the
+community, instead of being handed over to private owners who would
+absorb all the unearned increment. Even if this eulogium betrayed
+exaggeration still a student of civics might feel that the economic
+conditions of that town were worth studying. Similarly, in New Zealand,
+the adoption in 1891 of the tax on land values brought prosperity to the
+towns, and changed the tide of emigration from New Zealand into
+immigration. Again, at home they had Bourneville, Port Sunlight, and
+that most interesting of all present-day experiments in this country,
+the Garden City, all of these being founded by men with ideals. He could
+not help feeling [Page: 117] that a student of civics, possessed of such
+a fair working knowledge of the city he lived in as most of them might
+reasonably lay claim to, would make more real progress by studying the
+success or failure of social experiments, than by entering on the very
+formidable task that seemed to be set before them by Professor Geddes.
+However, when they left abstract civics, as they had it portrayed to
+them in these papers, and turned to the architectural or the historical
+side of concrete civics, there should be no better guide than Professor
+Geddes, whose labours in Edinburgh, and whose projected schemes for the
+improvement of Dunfermline, were becoming widely known.
+
+
+MR. TOMKINS (_of the London Trades Council_) said:
+
+If before any person was allowed to serve on our different public
+bodies, he should be required to attend a course of lectures such as
+those given by Professor Geddes on civics, that would surely be a means
+of developing his social interests, and would tend to eliminate that
+self-interest which too often actuated public men. There was nothing
+more difficult than for workmen to-day to be able to take larger views.
+The workman's whole business was now so different from what is was in
+the days of the arts and crafts guilds of the Middle Ages; they now
+found him ground down into some little division of industry, and it was
+quite impossible for him to work in his own way. Thus he got
+narrow-minded, because concentrated on some minor process. He was kept
+at work with his nose to the mill the whole time, and it became too
+exhausting for him to try and take these larger views of life. He often
+thought of the amount of talent and energy and practical beauty which
+was wasted in our workshops to-day. Referring to the Garden Cities of
+this country and the United States, Mr. Tomkins said the idea of getting
+great Trusts to use their money in a social spirit, and not merely to
+get the workers tied to their mills, was really something which opened
+out a vista of grand possibilities in the future; but if any movement
+was to be successful it would be necessary to teach the great masses of
+workers, and to create a real sound social public opinion amongst them.
+
+
+PROFESSOR GEDDES' reply
+
+Professor Geddes, in replying to the discussion, said he entirely agreed
+with the point made by Mr. Swinny, and he should just like to correct
+what he had said in his lecture by reference to what he meant by a civic
+museum. In Edinburgh, he had in his museum a large room, with a
+geographical model [Page: 118] of the old town with its hill-fort, and
+so on; and he hung round this maps and diagrams of historical and
+geographical details. On the opposite side of the room, he had a symbol
+of the market-cross, which stood for the centre of its municipal life,
+of its ideals and independence of environment. Around it was grouped
+what represented the other side of the city; and here he might answer
+another point, and say that they could never settle the great
+philosophical controversy of determinism and free-will. They would
+always incline when young to the novel of circumstance, and later, to
+the novel of character, but they should always feel that life was a game
+of individual skill with interfering circumstances. These diagrams of
+his were only the page split. On the one side, he meant to push to the
+extreme the idea that the place makes us, and on the other side, that we
+make the place. By what process do men struggle towards the selection of
+their ideals? They find themselves within the grasp of their
+environment, their whole heritage of culture, of good and ill, the whole
+tradition of the past; but they must select certain elements of
+these--the elements that seem to them good, and so they might escape
+from the manner of the city. Pointing to a drawing of the old Scotch
+bawbee, Professor Geddes said it was not a very dignified symbol of the
+coinage of the world, but let them mark how it had on the one side the
+hammerman at his work, with his motto "_Beat deus artem_," and, on the
+other side, a larger legend, with the eagle of the empire and the lamb
+of Saint John.
+
+To return to his civic museum: the room below the one he had described
+was the larger museum for Scotland, and in the room below that, again,
+the museum for England, Ireland and America, the whole English-speaking
+world--not the Empire only. And the whole stood on a museum and library
+representing that larger evolution of the occidental civilisation which
+showed them they were merely children of the past. Professor Geddes
+pleaded for museums in which every city displayed its own past and
+present, but related itself to the whole of Europe and the whole
+occident.
+
+One or two practical questions of great importance had [Page: 119] been
+raised; but, with all respect, he submitted that they could consider
+what was practical and practicable without requiring to go into the
+question of taxing land. That was a matter of political opinion. It was
+as if they were discussing the geology of coal, which they could do,
+without reference to coal royalties. Mr. Weymouth was with them on the
+subject of preserving old buildings; and he thought there was a great
+deal to be learned, if Mr. Weymouth would descend the valley of the
+Thames once more. It was of great importance if he found a great city at
+the tidal limit. Going down the Thames and the Tay, they would find, at
+the last ford of one, the old Abbey of Westminster, and at the last ford
+of the other, the old Abbey of Scoon. The kings of England and Scotland
+were crowned there because these were the most important places--a point
+of great historic interest. As a matter of practical interest, he might
+mention that Scoon and Westminster alike passed out of supreme
+importance when bridges were built across the river below; and he would
+next point out how just as Perth became of subordinate importance when
+the great Tay Bridge was built, so it became a tremendously important
+question to London, as it might in turn be much affected by the making
+of a great and a new bridge much further down the stream. This study of
+the descending river had real and practical, as well as historical
+importance. He had been about considerably in the great cities of the
+United States, and had been struck by the amount of good endeavour
+there. It was not, however, by denouncing Tammany that they could beat
+it, but by understanding it. They must understand the mechanism by which
+the Celtic chieftain ruled his clan, and they must deal with these
+methods by still other methods; and they might often find it more
+satisfactory to re-moralise the chieftain than to destroy him.
+
+Professor Geddes concluded by saying that he appreciated the admirable
+suggestion of Mr. Still towards the evolution of civic unions. He was
+sure Mr. Still had there an idea of great significance which might be
+developed.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Civics: as Applied Sociology, by Patrick Geddes
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13205 ***
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+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13205 ***</div>
+
+<br />
+<h1><i>Civics: as Applied Sociology</i></h1>
+<h2>by Patrick Geddes</h2>
+<br />
+<hr style="width: 35%; height: 2px;" /><br />
+<p style="font-weight: bold;">Read before the Sociological Society at a
+Meeting in the School of
+Economics and Political Science (University of London), Clare Market,
+W.C., at 5 p.m., on Monday, July 18th, 1904; the Rt. Hon. CHARLES
+BOOTH,
+F.R.S., in the Chair.</p>
+<br />
+<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+<br />
+<p>This department of sociological studies should evidently be, as far
+as
+possible, concrete in treatment. If it is to appeal to practical men
+and
+civic workers, it is important that the methods advocated for the
+systematic study of cities, and as underlying fruitful action, be not
+merely the product of the study, but rather be those which may be
+acquired in course of local observation and practical effort. My
+problem
+is thus to outline such general ideas as may naturally crystallise from
+the experience of any moderately-travelled observer of varied
+interests;
+so that his observation of city after city, now panoramic and
+impressionist, again detailed, should gradually develop towards an
+orderly Regional Survey. This point of view has next to be correlated
+with the corresponding practical experience, that which may be acquired
+through some varied experiences of citizenship, and thence rise toward
+a
+larger and more orderly conception of civic action&#8212;as Regional Service.
+In a word, then, Applied Sociology in general, or <span class="pagenum">p. 104</span> Civics, as
+one of its main departments, may be defined as the application of
+Social
+Survey to Social Service.</p>
+<p>In this complex field of study as in simpler preliminary ones, our
+everyday experiences and commonsense interpretations gradually become
+more systematic, that is, begin to assume a scientific character; while
+our activities, in becoming more orderly and comprehensive, similarly
+approximate towards art. Thus there is emerging more and more clearly
+for sociological studies in general, for their concrete fields of
+application in city after city, the conception of a scientific centre
+of
+observation and record on the one hand, and of a corresponding centre
+of
+experimental endeavour on the other&#8212;in short of Sociological
+Observatory and Sociological Laboratory, and of these as increasingly
+co-ordinated. Indeed, is not such association of observations and
+experiments, are not such institutions actually incipient here and
+elsewhere? I need not multiply instances of the correlation of science
+and art, as of chemistry with agriculture, or biology with medicine.
+Yet, on the strictly sociological plane and in civic application they
+are as yet less generally evident, though such obvious connections as
+that of vital statistics with hygienic administration, that of
+commercial statistics with politics, are becoming recognised by all. In
+the paper with which this Society's work lately opened, the intimate
+connection between a scientific demography and a practical eugenics has
+been clearly set forth. But this study of the community in the
+aggregate
+finds its natural parallel and complement in the study of the community
+as an integrate, with material and immaterial structures and functions,
+which we call the City. Correspondingly, the improvement of the
+individuals of the community, which is the aim of eugenics, involves a
+corresponding civic progress. Using (for the moment at least) a
+parallel
+nomenclature, we see that the sociologist is concerned not only with
+"demography" but with "politography," and that "eugenics" is
+inseparable
+from "politogenics." For the struggle for existence, though observed
+mainly from the side of its individuals by the demographer, is not only
+an intra-civic but an inter-civic process; and if so, ameliorative
+selection, now clearly sought for the individuals in detail as
+eugenics,
+is inseparable from a corresponding civic art&#8212;a literal
+"Eupolitogenics."</p>
+<br />
+<h3>A&#8212;THE GEOGRAPHIC SURVEY OF CITIES</h3>
+<p>Coming to concrete Civic Survey, where shall we begin? Not only in
+variety and magnitude of civic activities, but, thanks especially to
+the
+work of Mr. Charles Booth and his collaborators in actual social survey
+also, London may naturally claim pre-eminence. Yet even at best, does
+not this vastest of world cities remain a less or more foggy labyrinth,
+from which surrounding <span class="pagenum"><a name='p_105'></a>p. 105</span> regions with their smaller cities can
+be but dimly descried, even with the best intentions of avoiding the
+cheap generalisation of "the provinces"? For our more general and
+comparative study, then, simpler beginnings are preferable. More
+suitable, therefore, to our fundamental thesis&#8212;that no less definite
+than the study of races and usages or languages, is that of the
+groupings of men&#8212;is the clearer outlook, the more panoramic view of a
+definite geographic region, such, for instance, as lies beneath us upon
+a mountain holiday. Beneath vast hunting desolations lie the pastoral
+hillsides, below these again scattered arable crofts and sparsely
+dotted
+hamlets lead us to the small upland village of the main glen: from this
+again one descends to the large and prosperous village of the foothills
+and its railway terminus, where lowland and highland meet. East or
+west,
+each mountain valley has its analogous terminal and initial village,
+upon its fertile fan-shaped slope, and with its corresponding minor
+market; while, central to the broad agricultural strath with its slow
+meandering river, stands the prosperous market town, the road and
+railway junction upon which all the various glen-villages converge. A
+day's march further down, and at the convergence of several such
+valleys, stands the larger county-town&#8212;in the region before me as I
+write, one of added importance, since not only well nigh central to
+Scotland, but as the tidal limit of a till lately navigable river.
+Finally, at the mouth of its estuary, rises the smoke of a great
+manufacturing city, a central world-market in its way. Such a river
+system is, as geographer after geographer has pointed out, the
+essential
+unit for the student of cities and civilisations. Hence this simple
+geographical method of treatment must here be pled for as fundamental
+to
+any really orderly and comparative treatment of our subject. By
+descending from source to sea we follow the development of civilisation
+from its simple origins to its complex resultants; nor can any element
+of this be omitted. Were we to begin with the peasant hamlet as our
+initial unit, and forget the hinterlands of pasture, forest, and chase
+(an error to which the writer on cities is naturally prone), the
+anthropologist would soon remind us that in forgetting the hunter, we
+had omitted the essential germ of active militarism, and hence very
+largely of aristocratic rule. Similarly, <span class="pagenum">p. 106</span> in ignoring the
+pastoral life, we should be losing sight of a main fount of spiritual
+power, and this not only as regards the historic religions, but all
+later culture elements also, from the poetic to the educational. In
+short, then, it takes the whole region to make the city. As the river
+carries down contributions from its whole course, so each complex
+community, as we descend, is modified by its predecessors. The converse
+is no doubt true also, but commonly in less degree.</p>
+<p>In this way with the geographer we may rapidly review and extend our
+knowledge of the grouping of cities. Such a survey of a series of our
+own river-basins, say from Dee to Thames, and of a few leading
+Continental ones, say the Rhine and Meuse, the Seine and Loire, the
+Rhone, the Po, the Danube&#8212;and, if possible, in America also, at least
+the Hudson and Mississippi&#8212;will be found the soundest of introductions
+to the study of cities. The comparison of corresponding types at once
+yields the conviction of broad general unity of development, structure,
+and function. Thus, with Metschnikoff we recognise the succession of
+potamic, thalassic, and oceanic civilisations; with Reclus we see the
+regular distribution of minor and major towns to have been largely
+influenced not only by geographical position but by convenient journey
+distances. Again, we note how the exigencies of defence and of
+government, the developments of religion, despite all historic
+diversities, have been fundamentally the same. It is not, of course, to
+be forgotten how government, commerce, communications, have
+concentrated, altered or at least disguised the fundamental
+geographical
+simplicity of this descending hierarchy from mountain-hamlet to
+ocean-metropolis; but it is useful for the student constantly to
+recover
+the elemental and naturalist-like point of view even in the greatest
+cities. At times we all see London as still fundamentally an
+agglomeration of villages, with their surviving patches of common,
+around a mediaeval seaport; or we discern even in the utmost
+magnificence of Paris, say its Place de l'Etoile, with its spread of
+boulevards, but the hunter's tryst by the fallen tree, with its
+radiating forest-rides, each literally arrow-straight. So the narrow
+rectangular network of an American city is explicable only by the
+unthinking persistence of the peasant thrift, which grudges good land
+to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name='p_107'></a>p. 107</span>
+road-way, and is jealous of oblique short cuts. In short,
+then, in what seems our most studied city planning, we are still
+building from our inherited instincts like the bees. Our Civics is thus
+still far from an Applied Sociology.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>B&#8212;THE HISTORIC SURVEY OF CITIES</h3>
+<p>But a city is more than a place in space, it is a drama in time.
+Though
+the claim of geography be fundamental our interest in the history of
+the
+city is supremely greater; it is obviously no mere geographic
+circumstances which developed one hill-fort in Judea, and another in
+Attica, into world centres, to this day more deeply influential and
+significant than are the vastest modern capitals. This very wealth of
+historical interests and resources, the corresponding multiplicity of
+specialisms, more than ever proves the need of some means by which to
+group and classify them. Some panoramic simplification of our ideas of
+history comparable to that of our geography, and if possible congruent
+with this, is plainly what we want. Again the answer comes through
+geography, though no longer in mere map or relief, but now in vertical
+section&#8212;in the order of strata ascending from past to present, whether
+we study rock-formations with the geologist, excavate more recent
+accumulations with the archaeologist, or interpret ruins or monuments
+with the historian. Though the primitive conditions we have above noted
+with the physiographer remain apparent, indeed usually permanent,
+cities
+have none the less their characteristic phases of historic development
+decipherably superposed. Thus below even the characteristically
+patriarchal civilisations, an earlier matriarchal order is often
+becoming disclosed. Our interest in exploring some stately modern or
+Renaissance city is constantly varied by finding some picturesque
+mediaeval remnant; below this some fragment of Roman ruin; below this
+it
+may be some barbarian fort or mound. Hence the fascinating interest of
+travel, which compels us ever to begin our survey anew. Starting with
+the same river-basin as before, the geographic panorama now gains a new
+and deeper interest. Primitive centres long forgotten start into life;
+pre-historic tumuli give up their dead; to the stone circles the <span class="pagenum">p. 108</span>
+worshippers return; the British and the Roman camps again fill
+with
+armed men, and beside the prosaic market town arises a shadowy
+Arthurian
+capital. Next, some moment-centuries later, a usurper's tower rises and
+falls; the mediaeval abbey, the great castles, have their day; with the
+Reformation and the Renaissance the towns again are transformed; and
+yet more thoroughly than ever by the Industrial Revolution, with its
+factories, railways, steamships, and all that they bring with them.
+Thus, for instance, almost more important than the internal
+transformation and concentration wrought by railway and telegraph, is
+the selection, amidst the almost innumerable seaports of the older
+order, of the very few adapted to the deep draught of modern ships. In
+a
+word, not only does the main series of active cities display traces of
+all the past phases of evolution, but beside this lie fossils, or
+linger
+survivals, of almost every preceding phase.</p>
+<p>Hence, after many years of experiment and practice in teaching
+sociology
+I still find no better method available than that of regional survey,
+historical as well as geographical. Beginning with some popular
+excursion of obvious beauty and romantic interest like that to Melrose,
+we see with every tourist how naturally and fully the atmosphere and
+tradition of the Border found its expression and world influence in Sir
+Walter Scott. Thence, passing by way of contrast through the long
+isolated peninsula of Fife, say to representative towns like Kirkcaldy
+and Largo, we still see the conditions of that individualism of which
+Adam Smith and Alexander Selkirk ("Robinson Crusoe") have each in his
+way become the very prototypes. In such ways the connection of regional
+geography, history, and social psychology becomes increasingly clear.
+Again, we explore the other old Fife seaports, a series of survivals
+like those of the Zuyder Zee, or again work out in the field the
+significance of Stirling, so often the strategic centre of Scotland.
+Again, Dunfermline, as early mediaeval capital and abbey, furnishes a
+convenient object lesson preparatory to the study of the larger
+Edinburgh. Here, again, its triple centre, in the port of Leith, the
+Royal Castle, the Abbey of Holyrood, are the respective analogues of
+the
+port of London, the Tower, and Westminster; while each city-group has
+its outlying circle of minor burghs, tardily and imperfectly
+incorporated into a civic whole. Again, such a marked contrast of civic
+origins and developments as those of Glasgow and Edinburgh has to be
+accounted for; and thus through such progessively complexer surveys we
+reach the plane of modern civic problems and policies. Understanding
+the
+present as the development of the past, are we not preparing also to
+understand the future as the development of the present?</p>
+<p>The impressiveness of the aspect of Edinburgh to its visitors is
+thus
+not <span class="pagenum"><a name='p_109'></a>p. 109</span>
+merely pictorial. Be the spectator conscious of this or
+no, it turns primarily upon the contrast of the mediaeval hill-city
+with
+its castle ramparts, its fretted cathedral crown, with park and
+boulevard, with shops, hotels and railway stations. But the historic
+panorama is unusually complete. See the hill-fort defended by lake and
+forest, becoming "<i>castrum puellarum</i>," becoming a Roman and an
+Arthurian citadel, a mediaeval stronghold of innumerable sieges, a
+centre of autocratic and military dictatures, oligarchic governments,
+at
+length a museum of the past. So in the city itself. Here the narrow
+ridge crowded into a single street all the essential organs of a
+capital, and still presents with the rarest completeness of
+concentration a conspectus of modern civic life and development; and
+this alike as regards both spiritual and temporal powers, using these
+terms in their broadest senses as the respective expressions of the
+material order and its immaterial counterparts. Thus the royal and
+noble
+castles of the Middle Age become with the Renaissance here as
+everywhere
+something of palaces, while with the industrial revolution they have
+become replaced by factories or transformed into breweries. So the
+guidance of speculative thought, once concentrated in the mediaeval
+abbey, becomes transferred to the Reformation assembly of divines, to
+the Renaissance college; and again at the Revolution, is largely taken
+over by the speculative encyclop&aelig;dists, of whom Hume and Smith
+were but
+the most eminent. Nor are later developments less obvious. Of the
+following generation, we have the neo-classic architecture which
+everywhere dominated Europe after the French Revolution and during the
+First Empire, while of the next generation's reaction against all this
+in the romantic movement, the neo-Gothic monument of Scott is the most
+characteristic possible representative. Again, just as in the Oxford
+movement we had the (appropriately regional) renascence of the idealism
+of the Cavaliers, so in Edinburgh we have naturally the simultaneous
+renascence of the Puritan ideal, e.g., in the Free Church, whose
+monument accordingly rises to dominate the city in its turn. The later
+period of prosperous Liberalism, the heroic enthusiasms of Empire, have
+each left their mark; and now in the dominant phase of social
+evolution,
+that of Finance, the banks, the financial companies, the press are
+having their turn as monument builders. Our Old Edinburgh is thus the
+most condensed example, the visible microcosm of the social evolution
+which is manifest everywhere; so that as a teaching model of
+sociological development it may renew its educational attractiveness
+when its improving hygiene has lessened its medical advantages.</p>
+<p>Setting down now these phases of historical development in tabular
+form,
+we have a diagram such as the following:&#8212;</p>
+<br />
+<table summary="Ancient, recent, contemporary societies"
+ style="width: 100%;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3" rowspan="1">ANCIENT <br />
+      </td>
+      <td colspan="3" rowspan="1"
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">RECENT </td>
+      <td colspan="3" rowspan="1"
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"> CONTEMPORARY </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> INCIPIENT</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;">Primitive </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Matriarchal </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Patriarchal </td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;"> Greek
+and Roman </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Mediaeval </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Renaissance </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Revolution </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Empire </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Finance </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> ? ? ?</td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>which, were it placed erect, we might now compare to the increasing
+<span class="pagenum">p. 110</span>
+nodes of a growing stem, or rather say the layers of a coral
+reef, in which each generation constructs its characteristic stony
+skeleton as a contribution to the growing yet dying and wearying whole.
+I have elaborated this example of the panoramic aspect of Old Edinburgh
+as a widely familiar instance of the method of literal survey with
+which
+social and civic studies may so conveniently begin; and I press the
+value of extending these even to the utmost elaborateness of
+photographic survey: in my view, indeed, a sociological society has at
+least as much use for a collection of maps, plans and photographs as of
+statistics, indeed scarcely less than one of books. Of course, in all
+this I am but recalling what every tourist in some measure knows; yet
+his impressions and recollections can become an orderly politography,
+only as he sees each city in terms of its characteristic social
+formations, and as he utilises the best examples from each phase
+towards
+building up a complete picture of the greatest products of civic
+evolution, temporal and spiritual, of all places and times up to the
+present. Such a parallel of the historic survey of the city to that of
+its underlying geological area is thus in no wise a metaphoric one, but
+one which may be worked out upon maps sections and diagrams almost
+completely in the same way&#8212;in fact, with little change save that of
+colours and vertical scale. The attempt to express the characteristic
+and essential life and thought of a given region in each period upon a
+series of maps is in fact the best method of understanding the everyday
+map at which we commonly look so unthinkingly.</p>
+<p>Much of the preceding, I am assured, must be most unsatisfactory to
+those who look at cities only from the standpoint of so many committees
+dealing with police, water, finance, and so on; or to those who are
+content to view the magnitude, the wealth and the population, the
+industries and the manufactures of a great city without considering
+whence these have come and whither they are leading; equally
+unsatisfactory also, I fear, to those to whom civic dignities and
+precedence, or the alternations of winning political colours, appear of
+prime importance. I can only hope that some of these may, on
+consideration, admit that the points of view I have endeavoured to
+outline above may be worth some thought and study as elementary
+preliminaries to their own more special and developed interests; and if
+the society permit. I hope to approach these more closely in a later
+paper.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 111</span>
+The abstract economist or legalist, the moral or political
+philosopher may also resent the proposed mode of treatment as an
+attempt
+to materialise sociology by reducing it to concrete terms alone. But I
+would reply that observation, so far from excluding interpretation, is
+just the very means of preparing for it. It is the observant
+naturalist,
+the travelled zoologist and botanist, who later becomes the productive
+writer on evolution. It is the historian who may best venture on into
+the philosophy of history;&#8212;to think the reverse is to remain in the
+pre-scientific order altogether: hence the construction of systems of
+abstract and deductive economics, politics or morals, has really been
+the last surviving effort of scholasticism. Viewed as Science, Civics
+is
+that branch of Sociology which deals with Cities&#8212;their origin and
+distribution; their development and structure; their functioning,
+internal and external, material and psychological; their evolution,
+individual and associated. Viewed again from the practical side, that
+of
+applied science, Civics must develop through experimental endeavour
+into
+the more and more effective Art of enhancing the life of the city and
+of
+advancing its evolution. With the first of these lines of study, the
+concretely scientific, our philosophical outlook will not fail to
+widen;
+with the second, the practical, our ethical insight will not fail to
+deepen also.</p>
+<p>As primarily a student of living nature in evolution, I have
+naturally
+approached the city from the side of its geographic and historic
+survey,
+its environment and functional change; yet it is but a step from these
+to the abstract interpretations of the economist or the politician,
+even
+of philosopher and moralist. Again, since in everyday practice
+co-ordinating the literal maps of each civic surveys with even more
+concretely detailed plans as gardener and builder, I find less danger
+than may at first appear of ignoring the legitimate demands of the
+needed practical division of labour in the city's service. When the
+first mutual unfamiliarity is got over, there is thus also a greatly
+diminished distance between speculative thinkers and practical men, who
+at present, in this country especially, stand almost unrelated: the
+evolutionist student and worker thus begins to furnish the missing link
+between them.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>C&#8212;THE CITIZEN IN PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT</h3>
+<p>Leaving now the external survey of the city by help of its material
+framework, its characteristic buildings and predominant styles, for the
+deeper psychological survey of the citizens themselves, we may
+conveniently begin with these also in their process of development&#8212;in
+fact, our method compels us to this course. We enter then a school; and
+if we bring fresh eyes we may soon be agreed that the extraordinary
+babel of studies its time-table and curriculum reveal, is intelligible
+from no single one of the various <span class="pagenum">p. 112</span> geographic or historic
+points of view we have traversed from mountain to sea, or from past to
+present. But this unprecedented conflict of studies becomes at once
+intelligible when viewed apart from any and every definite theory of
+education yet promulgated by educationists, and even acquires a fresh
+theory of its own&#8212;that of the attempted recapitulation of the survivals
+of each and all preceding periods in their practical or speculative
+aspects, particularly the later legends and literatures, their rituals
+and codes. Thus, the inordinate specialisation upon arithmetic, the
+exaggeration of all three R's, is plainly the survival of the demand
+for
+cheap yet efficient clerks, characteristic of the recent and
+contemporary financial period.</p>
+<p>The ritual of examinations with its correlation of memorising and
+muscular drill is similarly a development of the imperial order,
+historically borrowed from the Napoleonic one; the chaotic "general
+knowledge" is similarly a survival of the encyclop&aelig;dic period;
+that is,
+of the French Revolution and the Liberal Movement generally; the Latin
+grammar and verses are of course the survivals of the Renaissance, as
+the precise fidelity to absurd spelling is the imitation of its proof
+readers; the essay is the abridged form of the mediaeval disputation;
+and only such genuine sympathy with Virgil or Tacitus, with Homer or
+Plato as one in a thousand acquires, is truly Roman or Greek at all.
+The religious instruction, however, re-interpreted by the mediaeval
+Church or the Reformation, has still its strength in some of the best
+elements of patriarchal literature; while the fairy tale, by which all
+this superincumbent weight of learning is sometimes alleviated, is the
+child's inheritance from the matriarchal order. Finally, the apple and
+the ball, at the bottom of this whole burden of books, complete the
+recapitulation; as the one, the raw fruit; the other, the ready
+missile,
+of primeval man. Our child then is heir of all the ages more fully than
+he or his teachers commonly realise. The struggle for mastery of the
+schools is thus no temporary feud, but an unending battle; one destined
+to increase rather than diminish; for in this there is the perpetual
+clash of all the forces of good heredity and evil atavism, of all the
+new variations also, healthy or diseases.</p>
+<span class="pagenum">p. 113</span><br />
+<h3>&nbsp;D&#8212;THE APPLIED SOCIOLOGY OF THE PRESENT</h3>
+<p>The city and its children thus historically present a thoroughly
+parallel accumulation of survivals or recapitulations of the past in
+the
+present. Few types nowadays are pure, that is, keep strictly to their
+period; we are all more or less mixed and modernised. Still, whether by
+temporal or spiritual compulsion, whether for the sake of bread or
+honour, each mainly and practically stands by his order, and acts with
+the social formation he belongs to. Thus now the question of the
+practical civics, that is, of the applied sociology, of each
+individual,
+each body or interests may be broadly defined; it is to emphasise his
+particular historic type, his social formation and influence in the
+civic whole, if not indeed to dominate this as far as may be. We are
+all
+for progress, but we each define it in his own way. Hence one man of
+industrial energy builds more factories or slums, another as naturally
+more breweries to supply them; and in municipal or national council his
+line of action, conscious or unconscious, remains congruent with these.
+Representative government fails to yield all that its inventors hoped
+of
+it, simply because it is so tolerably representative of its majorities;
+and there is thus great truth in the common consolation that our
+municipal governments, like larger ones, are seldom much worse than we
+deserve. Each social formation, through each of its material
+activities,
+exerts its influence upon the civic whole; and each of its ideas and
+ideals wins also its place and power. At one time the legal and
+punitive point of view, directing itself mainly to individual cases, or
+the philanthropic, palliating sufferings, dispute the foremost places;
+and now in their turn hygienic or educational endeavours arise, towards
+treating causes instead of waiting for consequences. Such endeavours
+are
+still undeniably too vague in thought, too crude in practice, and the
+enthusiast of hygiene or education or temperance may have much to
+answer
+for. But so, also, has he who stands outside of the actual civic field,
+whether as philistine or aesthete, utopist or cynic, party politician
+or
+"mug-wump." Between all these extremes it is for the united forces of
+civic survey and civic service to find the middle course. <span class="pagenum">p. 114</span> We
+observe then in the actual city, as among its future citizens, that our
+action is generally the attempt to mould both alike to some past or
+passing social formation, and, therefore, usually towards the type to
+which our interest and our survey incline, be this in our own city or
+more probably in some earlier one. Even in the actual passing detail of
+party politics we are often reminded how directly continuous are the
+rivals with puritan London, with royalist Oxford; but still more is
+this
+the case throughout the history of thought and action, and the intenser
+the more plainly; for it is in his highest moments of conviction and
+decision that the Puritan feels most in sympathy with the law or the
+prophets of Jerusalem, the scholar with Athens; or that the man of
+action&#8212;be he the first French republican or the latest
+imperialist&#8212;most frankly draws his inspiration from the corresponding
+developments of Paris. It is a commonplace of psychology that our
+thought is and must be anthropomorphic; a commonplace of history that
+it
+has been Hebraomorphic, Hellenomorphic, Latinomorphic, and so on by
+turns.</p>
+<p>This view has often been well worked out by the historian of
+inventions
+and discoveries, of customs or laws, of policies or religions, as by
+the
+historian of language or the fine arts. What we still commonly need,
+however, is to carry this view clearly into our own city and its
+institutions, its streets and schools and homes, until either in the
+private spending or public voting of the smallest sum we know exactly
+whether we are so far determining expenditure and influence towards
+enlarging, say, the influence and example of renascent Florence in one
+generation or of decadent Versailles in another. There is no danger of
+awaking this consciousness too fully; for since we have ceased
+consciously to cite and utilise the high examples of history we have
+been the more faithfully, because sub-consciously and automatically,
+continuing and extending later and lower developments.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>E&#8212;CITIES, PRESENT AND FUTURE</h3>
+<p>Hence, after a Liberal and an Imperial generation, each happy in
+their
+respective visions of wealth and expanding greatness <span class="pagenum">p. 115</span>, the
+current renewal of civic interests naturally takes the form of an
+awakening survey of our actual environment. First, a literal mapping of
+its regional elements, and then an historic interpretation of
+these&#8212;not, alas, merely or mainly in terms of the cities of sacred or
+classic tradition, nor of the Mediaeval or Renaissance cities which
+followed these, but as stupendous extensions of the mediaeval Ghetto,
+of
+the Wapping Stairs, of the Lancashire factories and of the Black
+Country, relieved by the coarse jollities of Restoration London, and
+adorned for the most part, with debased survivals from the Italian and
+the French Renaissance. There is thus no more question in our civic
+discussions of "bringing in" or "leaving out" geography or history; we
+have been too long unconscious of them, as was M. Jourdain of his
+speaking in prose.</p>
+<p>But what of the opening Future? May its coming social developments
+not
+be discerned by the careful observer in germs and buds already formed
+or
+forming, or deduced by the thinker from sociological principles? I
+believe in large measure both; yet cannot within these limits attempt
+to
+justify either. Enough for the present, if it be admitted that the
+practical man in his thought and action in the present is mainly the as
+yet too unconscious child of the past, and that in the city he is still
+working within the grasp of natural conditions.</p>
+<p>To realise the geographic and historic factors of our city's life is
+thus the first step to comprehension of the present, one indispensable
+to any attempt at the scientific forecast of the future, which must
+avoid as far as it can the dangers of mere utopianism.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>F&#8212;LITERATURE OF CIVICS</h3>
+<p>No discussion of the preliminaries and fundamentals of Civics can
+omit
+some consideration of the vast and ever growing literature of cities.
+But how are we to utilise this? How continue it? How co-ordinate it
+with
+the needed independent and first-hand survey of city by city? And how
+apply this whole knowledge of past and present towards civic action?</p>
+<p>The answer must plainly be a concrete one. Every city <span class="pagenum">p. 116</span>
+however small, has already a copious literature of its topography and
+history in the past; one, in fact, so ample that its mere bibliography
+may readily fill a goodly volume,<a name="FNanchor_1"></a><a
+ href="#Footnote_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> to which the specialist will
+long
+be adding fresh entries. This mass of literature may next be viewed as
+the material for a comprehensive monograph, well enriched with maps and
+illustrations, such as many cities can boast; and this again may be
+condensed into a guide-book. Guide-books have long been excellent in
+their descriptive and historical detail, and are becoming increasingly
+interpretative also, especially since Mr. Grant Allen transferred his
+evolutionary insight and his expository clearness from natural to civic
+history.</p>
+<p>After this general and preliminary survey of geographic environment
+and
+historic development, there nowadays begins to appear the material of a
+complementary and contemporary volume, the Social Survey proper.
+Towards
+this, statistical materials are partly to be found amid parliamentary
+and municipal reports and returns, economic journals and the like, but
+a
+fresh and first-hand survey in detail is obviously necessary. In this
+class of literature, Mr. Booth's monumental Survey of London, followed
+by others, such as Mr. Rowntree's of York, have already been so widely
+stimulating and suggestive that it may safely be predicted that before
+many years the Social Survey of any given city will be as easily and
+naturally obtainable as is at present its guide-book; and the
+rationalised census of the present condition of its people, their
+occupation and real wages, their family budget and culture-level,
+should
+be as readily ascertainable from the one, as their antecedents
+understood or their monuments visited by help of the other.</p>
+<p>But these two volumes&#8212;"The City: Past and Present,"&#8212;are not enough.
+Is
+not a third volume imaginable and possible, that of the opening Civic
+Future? Having taken full note of places as they were and are, of
+things
+as they have come about, and of people as they are&#8212;of their
+occupations, families, and institutions, their ideas and ideals&#8212;may we
+not to some extent discern, then patiently plan out, at length boldly
+suggest, something of <span class="pagenum">p. 117</span> their actual or potential development?
+And may not, must not, such discernment, such planning, while
+primarily,
+of course, for the immediate future, also take account of the remoter
+and higher issues which a city's indefinitely long life and
+correspondingly needed foresight and statesmanship involve? Such a
+volume would thus differ widely from the traditional and contemporary
+"literature of Utopias" in being regional instead of non-regional,
+indeed ir-regional and so realisable, instead of being unrealisable and
+unattainable altogether. The theme of such a volume would thus be to
+indicate the practicable alternatives, and to select and to define from
+these the lines of development of the legitimate <i>Eu-topia</i>
+possible in
+the given city, and characteristic of it; obviously, therefore, a very
+different thing from a vague <i>Ou-topia</i>, concretely realisable
+nowhere.
+Such abstract counsels of perfection as the descriptions of the ideal
+city, from Augustine through More or Campanella and Bacon to Morris,
+have been consolatory to many, to others inspiring. Still, a Utopia is
+one thing, a plan for our city improvement is another.</p>
+<p>Some concrete, if still fragmentary, materials towards such a volume
+are, of course, to be found in all municipal offices, though scattered
+between the offices of the city engineer and health officer, the
+architect and park superintendent; while the private architect and
+landscape gardener, the artist, sometimes even the municipal voters and
+their representatives, may all have ideas of their own. But though our
+cities are still as a whole planless, their growth as yet little better
+than a mere casual accretion and agglomeration, if not a spreading
+blight, American and German cities are now increasingly affording
+examples of comprehensive design of extension and of internal
+improvement. As a specific example of such an attempt towards the
+improvement of a British city, one not indeed comprehending all aspects
+of its life, but detailed and reasoned so far as it goes, and
+expressing
+that continuity of past and present into future which has been above
+argued for, I am permitted by the courtesy of the Carnegie Dunfermline
+Trust to lay on the Society's library table an early copy of a recent
+study of practicable possibilities in a city typically suitable for
+consideration from the present standpoint, since presenting within a
+moderate and readily intelligible <span class="pagenum"><a name='p_118'></a>p. 118</span> scale a very marked
+combination of historic interests, and of contemporary and growing
+activity, both industrial and cultural, with hopeful civic outlook.</p>
+<p>That co-adjustment of social survey and social service which has
+been
+above argued for as the essential idea of civics as applied sociology
+is
+thus no abstract principle, but a concrete and practicable method. Yet
+it is one not lacking in generality of application. For what we have
+reached is really the conception of an <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia Civica</i>,
+to which
+each city should contribute the Trilogy of its Past, its Present, and
+its Future. Better far, as life transcends books, we may see, and yet
+more, forsee, the growth of civic consciousness and conscience, the
+awakening of citizenship towards civic renascence. All this the
+production of such volumes would at one imply and inspire&#8212;life ever
+producing its appropriate expression in literature, and literature
+reacting upon the ennoblement of life.</p>
+<p>Apart altogether from what may be the quality and defects of
+particular
+volumes, such as those cited as examples of each part of such a
+proposed
+civic trilogy, one as yet nowhere complete, the very conception of such
+a possible threefold series may be of some service. For this would
+present a continuous whole, at once sociological and civic&#8212;the views
+and the resources of the scholar and the educationist with their
+treasures of historic culture, of the man of action with his mastery of
+immediate affairs, of the thinker with his vision of the opening
+future,
+now all co-ordinated by help of the design of the artist, and thence to
+be gradually realised in the growing heritage of the city, the
+enlarging
+life of the citizen.</p>
+<p>NOTE&#8212;As an example of the concrete application to a particular city,
+of
+the sociological methods and principles indicated in the above paper,
+Prof. Geddes exhibited an illustrated volume embodying the results of
+his studies and designs towards the improvement of Dunfermline, under
+the Trust recently established by Mr. Carnegie. This has since been
+published:</p>
+<p>P. GEDDES. City Development. Park Gardens and Culture Institutes; a
+Report to the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust. With 138 illustrations.
+Edinburgh, etc.. 1904.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum">p. 119</span><br />
+<h3>&nbsp;DISCUSSION</h3>
+<br />
+<p>The Chairman (MR. CHARLES BOOTH) in opening the discussion said:</p>
+<p>The paper we have just heard read is one of the most complete and
+charming papers on a great and interesting subject I have ever heard. I
+think you will all agree in this, and I hope the discussion which
+follows will emphasise and, if that is possible, add to the wealth of
+ideas that this paper contains.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">MR EBENEZER HOWARD (Founder of the
+Garden City Association) said:</p>
+<p>I have read and re-read&#8212;in the proof forwarded to me&#8212;Professor
+Geddes'
+wonderfully luminous and picturesque paper with much interest. He has
+given us a graphic description of the geographic process which leads to
+the development of the city. We see vividly the gradual stages by which
+the city grows and swells, with the descent of the population from the
+hillsides into the valleys, even as the river which flows through the
+city is fed continually by the streams which flow down to it. But is
+there not this essential difference between the gathering waters of
+heaven, as they pour into the great city, and the gathering tide of
+population, which follows the path of the waters? The waters flow
+through the city on, on toward the mighty ocean, and are then gradually
+gathered upward into the soft embraces of the clouds and wafted back
+again to the hills, whence they flow down once more to the valleys. But
+the living stream of men, women, and children flows from the
+country-side and leaves it more and more bare of active, vigorous,
+healthy life: it does not, like the waters, "return again to cover the
+earth," but moves ever on to the great city, and from thence, at least
+for the great majority, there is no chance of more than, at best, a
+very
+short stay in the country. No: the tide flows resistlessly <span class="pagenum">p. 120</span>
+onward to make more crowded our overcrowded tenements, to enlarge our
+overgrown cities, to cause suburb to spread beyond suburb, to submerge
+more and more the beautiful fields and hilly slopes which used to lie
+near the busy life of the people, to make the atmosphere more foul, and
+the task of the social reformer more and yet more difficult.</p>
+<p>But surely there must be a way, could we but discover it, of
+imitating
+the skill and bountifulness of Nature, by creating channels through
+which some of our population shall be attracted back to the fields; so
+that there shall be a stream of population pouring from the city into
+the country, till a healthy balance is restored, and we have solved the
+twin problems of rural depopulation and of the overcrowded, overgrown
+city.</p>
+<p>This brings me to the second branch of Prof. Geddes' paper, the
+historical. The Professor reminds us how vestiges of one civilisation
+lie super-imposed upon another, like geological strata, and asks.
+"Understanding the present as the development of the past, are we not
+preparing also to understand the future as the development of the
+present?" Following this line of thought, I venture to suggest that
+while the age in which we live is the age of the great,
+closely-compacted, overcrowded city, there are already signs, for those
+who can read them, of a coming change so great and so momentous that
+the
+twentieth century will be known as the period of the great exodus, the
+return to the land, the period when by a great and conscious effort a
+new fabric of civilisation shall be reared by those who knew how to
+apply the knowledge gained by "Social Survey to Social Service." What
+are the signs? What words can we place under the head of "Incipient" in
+Prof. Geddes' diagram? I would suggest, for one of Prof. Geddes'
+interrogation marks might be substituted "Decentralisation of
+Industry"&#8212;as a great, but yet incipient movement, represented by Port
+Sunlight, Bournville, Garden City. For there are now many agencies at
+work making for industrial decentralisation. Industries are being
+driven
+out of the great towns by the excessive rents and rates which have to
+be
+paid there&#8212;by the difficulty of obtaining adequate space for the modern
+factory, a one-storey building; and for the homes of our workers, which
+must be vastly different to what they now are if England is to maintain
+her place among the nations. And while factories are being driven from
+the city, they are also being attracted to the country by its
+newly-discovered potentialities. Thus Messrs. Lever Brothers, crowded
+out of Warrington, established an entirely new town on a new site at
+Port Sunlight; and, because the site was new and raw, it was therefore
+possible for Mr. Lever to plan his little town with a single eye to the
+best and most desirable conditions, alike from an industrial and a
+health and housing point of view. And the same is true of Bournville.
+Bournville is one of the most beautiful villages in the world, largely
+again because of the potentialities of a new site acquired for the
+definite purpose of building thereon a village in which overcrowding
+shall be deliberately and permanently prevented, <span class="pagenum">p. 121</span> and in
+which work inside the factory may be varied by work in the garden. Now
+that these successful experiments have been carried out in this
+country,
+is it not time that the idea of establishing new industries on new
+sites, and of surrounding those industries with healthy homes, should
+be
+carried forward on a larger scale, with wider and more concerted
+aims&#8212;carried forward, too, in such a manner as to make it possible for
+the small manufacturer to take part in a movement which has proved to
+be
+so beneficial alike to employer and employed? It is out of this thought
+that the Garden City idea has grown, an idea now in course of being
+fulfilled. Three thousand eight hundred acres of land, or nearly ten
+times the area of Bournville or Port Sunlight, have been acquired in
+Hertfordshire, two miles west of the town of Hitchin, and on the branch
+line of railway between that town and Cambridge. State aid has not been
+sought; that would indeed be weary work. But a company has been formed,
+through the untiring efforts of the Garden City Association; plans for
+the town have been carefully prepared, plans which, of course, have
+regard to the contours of the land (which were first taken, showing
+every change of level of five feet), to the preservation of its natural
+beauties&#8212;its trees and the picturesque villages of Norton and Willian;
+to the necessity for railway sidings and railway station, now, thanks
+to
+the Great Northern Railway, already provided; to the making of roads of
+easy gradient and of suitable width, affording access to different
+parts
+of the estate, actual work on which is progressing; the careful
+guarding
+from contamination of our water supply, already proved to be abundant;
+the provision of a reservoir of suitable elevation, now in course of
+construction; a system of drainage, about to be started with; the
+provision of parks and playgrounds within the town, as well as a wide
+belt of agricultural land around it; sites for homes for 30,000
+persons,
+with good sized gardens. About six cottages have already been built,
+not
+by the Company but by private enterprise, while many others are just
+about to be started upon; the setting apart of sites for schools,
+churches, and other public buildings, while plans are in preparation
+for
+lighting the town, as well as for providing it with motive power.</p>
+<p>The programme which I have sketched out is certainly not too bold or
+comprehensive for the British race. If a hundredth part of the
+organising skill which the Japanese and the Russians are showing in the
+great war now in progress were shown by ourselves as citizens in our
+great civil war against disease and dirt, poverty and overcrowding, we
+could not only build many new cities on the best models, but could also
+bring our old towns into line with the new and better order. Prof.
+Geddes wishes well, I know, to the Garden City Association, a
+propagandist body, and to its first child, the Garden City Company; and
+I am sure you will all unite with me in the hope that the best and most
+lasting success may crown the generous gift of Mr. Carnegie of
+&pound;500,000
+to the City of Dunfermline, and reward the efforts of the Trustees and
+of Prof. Geddes to make, by the application of modern <span class="pagenum">p. 122</span>
+skill,
+science and art, the ancient city of Dunfermline a centre of sweetness
+and light, stimulating us all to higher and yet higher efforts to
+secure
+civic, national and imperial well-being.</p>
+<p style="text-align: center;">MR. C.H. GRINLING said:</p>
+<p>Like most of the audience, doubtless, he came not to speak but to
+draw
+ever fresh inspiration from Prof. Geddes. But there was one aspect of
+the subject he would like to bring out and emphasise. He referred to
+the
+sociological institute, which, under the name of the Outlook Tower, had
+grown up in connection with the School of Sociology which Prof. Geddes
+had founded and developed in Edinburgh. That institute was at once an
+organisation for teaching and for research, for social education, and
+for civic action. It was, in fact, a concrete and working application
+of
+the principle indicated in the paper as the very foundation of
+Civics&#8212;"social survey for social service." And, seeing that the Outlook
+Tower was an institution designed in every respect for application to
+any given locality, he urged the Sociological Society to advocate its
+general extension, so that no region should be without its own
+sociological institute or Outlook Tower.</p>
+<p>If one individual could accomplish so much, what could not be
+accomplished by the sociologists of our day who would concentrate
+themselves, each on his own locality, not necessarily to do the work,
+but to give the inspiration which would call out the work of collecting
+just that material which Prof. Geddes suggested all through his paper
+was one of the great needs of our time? And so one hoped that papers of
+this kind would not merely lead to discussion, but to workers
+accumulating results of this kind, giving the inspiration to others,
+and
+thus laying up treasures for the sociologists of the future for their
+interpretation. Thus, the Sociological Society should be not only the
+one scientific society in constant touch with all the leading brains
+over the country, but it should be an inspiration, as Prof. Geddes has
+himself been, to groups of workers everywhere for just the kind of work
+which the Sociological Society has been founded to develop.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">MR. J.M. ROBERTSON said:</p>
+<p>I would first add my tribute to this extremely interesting and
+stimulating paper. It recalled confabulations I had with Prof. Geddes,
+many years ago, when he was first formulating in Edinburgh those ideas
+which have since become so widely known. I would like, however, to
+suggest a few criticisms. The paper is, broadly speaking, an
+application
+of the view of a biologist to Sociology. It is not so much an
+application of Darwin's view as that of Von Baer. Prof. Geddes has
+characterised his paper as one of elementary preliminaries, but he has
+really contributed a paper that <span class="pagenum">p. 123</span> would form part of a
+preliminary study in a series of studies in Sociology. The paper does
+not quite bear out its title: "Civics: as Applied Sociology." The
+application has not begun. The somewhat disparaging remarks on
+encyclop&aelig;dias of general knowledge, further, might well be
+applied to
+the scheme of an encyclop&aelig;dia of the natural history of every
+city and
+every village as an original centre. This atomism will not help
+Sociology. Had he to master all that, the sociologist's life would be a
+burden not to be borne, and we would never get to applied sociology at
+all. There is a danger, too, in following this line, of fastening
+attention on one stage of evolution and leaving it there. The true
+principle is that evolution is eternal and continuous; and I think harm
+may be done, possibly, when you take, say, the phenomenon of the
+communication of general knowledge in schools and call it a derivation
+from the French <i>Encyclopedie</i>. Why leave it there? Where did
+that come
+from? If you are going to trace the simple evolution of civic forms, if
+you are to trace how they have come about, it will not do to stick at a
+given point. This is a survival of that. That is a survival of
+something
+else. The French <i>Encyclopedie</i> will have to be traced back to
+the
+encyclop&aelig;dia of the mediaeval period; and even to the still
+earlier
+period of Isidore of Seville. Then again, there is a danger, I think,
+analogous to the danger met with in early botany&#8212;the danger of
+confusing a resemblance with a relationship. It is extremely
+interesting
+to speculate that the Place de l'Etoile is an evolution from the plan
+of
+the game-forest, with its shooting avenues radiating from a centre, but
+it would be difficult to show that there is any historical connection.
+The thing is not proved.</p>
+<p>Of course, the vital question is not this tracing of evolution. The
+question is: Is "Civics" to be only the study of forms? If so,
+Sociology
+is a dead science, and will effect little practical good until it is
+vivified by such suggestions as Mr. Crane has put in his paper. Mr.
+Walter Crane brought in a vital question when he said: "How are you
+going to modify the values of your civic life unless you grapple with
+political problems?" I am not forgetting that Prof. Geddes promises to
+deal in another paper with the civics of the future; but I insist that
+it will have to grapple with political questions. As he says, a city is
+not a place, but "a drama in time." The question for the sociological
+student of history is: How has this inequality of wealth and of service
+arisen, and how is it to be prevented in the future? That is the
+problem
+we have to study if we wish to make sociology a vital interest. A
+definition of progress is really the first step in sociology. Prof.
+Geddes' next paper should give us a definition of progress, and it is
+better that we begin to fight over a definition of progress, in order
+to
+get a dynamic agreement, than that we should multiply the
+archaeological
+study of many towns. I admit that it is very interesting. In travelling
+in South Africa, I often tried to gather how communities began; what,
+for example, was the nucleus of this or that village. It was surprising
+how very few had an idea of any nucleus at all. I deprecate the idea,
+however, that <span class="pagenum">p. 124</span> we are all to amass an enormous accumulation
+of such researches. Mr. Booth's single compilation for London is a
+study
+for years; but Mr. Booth's admirable investigation of the difficulties
+of life among the poor of London does not of itself give any new
+impulse
+to the solution of the problem of London. It merely gives exact
+knowledge in place of general knowledge. The problem of sociology arose
+on the general knowledge. I fear lest the work of sociology should run
+to an extension of this admirable study instead of to the stimulation
+of
+action taken on that particular knowledge, or on more general
+knowledge.
+We all knew there was plenty of poverty, and how it was caused. We all
+had Ideals as to how it was to be got rid of in the future; but the
+question is: Is the collection of detail or the prescription of social
+method the kind of activity that the Sociological Society is to take up?</p>
+<p style="text-align: center;">SIR THOMAS BARCLAY said:</p>
+<p>I am not sure that I agree with Mr. Robertson that it is desirable
+to
+define either "progress" or "civilisation." On the whole, their chances
+lie rather in the great variety of ideas of what constitutes them than
+in any hard-and-fast notion of their meaning. They are generalisations
+of what is, rather than an object towards which effort should tend. But
+neither do I agree with Prof. Geddes' restriction of "civics" to the
+mere outward part of municipal effort. In America the word "civics" is
+applied to the rights and duties of citizens, and I should like to see
+Prof. Geddes include in Civics the connection between citizen life and
+the outward improvement of cities. I am sure, however, Professor
+Geddes,
+as a practical man, will deal rather with realities than theoretical
+views on the subject for which he has done so much himself. Edinburgh
+owes more than many are willing to admit to Prof. Geddes. I think
+Ramsay
+Lodge one of the greatest embellishments of the Castle Hill in
+Edinburgh. I hope he will now be successful in doing something still
+more admirable for my native town of Dunfermline. My friend Mr.
+Carnegie, whose native town it also is, I believe intends to show by an
+object lesson what can be done for all cities. Prof. Geddes is helping
+him in this work with his suggestions. I hope they will be carried out.
+In America there are several very beautiful cities. No one can ever
+forget Washington, which is truly a garden city. No money is spared in
+America to beautify and healthify (excuse the barbarism) the
+habitations
+of the thousands. A beautiful city is an investment for health,
+intellect, imagination. Genius all the world over is associated,
+wherever it has been connected with cities, with beautiful cities. To
+grow up among things of beauty ennobles the population. But I should
+like to see Prof. Geddes extend his projects for Dunfermline to the
+population itself. Most of you know what Mr. Henderson did to utilise
+the Edinburgh<span class="pagenum">p. 125</span> police in the care of children. The future of
+the country depends upon them. The subject is too serious to continue
+to
+be left to the haphazard mercies of indifferent parents. Every child
+born is an agent for good or for evil among the community, and the
+community cannot afford to neglect how it is brought up, the
+circumstances in which it has its being, the environment from which it
+derives its character and tendencies. Necessity may be the mother of
+invention, but need of food and insufficient clothing develop in the
+child an inventiveness that is not for the good of the community. It
+seems a matter of too great an importance to be left even to private
+initiative, as was done under Mr. Henderson's regime in Edinburgh; but
+everywhere else, or nearly so, very little is done by even private
+initiative for the protection of the children against their vicious
+environment. In short, I do not think that civics, in the sense in
+which
+my friend Prof. Geddes treats it, is a complete subject at all. Civics,
+to my mind, includes everything that relates to the citizen. Everywhere
+something is being done in one direction or another to make them
+capable, prosperous, and happy. In America happiness is taught in the
+schools. Every schoolmaster's and schoolmistress's first duty is to set
+an example of a happy frame of mind; smiling and laughing are
+encouraged, and it is not thought that the glum face is at all
+necessary
+for the serious business of life. In fact, the glum face is a
+disqualification; is associated with failure, and bad luck and
+ill-nature. In Germany the schoolmaster is in the first place a trainer
+of the body. One of his chief duties is to watch and prevent the
+deterioration of the eyesight, to promote the development of the lungs,
+to prevent spinal deviation. The second part of his business is to
+watch
+over the character of the child, and only the third part is to ram
+knowledge into the poor little mind. And wherever you go over the world
+you will find something in the course of being done in civics, as I
+understand the subject. I thank Prof. Geddes for what he is doing for
+Dunfermline, and hope he will understand "progress" without requiring
+to
+define it.</p>
+<br />
+<div style="text-align: center;">DR. J. LIONEL TAYLER<br />
+(Author of "<i>Aspects of Social Evolution</i>") said:</div>
+<p>While agreeing with Prof. Geddes in his belief in the importance of
+institutional and geographical studies as a basis for the investigation
+of the development of cities, it yet seems to me that these studies
+cannot prove of supreme value to society unless they are accompanied by
+a detailed examination of the <i>natural</i> characteristics of all
+individuals who have been born into and existed in, or merely dwelt in,
+these surroundings. It is not enough to trace out, however accurately,
+the various stages of a town's growth from its commencement to the
+present time, because <i>the cause</i> of <span class="pagenum">p. 126</span> the evolution of
+any
+city aggregate lies deeper, is in large part animate, and not
+inanimate,
+in character. The value of the surroundings depends at least as much
+upon the capacity of the individual citizen, singly and collectively,
+to
+utilise what he or she is brought in contact with as upon the
+peculiarities of these surroundings themselves. Place, tradition,
+social
+organisation, individual development, education, are factors in town
+evolution that cannot safely be overlooked, and they all vary from age
+to age and in place and place.</p>
+<p>If it were possible to completely exchange the inhabitants of a
+large
+town in England with those of an equally large town in France two
+groups
+of changes would become more or less rapidly observable: (1) the French
+and English citizens would adapt themselves, as far as they desired and
+were able, to their altered conditions; (2) the characteristics of both
+towns would gradually change, in spite of geographical position, in
+response to the altered human needs. Similarly, a town composed of
+individuals who are naturally uncultured and unprogressive will tend to
+preserve its uncultured and unprogressive characters more than another
+that has alert citizens to carry on its activities. Every profession
+and
+every trade tends to foster its own social atmosphere; and towns will
+vary with their industrial life, and individuals favourably disposed to
+this atmosphere will come to the town, and those unfavourably inclined
+to it will leave. <i>These changing citizens, as they act upon and
+react
+to their surroundings and vary in their powers age by age, are the real
+evolvers of the conditions in which they dwell</i>; hence the citizen
+must
+not be omitted from our study if we are to understand city growth.</p>
+<p>In other words, I think that every investigation of civic, and for
+that
+matter country life should be studied from two aspects: (1) to note the
+peculiarities, growth and development of the material, non-living and
+non-thinking elements in the problem&#8212;the buildings, their geographical
+position, their age, their fitness for past and present life, and the
+distinctive local features that are evolving or retrogressing with the
+multiplication of some trades and industries and the decline of others
+in each area that is studied; (2) the change in the quality of the
+citizens themselves through racial, educational, and other factors,
+noting how far ideals are altering, not only in the mass of individuals
+taken as a whole, but also by examining the changing outlook in every
+trade and profession. With these two parallel lines of investigation to
+study, we could then determine how far environment&#8212;social and
+climatic&#8212;how far racial and individual characteristics have been
+powerful in the moulding of the fabric around us.</p>
+<p>With these two lines of study to our hands, we could predict the
+vitality, the growing power, and the future possibilities of the social
+life of which we are a tiny though not an insignificant part; we could,
+knowing something of the response that we make to that which surrounds
+us, form some estimate of how the future ages will develop, and,
+knowing
+the <span class="pagenum">p. 127</span>
+intensity of the different national desires for progress
+<i>and the causes which are likely to arouse such desires</i>, we could
+realise what will stimulate and what will retard all that is best in
+our
+civic life.</p>
+<p style="text-align: center;">PROFESSOR EARL BARNES (in moving a vote
+of thanks) said:</p>
+<p>For years I have been accumulating a debt of obligation to Prof.
+Geddes
+for ideas, suggestions, and large synthesis of life, and it gives me
+special pleasure to voice the feeling of this meeting concerning the
+paper read to us this afternoon. To me, as an American, it is
+especially
+interesting to hear this presentation of life as an organic whole. Life
+is but a period of education, and if there is nothing behind this
+present moment of life it is all extremely insignificant. To an
+American, who has lived at No. 1067 in 63rd Street, Philadelphia, and
+at No. 1718 in G Street, in Washington, it is profoundly interesting to
+think of the possibility of a man's so living that his whole existence
+shall be significant, so that the realities of his world, geographical,
+geological, and material, and all that long development of humanity
+through the historic past&#8212;that all these things will be really and
+truly significant to him. Prof. Geddes has himself shown us that is
+possible. Any man who has gone to Edinburgh and seen the restoration of
+the old life that has been carried out there under his hand knows it
+can
+be done. I suppose we all came here to hear Professor Geddes speak on
+practical affairs because his name is now connected with the plans for
+making a city that shall be really expressive of all its potentialities
+to all of its people. I am personally profoundly grateful to him for
+his
+paper; and I move you that he be given a very hearty vote of thanks.</p>
+<p>The Chairman. (MR. CHARLES BOOTH), in closing the discussion, said:
+I
+myself entirely agree with what Mr Robertson has said as to the extreme
+difficulty of bringing investigations of the kind referred to, to
+practical conclusions&#8212;practical points. Practical work at present needs
+the most attention. I perhaps am too old to do it, but I feel the
+attraction of that kind of work, and that was one reason I was sorry Mr
+Loch had to leave before we could hear what he might have to say. The
+description I have given of London does seem to be a foggy labyrinth I
+agree, but nevertheless I cannot but think that we do require a
+complete
+conception if we are to do the definite work of putting different
+people
+in their proper places in an organic whole, such as a city is. I do not
+think we can do without it, and I regard the paper of this evening as
+an
+important contribution <span class="pagenum">p. 128</span> to that complete conception which I
+feel we need. I should like each worker and thinker to have and to know
+his place in the scheme of civic improvement; and I think it perfectly
+possible for every man to know what it is that he is trying to do, what
+contribution it is that he ought to give to that joint life which is
+called here civics, which is the life of a city and the life in the
+city. One man cannot possibly concentrate it all in himself. Within a
+society such as the Sociological Society a general scheme is possible
+in
+which each individual and each society shall play its acknowledged and
+recognised part. It does not follow that the work done in one city can
+apply as an example to another. Individuality has too strong a hold;
+but each town may work out something for itself. I have been very much
+interested in the work which Mr. Rowntree has done in York, on which he
+was kind enough to consult me. He entered upon it on quite other
+grounds
+from mine, but so far as the ground was common between him and me we
+tried to have a common basis. Those of you who have not read Mr.
+Horsfall's volumes on Manchester would do well to do so. Prof. Geddes
+gave us a vivid picture of a larger regional unit which culminates
+geographically in the city as industrial climax. In his particular
+instance he referred, I take, to Dundee. In Dundee there is at this
+moment an inquiry being started, and I am in communication with those
+who are doing it, and I hope it will add something to the completeness
+of the picture we have of that city. In Dundee they have excessive
+difficulties in respect to crowding and female labour. What I suggested
+was, that they should make a special study of such circumstances as are
+special to Dundee. Labour there is very largely sack-making and jute
+manufacture, and there is a great deal of girl labour; and that is one
+of the special subjects that will be considered in that inquiry.</p>
+<p>Then, with regard to the preservation of such of the natural
+beauties
+that do remain even quite near to busy town centres, surely it is of
+the
+greatest importance that they should be watched and protected and
+preserved. Prof. Geddes has contributed a portion of his practical work
+to that practical question at Dunfermline. His charming volume on
+Dunfermline ("A Study in City Development") shows what beautiful
+features there are near Dunfermline, and how much may be done to
+preserve and improve them in ways that are most interesting to study.
+His use of photography in this matter is extraordinarily successful.
+Prof. Geddes has photographed a scene as it now is, with its background
+and distance and its squalid foreground, already ruined by the debris
+of
+the city&#8212;old tin pots and every <span class="pagenum">p. 129</span> kind of rubbish&#8212;thrown
+down by the side of the stream, which is naturally beautiful. By
+manipulating the photographic plates he wipes out that which he does
+not
+want and introduces other features, including a little waterfall; and
+you have, instead of a miserable suburb, a dignified park. Well now,
+that is practical work. It has in it that element which he has
+described
+by a question-mark in his diagram, the element of forecast. You have
+the
+same idea in Manchester, in Mr. Horsfall's work. They have laid out
+their map of Manchester and shown in what way it may develop, so as not
+to spoil the beauty that remains on two sides of Manchester. There is
+really exquisitely beautiful natural scenery close to Manchester, which
+may be entirely spoiled or preserved, according as a forecast is made
+and forethought taken. This is not a question on which there is reason
+to think that people will disagree. The difficulties are always
+supposed
+to be financial. It is a sad thing that we should be so hampered by our
+methods of finance that we throw away opportunities to retain these
+actual beauties which undoubtedly add to the actual money value of a
+district. I cannot suppose that the way in which cities are laid out
+with narrow streets really results in an increase of value. The
+surroundings of our cities are undeveloped estates, which we have only
+to agree amongst ourselves how to lay out, and everybody would benefit
+by such joint action. There is an excellent illustration in regard to
+that in Mr. Horsfall's work in connection with Germany. It must be said
+that from Germany there is a great deal to learn in civic matters. In
+one of its towns the properties lie in extraordinarily long strips. It
+is the final result of properties having been measured by the length of
+the plough's run. When that method is applied to town sites, it is not
+convenient for streets; and there are some quarters in this German town
+ruined in this way, and the people have agreed together to improve
+matters. Every owner is to be given credit for his share in the total
+value of the improvement that is found to accrue from the
+re-arrangement
+of these undesirable divisions, and any difference of opinion as to the
+just share and proportion is to be referred to an impartial arbitrator.
+All the owners will gain, though some a little more than others. That
+is
+an example that we may do well to try and follow, and in some way or
+other improve the money value, and social value, and hygienic value of
+towns, and if necessary compel the carrying out of improvements when
+some few might be disposed to hold out against them.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum">p. 130</span><br />
+<h3>&nbsp;WRITTEN COMMUNICATIONS</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center;">From PROF. BALDWIN BROWN (Professor of
+Fine Art in the University of
+Edinburgh)</p>
+I am glad of this opportunity of saying how cordially I agree with the
+method adopted by my friend Professor Geddes in dealing with the life
+of
+cities. He treats the modern community and its material shell as things
+of organic growth, with a past and a future as well as a present,
+whereas we too often see these wider considerations ignored in favour
+of
+some exigency of the moment. A historic British town has recently
+furnished a striking object-lesson in this connection. The town
+possesses portions of an ancient city wall and fosse that were made at
+a
+time when the town was, for the moment, the most important in Great
+Britain. Yet the Town Council, a year ago, destroyed part of this wall
+and filled a section of the fosse for the purpose of providing a site
+for a new elementary school. No doubt, in that school, books "approved
+by the Department" will instruct scholars in the past history of the
+burgh, but the living witness of that history must first of all be
+carefully obliterated. All the rest of this ancient and historic
+enceinte was condemned a few weeks ago to complete destruction, merely
+on the plea that the site would be convenient for workmen's dwellings.
+The monument has now been saved, but it has taken the whole country to
+do it!
+<p>Here were chosen officials, governors of no mean city, absolutely
+oblivious of these important interests committed to their care, and all
+for want of having drilled into them these broader views which
+Professor
+Geddes puts forward so well.</p>
+<p>He has himself done practical work in Edinburgh on the lines he lays
+down, and I have lately had occasion to note, and call attention to the
+advantage to the city of much wise conservatism in regard to our older
+buildings which he and his associates have shown.</p>
+<p>In Edinburgh we have the advantage that our older monuments, <span class="pagenum">p. 131</span> in
+which so much of the past life of the city is enshrined, are
+firm and solid; and it takes some trouble to knock them down. Hence for
+some time to come we shall preserve here object-lessons in civic
+development that will be of interest to the country at large.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">From MR. WALTER CRANE (President of Arts
+and Crafts Exhibition Society)</p>
+<p>Professor Geddes' very interesting "Study in City Development" is
+highly
+suggestive, and shows how great a difference thoughtful and tasteful
+treatment might make in dealing with such problems. It is sad to think
+of the opportunities wasted, and of the more ignorant and often too
+hasty clearances for traffic which have often been apparently the sole
+motives in city improvement. The conservation of historic buildings,
+whenever possible, the planting of trees along our streets, the laying
+out of gardens, the insistence upon a proportional amount of air and
+open space to new buildings would go a long way towards making our
+bricks-and-mortar joyless wildernesses into something human and
+habitable.</p>
+<p>Whether, under favourable circumstances and the rare public spirit
+of
+private owners, much can be done, or to any wide extent, so long as
+absolute individual ownership in land and ground values is allowed,
+seems to me very doubtful. We cannot hope to see great social
+improvements without great economic changes, but every effort in the
+direction of improving the beauty of our cities is welcome to all who
+have the well-being of the community at heart; and such work as Prof.
+Geddes is doing should arouse the keenest interest and the earnest
+attention of all who realise its immense social importance.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">From MR. J.H. HARLEY, M.A.</p>
+<p>If sociology is ever to vindicate itself as an art, it must be able
+to
+analyse and explain the present, and to some extent at least to cast
+the
+horoscope of the future. It must feel its way through all the tangled
+labyrinths of city life, and show us where we have arrived and whither
+we are going. But this is exactly the part of Professor Geddes' Applied
+Sociology where he becomes most vague and unsatisfactory. "Enough for
+the present," we are told, "if it be admitted that the practical man in
+his thought and action in the present is mainly as yet the too
+unconscious child of the past, and that in the city he is still working
+within the grasp of natural conditions." Now we must all be willing to
+admit that the present is the child of the past, and that we cannot
+adequately understand <span class="pagenum">p. 132</span> the present until we have led up to
+the present by the study of its antecedents more and less remote. But
+what Professor Geddes fails to bring out is that it is only in the
+present or the more immediate past that the City has really become a
+City in the modern sense of the word. The City as City is a product of
+the Industrial Revolution. Its huge and casual assemblages of human
+life, its overcrowding, its poverty line, its East End and its West
+End,
+its infantile mortality, its trades massed in their own particular
+districts, it aliens, its criminals and its vices&#8212;all these problems of
+social pathology arise from the fact that the conditions of modern
+industry have brought people together who have few interests in common,
+and who were compelled to arrange themselves in some kind of decent
+order within a limited area, without sufficient time being given to
+evolve a suitable environment, or to prepare themselves for the
+environment which they actually found on every side of them. London in
+the past, therefore, cannot help us so very much to solve the riddles
+of
+London in the present, because London in the past had not developed
+these social growths or offered a mature ground to those social
+parasites which make us sometimes despair of being able to get much
+insight into the London of the present.</p>
+<p>The fact seems to be that Prof. Geddes conceives sociology too much
+as a
+primary and too little as a secondary science. He defines applied
+sociology as the application of social survey to social science, when
+social ratiocination or social philosophy are needed before one can be
+said to have gauged the extent of the influence which this
+comprehensive
+science may have in our actual practice or on our Budget of the future.
+No doubt, "observation, so far from excluding interpretation, is just
+the very means of preparing for it," but this preparation must be made
+in the various specialisms which make up the complete or
+encyclop&aelig;dic
+science of sociology. To me it seems an unwarrantable narrowing of the
+scope or significance of sociology to say that there is no better
+method
+available of teaching it "than that of regional survey, historical as
+well as geographical." Surely "regional survey" Is the appropriate
+method in the very simplest and most concrete parts of the complete
+science of sociology, and even when we come to history proper we must
+do
+very much more than make a regional survey. It is very interesting, no
+doubt, to "survey" history in the course of a summer ramble to the
+ruins
+of some old monastery, but unless the monks had kept records of what
+had
+been done there in bygone days, the mere outward survey will not carry
+us further than Prof. Geddes is carried in the very general map which
+he
+makes of the whole field of history. In other words, history, in any
+proper sense, demands more than "survey" in Prof. Geddes' sense of the
+word. It calls to its aid linguistics, criticism, archaeology,
+jurisprudence, and politics&#8212;there must be comparison and criticism as
+well as "survey." History is the laboratory in which the sociologist
+sees his social experiments working out their <span class="pagenum">p. 133</span> results, and
+history is to the sociologist what experiment is to the physician, or
+the comparative method to the biologist.</p>
+<p>This being so, the scope of "civics" as "applied sociology" is
+immensely
+widened. The present is the child of the past, but we see that it is
+only in the present that such ancient groups as the colony of Hanseatic
+merchants in Old London have shown us what has been the ultimate
+significance of their embryological life. The modern city bristles with
+sociological problems which demand a knowledge of most of the
+specialisms included in the complete science of sociology, and almost
+invite us to cast the horoscope of the future. We see, as Booth and
+Rowntree saw before us, the poverty line like a fiery portent at every
+point of our study, and we are led finally to ask ourselves whether M.
+Arthur Bauer was not right in choosing the title "Les Classes Sociales"
+as the most characteristic title he could give to his recent and most
+suggestive analysis of the general characteristics of social life.</p>
+<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
+From MR. T.C. HORSFALL<br />
+</div>
+<div style="text-align: center;">(President, Manchester Citizen's
+Association, &amp;c.)</div>
+<p>The teaching of the paper seems to me to be most sound and helpful.
+The
+town of the future&#8212;I trust of the near future&#8212;must by means of its
+schools, its museums, and galleries, its playgrounds, parks and
+gymnasia, its baths, its wide tree-planted streets and the belt of
+unspoilt country which must surround it, bring all its inhabitants in
+some degree under the <i>best</i> influences of all the regions and
+all the
+stages of civilisation, the influences of which, but not the best
+influences, contribute, and have contributed, to make our towns what
+they are.</p>
+<br />
+<div style="text-align: center;">From H. OSMAN NEWLAND<br />
+(Author of "<i>A Short History of Citizenship</i>")</div>
+<p>The failures of democratic governments in the past have been
+attributable, in part, to the lack of intelligence and
+self-consciousness among the mass of those who were given a voice in
+the
+government of their country. Citizenship, like morality, was allowed to
+grow by instinct; it was never systematised as a science, or applied as
+an art. Sparta and Athens approached towards a system of civics much
+less elaborate than that expounded by Professor Geddes; but in Sparta
+citizenship became inseparable from Nationalism, and in Athens it
+scarcely rose above Municipalism. In more modern times, civic education
+has had to encounter the same difficulty as in America, where the young
+citizen's first duty is to salute his flag, and as in London, where
+"Civics" is distributed in doles of local <span class="pagenum">p. 134</span> history in which
+the municipality plays a part altogether out of proportion to its
+relation to the country, the age, and the world. Civics, as the applied
+sociology of each individual and each body of interests, has but begun
+to be dreamed of; and before it can be properly developed it is
+desirable, if not necessary, that the general public should know
+something more than at present both of the historic development of the
+"civic" idea, and of the psychology of aggregations as differentiated
+from the psychology of the individual. Not until we can make "the man
+in
+the street" a conscious citizen, instead of a political automaton,
+shall
+we be able to enlist his sympathies with "Civics"; and without those
+sympathies the sociologist's "Civics" will, I fear, be but partial and
+inaccurate.</p>
+<br />
+
+<div style="text-align: center;">From MR. G. BISSET SMITH<br />
+(H.M. Registration Examiner for East of Scotland).</div>
+<p>There is an elusiveness here and there in this paper which has
+helped to
+confirm me in the opinion that it is well to emphasise the fact that
+Prof. Geddes is not only a dreamer of lofty dreams but a doer and a
+practical initiator. He has expressed himself not only in words but in
+art and in architecture, and in educational organisation; and he has in
+many ways, sometimes indirectly, influenced scholastic and civic
+activities.</p>
+<p>If from the Outlook Tower he dreams of an idealised Edinburgh he has
+only to reply to the scoffer who asks, "What have you done?"
+"<i>Circumspice!</i>" There stand the settlements he initiated, the
+houses
+beautiful, bright, delectable; and the tower itself is an embodiment of
+his ideas, an encyclop&aelig;dia in stone and in storeys.</p>
+<p>We must, in criticising this paper, take into account these attempts
+towards realisation of its principles. The sociological evolutionist is
+"concerned primarily with origins, but ultimately and supremely with
+ideals," we were reminded in a recent paper read before this Society.
+And in the same paper it was affirmed that, "through the formulation of
+its larger generalisations as ideals, sociology may hope to achieve the
+necessary return from theory to practice." Thus, if Civics is applied
+Sociology, we must rest its claims on these criteria. What, then, we
+have to ask is:&#8212;(1) What actually are the generalisations of the
+present paper? (2) How far they are warranted by verifiable
+sociological
+testimony, and (3) What results do they yield when transformed by the
+touch of emotion into ideals of action? To attempt an adequate answer
+to
+these questions would perhaps transcend the limits of this discussion.
+But merely to raise these questions of presupposition should tend to
+clarify the discussion. Coming to detail, I may say, as one whose
+occupation is demographic, I regret the unavoidable briefness of the
+reference in "Civics" to a "rationalised census of the present
+condition
+of the people."</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 135</span>
+No one, however, who has studied the concluding portion of
+"The Evolution of Sex" can accuse Prof. Geddes of ignoring questions of
+<i>population</i>; and his eulogium, written ten years ago, of "Mr.
+Charles
+Booth as one of our own latest and best Economists," is familiar to all
+readers of "Education for Economics and Citizenship." In that extremely
+suggestive treatise, Prof. Geddes further points out that population
+must have a primary place in consideration, and that "our studies of
+the
+characteristic occupation of region by region are the essential
+material
+of a study of its whole civilisation."</p>
+<p>Accepting Mr. Branford's definition of <i>occupation</i> as "any
+and every
+form of human endeavour, past, present, and future," we see that
+occupation must have a large place in the description, explanation, and
+forecasting of the evolution of cities&#8212;such as Edinburgh, Glasgow,
+Dundee&#8212;in the scheme of survey outlined so sweepingly in "Civics."</p>
+<p>"Life and Labour of the People in London" contains several general
+observations almost equally applicable to our largest Scottish cities,
+with the demographic conditions of which my official duties give me
+special opportunities for becoming familiar and for regional survey.</p>
+<p>In the concluding volume of that great contribution to sociology Mr.
+Booth (page 23) remarks:&#8212;</p>
+<p>"Many influences conspire to cause the poor to multiply almost in
+proportion to their poverty, and operate in the other direction in the
+case of the better off, almost in proportion to their wealth. But,"
+says
+Mr. Booth, "when we bring the death-rate into account this law no
+longer
+holds."</p>
+<p>With the poor living under bad conditions in crowded homes the net
+increase is diminished. To those of us who are hopeful of improvement
+by
+eugenics it is pleasing to note that Mr. Booth&#8212;somewhat unlike Mr. Kidd
+in his well-known "Social Evolution"&#8212;is optimistic in his conclusion
+that "on the whole it may fairly be expected that concurrently with a
+rising standard of health we may see a fall in birth-rate as well as
+death-rate, and thus have no cause to fear, as the result of better
+sanitation, that the largest natural increase in population will ever
+be
+contributed by the lowest class." So the heritage of the city may grow
+not only in quantity but also in quality.</p>
+<div style="text-align: center;">From PROFESSOR W.I. THOMAS<br />
+(Professor in the University of Chicago, U.S.A.)<br />
+</div>
+<p>From the standpoint of its applicability to new countries like
+America,
+Professor Geddes' programme is inadequate because of its failure to
+recognise that a city under these conditions is formed by a rapid and
+contemporaneous movement of population, and not by the lapse of time.
+<span class="pagenum">p. 136</span>
+The first permanent white settler came to Chicago precisely
+one hundred years ago, and the city has a population at present of
+about
+two and a quarter millions. It is here not a question of slow historic
+development but of the rapid drifting towards a certain point, of a
+population from all quarters of the globe, and the ethnological
+standpoint therefore becomes of more importance than the historical.</p>
+<p style="text-align: center;">PROFESSOR GEDDES' reply</p>
+<p>I am sincerely glad to be able to express myself in substantial
+agreement with the majority of my critics, only asking them in turn to
+recognise that this is but the first half of my subject&#8212;an outline of
+civics as in the first place a matter of science, a geographic and
+historic survey of past conditions, a corresponding census of present
+ones&#8212;here discussed and insisted on as affording the needful base for
+their demands upon civics as an art, that of effective social service.</p>
+<p>In this respect various critics have in fact anticipated large
+elements
+of this future portion of my paper, so that in general views, at least,
+critics and writer are not so far apart as would appear were the
+preceding pages submitted as a comprehensive outline of the subject,
+instead of as its scientific introduction merely.</p>
+<p>Of criticisms strictly applicable to this paper as it stands, there
+are
+really very few. I am confident that the chairman must be quite alone
+in
+too modestly applying to his great work that description of London
+itself, with which the paper (Section A, pp. 104-107) opens, since his
+volumes offer really our first effective clue to the labyrinth, and his
+method of intensive and specialised regional survey, the intensest
+searchlight yet brought to bear upon it.</p>
+<p>Taking, however, a concrete point of criticism, such as that of the
+monumental planning of modern Paris as derived from forest rides, the
+critic need only walk through any French forest, or even to consult a
+Baedeker, or other guide-book, with its maps of any historic dwelling
+and its surroundings, from Chantilly or Fontainebleau to minor ones, to
+see that this plan, originally devised for the pleasure, success and
+safety <span class="pagenum">p.
+137</span> of the hunt, and later adapted to domination and
+defence, became next appreciated as affording the finest possible
+perspectives of the palatially rebuilt chateau. So that it is not at
+all
+a fantastic hypothesis, but an obvious and inevitable conclusion that
+Napoleon's and Haussman's plans were not at all invented by them for
+Paris, but were directly imitated from the familiar landscape
+architecture of the preceding century, which again was but the simplest
+development from the spacious forest rides of older hunting nobles,
+laid
+out without any thought of the architectural and city developments they
+were destined in later centuries to determine.</p>
+<p>The citizen of Washington had till lately often forgotten that the
+magnificent perspectives of his city are due to the French
+landscape-architect (Major L'Enfant) whom Washington imported for the
+express purpose of laying out his capital; yet it is no less clear that
+this most magnificent of the New World city plans is derived from Old
+World forest rides, than that its monumental edifices descend from
+Renaissance and classic exemplars.</p>
+<p>I plead indeed for such studies of the plans of any and every city
+from
+the point of view of its natural development. The too purely abstract
+and subjective sociology of the dwellers of great cities like London
+would in this way be helped by the facts of their own topographic
+history, already well known and clearly explained by geographer and
+historian, towards again feeling with the naturalist that even the
+modern city is but the most complex evolutionary expression and
+development of the life of Nature.</p>
+<p>This view I take to be indeed a commonplace in France; but I account
+for
+its apparent unfamiliarity to English readers from the fact of our
+scanty forests in this island being left practically wild, our nobles
+not inhabiting them, but the cultivated pasture and arable regions
+below&#8212;planting trees indeed, "plantations," but seldom woods, and
+practically never forests at all. This again brings out the fact that
+the French nobles, despite our urban associations with regard to them
+have belonged far more than ours to the social formation and tradition
+of the hunter&#8212;while ours, despite their love of sports, are yet
+fundamentally squires, i.e., essentially and historically approximating
+to the peasants of their villages. The bearing of all this upon their
+respective history will be obvious. Here again we have the origins of
+the vivid contrast of the English or so-called naturalistic style of
+landscape-gardening with the more formal French tradition. Yet in a
+very
+true sense we see the former to be even more highly artificial than the
+latter. <span class="pagenum">p.
+138</span> The English citizen who may even admit this way of
+looking at the contrasted city plans of London and Paris may fail,
+unless he has appreciated the principle here involved, to see why
+London
+and Paris houses are so different&#8212;the one separate and self-contained,
+with its door undefended and open upon the street, while the normal
+Parisian house is a populous, high-piled tenement around a central
+court, with high <i>porte coch&egrave;re</i> closed by massive oaken
+doors and
+guarded by an always vigilant and often surly <i>concierge</i>.</p>
+<p>A moment of historical reflection suffices to see that the former is
+the
+architecture of a long-settled agricultural place, with its spreading
+undefended villages, in which each household had its separate dwelling,
+the other a persistence of the Continental fortified city crowded
+within
+its walls.</p>
+<p>But beyond this we must see the earlier historic, the simpler
+geographic
+origins of the French courtyard house as a defensible farmyard, of
+which
+the ample space was needed nightly for defence against wild beasts, if
+not also wilder men, against whom the <i>concierge</i> is not only the
+antique porter but the primitive sentinel.</p>
+<p>I may seem unduly to labour such points, yet do so advisedly, in
+order
+to emphasise and make clearer the essential thesis of this portion of
+my
+paper&#8212;that every scientific survey involves a geographic and historic
+exploration of origins, but that of the still unwritten chapter, that
+the far-reaching forelook, idealistic yet also critical, which is
+needful to any true and enduring contribution to social service, is
+prepared for by habitually imaging the course of evolution in the past.</p>
+<p>Speaking personally, as one whose leisure and practical life have
+alike
+been largely spent in the study and the preservation of ancient
+buildings, I may say that this has not been solely, or even
+essentially,
+from an antiquarian interest in the historic past, but still more on
+behalf of a practical interest&#8212;that of the idealistic, yet economic,
+utilitarian, because educational and evolutionary, transformation of
+our
+old cities&#8212;old Edinburgh, old Dunfermline, and the like&#8212;from their
+present sordid unhygienic failure; and therefore industrial and
+commercial insufficiency, towards a future equalling if not
+transcending
+the recorded greatness of the civic past.</p>
+<p>It has, therefore, been to lay the broadest possible basis of
+evolutionary science, of geographic and historic fact, for what would
+otherwise be open to ridicule as a Utopian hope, that of Civics as
+Applied Social Art, that I have insisted at such length above upon
+Civics as Applied Social Science.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum">p. 139</span><br />
+<h3>&nbsp;PRESS COMMENTS</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center;"><i>The Times</i> (July 20, 1904)<br />
+in a leading article, said:</p>
+<p>In the paper read on Monday at a meeting of the Sociological Society
+by
+Professor GEDDES&#8212;an abstract of which we print&#8212;are contained ideas of
+practical value to be recommended to the study of ambitious
+municipalities. This is the age of cities, and all the world is
+city-building. Almost everywhere is a flow from the country town-ward.
+China and India may be still, in the main, lands of villages. But the
+West, Russia perhaps excepted, is more and more peopled by dwellers in
+cities. In a dim sort of way many persons understand that the time has
+come when art and skill and foresight should control what so far has
+been left to chance to work out; that there should be a more orderly
+conception of civic action; that there is a real art of city-making,
+and
+that it behoves this generation to master and practise it. Professor
+Geddes truly said the land is already full of preparation as to this
+matter; the beginnings of a concrete art of city-making are visible at
+various points. But our city rulers are often among the blindest to
+these considerations; and nowhere probably is to be seen a municipality
+fully and consistently alive to its duties in this respect. London may
+be left out of the question. Still a province rather than a city in the
+strict sense, wanting what, in the view of the early master of
+political
+science, was an essential of the true city, that it could "easily be
+overseen," with a vast floating population, it will be some time before
+it can be dealt with as an organic whole. But the rulers of such
+communities as Manchester and Newcastle and York ought long ago to have
+realised, much more than has been done, that they are not so much brick
+and mortar, so much rateable area, so many thousands of people
+fortuitously brought together. They have all a regional environment of
+their own which determined their origin and growth. They have all a
+rich
+past, the monuments of which, generally to be found in abundance by
+careful, reverent inquirers, ought to be preserved; a past which ought
+to be known more or less to all the dwellers therein, and the knowledge
+of which will make the present more interesting. Even when old
+buildings
+have disappeared, ancient roads, pathways, and streets can be traced;
+place names keep alive much history; and the natural features reveal to
+the practised eye what must have been the look and condition of a town
+in past ages. Professor Geddes gives a sketch of what he conceives the
+vast and ever-growing literature of cities will one day be. Even if the
+comprehensive monographs which he foreshadows are never <span class="pagenum">p. 140</span>
+written, it is not surely fanciful to expect that, with education
+universal, almost every dweller in our old towns will acquire some sort
+of that feeling with which a member of an ancient family looks upon its
+ancestral house or lands&#8212;will, even without much reading, have some
+sort of notion of his predecessors and a certain pride in his
+membership
+of an ancient community. If he has not the good fortune to be a De
+Vere,
+a De Bohun, a Howard, Mowbray or Cavendish, he may perhaps be a citizen
+of a town which flourished when some of these families were unknown.</p>
+<p>Such pride, or, as the lecturer preferred to term it, such "growth
+of
+civic consciousness and conscience, the awakening of citizenship
+towards
+civic renascence," will be the best security for a worthy city of the
+future....</p>
+<p>Professor Geddes glanced at the opening civic future, "the remoter
+and
+higher issues which a city's indefinitely long life and correspondingly
+needed foresight and statesmanship involve," the possibilities which
+may
+be easily realised if only there be true civic pride, foresight, and
+unflagging pursuit of a reasonable ideal.... It remains to be seen what
+our cities will become when for some generations the same spirit of
+pride and reverence shown by old families as to their possessions has
+presided over all civic changes and developments.... Ruskin somewhere
+points out the mediaeval love of cities, unwholesome, dirty, and
+forbidding though they were. He did not teach his generation that that
+affection might with more reason attach to the modern city if its
+people
+knew what it had been and steadily strove to make it better, if there
+was in every large community patriotism and a polity.</p>
+<div style="text-align: center;">DR. J.H. BRIDGES in <i>The Positivist
+Review</i> (Sept., 1904), said: <br />
+</div>
+<p>Under
+the title, "Civics, as applied Sociology," Prof. Geddes read on July
+18th a very interesting paper before the Sociological Society. The
+importance of the subject will be contested by none. The method adopted
+in handling it, being in many ways original, invites remark ...</p>
+<p>What is wanted is first a survey of the facts to be dealt with&#8212;a
+regional survey. This point of view has next to be correlated with
+corresponding practical experience acquired by practical civic life,
+but
+"aiming at a larger and more orderly conception of civic action."....
+Students of Comte will not forget his well-known maxim, <i>Savoir pour
+pr&eacute;voir, afin de pourvoir</i>.</p>
+<p>What is to be the area of survey? Prof. Geddes decides that the City
+may
+be taken "as the integrate of study." Whether any modern towns, and, if
+so, what, may be taken as integrates in the sense which would
+undoubtedly apply to ancient Athens or to mediaeval Florence, may be
+questioned; but it is too soon to interrupt our author.... Every one
+who
+heard the lecturer must have been fascinated by his picture of a river
+system which he takes for his unit of study; the high mountain tracts,
+the pastoral hillsides, the hamlets and villages in the valleys, the
+market town where the valleys meet, the convergence of the larger
+valleys into a county town, finally, the great city where the river
+meets the sea. The lecturer went on to advocate the systematic study of
+some of the principal river-basins of the world for the purpose of
+examining the laws which govern the grouping of cities. All would agree
+that much instruction might be derived from such <span class="pagenum">p. 141</span> a survey,
+provided two dangers be avoided. One is the exaggeration of the
+influence of the environment on the social organism, an error into
+which
+the Le Play school have sometimes fallen; as when, for instance, it was
+sought to explain Chinese civilisation by the rice-plant. The other
+danger, which needs much care and thought to avoid, is the accumulation
+of such a mass of irrelevant detail as renders (perhaps sometimes it is
+intended to render) all generalisation impossible. Thinking men are at
+last beginning to regard the accumulation of memoirs as one of the
+principal obstacles to scientific progress. On the pretext of "more
+evidence," conclusions are adjourned, not merely <i>sine die</i>, but <i>sine
+spe diei</i>. Yet so long as man is man, he must, and will, have
+conclusions; be they final or otherwise.</p>
+<p>From the physiography of the city we pass to its history ...</p>
+<p>In this part of his subject he has, as we all know, many precursors
+and
+fellow-workers. The remarkable series, entitled "Historic Towns,"
+instituted by Prof. Freeman, is known to most. The study of towns was
+the life and soul of Mr. Green's historic labours. Eloquent and
+powerful
+pictures of the great cities of the world fill the greater part of Mr.
+Harrison's well-known volume, "The Meaning of History"; and the student
+of universal history (a few of these, it may be hoped, are still left)
+finds them very stimulating and helpful. The special note of Prof.
+Geddes' method is that he does not limit himself to the greater cities,
+but also, and perhaps by preference, deals with the smaller, and with
+their physical environment; and, above all, that he attempts not merely
+to observe closely and thoroughly, but to generalise as the result of
+his observation. In biology, the study of any single organism, however
+minute and accurate, could reveal no laws (i.e., no general facts) of
+structure or function. As for instance, many forms of heart must be
+examined before the laws governing blood-circulation could be revealed;
+so here. Countless, indeed, are the forms of cities; even limiting our
+field of observation to those that have grown up in the last century
+they are numerous enough. Their differences and analogies would
+doubtless repay analysis, always supposing that we are clear how far
+the
+modern town, as contrasted with the mediaeval or Graeco-Roman city, can
+usefully be treated as "an integrate." This raises large questions of
+nation, of groups of nations, finally of Humanity, which cannot here be
+touched.</p>
+<p>Meantime, from the teacher's standpoint, there can be no question at
+all, among those who look upon education as something more than a
+commercial asset, as to the utility of looking on every old town, with
+the neighbourhood around it, as a condensed record, here and there
+perfect, elsewhere lamentably blotted, yet still a record, of the
+history of our race. Historic memories survive in our villages far more
+widely than is thought. The descendants of the man who found the body
+of
+Rufus in the New Forest still live hard by. The builder whom the first
+William set to build Corfe Castle was Stephen Mowlem; and the
+Dorsetshire firm of Mowlem still pave London causeways. A poor woman in
+a remote hamlet, untouched by tourist or guide-book, has shown me the
+ash-tree under which Monmouth was seized after Sedgemoor; a Suffolk
+peasant, equally innocent of book-knowledge, has pointed Out "Bloody
+Mary's lane," through which that bugbear of Protestants passed three
+hundred years before on her way to Framlingham. The abbey immortalised
+in Carlyle's "Past and Present," and still the wonder of Eastern
+England, is surrounded now by the same villages that Jocelyn tells us
+of. The town named after St. Alban, with its memories of Cassivellaun
+and Julius Caesar, of an old Roman city, of the Diocletian persecution,
+of the great King Offa, founder of the abbey that was to become <span class="pagenum">p. 142</span> at
+once a school of historical research, and our best epitome of
+mediaeval architecture&#8212;all this, with the monument of the author of the
+"Novum Organum" crowning the whole&#8212;sums up for us sixteen centuries of
+history.</p>
+<p>Professor Geddes for more than twenty years has adopted this method
+of
+teaching sociology in the open air; "in the field," as geologists would
+say....</p>
+<p>This is much more than the study and the description of buildings
+and
+places of historical interest. His aim is first to study the way in
+which a city grows, always having due regard to its physical
+environment; secondly, by comparing like with like, as a naturalist
+compares the individuals of a species, or the species of a genus, to
+throw light on the laws which govern civic development, and thus to
+help
+forward and direct civic action.</p>
+<p>All this is set forth with greater fulness in the Report which
+Professor
+Geddes has been asked to write for the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust. The
+purpose of the Report (printed, but not yet published) was to suggest
+the way in which the revenue of the Trust, amounting to &pound;25,000,
+should
+be spent for the benefit of this ancient and historic town. The scheme,
+with its many pictures, real and ideal, of workshops, parks,
+culture-institutes&#8212;physical, artistic, and historical&#8212;will deeply
+interest even those who reject much of it as Utopian. But it is at
+least
+a Utopia specially adapted to a given place and time, one in which
+every
+feature of landscape and history is made the most of, one in which a
+beginning can be made at once, leaving room for further developments as
+occasion may serve. Moreover, it is penetrated through and through with
+the Republican ideal of bringing the highest truth within the reach of
+all.</p>
+<p>Comte has pointed out, in the fifth chapter of his "General View of
+Positivism," and elsewhere, that it is not enough to enunciate sound
+principles of social renovation unless they can be rendered visible and
+palpable. "The principal function of art," he says, "is to construct
+types on the basis furnished by Science.... However perfectly the first
+principles of social renovation may be elaborated by thinkers, they
+will
+still not be sufficiently definite for the practical results.... But,
+at
+the point where Philosophy must always leave a void, Art steps in, and
+stimulates to practical action.... Hence, in the future, systematic
+formation of Utopias will become habitual; on the distinct
+understanding
+that as in every other branch of art, the ideal shall be kept in
+subordination to the real."</p>
+<p>Now, the Dunfermline Report is an admirable example of art thus
+allied
+with science for social service. It is an ideal picture, strictly
+adherent to local colour and conditions, of an ancient city prolonging
+its vitality into the present and future by providing a very high form
+of training for its citizens, a training not of intellect only, but of
+the senses, of manual dexterity, of imagination, of Republican
+sympathy&#8212;a training in which "laborious inacquaintance with dead
+languages," infusing into the few touched by it a tincture of caste and
+militarism, gives way to comprehensive study of the evolution of Man,
+preparing the whole, and not a section merely, of the new generation
+for
+social service.</p>
+<p>Such a Utopia as this may be looked upon as fulfilling the true
+social
+function of Art; standing midway between theory and practice; inspired
+by thought, and stimulating action. Only the social artist has to look
+to it that his thoughts be not merely true but adequate, lest he
+degenerate into a mere decorator. How far will a series of "regional
+surveys," like those of <span class="pagenum">p. 143</span> Mr. Booth in London and Mr. Rowntree
+in York, carry us! Not so far, I fear, as Professor Geddes seems to
+hope. Cities in our modern life are organs inseparable from a larger
+whole, the nation; and before the life of cities can be much changed,
+we
+have to ask ourselves, What is the national life? What is its ethical
+and religious standard? What is its practice as to the acquisition and
+distribution of wealth? And, again, What is to be the intercourse of
+nations? Is it to be war or peace?</p>
+<p>Mr. Carnegie has given half a million for the benefit of a town of
+30,000 inhabitants. Magnificent as the donation is, it is not too much;
+not nearly enough, indeed, for the full realisation of Professor
+Geddes'
+scheme. Still, wisely used, it might accomplish great results. What we
+have recently sunk in the work of suppressing two free States in South
+Africa would have made it possible to do for three hundred towns what
+has been done for Dunfermline. Half of what we are now spending on our
+army and navy would enable us to endow thirty more of such towns
+annually.</p>
+<div style="text-align: center;">Mr. ISRAEL ZANGWILL in <i>To-day</i>
+(Aug. 10, 1904), said: <br />
+</div>
+<p>The Sociological
+Society is forging ahead at American speed; the professors jostle one
+another, and Geddes treads on the heels of Galton. After "Eugenics," or
+the Science of Good Births, comes "Civics," or the Science of Cities.
+In
+the former Mr. Galton was developing an idea which was in the air, and
+in Wells. In the latter Professor Geddes has struck out a more novel
+line, and a still more novel nomenclature. Politography, Politogenics,
+and Eu-Politogenics, likewise Hebraomorphic and Latinomorphic and
+Eutopia&#8212;quite an opposite idea from Utopia&#8212;such are some of the
+additions to the dictionary which the science of Civics carries in its
+train. They are all excellent words&#8212;with the double-barrelled
+exception&#8212;and still more excellent concepts. But I fancy the general
+idea of them all could be conveyed to the man in the street under the
+covering of "the human shell." This shell of ours is the city. It is
+the
+protective crust we have built round ourselves. In a smaller sense our
+house is our shell, but in a larger sense each house is only a lobe of
+the complex and contorted whole. Geography shapes our shells from
+without, and the spirit of our particular community shapes it from
+within. History tells us how it has been shaped in the past, Art tells
+us how it should be shaped in the future. Professor Geddes, in fact,
+envisages our civic shell as becomes a brilliant biologist, who also
+happens to be a man of historic imagination, ethical impulses, and
+aesthetic perceptions. For the human shell is not merely geometrical
+and
+architectural, like those of apian or beaverish communities; it holds
+and expresses all those differences by which we are exalted above the
+bee or the beaver. It is coloured with our emotions and ideals, and
+contorted with all the spirals of our history. And all these
+manifestations of humanity may be studied as systematically as those of
+the lower orders of creation, which have till recently monopolised the
+privilege of pin and label. The old lady who admired the benevolence of
+Providence in always placing rivers by the side of large towns was only
+expressing in an exaggerated way the general failure to think of Civics
+scientifically. The geographers, in whom may be found the bases of the
+science, have always pointed out that the river system is the essential
+unit for investigation. From source to sea goes the line of evolution.
+And yet even the peasant hamlet at the source depends, as <span class="pagenum">p. 144</span>
+Professor Geddes reminds us, on the hinterland of pasture, forest, and
+chase; and the hunter is the germ of the soldier and the aristocrat.
+The
+whole region contributes to the ultimate city, as the whole river to
+the
+ultimate sea. The Professor says, justly enough, that we should try to
+recover the elemental or naturalist point of view, even for the
+greatest
+cities. He sees London as "fundamentally an agglomeration of villages
+with their surviving patches of common around a mediaeval seaport."
+This
+is accurate vision; but when he discerns "even in the utmost
+magnificence of Paris, say, its Place de l'Etoile, its spread of
+boulevards, but the hunter's tryst by the fallen tree, with its
+radiating forest rides, each literally straight," I cannot help
+suspecting the over-ingenuity of a prolific intellect. The view of
+London as a growth from embryos, and the view of Paris as the outcome
+of
+atavistic instinct, belong to different planes of scientific thinking.
+That Haussmann in reconstructing Paris was merely an unconscious hunter
+and woodlander, building as automatically as a bee, is a fantastic
+hypothesis; since cities, if they are to be built on a plan at all,
+cannot avoid some unifying geometrical pattern; and there are not very
+many possibilities.... In the department of Eu-Politogenics we shall be
+confronted with the problem of consciously overriding what evolution
+has
+unconsciously evolved, and building towards a fairer future. No doubt
+much of our creation will be imitation, and Professor Geddes is
+particularly suggestive in bidding us, at least, to be aware which of
+the tangled strands of influence we desire to follow; but a measure of
+artistic free-will remains. With the development of a corporate
+conscience we should be able to turn out far more satisfactory shells
+than many that have blundered into being. "Garden City" is only a
+particular application of the science of Civics....</p>
+<p>Eu-Politogenics concerns itself, however, with more than the mere
+configuration of our human shell. Its colour and the music it holds are
+considerations no less important. But they are too important to touch
+at
+the fag-end of an article. Professor Geddes must, however, be
+congratulated on a stimulating paper, and upon his discovery of
+Eutopia.
+For Eutopia (unlike Utopia, which is really Ou-topia, or no place) is
+merely your own place perfected. And the duty of working towards its
+perfection lies directly upon <i>you</i>. "Civics&#8212;as applied
+sociology"
+comes to show you the way.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CIVICS: AS CONCRETE AND APPLIED SOCIOLOGY, PART II</h2>
+<h2>BY PROFESSOR GEDDES</h2>
+<p style="font-weight: bold;">Read before the Sociological Society at a
+Meeting in the School of
+Economics and Political Science (University of London), Clare Market,
+W.C., on Monday, January 23rd, 1905, the Rt. Hon. CHARLES BOOTH,
+F.R.S.,
+in the Chair.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>A&#8212;INTRODUCTION: THE NEED OF CIVIC SURVEYS</h3>
+<p>To the previous discussion of this subject<a name="FNanchor_2"></a><a
+ href="#Footnote_2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> the first portion of this
+present title, "Civics as Concrete Sociology," would have been more
+suitable than the second, (that of "Civics as Applied Sociology")
+actually used. For its aim was essentially to plead for the concrete
+survey and study of cities, their observation and interpretation on
+lines essentially similar to those of the natural sciences. Since
+Comte's demonstration of the necessity of the preliminary sciences to
+social studies, and Spencer's development of this, still more since the
+evolution theory has become generally recognised, no one disputes the
+applicability of biology to <span class="pagenum">p. 58</span> sociology. Many are, indeed,
+vigorously applying the conceptions of life in evolution, in
+geographical distribution and environment, in health and disease, to
+the
+interpretations of the problems of the times; while with the
+contemporary rise of eugenics to the first plane of interest, both
+social and scientific, these lines of thought, bio-social and
+bio-geographic, must needs be increasingly utilised and developed.</p>
+<p>But Comte and Spencer, with most other biologically-minded
+sociologists
+have been more at home among biological generalisations and theories
+than among the facts they arise from, and hence it is ever needful to
+maintain and extend a first-hand contact with these. I seek, therefore,
+to press home the idea that just as the biologist must earn his
+generalisations through direct and first-hand acquaintance with nature,
+so now must the sociologist work for his generalisations through a
+period of kindred observation and analysis, both geographic and
+historical; his "general laws" thus appearing anew as the abstract of
+regional facts, after due comparison of these as between region and
+region.</p>
+<p>May not much of the comparative sterility of post-Comtean (or at any
+rate post-Spencerian) sociology, which is so commonly reproached to us,
+and to which the difficult formation and slow growth of sociological
+societies and schools is largely due, be thus explained? Is it not the
+case that many able and persuasive writers, not only knowing the
+results, but logically using the generalisations of Comte or Spencer,
+as
+of old of Smith or now-a-days of List in the economic field, are yet
+comparatively sterile of fresh contributions to thought, and still more
+to action? In fact, must we not apply to much of the literature of
+recent sociology, just as to traditional economics, the criticism of
+Comte's well-known law of three states, and inquire if such writers,
+while apparently upon the plane of generalised science, are not really
+in large measure at least arrested upon Comte's "metaphysical stage,"
+Mill's "abstractional" one?</p>
+<p>Conversely, the revival of sociological interest in this country at
+present is obviously very largely derived from fresh and freshening
+work
+like that of Mr Francis Galton and of the Right Hon. Charles Booth
+especially. For here in Mr. Galton's biometrics and eugenics is a
+return
+to nature, a keen scrutiny of human beings, which is really an orderly
+fruition of that of the same author's "Art of Travel." Similarly, Mr.
+Booth's "Survey of London" is as truly a return to nature as was
+Darwin's Voyage, or his yet more far-reaching studies in his garden and
+farmyard at home. <span class="pagenum">p. 59</span> Is it not the main support of the subtle
+theorisings and far-stretched polemic of Prof. Weismann that he can
+plague his adversaries with the small but literal and concrete mice and
+hydroids and water fleas with which his theories began? And is it not
+for a certain lack of such concrete matter of observation that the vast
+systematisations of M. de Greef, or M. de Roberty, or the original and
+ingenious readings of Prof. Simon Patten leave us too often
+unconvinced,
+even if not sometimes without sufficiently definite understanding of
+their meaning? The simplest of naturalists must feel that Comte or
+Spencer, despite the frequently able use of the generalisations of
+biology, themselves somewhat lacked the first-hand observation of the
+city and community around them, and suffered thereby; this part of
+their
+work obviously not being on a level with the historic interpretations
+of
+the one or the psychological productivity of the other. And if, without
+warlike intent, I may yet strike a conspicuous shield or two within
+these friendly lists, is it not this one element of concrete
+observation
+and illustration which is sometimes lacking to give its full effect to
+the encyclop&aelig;dic learning and the sympathetic insight of one of
+our
+recent papers, to the historic and poetic interpretations of another,
+or
+to the masterly logic of a third?</p>
+<p>Before the polemics of our educationists, the voluminous
+argumentation
+and casuistic subtlety of our professors of economics and ethics, yet
+more before the profound speculations of the epistemologists, the mere
+naturalist observer can but feel abashed like the truant before his
+schoolmasters; yet he is also not without a certain deep inward
+conviction, born of experience, that his outdoor world is yet more
+real,
+more vast, and more instructive than is theirs. And this impression
+becomes strengthened, nay verified and established, when he sees that
+the initiative thinkers from whom these claim to descend, have had in
+each and every case no merely academic record, but also a first-hand
+experience, an impulse and message from life and nature. Hence the
+contributions of Locke, of Comenius, and of Rousseau. Hence the
+Physiocrats found economics in peasant life; and thus too Adam Smith
+renewed their science, with due academic logic, doubtless, but from his
+experience of Glasgow and Kirkcaldy manufactures and trade. Even the
+idealist Berkeley owed much of his theory to his iridescent tar-water;
+while surely the greater ethicists are those who have not only been
+dialecticians, but moral forces in the world of men.</p>
+<p>In such ways, then, I would justify the thesis that civics is no
+abstract study, but fundamentally a matter of concrete and descriptive
+sociology&#8212;perhaps the greatest field of this. Next, that such orderly
+study is in line with the preliminary sciences, and with the general
+doctrine of evolution from simple to complex; and finally with the
+general inquiry into the influence of geographical conditions on social
+development. <span class="pagenum">p.
+60</span> In short, the student of civics must be first of
+all an observer of cities; and, if so, of their origins and
+developments, from the small and simple beginnings of which the tiniest
+hamlet is but an arrested germ. The productive sociologist should thus
+be of all investigators a wandering student <i>par excellence</i>; in
+the
+first place, as far as possible, a literal tourist and traveller&#8212;and
+this although like the homely Gilbert White or the world voyaging
+Darwin, he may do his best work around his own home.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>B&#8212;INITIAL METHODS OF CONCRETE SURVEY</h3>
+<p>Hence our civic studies began (vol. 1, <a href='#p_105'>p. 105</a>)
+with the survey of a
+valley region inhabited by its characteristic types&#8212;hunter and
+shepherd, peasant and fisher&#8212;each on his own level, each evolving or
+degenerating within his own region. Hence the concrete picture of such
+a
+typical valley section with its types of occupation cannot be brought
+too clearly before our minds.<a name="FNanchor_3"></a><a
+ href="#Footnote_3"><sup>[3]</sup></a></p>
+<p>What now of the causes of progress or decay? Are not these first of
+all
+the qualities and defects inherent in that particular social
+formation?&#8212;though we must also consider how these different types act
+and react, how they combine with, transform, subjugate, ruin or replace
+each other in region after region. We thus re-interpret the
+vicissitudes
+of history in more general terms, those of the differentiation,
+progress
+or degeneracy of each occupational and social type, and the ascending
+and descending oscillations of these types. In short, these
+occupational
+struggles underlie and largely interpret even the conflict of races,
+upon which Mr. Stuart-Glennie and other sociologists have so ably
+insisted. The fundamental importance of these initial factors of region
+and occupation to all studies of races and types, of communities and
+institutions, of customs and laws, indeed of language and literature,
+of
+religion and art, even of ideals and individualities, must be my excuse
+if I seem to insist, in season and out of season, upon <span class="pagenum">p. 61</span> the
+services of Le Play as one of the main founders of sociology; and this
+not only <i>(a)</i> on account of his monographic surveys of modern
+industrial life&#8212;those "Monographies Sociales" from which our current
+economic studies of the condition of the worker, of the family budget,
+etc., descend&#8212;but <i>(b)</i> yet more on account of his vital
+reconstruction
+of anthropology (albeit still far from adequately realised by most
+anthropologists) through his renewed insistence upon the elemental
+rustic origins of industry, family types, and social organisation
+alike,
+from these simplest reactions of man in his struggle for existence in
+varied and varying environment.</p>
+<p>It does not suffice to recognise, with many economists, hunting,
+pastoral and agricultural formations, as states <i>preliminary</i> to
+our
+present industrial and commercial, imperial, and financial order of
+civilisation. This view, still too commonly surviving, is rather of
+hindrance than help; what we need is to see our existing civilisation
+as
+the complex struggle and resultant of all these types and their
+developments to-day. So far, therefore, from leaving, as at present,
+these simple occupational types to the anthropologist, or at best
+giving
+him some scant hospitality within our city museum, we are learning to
+see how it is at one time the eager miner, or the conservative
+shepherd,
+or at another the adventurous fisher or hunter who comes concretely
+upon
+the first plane of national, imperial or international politics, and
+who
+awakens new strife among these. We not only begin to see, but the
+soldier frankly tells us, how the current sports of youth, and the
+unprecedented militarism of the past century, are alike profoundly
+connected with the hunting world. Hence the hope of peace lies not
+only,
+as most at present think in the civilised and civilising development of
+international law, or of culture intercourse, excellent though these
+are, but also in a fuller and complete return to nature than has been
+this recent and persistent obsession of our governing classes with the
+hunter world almost alone; in short, in adding the gentler, yet wider,
+experiences of the naturalist, the sterner experiences of other
+occupations also. Nor does such elementary recognition of these main
+social formations content us; their local differentiations must be
+noted
+and compared&#8212;a comprehensive regional survey, therefore, which does
+justice to each local variety of these great types; speaking henceforth
+of no mere abstract "hunter," but of the specific hunting types of each
+climate, and distinguishing these as clearly as do our own milder
+sportsmen of deer-forest and the turnip field from themselves and from
+each other. After such needed surveys in detail, we may, indeed must,
+compare and generalise them.</p>
+<p>Similarly for the pasture, the forest. Every tourist in this country
+is
+struck by the contrast of Swiss towns and cities with our own, and
+notes
+<span class="pagenum">p. 62</span> too
+that on the Swiss pasture he finds a horde of cattle,
+while in Scotland or Yorkshire he left a flock of sheep. And not only
+the tourist, but the historian or the economist too often fail to see
+how Galashiels or Bradford are developments of the wool hamlet, now
+familiar to many in R.L. Stevenson's native Swanston. Again, not only
+Swiss wealth, but Swiss character and institutions, go back essentially
+to the high pasture and the well-filled byre. That this rich Swiss
+cow-pasture rests on limestone, and the poor Scottish sheep-grazing
+upon
+comparatively unmouldering and impermeable gneiss, is no mere matter of
+geologist's detail; it affords in each case the literal and concrete
+foundation-stone of the subsequent evolution of each region and
+population, and this not only in material and economic development, but
+even in higher and subtler outcomes, aesthetic, intellectual and
+moral.<a name="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>[4]</sup></a>
+It is for such reasons that one must labour and re-labour this
+geographic and determinist aspect of sociology, and this for no merely
+scientific reason, but also for practical ones. Nowhere perhaps have
+more good and generous souls considered how to better the condition of
+their people than in Swiss, or Irish, or Scottish valleys; yet it is
+one
+main reason of the continual failure of all such movements, and of such
+minds in the wider world as well, that they do not first acquaint
+themselves with the realities of nature and labour sufficiently to
+appreciate that the fundamental&#8212;I do not say the supreme&#8212;question is:
+what can be got out of limestone, and what can be got out of gneiss?
+Hence the rare educative value of such a concrete sociological diagram
+and model as was the Swiss Village at the Paris Exposition of 1900, for
+here geographic and economic knowledge and insight were expressed with
+artistic skill and sympathy as perhaps never before. Only as similar
+object-lessons are worked out for other countries, can we adequately
+learn, much less popularly teach, how from nature comes "rustics," and
+from this comes civics. But civics and rustics make up the field of
+politics; they are the concrete of which politics become the
+abstract&#8212;commonly the too remotely abstract.</p>
+<p>For final illustration, let us descend to the sea-level. There
+again,
+taking the fisher, each regional type must be traced in his
+contribution
+to his town. Take for instance the salmon fisher of Norway, the whaler
+of Dundee, the herring-fisher of Yarmouth, the cod-fisher of
+Newfoundland, the coral fisher of the &AElig;gean; each is a definite
+varietal
+type, one developing or at least tending to develop characteristic
+normal family relations, and corresponding social outcomes in
+institutions; in which again the appropriate qualities and defects must
+be expressed, even as is the quality and twist of the hemp in the
+strength of the cable, or as is the chemistry and the microscopic
+structure of the alloy in the efficiency of the great gun.<span class="pagenum">p. 63</span>
+Our neighbouring learned societies and museums geographical, geological
+and the rest, are thus avowedly and consciously so many winter shelters
+in which respective groups of regional surveyors tell their tales and
+compare their observations, in which they meet to compare their
+generalisations from their own observations made in the field with
+those
+made by others. So it must increasingly be for this youngest of
+societies. We may, we should, know best our Thames valley, our London
+basin, our London survey; but the progress of our science implies as
+increasingly varied and thorough an inquiry into rustic and civic
+regions and occupations and resultants throughout the whole world
+present and past, as does the corresponding world survey with our
+geologic neighbours.</p>
+<p>I plead then for a sociological survey, rustic and civic, region by
+region, and insist in the first place upon the same itinerant field
+methods of notebook and camera, even for museum collections and the
+rest, as those of the natural sciences. The dreary manuals which have
+too long discredited those sciences in our schools, are now giving
+place
+to a new and fascinating literature of first-hand nature study.
+Similarly, those too abstract manuals of civics which are at present
+employed in schools<a name="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5"><sup>[5]</sup></a>
+must be replaced by concrete and regional ones,
+their abstract counsels of political or personal perfection thus also
+giving place to a corresponding regional idealism which may then be
+supplemented from other regions as far as needs demand and
+circumstances
+allow.</p>
+<h3><br />
+</h3>
+<h3>C&#8212;GEOGRAPHICAL DETERMINISM AND ITS DIFFICULTIES</h3>
+<p>To interpret then our tangle of ideas, both of the city and its
+citizens, let us now bring more fully to our transverse valley
+sections,
+and to each occupation separately, the geographical view-point which we
+have found of service to elucidate the development of towns and cities
+upon its longitudinal <span class="pagenum">p. 64</span> slope. But this is neither more nor
+less than the method of Montesquieu, whose classic "Esprit des Lois"
+anticipates and initiates so much of that of later writers&#8212;Ritter,
+Buckle, Taine, or Le Play. Once more then let their common, or rather
+their resultant, doctrine be stated in terms expressing the latest of
+these more fully than the first. Given the region, its character
+determines the nature of the fundamental occupation, and this in turn
+essentially determines the type of family. The nature and method of the
+occupation must normally determine the mode of its organisation, e.g.,
+the rise and character of a specialised directive class, and the nature
+of these occupational chiefs as contrasted with the people and with
+each
+other. Similarly, the types of family tend to develop their appropriate
+types of institutions, e.g., for justice, guidance, and of course
+notably in response to social environment as regards defence or attack.</p>
+<p>Thus at this point in fact we seem to be pressing upon the student
+of
+sociology the essential argument of geographical and evolutionary
+determinism, in fact inviting him to adopt a view, indeed to commit
+himself to a method, which may be not only foreign to his habits, but
+repugnant to his whole view of life and history. And if able advocacy
+of
+this determinist view of society for at least the past five generations
+has not carried general conviction, why raise so controversial a
+suggestion, in the guise too of a method professing to harmonise all
+comers? Yet this is advisedly done; and as no one will deny some civil
+importance to geographical factors, let patience be granted to examine
+this aspect of the city's map and shield, and to get from it what it
+can
+teach, under the present assurance to the philosophic and idealist
+critic that his view of other factors, higher and deeper, as supreme in
+human life, and therefore in city making, will not be forgotten, nor
+excluded from consideration when we come to them. All that is really
+insisted upon here is that if anything of naturalistic method of
+evolutionary conception is to be permitted at all, we must obviously
+proceed from this simple towards the more complex, and so begin with it
+here and now.</p>
+<p>It is the appropriate slope or steppe, the needful rainfall, that
+conditions the growth of grass, this which conditions the presence of
+herds or flocks, and these again which determine the very existence of
+shepherds. These granted then, not only do the pastoral arts and crafts
+arise, but the patriarchal type and family develop, and this not only
+with their hospitality and other virtues, with their nomadic
+tendencies,
+at any rate, their unfixed land-tenure, very different from the
+peasant's, but their slow and skilful <span class="pagenum">p. 65</span> diplomacy (till the
+pasture is bared or grown again, as the negotiator's interests
+incline).
+The patriarch in his venerable age, the caravaneer in his nomadic and
+exploring youth, his disciplined maturity, thus naturally develop as
+different types of chief and leader; and it is therefore not until this
+stage, when all is ready for the entry of Abraham or Job, of Mohammed
+the camel-driver, or Paul the tent-maker, that any real controversy can
+arise between the determinist and his opponent, between the democratic
+and the great-man theories of history, towards which these respectively
+incline.<a name="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6"><sup>[6]</sup></a>
+And at that stage, may not the controversy stimulate a
+fruitful analysis? After all, what is the claim of free-will but to
+select among the factors afforded by a given set of circumstances? And
+the utmost stretch of determinism to which geography and civics may
+lead
+us obviously cannot prove the negative of this. But whether the
+psychologic origins of new ideals be internal to the mind of genius, or
+imparted by some external source, is a matter obviously beyond the
+scope
+of either the geographer or the historian of civics to settle. Enough
+surely for both controversialists if we use such a means of tabulating
+facts as to beg the question for neither view; and still better if we
+can present the case of each without injustice to either, nay, to each
+with its clearness increased by the sharp edge of contrast. If the
+geographical determinist thesis on one hand, and its ethical and
+psychological antithesis on the other, can thus clearly be defined and
+balanced, their working equilibrium is at hand, even should their
+complete synthesis remain beyond us.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>D&#8212;NEED OF ABSTRACT METHOD FOR NOTATION AND FOR INTERPRETATION</h3>
+<p>Not only such general geographical studies, but such social
+interpretations as those above indicated have long been in progress:
+witness the labours of whole schools of historians and critics, among
+whom Montsquieu and his immediate following, or in more recent times
+Buckle and Taine, are but the most prominent; witness the works of
+geographers like Humboldt, Ritter, Reclus, or of developmental
+technologists like Boucher de Perthes and regional economists like Le
+Play. The main lines of a concrete and evolutionary sociology (or at
+<span class="pagenum">p. 66</span> least
+<i>sociography</i>) have thus been laid down for us; but the
+task now before us, in our time, in such a society as this&#8212;and indeed
+in such a paper as the present one&#8212;its that of extracting from all this
+general teaching its essential scientific method, one everywhere latent
+and implicit, but nowhere fully explicit, or at least adequately
+systematised.</p>
+<p>It is in fact only as we can agree upon some definite and orderly
+method
+of description that our existing literature of social surveys can be
+adequately compared or new ones co-operatively undertaken. Hence the
+importance of discussions of scientific method such as those who have
+so
+largely occupied our first volume. Yet, I submit, here lies the means
+of
+escaping from these too abstract (and consequently too static)
+presentments of the general methodology of social science into which
+sociologists are constantly falling; and to which must be largely
+ascribed the prevalent distaste for sociology so general in this
+would-be practical-minded community in which we find ourselves, as
+indeed also the comparative unattractiveness of our studies to the body
+of specialist scientific workers, not even excepting those within what
+we consider sociological fields.</p>
+<p>The history of each science, be it mathematics or astronomy, botany,
+zoology or geology, shows us that it is not enough to have the
+intelligent observer, or even the interpretative thinker with his
+personally expressed doctrine. This must be clearly crystallised into a
+definite statement, method, proposition, "law" or theory, stated in
+colourless impersonal form before it is capable of acceptance and
+incorporation into the general body of science. But while astronomer
+and
+geologist and naturalist can and do describe both the observational
+results and their general conceptions in literary form, requiring from
+the ordinary reader but the patience to master a few unfamiliar terms
+and ideas, they also carry on their work by help of definite and
+orderly
+technical methods, descriptive and comparative, analytic and synthetic.
+These, as far as possible, have to be crystallised beyond their mere
+verbal statement into formulae, into tabular and graphic presentments,
+and thus not only acquire greater clearness of statement, but become
+more and more active agencies of inquiry&#8212;in fact, become literal
+<i>thinking-machines</i>. But while the mathematician has his notations
+and
+his calculus, the geographer and geologist their maps, reliefs and
+sections, the naturalist his orderly classificatory methods, it has
+been
+the misfortune and delay of political economy, and no small cause of
+that "notorious discord and sterility" with which Comte reproached it,
+that <span class="pagenum">p. 67</span>
+its cultivators have so commonly sought to dispense with
+the employment of any definite scientific notations; while even its
+avowed statisticians, in this country especially, have long resisted
+the
+consistent use of graphic methods.</p>
+<p>I submit, therefore, for discussion, as even more urgent and
+pressing
+than that of the general and abstract methodology of the social
+sciences, the problem of elaborating a concrete descriptive method
+readily applicable to the study and comparison of human societies, to
+cities therefore especially. To do justice to this subject, not only
+the
+descriptive labours of anthropologists, but much of the literature of
+sociology would have to be gone through from the "Tableau Economique"
+of
+the Physiocratic School to the "Sociological Tables" of Mr. Spencer,
+and
+still more fruitfully to more recent writers. Among these, besides here
+recognising specially the work of Mr. Booth and its stimulus to younger
+investigators, I would acknowledge the helpful and suggestive impulse
+from the group of social geographers which has arisen from the
+initiative of Le Play<a name="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7"><sup>[7]</sup></a>,
+and whose classification, especially in its
+later forms<a name="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8"><sup>[8]</sup></a>,
+cannot but be of interest and value to everyone whose
+thought on social questions is not afloat upon the ocean of the
+abstract
+without chart or bearings.</p>
+<p>Yet with all respect to each and all these classifications and
+methods,
+indeed with cordially acknowledge personal obligation and indebtedness
+to them from first to last, no one of these seems fully satisfactory
+for
+the present purpose; and it is therefore needful to go into the matter
+afresh for ourselves, though utilising these as fully as we can.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>E&#8212;THE CITY-COMPLEX AND ITS USUAL ANALYSIS</h3>
+<p>In the everyday world, in the city as we find it, what is the
+working
+classification of ideas, the method of thought of its citizens? That
+the citizens no more think of themselves as using any particular
+sociological method than did M. Jourdain of talking prose does not
+really matter, save that it makes our observation, both of them and it,
+easier and more trustworthy.</p>
+<p>They are speaking and thinking for the most part of <span class="pagenum"><a name='p_68'></a>p. 68</span> People
+and of Affairs; much less of places. In the category of People, we
+observe that individuals, self and others, and this in interest,
+perhaps
+even more than in interests, commonly take precedence of groups.
+Institutions and Government are, however, of general interest, the
+state
+being much more prominent than is the church; the press, for many,
+acting as the modern substitute for the latter. In the world of
+Affairs,
+commerce takes precedence of industry, while sport runs hard upon both.
+War, largely viewed by its distant spectators as the most vivid form of
+sport, also bulks largely. Peace is not viewed as a positive ideal, but
+essentially as a passive state, at best, of non-war, more generally of
+latent war. Central among places are the bank, the market (in its
+financial forms before the material ones). Second to these stand the
+mines then the factories, etc.; and around these the fixed or floating
+fortresses of defence. Of homes, that of the individual alone is
+seriously considered, at most those of his friends, his "set," his
+peers, but too rarely even of the street, much less the neighbourhood,
+at least for their own sake, as distinguished from their reaction upon
+individual and family status or comfort.</p>
+<p>This set of views is obviously not easy of precise analysis of exact
+classification. In broad outline, however, a summary may be made, and
+even tabulated as follows:&#8212;</p>
+<h4>THE EVERYDAY TOWN AND ITS ACTIVITIES.</h4>
+<table summary="THE EVERYDAY TOWN AND ITS ACTIVITIES"
+ style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 707px; height: 218px;"
+ border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">PEOPLE</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">AFFAIRS</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">PLACES</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;">(a)
+INDIVIDUALS (Self and others).</td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;">(a)COMMERCE
+INDUSTRY, etc.<br />
+SPORT.</td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;">(a)
+MARKET, BANK, etc.FACTORY, MINE, etc.</td>
+
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;">(b)
+GOVERNMENT(S)<br />
+Temporal and Spiritual<br />
+(State and Church).</td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;">(b) WAR
+and Peace<br />
+(Latent War).</td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;">(b) FORT,
+FIELD, etc.</td>
+    </tr>
+
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>Next note how from the everyday world of action, there arises a
+corresponding thought-world also. This has, <span class="pagenum"><a name='p_69'></a>p. 69</span>of course, no less
+numerous
+and varied elements, with its resultantly complex local colour; But a
+selection will suffice, of which the headings may be printed below
+those
+of the preceding scheme, to denote how to the objective elements there
+are subjective elements corresponding&#8212;literal reflections upon the
+pools of memory&#8212;the slowly flowing stream of tradition. Thus the
+extended diagram, its objective elements expressed in yet more general
+terms, may now be read anew (noting that mirror images are fully
+reversed).</p>
+<br />
+<table
+ style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 490px; height: 288px;"
+ border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Town and schools">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr align="center">
+      <td><br />
+      </td>
+      <td>PEOPLE </td>
+      <td> AFFAIRS</td>
+      <td>PLACES<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr align="center">
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="2">"TOWN" </td>
+      <td>(a) INDIVIDUALS </td>
+      <td>(a) OCCUPATIONS</td>
+      <td>(a) WORK-PLACES<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr align="center">
+      <td>(b) INSTITUTIONS </td>
+      <td> (b) WAR</td>
+      <td>(b) WAR-PLACES<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="2"
+ style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">"SCHOOLS"</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">(b)
+HISTORY ("Constitutional")</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">(b)
+STATISTICS AND HISTORY<br />
+("Military")</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">(b)
+GEOGRAPHY</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">(a)
+BIOGRAPHY</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">(a)
+ECONOMICS</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">(a)
+TOPOGRAPHY</td>
+    </tr>
+
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>Here then we have that general relation of the town life and its
+"schools," alike of thought and of education, which must now be fully
+investigated.</p>
+<p>Such diagrammatic presentments, while of course primarily for the
+purpose of clear expression and comparison, are also frequently
+suggestive&#8212;by "inspection," as geometers say&#8212;of relations not
+previously noticed. In both ways, we may see more clearly how prevalent
+ideas and doctrines have arisen as "reflections upon" the life of
+action, and even account for their qualities and their defects&#8212;their
+partial truth or their corresponding inadequacy, according to our own
+appreciative or depreciative standpoint. Thus as regards "People," in
+the first column we see expressed briefly how to (a) the individual
+life, with the corresponding vivid interest in biography, corresponds
+the "great man theory" of history. Conversely with <i>(b)</i> alone is
+associated the insistance upon institutional developments as the main
+factor. Passing to the middle column, that of "Affairs," we may note in
+connection with <i>(b)</i> say the rise of statistics in association
+with
+the needs of war, a point connected with its too empiric character; or
+note again, a too common converse weakness of economic theory, its
+inadequate inductive <span class="pagenum">p. 70</span> verification. Or finally, in the column
+of "Place," the long weakness of geography as an educational subject,
+yet is periodic renewal upon the field of war, is indicated. We might
+in
+fact continue such a comparison of the existing world of action and of
+ideas, into all the schools, those of thought and practice, no less
+than
+those of formal instruction; and thus we should more and more clearly
+unravel how their complexity and entanglement, their frequent
+oppositions and contradictions are related to the various and warring
+elements of the manifold "Town" life from which they derive and
+survive.
+Such a fuller discussion, however, would too long delay the immediate
+problem&#8212;that of understanding "Town" and its "School" in their origins
+and simplest relations.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>F&#8212;PROPOSED METHODICAL ANALYSIS</h3>
+<h4>(1) THE TOWN</h4>
+<p>More fully to understand this two-fold development of Town and
+School we
+have first of all apparently to run counter to the preceding popular
+view, which is here, as in so many cases, the precise opposite of that
+reached from the side of science. This, as we have already so fully
+insisted, must set out with geography, thus literally <i>replacing</i>
+People
+and Affairs in our scheme above.</p>
+<p>Starting then once more with the simple biological formula:</p>
+<div class="blkquot">
+<p>ENVIRONMENT ... CONDITIONS ... ORGANISM</p>
+</div>
+<p>this has but to be applied and defined by the social geographer to
+become</p>
+<div class="blkquot">
+<p>REGION ... OCCUPATION ... FAMILY-type and Developments</p>
+</div>
+<p>which summarises precisely that doctrine of Montesquieu and his
+successors already insisted on. Again, in but slight variation from Le
+Play's simplest phrasing <i>("Lieu, travail, famille")</i> we have</p>
+<div class="blkquot">
+<p>PLACE ... WORK ... FOLK</p>
+</div>
+<p>It is from this simple and initial social formula that we have now
+to
+work our way to a fuller understanding of Town and School. <span class="pagenum">p. 71</span>
+Immediately, therefore, this must be traced upward towards its
+complexities. For Place, it is plain, is no mere topographic site.
+Work,
+conditioned as it primarily is by natural advantages, is thus really
+first of all <i>place-work</i>. Arises the field or garden, the port,
+the
+mine, the workshop, in fact the <i>work-place</i>, as we may simply
+generalise it; while, further, beside this arise the dwellings, the
+<i>folk-place</i>.</p>
+<p>Nor are these by any means all the elements we are accustomed to
+lump
+together into Town. As we thus cannot avoid entering into the manifold
+complexities of town-life throughout the world and history, we must
+carry along with us the means of unravelling these; hence the value of
+this simple but precise nomenclature and its regular schematic use.
+Thus, while here keeping to simple words in everyday use, we may employ
+and combine them to analyse out our Town into its elements and their
+inter-relations with all due exactitude, instead of either leaving our
+common terms undefined, or arbitrarily defining them anew, as
+economists
+have alternately done&#8212;too literally losing or shirking essentials of
+Work in the above formula, and with these missing essentials of Folk
+and
+Place also.</p>
+<p>Tabular and schematic presentments, however, such as those to which
+we
+are proceeding, are apt to be less simple and satisfactory to reader
+than to writer; and this even when in oral exposition the very same
+diagram has been not only welcomed as clear, but seen and felt to be
+convincing. The reason of this difficulty is that with the spoken
+exposition the audience sees the diagram grow upon the blackboard;
+whereas to produce anything of the same effect upon the page, it must
+be
+printed at several successive stages of development. Thus our initial
+formula,</p>
+<div class="blkquot">
+<p>PLACE ... WORK ... FOLK</p>
+</div>
+<p>readily develops into</p>
+<span style="margin-left: 26em;">FOLK</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">PLACE-WORK&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; WORK&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp; &nbsp; FOLK-WORK</span><br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; (Natural
+advantages)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+(Occupation)<br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">PLACE</span><br />
+<p>This again naturally develops into a regular table, of which the <span class="pagenum">p. 72</span> filling
+up of some of the squares has been already suggested above,
+and that of the remaining ones will be intelligible on inspection:&#8212;</p>
+<br />
+<table
+ style="text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 644px; height: 108px;"
+ border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="place work folk">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><span
+ style="margin-left: 1.5em;">PLACE FOLK <br />
+      </span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">("Natives") </span></td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"> WORK-FOLK<br />
+("Producers")</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;"> FOLK</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">PLACE-WORK
+      </span></td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">WORK</span>
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> FOLK-WORK</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">PLACE</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> WORK-PLACE </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> FOLK-PLACE</td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<p>So complex is the idea of even the simplest Town&#8212;even in such a
+rustic
+germ as the "farm-town" of modern Scottish parlance, the <i>ton</i> of
+place-names without number.</p>
+<p>The varying development of the Folk into social classes or castes
+night
+next be traced, and the influence and interaction of all the various
+factors of Place, Work, and Family tabulated. Suffice it here, however,
+for the present to note that such differentiation does take place,
+without entering into the classification and comparison of the protean
+types of patrician and plebeian throughout geography and history.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>G&#8212;ANALYSIS CONTINUED.&#8212;(2) THE SCHOOL</h3>
+<p>Once and again we have noted how from the everyday life of
+action&#8212;the
+Town proper of our terminology&#8212;there arises the corresponding
+subjective world&#8212;the <i>Schools</i> of thought, which may express
+itself
+sooner or later in schools of education. The types of people, their
+kinds and styles of work, their whole environment, all become
+represented in the mind of the community, and these react upon the
+individuals, their activities, their place itself. Thus (the more
+plainly the more the community is a simple and an isolated one, but in
+appreciable measure everywhere and continually) there have obviously
+arisen local turns of thought and modes of speech, ranging from shades
+of accept and idiom to distinctive dialect or language. Similarly,
+there
+is a characteristic variety of occupational activity, a style of
+workmanship, a way of doing business. There are distinctive <span class="pagenum">p. 73</span>
+manners and customs&#8212;there is, in short, a certain recognisable
+likeness, it may be an indefinably subtle or an unmistakably broad and
+general one, which may be traced in faces and costumes, in tongue and
+literature, in courtesy and in conflict, in business and in policy, in
+street and in house, from hovel to palace, from prison to cathedral.
+Thus it is that every folk comes to have its own ways, and every town
+its own school.</p>
+<p>While the complex social medium has thus been acquiring its
+characteristic form and composition, a younger generation has been
+arising. In all ways and senses, Heredity is commonly more marked than
+variation&#8212;especially when, as in most places at most times, such great
+racial, occupational, environmental transformations occur as those of
+modern cities. In other words, the young folk present not only an
+individual continuity with their organic predecessors which is heredity
+proper, but with their social predecessors also. The elements of
+organic
+continuity, which we usually think of first of all as organic though of
+course psychic also, are conveniently distinguished as the
+<i>inheritance</i>&#8212;a term in fact which the biologist seeks to deprive
+of
+its common economic and social senses altogether, leaving for these the
+term <i>heritage</i>, material or immaterial alike. This necessary
+distinction between the inheritance, bodily and mental, and the
+heritage, economic and social, obviously next requires further
+elaboration, and with this further precision of language also. For the
+present, let us leave the term heritage to the economist for the
+material wealth with which he is primarily concerned, and employ the
+term <i>tradition</i> for these immaterial and distinctively social
+elements
+we are here specially considering. This in fact is no new proposal, but
+really little more than an acceptance of ordinary usage. Broadly
+speaking, tradition is in the life of the community what memory is for
+its individual units. The younger generation, then, not only inherits
+an
+organic and a psychic diathesis; not only has transmitted to it the
+accumulations, instruments and land of its predecessors, but grows up
+in
+their tradition also. The importance of imitation in this process, a
+matter of common experience, has been given the fullest sociological
+prominence, by M. Tarde especially.<a name="FNanchor_9"></a><a
+ href="#Footnote_9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> Thanks to these and other
+convergent lines of thought, we no longer consent to look at the
+acquirement of the social tradition as a matter requiring to be imposed
+upon reluctant youth almost entirely from without, and are learning
+anew
+as of old, with the simplest and the most developed peoples, the
+barbarians and the Greeks, to recognise and respect, and, if it may be,
+to nourish the process of self-instruction, viewed as normal
+accompaniment of each developing being throughout the phases of its
+<span class="pagenum">p. 74</span>
+organic life, the stages of its social life. Upon the many
+intermediate degrees of advance and decline, however, between these two
+extremes of civilisation, specific institutions for the instruction of
+youth arise, each in some way an artificial substitute, or at least a
+would-be accelerant, for the apprenticeship of imitation in the school
+of experience and the community's tradition, which we term a school in
+the restricted and pedagogic sense. This whole discussion, however, has
+been in order to explain and to justify the present use of the term
+"School" in that wide sense in which the historian of art or
+thought&#8212;the sociologist in fact&#8212;has ever used the term, while yet
+covering the specialised pedagogic schools of all kinds also.</p>
+<p>Once more, then, and in the fullest sense, every folk has its own
+tradition, every town its school.</p>
+<p>We need not here discriminate these unique and characteristic
+elements
+to which the art-historians&#8212;say of Venice and of Florence, of Barbizon
+or Glasgow&#8212;specially attend from those most widely distributed ones, in
+which the traditions and schools of all towns within the same
+civilisation broadly agree. Indeed, even the most widely distributed of
+these&#8212;say from Roman law to modern antiseptic surgery&#8212;arose as local
+schools before they became general ones.</p>
+<p>Similarly for the general social tradition. The fundamental
+occupations
+and their division of labour, their differentiation in detail and their
+various interactions up to our own day, at first separately considered,
+are now seen to be closely correlated with the status of woman; while
+all these factors determine not only the mode of union of the parents,
+but their relation to the children, the constitution of the family,
+with
+which the mode of transmission of property is again thoroughly
+interwoven.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>H&#8212;TOWN AND SCHOOL COMPARED</h3>
+<br /><span class="pagenum"><a name='p_75'></a>p. 75</span>
+<table summary="Town and school compared"
+ style="text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 380px; height: 89px;"
+ border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td
+ style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><big>"TOWN"</big></td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td
+ style="text-align: center; text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">FOLK&nbsp;
+      <br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+WORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;">PLACE</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%; height: 2px;" /><br />
+<table summary="School comparison"
+ style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 374px; height: 88px;"
+ border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;">SURVEY</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">CRAFT-KNOWLEDGE</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline;"><big>"SCHOOL"</big></td>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">CUSTOM</td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<p>We may now summarise and tabulate our comparison of Town and
+School,<a name="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10"><sup>[10]</sup></a>
+and on the schema (<a href='#p_75'>p. 75</a>) it will be seen <span class="pagenum">p. 76</span>
+that each element of the second is printed in the position of a
+mirror-reflection of the first. This gives but the merest outline,
+which
+is ready, however, to be applied in various ways and filled up
+accordingly. A step towards this is made in the next and fuller version
+of the scheme (<a href='#p_77'>p. 77</a>). It will be noted in this
+that the lower
+portion of the diagram, that of School, is more fully filled up than is
+the upper. This is partly for clearness, but partly also to suggest
+that
+main elements in the origins of natural sciences and geography, of
+economics and social science, are not always so clearly realised as
+they
+might be. The preceding diagram, elaborating that of Place, Work, Folk
+(<a href='#p_75'>p. 75</a>),
+however, at once suggests these. Other features of the
+scheme will appear on inspection; and the reader will find it of
+interest and suggestiveness to prepare a blank schedule and fill it up
+for himself.</p>
+<p>These two forms of the same diagram, the simple and the more
+developed,
+thus suggest comparison with the scheme previously outlined, that of
+People, Affairs, Places (<a href='#p_68'>p. 68</a>), and is now more
+easily reconciled
+with this; the greater prominence popularly given to People and Affairs
+being expressed upon the present geographic and evolutionary scheme by
+the ascending position and more emphatic printing (or by viewing the
+diagram as a transparency from the opposite side of the leaf).</p>
+<p>In the column of People, the deepening of custom into morals is
+indicated. Emphasis is also placed upon the development of law in
+connection with the rise of governing classes, and its tendency to
+dominate the standards previously taken as morals&#8212;in fact, that
+tendency of moral law to become static law, a process of which history
+is full.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name='p_77'></a>p. 77</span>
+<table summary="Governing classes"
+ style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 536px; height: 354px;"
+ border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">GOVERNING
+CLASSES</span><br />
+/\<br />
+|<br />
+      <span style="font-weight: bold;">Family types</span><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline;">INDUSTRIES</span><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="font-weight: bold;">REGION<br />
+|<br />
+      </span></td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="text-decoration: underline;">(WORK-PLACE)</span><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">FOLK-PLACE<br />
+      <span style="font-weight: bold;">(TOWN)</span><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">\/<br />
+      <span style="font-weight: bold;">SURVEY</span><br />
+! - LANDSCAPE<br />
+? - TERRITORY<br />
+|<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">(<span
+ style="text-decoration: underline;">CRAFT-TRADITION</span>)<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="font-weight: bold;">("SCHOOL")</span><br />
+(FOLK-LORE)<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">\/<br />
+[NATURAL SCIENCES]<br />
+|<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="font-weight: bold;">[</span><span
+ style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">APPLIED SCIENCES</span><span
+ style="font-weight: bold;">]</span><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="font-weight: bold;">[SOCIAL SCIENCES]</span><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">\/<br />
+GEOGRAPHY<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="font-weight: bold;">ECONOMICS</span><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline;">CUSTOM MORALS
+&amp; LAWS</span><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<br />
+<br />
+><br />
+><br />
+<p>In the present as in the past, we may also note upon the scheme the
+different lines of Place, Work and Folk on which respectively develop
+the natural sciences, the applied or <span class="pagenum">p. 78</span> technical sciences, and
+finally the social sciences, and the generalising of these respectively.</p>
+<p>Thus, as we see the popular survey of regions, geography in its
+literal
+and initial sense, deepening into the various analyses of this and that
+aspect or element of the environment which we call the natural
+sciences&#8212;but which we might with advantage also recognise as what they
+really are, each a <i>geolysis</i>&#8212;so these sciences or geolyses,
+again, are
+tending to reunite into a higher geography considered as an account of
+the evolution of the cosmos.</p>
+<p>Again, in the column of School, corresponding to Work, we have the
+evolution of craft knowledge into the applied sciences, an historic
+process which specialist men of science and their public are alike apt
+to overlook, but which is none the less vitally important. For we
+cannot
+really understand, say Pasteur, save primarily as a thinking peasant;
+or
+Lister and his antiseptic surgery better than as the shepherd, with his
+tar-box by his side; or Kelvin or any other electrician, as the
+thinking
+smith, and so on. The old story of geometry, as "<i>ars metrike</i>,"
+and of
+its origin from land-surveying, for which the Egyptian hieroglyph is
+said to be that of "rope stretching," in fact, applies far more fully
+than most realise, and the history of every science, of course already
+thus partially written, will bear a far fuller application of this
+principle. In short, the self-taught man, who is ever the most fertile
+discoverer, is made in the true and fundamental school&#8212;that of
+experience.</p>
+<p>The need of abbreviating the recapitulation of this, however, sooner
+or
+later develops the school in the pedagogic sense, and its many
+achievements, its many failures in accomplishing this, might here be
+more fully analysed.</p>
+<p>Still more evident is this process in the column of Folk. From the
+mother's knee and the dame's school of the smallest folk-place, the
+townlet or hamlet, <i>ton</i> or home, up to the royal and priestly
+school of
+the law of ancient capitals, or from the "humanities" of a mediaeval
+university to the "Ecole de Droit" of a modern metropolis, the series
+of
+essential evolutionary stages may be set down. Or in our everyday
+present, <span class="pagenum">p. 79</span>
+the rise of schools of all kinds, primary,
+secondary, higher up to the current movement towards university
+colleges, and from these to civic and regional universities, might
+again
+be traced. The municipalisation of education is thus in fact expressed,
+and so on.</p>
+<p>Leaving the schools in the main to speak for themselves of their
+advancing and incipient uses, a word may be said upon the present lines.</p>
+<p>As a first and obvious application of this mode of geographic study
+of
+cities appears the criticism, and; when possible, the amendment of the
+city's plan, the monotonous rectangularity of the American city, and
+the
+petty irregularity more common in our own, being alike uneconomic and
+inartistic because ungeographic, irrational because irregional. With
+the
+improvement of communications, the physicist's point of view thus
+introduced&#8212;that of the economy of the energies of the community&#8212;is
+only beginning; the economy of fuel, the limitation of smoke and fogs
+being symptoms of this and pointing to a more economic organisation of
+industrial activities generally. But this next carries with it the
+improved efficiency of the producers themselves, with whom, however,
+the
+standpoint changes from the mere economisation of physical energies to
+the higher economy of organic evolution. The convention of traditional
+economics, that the productive capacity of the actual labourer is the
+sole concern of his science, thus gives place to what is at once the
+original conception of economics and the evolutionist one, viz., that
+the success of industry is ultimately measured neither by its return in
+wealth of the capitalist nor in money wages of the labourer, nor even
+by
+both put together, but in the results of industry upon the concrete
+environment, the family budget, the home, and the corresponding state
+of
+development of the family&#8212;its deterioration or progress. The
+organisation of industrial groups or of representative institutions
+found conducive to the well-being and progress of these prime civic
+units, the families, may now be traced into its highest outcome in city
+government. The method of analysis and graphic statement thus outlined
+may be shown to be even capable of useful application towards the
+statement of the best<span class="pagenum">p. 80</span> arguments of both progressive and
+moderate parties in city politics.</p>
+<p>Passing from Politics to Culture. Culture, the needs of this also
+become
+clearer; each community developing a similar general series of culture
+institutions, from the simplest presentation of its geography,
+landscape and architecture, to the complex development of industrial,
+technical and scientific instruction; and for provision also for the
+institutions of custom and ethic in school, law, and church. Just as
+place, occupation, and family are intimately connected in the practical
+world, so their respective culture institutions must more and more be
+viewed as a whole. Civic improvers will find their ideals more
+realisable as they recognise the complex unity of the city as a social
+development of which all the departments of action and thought are in
+organic relation, be it of health or disease. The view of theoretic
+civics as concrete sociology, and of practical civics as applied
+sociology may be more simply expressed as the co-adjustment of social
+survey and social service, now becoming recognised as rational, indeed
+in many cities being begun.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>I&#8212;DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL, AND ITS REACTION UPON TOWN</h3>
+<p>The reactions of the School upon the Town are observed in practice
+to be
+of very different values;&#8212;how are these differences to be explained?</p>
+<p>From the very first the school is essentially one of memory, the
+impress
+of the town-life, even at its best and highest individual quality and
+impressiveness, as in the work of a great master, the observation and
+memory of which may long give his stamp to the work of his followers.
+The fading of this into dullness, yet the fixing of it as a convention,
+is familiar to all in arts and crafts, but is no less real in the
+general lapse of appreciation of environment. Most serious of all is
+the
+fixation of habit and custom, so that at length "custom lies upon us
+with a weight heavy as death, and deep <span class="pagenum">p. 81</span> almost as life." This
+continual fixation of fashionable standards as moral ones is thus a
+prime explanation of each reformer's difficulty in making his moral
+standard the fashionable one, and also, when his doctrine has
+succeeded,
+of the loss of life and mummification of form which it so speedily
+undergoes.</p>
+<p>Of conventional "education," considered as the memorisation of past
+records, however authoritative and classic, the decay is thus
+intelligible and plain, and the repetition of criticisms already
+adequately made need not therefore detain us here.</p>
+<p>For this process is there no remedy? Science here offers
+herself&#8212;with
+senses open to observe, and intellect awake to interpret. Starting with
+Place, she explores and surveys it, from descriptive travel books at
+very various levels of accuracy, she works on to atlas and gazetteer,
+and beyond these to world-globe and "Geographie Universelle." With her
+charts and descriptions we are now more ready for a journey; with her
+maps and plans we may know our own place as never before; nay, rectify
+it, making the rough places plain and the crooked straight; even
+restoration may come within our powers.</p>
+<p>Similarly as regards Work. Though mere empiric craft-mastery dies
+with
+the individual, and fails with his successors, may we not perpetuate
+the
+best of this? A museum of art treasures, a collection of the choicest
+examples of all times and lands, will surely raise us from our low
+level
+of mechanical toil; nay, with these carefully observed, copied,
+memorised, and duly examined upon, we shall be able to imitate them, to
+reproduce their excellencies, even to adapt them to our everyday work.
+To the art museum we have thus but to add a "School of Design," to have
+an output of more and less skilled copyists. The smooth and polished
+successes of this new dual institution, responding as they do to the
+mechanical elements of modern work and of the mechanical worker-mind,
+admitting also of ready multiplications as patterns, ensure the wide
+extension of the prevalent style of imitating past styles, designing
+patchwork of these; and even admit of its scientific reduction to a
+definite series of grades, which imitative youth may easily pass
+onwards
+from the age of rudest innocence to that of art-knowledge and
+certificated art-mastery. Our School of Design thus becomes a School of
+Art, a length a College, dominating the instruction of the nation, to
+the satisfaction not only of its promoters, but of the general public
+and their representatives, so that annual votes justly increase.
+Lurking
+discontent may now and then express itself, but is for practical
+purposes negligible.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 82</span>
+The example of art accumulation and art instruction is thus
+naturally followed in other respects. For the commercial information of
+the public, varied representative exhibitions&#8212;primarily, therefore,
+international ones&#8212;naturally suggest themselves; while so soon as
+expansion of imperial and colonial interests comes upon the first
+plane,
+a corresponding permanent Exhibition is naturally instituted. But when
+thus advancing commercial instruction, we must also recognise the
+claims
+of industry in all its crafts and guilds, and in fact the technical
+instruction of the community generally. Hence the past, present, and
+promised rise of technical institutes upon increasing scales of
+completeness.</p>
+<p>In the rise of such a truly encylop&aelig;dic system of schools, the
+university cannot permanently be forgotten. Since from the outset we
+have recognised the prime elements of the school in observation and
+memory, the testing of these by examinations&#8212;written, oral, and
+practical&#8212;however improvable in detail, must be fairly recognised, and
+the examining body or university has therefore to be adopted as the
+normal crown of our comprehensive educational system. Teaching, however
+is found to be increasingly necessary, especially to examination, and
+for this the main field left open is in our last column, that of
+People.
+Their lore of the past, whether of sacred or classical learning, their
+history, literature, and criticism, are already actively promoted, or
+at
+any rate adequately endowed at older seats of learning; while the
+materials, resources, conditions and atmosphere are here of other
+kinds.
+Hence the accessibility of the new University of London to the study of
+sociology, as yet alone among its peers.</p>
+<p>Hence, beside the great London, maritime, commercial and industrial,
+residential and governmental, there has been growing up, tardily
+indeed,
+as compared with smaller cities, yet now all the more massively and
+completely, a correspondingly comprehensive system of schools; so that
+the historic development of South Kensington within the last half
+century, from International Exhibitions of Work, Natural History
+Museums
+of Place onwards to its present and its contemplated magnitude, affords
+a striking exemplification of the present view and its classification,
+which is all the more satisfactory since this development has been a
+gradual accretion.</p>
+<p>Enough then has been said to show that the rise of schools, their
+qualities and their defects, are all capable of treatment upon the
+present lines; but if so, may we not go farther, and ask by what means
+does thought and life cope with their defects, especially that fixation
+of memory, even at its best, that evil side of examination and the
+like,
+which we often call Chinese in the bad sense, but which we see arises
+so
+naturally everywhere?</p>
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum">p. 83</span>
+<h3>&nbsp;J&#8212;FROM "SCHOOL" TO "CLOISTER"</h3>
+<p>The preceding view is, as yet, too purely determinist. The due place
+of
+ideals, individual and corporate, in their reaction upon the function
+and the structure of the city, and even upon its material environment,
+has next to be recognised. For where the town merely makes and fixes
+its
+industry and makes its corresponding schools, where its habits and
+customs become its laws, even its morality, the community, as we have
+just seen, sinks into routine, and therefore decay. To prevent this a
+twofold process of thought is ever necessary, critical and
+constructive.
+What are these? On the one hand, a continual and critical selection
+among the ideas derived from experience, and the formulation of these
+as
+Ideals: and further, the organisation of these into a larger and larger
+whole of thought; in fact, a Synthesis of a new kind. This critical
+spirit it is which produced the prophets of Israel, the questioning of
+Socrates, and so on, to the journalistic and other criticism of life
+to-day. The corresponding constructive endeavour is now no mere School
+of traditional learning or of useful information. It is one of science
+in a new and reorganised sense; one of philosophy also, one of ideals
+above all.</p>
+<p>As from the Schools of the Law, as over against these, arise the
+prophets, so from the technical and applied sciences, the descriptive
+natural sciences, should arise the scientific thinkers, reinterpreting
+each his field of knowledge and giving us the pure sciences&#8212;pure
+geometry henceforth contrasted with mere land surveying, morphology
+with
+mere anatomy, and so on; while instead of the mere concrete
+encyclop&aelig;dia
+from Pliny or Gesner to Diderot or Chambers, vast subjective
+reorganisations of knowledge, philosophic systems, now appear.
+Similarly, the mere observations of the senses and their records in
+memory become transformed into the images of the poet, the imagery too
+of the artist, for art proper is only thus born. That mere imitation of
+nature, which so commonly in the graphic arts (though happily but
+rarely
+in music) has been mistaken for <span class="pagenum">p. 84</span> art, thus modestly returns to
+its proper place&#8212;that of the iconography of descriptive science.</p>
+<p>Thus from the Schools of all kinds of knowledge, past and present,
+we
+pass into the no less varied Cloisters of contemplation, meditation,
+imagination. With the historian we might explore the Cloisters of the
+past, built at one time from the current ideals of the Good, at another
+of the True, at another of the Beautiful; indeed, in widely varying
+measures and proportions from all of these. How far each of these now
+expresses the present, how far it may yet serve the future, is
+obviously a question of questions, yet for that very reason one
+exceeding our present limits. Enough if in city life the historic place
+of what is here generalised under this antique name of Cloister be here
+recognised; and in some measure the actual need, the potential place be
+recognised also. Here is the need and use, beyond the fundamental
+claims
+of the material life of the Town, and the everyday sanity of the
+Schools, with all their observations and information, their commonsense
+and experience, their customs and conventions, even their morals and
+their law, for a deeper ethical insight than any rule or precedent can
+afford, for a fuller and freer intellectual outlook than that which has
+been derived from any technical experience or empiric skill, for an
+imagery which is no mere review of the phantasmagoria of the senses. In
+our age of the multiplication and expansion of towns, of their
+enrichment and their impoverishment, of the multiplication and
+enrichment of schools also, it is well for the sociologist to read from
+history, as he then may more fully see also around him that it is ever
+some fresh combination of these threefold products of the
+Cloister&#8212;ideal theory, and imagery&#8212;emotional, intellectual,
+sensuous&#8212;which transforms the thought-world of its time.</p>
+<p>The philosopher of old in his academic grove, his porch, the
+mediaeval
+monk within his studious cloister's pale, are thus more akin to the
+modern scientific thinker than he commonly realises&#8212;perhaps because he
+is still, for the most part, of the solitary individualism of the
+hermit
+of the Thebaid, of Diogenes in his tub. Assuredly, they are less
+removed
+in essential psychology than their derived fraternities, their <span class="pagenum">p. 85</span>
+respective novices and scholars, have often thought. It is thus no
+mere play of language which hands on from the one to the other the
+"travail de B&eacute;n&eacute;dictin," though even here the phrase is
+inadequate
+savouring too much of the school, into which each cloister of every
+sort
+declines sooner or later, unless even worse befall.</p>
+<p>The decay of the cloister, though thus on the one hand into and with
+the
+school, may also take place within itself, since imagination and ideal
+may be evil, and theory false. That examples of all these decays abound
+in the history of religion, of philosophy, of art also, is a
+commonplace
+needing no illustration. Nor should the modern investigator think his
+science or himself immune to the same or kindred germs in turn.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>K&#8212;THE CITY PROPER</h3>
+<p>Now, "at long last," we are ready to enter the city proper. This is
+not
+merely the Town of place and work and folk, even were this at their
+economic best. It is not enough to add the School, even at its
+completest; nor the cloister, though with this a yet greater step
+towards the city proper is made. For though this is not itself the
+City,
+its ideals of human relations, its theory of the universe and man, its
+artistic expression and portrayal of all these, ever sooner or later
+react upon the general view and conduct of life. Hence the Academe of
+Plato and the Lyceum of Aristotle, the mediaeval cloister and the
+modern
+Research Institute, have been so fertile, so creative in their
+influence
+upon the city's life, from which they seemed to be retired. Hence it is
+ever some new combination of the threefold product of the
+cloister&#8212;ideal, idea, and image&#8212;which transforms the world, which
+opens each new epoch. Each new revelation and vision, each system of
+thought, each new outburst of poetry and song, has moved the men of its
+age by no mere mechanical pressure of economic need or external force,
+by no mere scholastic instruction, but in a far subtler way, and into
+new and unexpected groupings, as the <span class="pagenum">p. 86</span> sand upon Chladon's
+vibrating plate leaps into a new figure with each thrill of the
+violinist's bow.</p>
+<p>Instead of simply developing our morals from custom, and therefore
+codifying them into law as in the school they are now boldly
+criticised,
+as in part if not in whole, hindrances to a better state of things. As
+this becomes more and more clearly formulated as an ideal, its ethic
+transcendence of convention and law not only becomes clear, but the
+desire for its realisation becomes expressed. This may be with all
+degrees of clearness of reason and vividness of imagery, yet may remain
+long or altogether in the plane of literature, as has Plato's Republic
+or More's Utopia&#8212;standard and characteristic types of the cloister
+library as we may call it, one of inestimable value to the world in the
+past, and perhaps in our time needed as much as ever to help us to see
+somewhat beyond the output of the busy presses of town and school. Yet
+our ideal, our "Civitas Dei," "Civitas Solis," need not remain
+unrealised: it may be not only seriously planned towards realisation,
+as
+was Platonopolis of old, but bravely founded, as has been done in cases
+without number, from the ancient world to modern communities, by no
+means wholly unsuccessful. Though in our great industrial towns, our
+long settled regions, such new departures seem less easy, the
+principle remains valid&#8212;that it is in our ideal of polity and
+citizenship, and in our power of realising this, that the city proper
+has its conception and its birth. Again, instead of simply deriving our
+thought from experience we now project our clarified thought into
+action
+and into education; so that from cloister of philosophy, and from its
+long novitiate of silence, there grows up the brotherhood of culture,
+the culture city itself. Similarly in art, we no longer imitate nature,
+nor copy traditional designs. Art proper appears, shaping bronze and
+marble into images of the gods, and on a burnt and ruined hill-fort
+renewing the Parthenon. In general terms, instead of simply adjusting,
+as in the school, our mental picture to the outward facts, we reverse
+the process; and with a new art conception, be it good or bad, we
+transform the outward world, like wax under the seal. Thus from the
+<span class="pagenum">p. 88</span>
+cloister and chapel of the musician, the studio-cell of the
+artist, the scriptorium of the poet, comes forth the architect,
+remodelling the city around his supreme material expression and home of
+its moral and material reorganisation, its renewed temporal and
+spiritual powers. Of this, the city proper, the Acropolis of Athens,
+the
+Temple of Jerusalem, the Capitol and Forum of Rome are classic and
+central examples, and in the mediaeval city, pre-eminently the
+cathedral; though beside this we must not forget the town house and its
+belfry, the guild houses, the colleges, the great place, the fountains,
+the city cross, and if last, still best if good at all, the streets and
+courts and homes. Returning once more to the history of educational
+development, we have here a means of unravelling the apparently
+perplexing history of universities. For the university past or present
+has but its foundations in the school, with its local and its general
+tradition, whatever may be the accordance of these with
+well-ascertained
+fact, its true novitiate can only be afforded in the cloister of
+reflection and research, of interpretation and synthesis; while for its
+full development it needs the perpetual renewal of that generous social
+life&#8212;that inspiring intercourse "of picked adolescents and picked
+senescents"&#8212;which has marked the vital periods of every university
+worthy of the name.<br />
+</p><a name='p_87'></a>
+<p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="(EU)-POLITY"
+ title="(EU)-POLITY" src="images/img001.jpg"
+ style="width: 512px; height: 780px;" /><br />
+</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<p>In summary then, to the town has been added the school, with its
+advantages, its increasingly obvious limitations also, which it is for
+the cloister to remedy&#8212;even the advantages of the barrack finding a
+main element of its claim in this no less than in its professed
+training
+as regards citizenship. But here also it is for few to remain, albeit
+free for each to return at will. Ideals, to survive, must surely live,
+that is, be realised; hence for full life one needs "to meditate with
+the free solitary; yet to live secular, and serve mankind."</p>
+<div style="text-align: center;"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img
+ alt="Town, school, cloister and city."
+ title="Town, school, cloister and city." src="images/img002.jpg"
+ style="width: 400px; height: 260px;" /></span><br />
+</div>
+<br />
+<h3>L&#8212;THE CITY COMPLIED: TOWN, SCHOOL, CLOISTER, AND CITY PROPER</h3>
+<p>In course of this fourfold analysis, it is plain that we have
+reached
+the very converse&#8212;or at all events the <span class="pagenum">p. 90</span> complement&#8212;of that
+geographical determinism with which we started, and that we have
+returned to a view corresponding to the popular one (of "People,
+Affairs, Places," <a href='#p_69'>p. 69</a>), which we then set
+aside for the reasons
+given.
+The "great man theory" of history, at best less crudely stated, thus
+reappears; in short, to the initial thesis we have now the distinct
+antithesis. It is time, therefore, to bring these together towards the
+needed synthesis. Hence to the page (<a href='#p_77'>p. 77</a>) on
+which was summarised the
+determinist view of Town and School, we now require the complemental
+statement upon page (<a href='#p_87'>p. 87</a>) of Cloister and City
+proper. Nor must we be
+content, with too many controversialists hitherto, to keep in view only
+one at a time; but by folding back the pages of print between these two
+half-schemes, as the book lies open, to take in both together.</p>
+<p>We may thus finally compress the essentials of this whole paper into
+a
+simple formula&#8212;</p>
+<div style="text-align: center;"><img
+ alt="Town, school, cloister and city."
+ title="Town, school, cloister and city." src="images/img003.jpg"
+ style="width: 512px; height: 336px;" /><br />
+</div>
+<p>or most briefly&#8212;</p>
+<br />
+<table summary="Town, city, cloister, school"
+ style="text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 254px; height: 102px;">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;">|<br />
+|<br />
+|<br />
+\/<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> TOWN </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> CITY<br />
+      </td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="2"
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">/\<br />
+|<br />
+|<br />
+|<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> SCHOOL</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> CLOISTER</td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 91</span>&#8212;noting
+in every case the opposite direction of the arrows.
+The application of this formula to different types of town, such as
+those already indicated in the former instalment of this paper (Vol.
+I.,
+<a href='#p_107'>p. 107</a>) or in the present one, will not be found
+to present any
+insuperable difficulty. It must, however, be kept clearly in view that
+the city of each day and generation subsides or decays more or less
+completely into the mere town anew, as the cloister into the schools.
+The towns and cities of the world are thus classifiable in terms of
+their past development and present condition.</p>
+<br />
+<h4>SUMMARY</h4>
+<p>Condensing now this lengthy, yet compressed and abbreviated series
+of
+analyses into a single page of summary, we may briefly define the main
+aspects and departments of civics from the present point of view. First
+then, comes the study of civics as fundamentally (and ever anew) an
+orderly development&#8212;at once geographic, economic, and anthropologic in
+its nature&#8212;a survey of place, work, and folk&#8212;and these not merely or
+mainly as broken up into the fine dust of censuses and statistics, nor
+even of the three too separate sciences above named, but as a living
+unity, the human hive, the Town.</p>
+<p>Corresponding to this objective and organic life we reorganise its
+fundamental subjective life. This is fundamentally, and ever partially,
+the record and reflex of the life of the hive, the Town: of all its
+general and particular environment and function, its family type and
+development; and however overlaid by imported culture or by decayed
+ideals, it is fundamentally expressed in local knowledge, in craft
+tradition, in kinship and its associated kindness, in habits and
+customs, and their developments up to morals and laws. Simple terms
+corresponding to place, work, and folk, are hard to find; say, however,
+till better be suggested, that in close relation to the maternal arms
+in
+which general social thought and its utmost pedagogic developments
+alike begin, it is place-lore, work-lear, and folk-love, which are the
+essentials of every <span class="pagenum">p. 92</span> School.<a name="FNanchor_11"></a><a
+ href="#Footnote_11"><sup>[11]</sup></a> That existing educational
+machineries may not adequately recognise these is not of course the
+question here.</p>
+<p>These three terms, lore, lear, and love are thus well related to
+their
+respectively deepening levels of sense, intelligence and feeling; and
+their respective relation is thus more plain to the imagery, the
+theory,
+and the idealism above defined as the essentials of the Cloister. The
+psychology of the processes of poetic, philosophic and spiritual
+awakening and renewal is in these days being approached anew, both from
+the individual and social side, but cannot here be entered upon.</p>
+<p>Finally and supremely arises the City proper&#8212;its individuality
+dependent upon the measure and form in which ideals are expressed and
+harmonised in social life and polity, ideas synthetised in culture, and
+beauty carried outwards from the study or chamber of the recluse into
+the world of art.</p>
+<br />
+<h4>Practical conclusion</h4>
+The investigation of the City thus tends towards the practice of
+citizenship. Thus social survey prepares for social service, as
+diagnosis towards treatment and hygiene; and these react fruitfully
+upon
+our knowledge and understanding anew. Beyond social observations, and
+the needed observatories for making them more adequately, we need
+social
+activities and the laboratories for preparing them, or at least the
+leavens of them; or, again, in happier phrase, at once simple and more
+synthetic, we need some shelter<a name="FNanchor_12"></a><a
+ href="#Footnote_12"><sup>[12]</sup></a> into which to gather the best
+<span class="pagenum">p. 93</span> seed
+of past flowerings and in which to raise and tend the
+seedlings of coming summers. We need definitely to acquire such a
+centre
+of survey and service in each and every city&#8212;in a word, a Civicentre
+for sociologist and citizen.
+<br />
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<h3>M&#8212;THE HISTORIC CITY-COMPLEX</h3>
+<p>The criticism may have already arisen in the reader's mind that the
+"Town" and "School" of our analysis are by no means so simple as we
+have
+assumed them. Our surveys of antique towns ever disclose the material
+survivals, at least the vestiges, of the cloister or the acropolis of
+the past, of its cathedral or its forum. The processes of our
+industries, in what is now their daily artisan routine, include,
+repeat,
+condense, what were yesterday or longer ago living inventions, each
+instinct with Promethean fire. The hackneyed ornament of our homes was
+once glowing with beauty, radiant or dark with symbolism. So it is for
+our everyday customs and institutions, and so for living languages; our
+own, perhaps, most of all. These, of course, are facts made familiar by
+investigators of all orders, from the scholar and antiquary of old, the
+historian and philologist of yesterday, to the geographer or the
+sociologist of our own time: witness Mr. Spencer's masterly treatment
+of
+their main results. How, then, shall we correlate this process of all
+things growing old with the analysis of cities above attempted? In
+other
+words, how shall we interpret the course of their historic evolution,
+their renewed growth and decay, progress and degeneracy, their present
+condition, crowded with residues of the past, with those potentialities
+which our outline discloses? This is the more necessary since this
+fourfold analysis applies in principle to all human groupings from the
+simplest village to the Eternal City. To this, indeed, we have in
+principle already traced it, onwards from our primitive valley section
+with its humble hamlets, its fundamental occupations. Returning then to
+our main diagram, with its four-fold analysis of the City so soon as we
+have completed this, and <span class="pagenum">p. 94</span> carried its progress up to the level
+of city life proper, we must next turn over the leaf and begin a new
+page, with place and work and folk once more. This simplest of acts
+expresses with graphic significance the very process of history; for in
+closing our diagram page its "Cloister" has been folded down on the
+"School," our cathedral and forum, our "City" proper upon the "Town."
+Thus it is that the ideals and the achievements of one day and
+generation and city are ever melting away, and passing out of sight of
+the next; so that to the joy or sorrow of the successors the new page
+seems well nigh bare, though ever there comes faintly through some
+image
+or at least blurred suggestion of the fading past. Hence each page of
+history is a palimpsest. Hence our modern town, even when yesterday but
+prairie, was no mere vacant site, but was at once enriched and
+encumbered by the surviving traditions of the past; so that even its
+new
+buildings are for the most part but vacant shells of past art, of which
+now only the student cares to trace the objective annals, much less
+penetrate to the inner history. So for the decayed Renaissance learning
+of our schools, for the most part so literally dead since the
+"Grammarian's Funeral"; and so, too, for the unthinking routines, the
+dead customs and conventions, and largely too the laws and rituals of
+our urban lives. Hence, then, it is that for the arrest and the decay
+of
+cities we have no need to go for our examples to the ancient East.
+These
+processes, like those of individual senility and death, are going on
+everywhere day by day.</p>
+<p>Upon the new page, then, it is but a complexer "Town" and "School"
+anew:
+we have no continuing City. This too commonly has existed at its best
+but for the rare generation which created it, or little longer; though
+its historic glories, like those of sunset and of after-glow, may long
+shed radiance and glamour upon its town, and linger in the world's
+memory long after not only these have faded, but their very folk have
+vanished, their walls fallen, nay their very site been buried or
+forgotten. Upon all these degrees of dying, all these faint and fading
+steps between immortality and oblivion, we may arrange what we call our
+historic cities. Obviously in the <span class="pagenum">p. 95</span> deeper and more living
+sense the city exists only in actualising itself; and thus to us it is
+that the ideal city lies ever in the future. Yet it is the very essence
+of this whole argument that an ideal city is latent in every town.
+Where
+shall we in these days find our cloistered retreats to think out such
+ideals as may be applicable in our time and circumstances: the needed
+kinetic ethics, the needed synthetic philosophy and science, the needed
+vision and imagery and expression of them all?</p>
+<br />
+<h3>N&#8212;THE EVILS OF THE CITY</h3>
+<h3>Disease, defect, vice and crime</h3>
+<p>I have spoken little of town evils, and much of town ideals,
+primarily
+for the reason that even to recognise, much less treat, the abnormal,
+we
+must know something of the normal course of evolution. Hence, the old
+and useful phrase by which physiology used to be known, that of "the
+institutes of medicine." Sociology has thus to become "the institutes
+of
+citizenship."</p>
+<p>Often though philanthropists forget this, diagnosis should precede
+treatment. The evils of the city, by the very nature of our hypothesis,
+demand special survey, and this no less thoroughly than do the normal
+place and work and industry. It is only our most permanent intellectual
+impulse, that of seeking for unity, which excuses the cheap unitary
+explanations so often current; as, for instance, that social evils are
+mainly to be explained by intemperance, as for one school of reformers;
+by poverty or luxury, for a second and third; by Tammany or other form
+of party government, by socialism or by individualism for yet others;
+that they are due to dissent or to church, to ignorance or to the
+spread
+of science, and so on almost indefinitely&#8212;doubtless not without
+elements of truth in each!</p>
+<p>Yet let me offer as yet another explanation of civic evils, this
+more
+general one&#8212;distinguished from the preceding by including them all and
+more&#8212;that not only is our "Town" in itself imperfect, but the other
+three elements we have been characterising as school, cloister and
+city,
+are yet more imperfect, since disordered, decayed, or undeveloped anew.
+It is because of each and all of these imperfect realisations of our
+civic life, that the evils of life sink down, or flame out, into these
+complex eruptions of social evils with which our human aggregations are
+as yet cursed.</p>
+<p>Hence, to those who are struggling with disease and pain, with
+ignorance
+and defect, with vice, and with crime, but for the most part too
+separately, it is time to say that all these four evils are capable of
+being viewed together, and largely even treated together. They are not
+unrelated, but correspond each as the negative to that fourfold
+presentment of ideals we have hitherto been raising. To this ideal
+unity
+of healthy town, with its practical and scientific schools of all
+kinds,
+with its meditative cloister of ethical and social idealism, of unified
+science and philosophy, of imagination and drama, all culminating in
+the polity, culture, and art which make a city proper, we have here the
+corresponding defects in detail.</p>
+<p>The evils of existing city life are thus largely reinterpreted; and
+if
+so more efficiently combated; since the poverty, squalor and ugliness
+of
+our cities, their disease and their intemperance, their ignorance,
+dulness and mental defect, their vice and crime are thus capable not
+only of separate treatment but of an increasingly unified civic
+hygiene,
+and this in the widest sense, material and moral, economic and
+idealist,
+utilitarian and artistic. Even the most earnest and capable workers
+towards civic betterment in these many fields may gain at once in hope
+and in efficiency as they see their special interests and tasks
+converging into the conception of the city as an organic unity, and
+this
+not fixed and settled, nor even in process of progress or degeneration
+from causes beyond our ken, but as an orderly development which we may
+aid towards higher perfection, geographic and cultural alike.</p>
+<p>Our modern town is thus in a very real sense, one not hopeless, but
+as
+hopeful as may be, a veritable purgatory; that is a struggle of lower
+and higher idealisms, amid the respective expressions and outcomes of
+these. Indeed, in our own present <span class="pagenum">p. 97</span> cities, as they have come
+to be, is not each of us ever finding his own Inferno, or it may be his
+Paradise? Does he not see the dark fate of some, the striving and
+rising
+hope of others, the redemption also?</p>
+<p>The supreme poetic utterance of the mediaeval world is thus in great
+measure, as each thoughtful reader sees, an expression of impassioned
+citizenship and this at one of the golden moments of the long history
+of
+city life. This expression&#8212;this exiled citizen's autobiographic
+thought-stream&#8212;is resumed at every level, from youthful home and local
+colour, from boyish love and hopes, from active citizenship and party
+struggle, to the transfiguration of all these. Hence these mystic
+visions, and these world ambitions, temporal and spiritual; hence this
+rise from cloistered faith and philosophy into many-sided culture;
+hence
+the transformation of all these through intensest symbol-visions into
+enduring song.</p>
+<p>Am I thus suggesting the <i>Divina Comedia</i> as a guide-book to
+cities?
+Without doubt, though not necessarily for beginners. Yet who can see
+Florence without this, though we may pack below it Baedeker and Murray?
+Or who, that can really read, can open a volume of Mr. Booth's severely
+statistical Survey of London, with all its studious reserve, its
+scientific repression, without seeing between its lines the Dantean
+circles; happy if he can sometimes read them upward as well as down?</p>
+<br />
+<h3>O&#8212;A CIVIC SYMBOL AND ITS MEANING</h3>
+<p>But such books of the city, whether of the new and observant type,
+from
+Baedeker to Booth, or of the old and interpretative Dantean one, are
+too
+vast and varied to keep open before us. Even the preceding open page of
+diagram is complex enough with its twofold, indeed four-fold city; and
+we are called back to our daily work in the first of these divisions,
+that of the everyday town. Since its subjective aspects of school and
+cloister may fade from memory, its higher aspect also, that of city
+proper, how can we retain this fourfold <span class="pagenum">p. 98</span> analysis, and how
+test if it be true? Take then one final illustration; this time no mere
+logical skeleton, however simple or graphic, but an image more easily
+retained, because a concrete and artistic one, and moreover in terms of
+that form of life-labour and thought-notation&#8212;that of current
+coin&#8212;which, in our day especially, dominates this vastest of cities;
+and hence inherits for the region of its home and centre&#8212;"the Bank"
+which has so thoroughly taken precedence of the town-house and
+cathedral, of the fortress and palace&#8212;the honoured name of "City." The
+coinages of each time and place combine concrete and social use with
+statements of historic facts; and they add to both of these a wealth of
+emblematic suggestions: but that is to say, they express not only their
+town, and something of its <i>school</i>, but much of its thought
+also, its
+<i>cloister</i> in my present terminology.</p>
+<p>So before me lies an old "bawbee" of my own home city. On one side
+stands the hammerman at his anvil, below him the motto of his guild,
+"<i>Non marte sed arte</i>." Here then the industrial "Town" and its
+"School"
+express themselves plainly enough, and precisely as they have been
+above
+defined. But on the other side spreads the imperial double eagle; since
+Perth <i>(Bertha aurea)</i> had been the northmost of all Rome's
+provincial
+capitals, her re-named "Victoria" accordingly, as the mediaeval herald
+must proudly have remembered, so strengthened his associations with the
+Holy Roman Empire with something of that vague and shadowy historic
+dignity which the Scot was wont to value so much, and vaunt so high. On
+the eagle's breast is a shield, tressured like the royal standard,
+since Perth was the national capital until the "King's Tragedy" of
+1457; but instead of the ruddy lion the shield bears the lamb with the
+banner of St. John, the city's saint. This side, too, has its motto,
+and
+one befitting an old capital of King and Commons, both in continual
+strife with the feudal nobles, "<i>Pro Rege, Lege, et Grege</i>." Here
+then,
+plain upon this apparent arbitrarily levised trifle, this petty
+provincial money-token, this poor bawbee, that is, this coin not only
+of
+the very humblest order, but proverbially sordid at that, we find
+clearly set down, long generations ago, the whole <span class="pagenum">p. 99</span> four-fold
+analysis and synthesis of civic life we have been above labouring for.
+For what makes the industrial Town, what can better keep it than
+strenuous industry at its anvil? How better express its craft school,
+its local style and skill, its reaction too upon the town's life in
+peace and war, than by this Hal o' the Wynd by his forge? Nay, what
+better symbol than this hammer, this primitive tool and ever typical
+one, of the peaceful education of experience, form Prometheus to
+Kelvin,
+of the warlike, from Thor to modern cannon-forge? Turning now from Town
+and School to Cloister, to the life of secluded peace and
+meditation&#8212;from which, however, the practical issues of life are ever
+renewed&#8212;what plainer symbol, yet what more historic or more mystic one
+can we ask than this of the lamb with the banner? While of the
+contrasted yet complemental civic life of fullest, broadest action,
+what
+expression like the Roman eagle&#8212;the very eyes of keenness, and the
+spreading wings of power?</p>
+<p>So rarely perfect then is this civic symbol, that I must not omit to
+mention that it has only come to my notice since the body of this
+paper,
+with its four-fold analysis of cities as above outlined, was
+essentially
+finished. Since it thus has not in any particular suggested the
+treatment of cities here advocated, it is the more interesting and
+encouraging as a confirmation of it. It is also to my mind plain that
+in
+this, as in many other of our apparent "advances in science," and
+doubtless those in social studies particularly, we are but learning to
+think things anew, long after our forefathers have lived them, even
+expressed them&#8212;and these in their ways no less clear and popular than
+can ever be ours. That we may also again live them is once more
+curiously expressed by the same symbol; for its re-appearance is due to
+its having been appropriately revived, in a fitting art form, that of
+the commemorative and prize medal of the local arts and crafts
+exhibition, held in the new Public Library, under civic auspices.
+Little
+scrutiny of this last sentence will be needed to see the four-fold
+completeness of the civic event which it describes.</p>
+<p>For just as we have seen on the old coin the hammerman <span class="pagenum">p. 100</span> and
+his motto answer to the town and school; so now on its reissue to the
+renascent local arts and crafts, with their commemoration in this
+library. And as the greater motto, that of widest policy, corresponds
+to
+the cloister of reflection and resolve, so we note that this new
+impulse
+to civic betterment is associated with the new library&#8212;no mere
+school-house of memory, but also the open cloister of our day. Finally,
+note that this impulse is no longer merely one of aesthetic purpose, of
+"art for art's sake," nor its execution that of a cultured minority
+merely; it announces a re-union of this culture and art with the civic
+polity. What fitter occasion, then, for the striking of a medal, than
+this renewal of civic life, with municipal organisation and polity, art
+and culture, renascent in unison. That such events are nowadays far
+from
+exceptional is so true that we are in danger of losing sight of their
+significance. Yet it is amid such city developments that the future
+Pericles must arise.</p>
+<p>We thus see that our analysis is no mere structural one, made
+post-mortem from civic history; but that it applies to the modern
+functioning of everyday life in an everyday city, so soon as this
+becomes touched anew towards cultural issues. Furthermore, it is thus
+plain that civic life not only has long ago anticipated and embodied
+our
+theories of it, but once more outruns them, expressing them far better
+than in words&#8212;in life and practice. In this way the reader who may most
+resent these unfamiliar methods of exposition, alternately by abstract
+diagram or concrete illustration&#8212;which may seem to him too remote from
+ordinary life and experience, perhaps too trivial&#8212;may now test the
+present theory of the city, or amend it, by means of the ample
+illustrations of the processes and results of social life which are
+provided by his daily newspaper, and these on well-nigh all its fields
+and levels.</p>
+<p>Note finally that it is the eagle and lamb of temporal and spiritual
+idealism that form the "head" of this coin, the craftsman and anvil but
+the modest "tail." The application is obvious.</p>
+<p>Thus even numismatics revives from amid the fossil <span
+ class="pagenum">p. 100</span>
+sciences.
+For from this to our own common coinage, or notably to that of France,
+America, Switzerland, etc., the transition is easy, and still better to
+that of the noblest civic past, both classic and mediaeval. Without
+pursuing this further here my present point is gained, if we see, even
+in the everyday local details of work and people, the enduring stamp,
+the inextinguishable promise, of the flowering of our everyday
+industries and schools into worthier ideals than they at present
+express, and of the fruition of these in turn upon nobler heights of
+life and practice. It expresses the essential truth of the popular view
+of the city; that in terms of the formula&#8212;People ... Affairs ...
+Places&#8212;above referred to (<a href='#p_69'>page 69</a>). It also
+explains the persistent
+vitality of this view, despite its frequent crudity, and lack of order
+in detail, in face of the more scientific treatment here at first
+employed, that in the elementary geographic order&#8212;Place ... Work ...
+People. For though this objective order be fundamental, it is the
+complementary subjective evolution which throughout history has ever
+become supreme; so that our scheme must combine the outward geographic
+presentment with the inward psychological one. This may be graphically
+expressed by changing the order of presentment from that used
+hitherto:&#8212;</p>
+<br />
+<table summary="Town, city, cloister, school"
+ style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 210px; height: 60px;"
+ border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">TOWN<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">CITY<br />
+      </td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="2"
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+TO<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">CITY<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">TOWN<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">SCHOOL<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">CLOISTER<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">CLOISTER<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">SCHOOL<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>P&#8212;FORECAST OF CITY DEVELOPMENT. SPECIAL AND GENERAL</p>
+<p>The dual and four-fold development of the city, as above sketched,
+is by
+no means far advanced in most of our present towns or cities, which
+have
+obviously but scanty expression of the ideas shadowed forth for the
+modern equivalents of cloister and cathedral, of academe and acropolis.
+But this is to say that such towns, however large, populous and rich
+according to conventional economic standards, are to that extent small
+and poor, indeed too often little better than cities by courtesy. Yet
+their further development, upon this <span class="pagenum">p. 102</span> four-fold view of civic
+evolution, though in principle the same for each and all, has always
+been, and let us hope may always be, in large measure an individual
+(because regional) one. For if each human individuality be unique, how
+much more must that of every city?</p>
+<p>In one concrete case, that of Dunfermline, I have already submitted
+definite suggestions towards the realisation of the civic Utopia, and
+even architectural designs towards its execution,<a name="FNanchor_13"></a><a
+ href="#Footnote_13"><sup>[13]</sup></a> so that these may
+at any rate suffice to show how local study and adaptive design are
+needed for each individual city, indeed for every point of it. It is
+thus, and thus only, that we can hope to have a city development truly
+evolutionary, that is, one utilising the local features, advantages,
+and
+possibilities of place, occupation, and people. Of course, it is
+needful
+to supplement these by the example of other cities; but it is no less
+needful to avoid weighting down the local life with replicas of
+institutions, however excellent elsewhere, if really irregional here.
+With the re-awakening of regional life in our various centres, and of
+some comprehension of its conditions among our rulers, they will cease
+to establish, say, a school of mines in Piccadilly, or again one of
+engineering and the like in South Kensington. The magistrates of
+Edinburgh have long abandoned their old attempt to plant mulberries and
+naturalise silk culture upon their wind-swept Calton Hill; albeit this
+was a comparatively rational endeavour, since a population of Huguenot
+refugee silk weavers had actually come upon their hands.</p>
+<p>Similarly, it is plain that we must develop Oxford as Oxford,
+Edinburgh
+as Edinburgh, and so on with all other cities, great or small&#8212;York or
+Winchester, Westminster or London. And so with Chelsea or Hampstead,
+with Woolwich or Battersea. Has not the last of these grown from a mere
+outlying vestry, like so many others, into a centre of genuine vitality
+and interior progress, indeed of ever-widening interest and example;
+and
+all this in half a generation, apparently through the sagacious
+leadership&#8212;say, rather the devoted, the <span class="pagenum">p. 103</span> impassioned
+citizenship&#8212;of a single man? And does not his popular park at times
+come near giving us a vital indication of the needed modern analogue of
+cathedral and forum? Civic development is thus no mere external matter,
+either of "Haussmannising" its streets, or of machine-educating its
+people; the true progress of the city and its citizenship must alike
+grow and flower from within albeit alive and open to every truly
+fertilising impulse from without.</p>
+<p>Yet since national interests, international industry, commerce,
+science, and therefore progress are nowadays and increasingly so
+largely one, may we not in conclusion foresee something at least of the
+great lines of development which are common to cities, and generalise
+these as we are accustomed to do in history? Witness the Classical,
+Mediaeval, and Renaissance types to which historic cities
+preponderatingly belong, and within which we group their varied
+individualities, as after all of comparative detail.</p>
+<p>Here then it is time to recall the presentment of ancient, recent
+and
+contemporary evolution already outlined in the part of this paper
+previously read (Vol. I, <a href='#p_109'>p. 109</a>), dealing with
+the historic survey of
+cities. We have now to face the question, then postponed, indeed left
+in
+interrogation-marks&#8212;that of seeking not indeed sharply to define the
+future order of things, yet in some measure to discern such elements of
+progress as may be already incipient in the existing order, if not yet
+largely manifest there. Such elements may be reasonably expected to
+grow
+in the near future, perhaps increasingly, and whatever be their rate of
+growth are surely worthy of our attention.</p>
+<p>Contemporary science, with its retrospective inquiries into origins
+in
+the past, its everyday observation of the present, is apt practically
+to
+overlook that the highest criterion and achievement of science is not
+to
+decipher the past, nor record the present, not even to interpret both.
+It is to foresee: only thus can it subserve action, of which the
+present
+task ever lies towards the future, since it is for this that we have to
+provide. Why then should not Comte's famous aphorism&#8212;"<i>Voir pour
+pr&eacute;voir, pr&eacute;voir pour pourvoir</i>," become applicable in
+our civic studies
+no less than in the general social and political fields to <span class="pagenum">p. 104</span>
+which he applied it? In navigation or engineering, in agriculture or
+hygiene, prevision and provision alike are ever increasing; yet these
+are no mere combinations of the preliminary sciences and the
+fundamental
+occupations, but obviously contain very large social elements.</p>
+<p>It is proverbially safe to prophesy when one knows; and it is but
+this
+safe prediction which we make every day of child or bud, where we can
+hardly fail to see the growing man, the coming flower. Yet do not most
+people practically forget that even now, in mid-winter, next summer's
+leaves are already waiting, nay, that they were conceived nine months
+ago? That they thus grow in small, commonly unnoticed beginnings, and
+lie in bud for a period twice as long as the summer of their adult and
+manifest life, is yet a fact, and one to which the social analogies are
+many and worth considering.</p>
+<p>While recognising, then, the immense importance of the historic
+element
+of our heritage, renaissance and mediaeval, classic and earlier;
+recognising also the predominance of contemporary forces and ideas,
+industrial and liberal, imperial and bureaucratic, financial and
+journalistic, can we not seek also, hidden under all these leaves, for
+those of the still-but-developing bud, which next season must be so
+much
+more important than they are to day? It is a commonplace, yet mainly of
+educational meetings, to note that the next generation is now at
+school;
+but how seldom do we recognise its pioneers, albeit already among our
+own contemporaries? At any rate we may see here and there that their
+leaven is already at work.</p>
+<p>In this respect, cities greatly differ&#8212;one is far more initiative
+than
+another. In the previous paper (vol. I, <a href='#p_109'>p. 109</a>),
+we saw how
+individuals,
+edifices, institutions, might represent all past phases; these,
+therefore, often predominate in different cities sufficiently to give
+its essential stamp. Why then should we not make a further survey and
+seek to see something of the cities of the future; though we may have
+to
+look for these in quarters where at first sight there may seem as yet
+scanty promise of flower?</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 105</span>
+To recall an instance employed above, probably every member
+of this Society is old enough to remember incredulous questionings of
+whether any good thing could come out of Battersea. Again, how few,
+even
+in America, much less than in Europe, a few years ago, forsaw the rapid
+growth of those culture-elements in St. Louis, of which the recent
+World-Exposition will not have been the only outcome?</p>
+<p>Only a few years earlier, it was Chicago which, for New England no
+less
+than for the Old World, seemed but the byword of a hopelessly
+materialised community. So Birmingham or Glasgow has won its present
+high position among cities in comparatively recent times; so it may now
+be the turn of older cities, once far more eminent, like Newcastle or
+Dundee, to overtake and in turn, perhaps, outstrip them. But all this
+is
+still too general and needs further definition; let us attempt this,
+therefore, somewhat more fully, in the concrete case of Glasgow.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>Q&#8212;GLASGOW AS TYPICAL OF CIVIC TRANSITION&#8212;FROM "PALEOTECHNIC" TO
+"NEOTECHNIC"</h3>
+<p>My own appreciation of the significance of Glasgow was first really
+awakened over twenty years ago by William Morris, who in his vivid way
+pointed out to me how, despite the traditional culture&#8212;superiority of
+Edinburgh, Glasgow was not only the Scottish capital, but, in his view,
+in real progressiveness the leading and initiative city of the whole
+United Kingdom. And this for him was not merely or mainly in its
+municipal enterprise, then merely in its infancy&#8212;although he expressed
+this development in the phrase "In London, people talked socialism
+without living it; but in Glasgow, they were socialists without knowing
+it!" Despite all the ugliness which had so repelled Ruskin, the squalor
+which moved Matthew Arnold to the fiercest scorn in all his writings,
+Morris's appreciation arose from his craftsman's knowledge and respect
+for supreme craftsmanship. The great ships building upon the Clyde were
+for him "the greatest achievement of <span class="pagenum">p. 106</span> humanity since the days
+of the cathedral-builders," nay, for him actually surpassing these,
+since calling forth an even more complex combination and "co-operation
+of all the material arts and sciences" into a mighty and organic whole;
+and correspondingly of all their respective workers also, this being
+for
+him of the very essence of his social ideal.</p>
+<p>For these reasons he insisted, to my then surprise that the social
+reorganisation he then so ardently hoped for "was coming faster upon
+the
+Clyde than upon the Thames": he explained as for him the one main
+reason
+for his then discouragement as to the progress of London that there
+East
+and West, North and South, are not only too remote each from the other,
+but in their occupations all much too specialised&#8212;there to finance,
+there to manufactures, or here to leisure, and so on; while on the
+Clyde
+industrial organisation and social progress could not but develop
+together, through the very nature of the essential and working unity of
+the ship.</p>
+<p>Since Morris's day, a local art movement, of which he knew little,
+has
+risen to eminence, a foreign critic would say to pre-eminence, in this
+country at least. Since Ruskin's savage response to a Glasgow
+invitation
+to lecture&#8212;"first burn your city, and cleanse your river,"&#8212;a new
+generation of architects and hygienists have not a little transformed
+the one, and vigorous measures have been taken towards the purification
+of the other. That the city and university pre-eminently associated
+with the invention of the steam-engine, and consequently with the
+advent
+of the industrial revolution throughout the world, should, a century
+later, have produced a scarcely less pre-eminent leader of applied
+science towards the command of electricity is thus no isolated
+coincidence. And as political economy, which is ever the theory
+corresponding to our phase of industrial practice, and there some of
+its foremost pioneers, and later its classical exponent, Adam Smith
+himself, so once more there are signs at least of a corresponding wave
+of theoretic progress. Students of primitive civilisation and industry
+have now long familiarised us with their reinterpretation of what was
+long known as the stone age, into two very distinct <span class="pagenum">p. 107</span> periods,
+the earlier characterised by few and rough implements, roughly used by
+a
+rude people, the second by more varied tools, of better shape, and
+finer
+edge, often of exquisite material and polish. We know that these were
+wielded more skilfully, by a people of higher type, better bred and
+better nourished; and that these, albeit of less hunting and militant
+life, but of pacific agricultural skill, prevailed in every way in the
+struggle for existence; thanks thus not only to more advanced arts, but
+probably above all to the higher status of woman. This distinction of
+Paleolithic and Neolithic ages and men, has long passed into the
+terminology of sociological science, and even into current speech: is
+it
+too much then, similarly, to focus the largely analogous progress which
+is so observable in what we have been wont to generalise too crudely as
+the modern Industrial Age? All are agreed that the discoveries and
+inventions of this extraordinary period of history constitute an epoch
+of material advance only paralleled, if at all, in magnitude and
+significance by those of prehistory with its shadowy Promethean
+figures.
+Our own advance from a lower industrial civilisation towards a higher
+thus no less demands definite characterisation, and this may be broadly
+expressed as from an earlier or <i>Paleotechnic</i> phase, towards a
+later or
+more advanced <i>Neotechnic</i> one. If definition be needed, this may
+be
+broadly given as from a comparatively crude and wasteful technic age,
+characterised by coal, steam, and cheap machine products, and a
+corresponding <i>quantitative</i> ideal of "progress of wealth and
+population"&#8212;towards a finer civilisation, characterised by the wider
+command, yet greater economy of natural energies, by the predominance
+of
+electricity, and by the increasing victory of an ideal of qualitative
+progress, expressed in terms of skill and art, of hygiene and
+education,
+of social polity, etc.</p>
+<p>The Neotechnic phase, though itself as yet far from completely
+replacing
+the paleotechnic order which is still quantitatively predominant in
+most
+of our cities, begins itself to show signs of a higher stage of
+progress, as in the co-ordination of the many industries required for
+the building of a ship, or in the yet more recent developments which
+begin to renew for us the conception of the worthy construction of a
+city. As <span class="pagenum">p.
+108</span> the former period may be characterised by the
+predominance of the relatively unskilled workman and of the skilled, so
+this next incipient age by the development of the chief workman proper,
+the literal <i>architectos</i> or architect; and by his companion the
+rustic
+improver, gardener and forester, farmer, irrigator, and their
+correspondingly evolving types of civil engineer.</p>
+<p>To this phase then the term <i>Geotechnic</i> may fairly be
+applied. Into its
+corresponding theoretic and ideal developments we need not here enter,
+beyond noting that these are similarly of synthetic character; on the
+concrete side the sciences unifying as geography, and on their more
+abstract side as the classification and philosophy of the
+sciences,&#8212;while both abstract and concrete movements of thought are
+becoming more and more thoroughly evolutionary in character.</p>
+<p>But evolutionary theories, especially as they rise towards
+comprehensiveness, cannot permanently content themselves with origins,
+or with classifications merely, nor with concentrating on nature rather
+than on man. Nature furnishes after all but the stage for evolution in
+its highest terms; of this man himself is the hero; so that thus our
+Geotechnic phase, Synthetic age (call it what we will) in its turn
+gives
+birth to a further advance&#8212;that concerned with human evolution, above
+all subordinating all things to him; whereas in all these preceding
+industrial phases, even if decreasingly, "things are in the saddle and
+ride mankind." This age, now definitely evolutionist in policy, as the
+geotechnic was in theory and in environment we may term the <i>Eugenic</i>.
+For its theory, still less advanced, the term <i>Eupsychic</i> may
+complete
+our proposed nomenclature.</p>
+<p>Thus then our conception of the opening future may be increasingly
+defined, since all these apparently predicted phases are already
+incipient among us, and are thus really matters of observed fact, of
+social embryology let us say; in short, of city development.</p>
+<p>In summary, then, the diagram of the former instalment of this paper
+(vol. 1, <a href='#p_109'>p. 109</a>)</p>
+<br />
+<table summary="Ancient, recent, contemporary societies"
+ style="width: 100%;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3" rowspan="1">ANCIENT <br />
+      </td>
+      <td colspan="3" rowspan="1"
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">RECENT </td>
+      <td colspan="3" rowspan="1"
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"> CONTEMPORARY </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> INCIPIENT</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;">Primitive </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Matriarchal </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Patriarchal </td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;"> Greek
+and Roman </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Mediaeval </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Renaissance </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Revolution </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Empire </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Finance </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> ? ? ?</td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 109</span>
+has thus its interrogations filled up. Omitting the
+left-hand half, that generalised as Ancient and Recent in the above
+diagram, so as to give more space to the Contemporary and Incipient
+phases, these now stand as follows:&#8212;</p>
+<br />
+<table summary="contemporary societies"
+ style="text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 669px; height: 80px;"
+ border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td colspan="3" rowspan="1"
+ style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"> CONTEMPORARY</td>
+      <td colspan="3" rowspan="1"
+ style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"> INCIPIENT</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Revolution </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Empire </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Finance </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Neotechnic<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Geotechnic<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Eugenic<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<p>To elaborate this farther would, of course, exceed my present
+limits;
+but I may be permitted to say that long use of this schematic outline,
+especially of course in more developed forms, has satisfied me of its
+usefulness alike in the study of current events and in the practical
+work of education and city betterment. I venture then to recommend it
+to
+others as worth trial.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>R&#8212;A PRACTICAL PROPOSAL&#8212;A CIVIC EXHIBITION</h3>
+<p>How shall we more fully correlate our theoretic civics, i.e., our
+observations of cities interpreted as above, with our moral ideas and
+our practical policy&#8212;i.e., our Applied Civics. Our ideals have to be
+selected, our ideas defined, our plans matured; and the whole of these
+applied; that is realised, in polity, in culture, and in art. But if
+this be indeed the due correlation of civic survey and civic service,
+how may we now best promote the diffusion and the advancement of both?
+At this stage therefore, I venture to submit to the Society a practical
+proposal for its consideration and discussion; and if approved, I would
+fain hope for its recommendation to towns and cities, to organisations
+and to the public likely to be interested.</p>
+<p>Here then is my proposal. Is not the time ripe for bringing together
+the
+movements of Civics and Eugenics, now here and indeed everywhere
+plainly
+nascent, and of setting these before the public of this country in some
+such large and concrete ways, as indeed, in the latter subject at
+least, have been so strongly desiderated by Mr. Galton? As regards
+Civics, such have been afforded to America during the summer of 1904 by
+the Municipal Section of the St. Louis Exhibition; in <span class="pagenum">p. 110</span>
+Dresden also, at the recent Towns Exhibition; and by kindred
+Exhibitions
+and Congresses in Paris and elsewhere.</p>
+<p>All these have taken form since the Paris Exposition of 1900, with
+its
+important section of social economy and its many relevant special
+congresses. Among these may be specially mentioned here as of popular
+interest, and civic stimulus, the <i>Congres de L'Art Public</i>; the
+more
+since this also held an important Exhibition, to which many Continental
+cities sent instructive exhibits.</p>
+<p>Other exhibitions might be mentioned; so that the fact appears that
+in
+well-nigh every important and progressive country, save our own, the
+great questions of civics have already been fully opened, and vividly
+brought before their public, by these great contemporary museums with
+their associated congresses.</p>
+<p>With our present Chairman, the Rt. Hon. Charles Booth, with Canon
+Barnett, Mr. Horsfall, and so many other eminent civic workers among
+us;
+with our committee and its most organising of secretaries, might not a
+real impulse be given in this way by this Society towards civic
+education and action?</p>
+<p>Let me furthermore recall the two facts; first, that in every
+important
+exhibition which has been held in this country or abroad, no exhibits
+have been more instructive and more popular than have been (1) the
+picturesque reconstructions of ancient cities, and the presentment of
+their city life, and (2) the corresponding surveys of the present
+conditions of town life, and of the resources and means of bettering
+them.</p>
+<p>Even as a show then, I venture to submit that such a "Towneries"
+might
+readily be arranged to excel in interest, and surpass in usefulness,
+the
+excellent "Fisheries," "Healtheries", and other successful exhibitions
+in the record and recent memory of London. The advantages of such an
+exhibition are indeed too numerous for even an outline here; but they
+may be easily thought out more and more fully. Indeed, I purposely
+abstain for the present from more concrete suggestion; for the
+discussion of its elements, methods, plans, and scale will be found to
+raise the whole range of civic questions, and to set these in
+freshening
+lights.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 111</span>
+At this time of social transition, when we all more or less
+feel the melting away of old divisions and parties, of old barriers of
+sects and schools, and the emergence of new possibilities, the
+continual
+appearance of new groupings of thought and action, such a Civic
+Exhibition would surely be specially valuable. In the interest, then,
+of
+the incipient renascence of civic progress, I plead for a Civic
+Exhibition.<a name="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14"><sup>[14]</sup></a></p>
+<p>Of such an exhibition, the very catalogue would be in principle that
+<i>Encyclop&aelig;dia Civica</i>, into which, in the previous
+instalment of this
+paper (vol. I, <a href='#p_118'>p. 118</a>) I have sought to group
+the literature of civics.
+We should thus pass before us, in artistic expression, and therefore in
+universal appeal, the historic drama of the great civic past, the
+mingled present, the phantasmagoria and the tragi comedy of both of
+these. We should then know more of the ideals potential for the future,
+and, it may be, help onward some of the Eutopias which are already
+struggling towards birth.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<br />
+<h3>DISCUSSION</h3>
+<br />
+<p>The Chairman (THE RT. HON. CHARLES BOOTH) said:</p>
+<p>I feel always the inspiring character of Professor Geddes'
+addresses. He
+seems to widen and deepen the point of view, and to widen and deepen
+one's own ideas, and enables us to hold them more firmly and better
+than
+one can do without the aid of the kind of insight Professor Geddes has
+given into the methods of his own mind. I believe that we all hold our
+conceptions by some sort of tenure. I am afraid I hold mine by columns
+and statistics much underlined&#8212;a horrible prosaic sort of arrangement
+on ruled paper. I remember a lady of my acquaintance who had a place
+for
+everything. The discovery of America was in the left-hand corner; the
+Papacy was in the middle; and for everything she had some local
+habitation in an imaginary world. Professor Geddes is far more
+ingenious
+than that, and it is most interesting and instructive and helpful to
+follow these charming diagrams which spring evidently from the method
+he
+himself uses in holding and forming his conceptions. That it is of the
+utmost value to have large conceptions there can be no doubt&#8212;large
+conceptions both in time and place, large conceptions of all those
+various ideas to which he has called our attention. By some means or
+other we have to have them; and having got them, every individual,
+single fact has redoubled value. We put it in its place. So I hope that
+in our discussion, while we may develop each in his own way, the mental
+methods we pursue, we may bring forward anything that strikes us as
+germane, as a practical point of application to the life of the world,
+and especially anything having an application to the life of London. I
+would make my contribution to that with regard to a scheme that has
+been
+explained to me by its originator, Mrs. Barnett, the wife of Canon
+Barnett of Toynbee Hall. The idea concerns an open <span class="pagenum">p. 113</span> space
+which has recently been secured in Hampstead. It is known to you all
+that a certain piece of ground belonging to the trustees of Eton
+College
+has been secured, which extends the open space of Hampstead Heath in
+such a way as to protect a great amount of beauty. The further proposal
+is to acquire an estate surrounding that open space which has now been
+secured for ever to the people, and to use this extension to make what
+is called a "garden suburb." It is a following out of the "garden-city"
+idea which is seizing hold of all our minds, and it seems to me an
+exceedingly practical adaptation of that idea. Where it comes in, in
+connection with the address we have just heard, is that the root idea
+is
+that it shall bring together all the good elements of civic life. It is
+not to be for one class, or one idea, but for all classes, and all
+ideas&#8212;a mixed population with all its needs thought for and provided
+for; and above everything, the beauty of those fields and those hills
+is
+not to be sacrificed, but to be used for the good of the suburb and the
+good of London. I hope that out of it will come an example that will be
+followed. That is a little contribution I wish to make to the
+discussion
+to-day, and if I can interest any one here in forwarding it, I shall be
+exceedingly glad.</p>
+<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
+</div>
+<p style="text-align: center;">MR. SWINNY said:</p>
+<p>Towards the close of his lecture, Professor Geddes remarked that the
+cities of America inherited a great part of their civilisation from
+Greece and Rome and the Europe of the Middle Age. I believe that
+thought
+will lead us to consider the point whether this geographical survey
+should precede or follow a general historical survey. Now, if we
+consider that a river valley in England, with the towns in that valley,
+are part of the English nation, and that the English nation has shared
+in the general historical evolution of Western Europe, it would seem
+that the first simplification the question allows of is: What is there
+in the historical development of that city that is common to the whole
+of Western Europe, and what is peculiar to its position as an English
+city? And the second simplification that the problem allows of is to
+consider what part of the evolution of a particular city is due to its
+peculiar position in that river valley? So that it seems necessary
+first
+to get a general idea of the historical evolution of England and the
+West; and then you can proceed to consider what is due to the part
+played by the city in that evolution. Thus you have to consider not so
+much the city as a result of its immediate environment, but the effect
+of its environment in modifying the general course of civilisation as
+it
+affected that city.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">DR. J.L. TAYLER,</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 114</span>
+referring to Professor Geddes' remarks on the working
+craftsman and the thinking craftsman, said he believed that in a
+country
+like England, where the prevailing tendencies of thought and action
+were
+of an essentially practical nature, many people who now felt contempt
+for higher mental ideals would alter their views, if this idea of the
+<i>causal</i> relationship between thinkers and workers could be driven
+home.
+If business men and women could be made to realise that in the higher
+regions of pure science there were always to be found some thinkers who
+belonged to the same craft or trade as they themselves, they would
+naturally tend to rely on these thinkers when dealing with problems
+that
+necessitate a wide mental outlook.</p>
+<p>Moreover, the thought that students of great mental powers studied
+the
+objects with which working craftsmen were in daily contact, could not
+fail to deepen, refine and purify their more practical and, in some
+respects, grosser aims; while the knowledge that every science-study
+had
+an industrial as well as a scientific aspect would make the thinking
+craftsmen more alive to the needs of everyday existence.</p>
+<p>Such conceptions, if spread through all classes of our community,
+would
+inevitably change the feeling of distrust of learning into one of
+healthful enthusiasm, and give in addition a unity and direction to our
+various life pursuits which might in time generate a true modern
+national spirit; for it is precisely this divorce of mental and
+physical, of theoretical and practical, class and individual
+effort&#8212;which such a thinking and working craft theory would
+rectify&#8212;that destroys our efficiency by creating an unreal chasm
+between refined and unrefined, learned and unlearned, where there
+should
+be only a progressive evolution from the lower to the higher, from the
+immediate practical to the ultimate ideal.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">THE REV. DR. AVELING said:</p>
+<p>There was one point that the lecturer made which, I think, might be
+a
+fit and fruitful subject for discussion. He said that we were the
+product of the city. To a great extent that is undoubtedly true; but on
+the other hand, he advocated an improvement in the conditions of
+environment, to be brought about by our own endeavours. Therefore, the
+city can be shaped and made by us. What, then, is the exact value to be
+given to the seemingly contradictory doctrines that the individual is
+the product of the city and also that the city is the product of the
+citizen? The establishing of some fixed relation between&#8212;or the
+adjusting of the relations of&#8212;these two causes of social progress would
+be, I think, interesting to the philosopher, and useful to the
+economist. The problem is <span class="pagenum">p. 115</span> without doubt a difficult one, but
+its solution would be of great value. I do not venture to offer any
+answer to the question I raise&#8212;I merely state it.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">MR. A.W. STILL said:</p>
+<p>We have been passing through a period in which the city has created
+a
+type of man so wholly absorbed in the promotion of his own individual
+interests that he tends almost entirely to forget the social
+obligations
+which ought to make the greatest appeal to him. We may take some hope
+from what Professor Geddes has said, that the time is coming when we
+shall bring the force of our own characters to bear on our environment,
+and endeavour to break away from conditions which have made us the
+slaves of environment. I know the lovely little garden city of
+Bourneville intimately, and some of the experiments in other quarters.
+But in the common expansion of cities, I have seen that as the people
+get away from one set of slums, they are creating new areas which will
+become as degraded and abominable as those which are left behind. It
+has
+always seemed to me that there is room for good work by some committee,
+or some body of men, who would be voluntary guardians of the city's
+well-being, who would make it their business to acquire all that
+knowledge which Professor Geddes has just put before us in terms so
+enchanting, and would use all the ability that they possess in order to
+lead the minds of the community towards the cultivation of the best and
+highest ideals in civic life. I do not think it need be regarded as
+impossible that, from an association of this kind, such a movement as I
+have mentioned should spring. I conceive the possibility of each group
+developing into a trust, capable of acting in the interests of the city
+in years to come, exercising a mighty influence, being relied upon for
+guidance, and administering great funds for the common good. If we
+could
+get in each of our populous centres a dozen thoroughly intelligent
+broad-minded men, capable of watching all the streams of tendency&#8212;all
+the developments of civic life, bringing their judgment to bear on its
+progress, and urging the public to move in the right direction, a great
+service might be rendered. At least once a year, these little groups of
+men might meet together at some general conference, and, by the
+exchange
+of their opinions and by the mutual helpfulness of intellectual
+intercourse, raise up and perfect civic ideals which would be a boon to
+this country. We suffer at present, I think, from the too great
+particularisation of our efforts. We get one man devoting himself
+exclusively to a blind asylum, another seeming to take no interest in
+anything but a deaf-and-dumb institute or the like, and yet another
+devoting himself to charity organisation. It is all excellent work, but
+the difficulty is to get broad, comprehensive views taken of the common
+good. To reduce poverty and to check physical degeneracy, there must be
+an effort continuously made to <span class="pagenum">p. 116</span> raise the tone of the
+environment in which we live. The home and the city need to be made
+wholesome and beautiful, and the people need to be encouraged to
+enlarge
+their minds by contact with nature, and by the study of all that is
+elevating and that increases the sum of social responsibility.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">MR. E.S. WEYMOUTH said:</p>
+<p>He found it somewhat difficult to see what was to be the practical
+outcome of civics if studied in the way proposed. Would Professor
+Geddes
+consider it the duty of any Londoner, who wished to study sociology
+practically, to map out London, and also the surrounding districts,
+with
+special reference to the Thames River Basin, as appeared to be
+suggested
+in both Professor Geddes' papers? Looking at civics in its practical or
+ethical aspect, he was bound to confess that, though he had acquired a
+tolerable knowledge of the geography of the Thames Basin, he did not
+feel it helped him materially towards becoming a better citizen of
+London. Would Professor Geddes wish them to study, first, London with
+its wealth side by side with its squalor and filth, and then proceed to
+study another large town, where the same phenomena presented
+themselves?
+What gain would there be in that proportionate to the labour entailed?
+In his own case, so disheartened had he felt by observing that all
+their
+efforts, public and private, for the improvement of their civic
+conditions seemed to end in raising considerably the rents of the
+ground
+landlords of London, while leaving the bulk of the population engaged
+in
+a hard struggle for their existence, that he had for years past found
+it
+difficult to take much interest in municipal affairs, so long as the
+rates and taxes were&#8212;as it seemed to him&#8212;put upon the wrong shoulders.
+And for the study of civics, he had preferred to turn to those cities
+where efforts were being made to establish communal life on what seemed
+to him juster conditions. In 1897, he was struck with the title of an
+article in the "Daily Telegraph." It was headed, "The Land of Beauty,
+Society without Poverty, Life without Care." He found the article was a
+description of Durban in Natal. The writer attributed the prosperity of
+this town to the fact that the suburbs were kept in the hands of the
+community, instead of being handed over to private owners who would
+absorb all the unearned increment. Even if this eulogium betrayed
+exaggeration still a student of civics might feel that the economic
+conditions of that town were worth studying. Similarly, in New Zealand,
+the adoption in 1891 of the tax on land values brought prosperity to
+the
+towns, and changed the tide of emigration from New Zealand into
+immigration. Again, at home they had Bourneville, Port Sunlight, and
+that most interesting of all present-day experiments in this country,
+the Garden City, all of these being founded by men with ideals. He
+could
+not help feeling <span class="pagenum">p. 117</span> that a student of civics, possessed of such
+a fair working knowledge of the city he lived in as most of them might
+reasonably lay claim to, would make more real progress by studying the
+success or failure of social experiments, than by entering on the very
+formidable task that seemed to be set before them by Professor Geddes.
+However, when they left abstract civics, as they had it portrayed to
+them in these papers, and turned to the architectural or the historical
+side of concrete civics, there should be no better guide than Professor
+Geddes, whose labours in Edinburgh, and whose projected schemes for the
+improvement of Dunfermline, were becoming widely known.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">MR. TOMKINS (<i>of the London Trades
+Council</i>) said:</p>
+<p>If before any person was allowed to serve on our different public
+bodies, he should be required to attend a course of lectures such as
+those given by Professor Geddes on civics, that would surely be a means
+of developing his social interests, and would tend to eliminate that
+self-interest which too often actuated public men. There was nothing
+more difficult than for workmen to-day to be able to take larger views.
+The workman's whole business was now so different from what is was in
+the days of the arts and crafts guilds of the Middle Ages; they now
+found him ground down into some little division of industry, and it was
+quite impossible for him to work in his own way. Thus he got
+narrow-minded, because concentrated on some minor process. He was kept
+at work with his nose to the mill the whole time, and it became too
+exhausting for him to try and take these larger views of life. He often
+thought of the amount of talent and energy and practical beauty which
+was wasted in our workshops to-day. Referring to the Garden Cities of
+this country and the United States, Mr. Tomkins said the idea of
+getting
+great Trusts to use their money in a social spirit, and not merely to
+get the workers tied to their mills, was really something which opened
+out a vista of grand possibilities in the future; but if any movement
+was to be successful it would be necessary to teach the great masses of
+workers, and to create a real sound social public opinion amongst them.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">PROFESSOR GEDDES' reply</p>
+<p>Professor Geddes, in replying to the discussion, said he entirely
+agreed
+with the point made by Mr. Swinny, and he should just like to correct
+what he had said in his lecture by reference to what he meant by a
+civic
+museum. In Edinburgh, he had in his museum a large room, with a
+geographical model <span class="pagenum">p. 118</span> of the old town
+with its hill-fort, and
+so on; and he hung round this maps and diagrams of historical and
+geographical details. On the opposite side of the room, he had a symbol
+of the market-cross, which stood for the centre of its municipal life,
+of its ideals and independence of environment. Around it was grouped
+what represented the other side of the city; and here he might answer
+another point, and say that they could never settle the great
+philosophical controversy of determinism and free-will. They would
+always incline when young to the novel of circumstance, and later, to
+the novel of character, but they should always feel that life was a
+game
+of individual skill with interfering circumstances. These diagrams of
+his were only the page split. On the one side, he meant to push to the
+extreme the idea that the place makes us, and on the other side, that
+we
+make the place. By what process do men struggle towards the selection
+of
+their ideals? They find themselves within the grasp of their
+environment, their whole heritage of culture, of good and ill, the
+whole
+tradition of the past; but they must select certain elements of
+these&#8212;the elements that seem to them good, and so they might escape
+from the manner of the city. Pointing to a drawing of the old Scotch
+bawbee, Professor Geddes said it was not a very dignified symbol of the
+coinage of the world, but let them mark how it had on the one side the
+hammerman at his work, with his motto "<i>Beat deus artem</i>," and, on
+the
+other side, a larger legend, with the eagle of the empire and the lamb
+of Saint John.</p>
+<p>To return to his civic museum: the room below the one he had
+described
+was the larger museum for Scotland, and in the room below that, again,
+the museum for England, Ireland and America, the whole English-speaking
+world&#8212;not the Empire only. And the whole stood on a museum and library
+representing that larger evolution of the occidental civilisation which
+showed them they were merely children of the past. Professor Geddes
+pleaded for museums in which every city displayed its own past and
+present, but related itself to the whole of Europe and the whole
+occident.</p>
+<p>One or two practical questions of great importance had <span class="pagenum">p. 119</span>
+been
+raised; but, with all respect, he submitted that they could consider
+what was practical and practicable without requiring to go into the
+question of taxing land. That was a matter of political opinion. It was
+as if they were discussing the geology of coal, which they could do,
+without reference to coal royalties. Mr. Weymouth was with them on the
+subject of preserving old buildings; and he thought there was a great
+deal to be learned, if Mr. Weymouth would descend the valley of the
+Thames once more. It was of great importance if he found a great city
+at
+the tidal limit. Going down the Thames and the Tay, they would find, at
+the last ford of one, the old Abbey of Westminster, and at the last
+ford
+of the other, the old Abbey of Scoon. The kings of England and Scotland
+were crowned there because these were the most important places&#8212;a point
+of great historic interest. As a matter of practical interest, he might
+mention that Scoon and Westminster alike passed out of supreme
+importance when bridges were built across the river below; and he would
+next point out how just as Perth became of subordinate importance when
+the great Tay Bridge was built, so it became a tremendously important
+question to London, as it might in turn be much affected by the making
+of a great and a new bridge much further down the stream. This study of
+the descending river had real and practical, as well as historical
+importance. He had been about considerably in the great cities of the
+United States, and had been struck by the amount of good endeavour
+there. It was not, however, by denouncing Tammany that they could beat
+it, but by understanding it. They must understand the mechanism by
+which
+the Celtic chieftain ruled his clan, and they must deal with these
+methods by still other methods; and they might often find it more
+satisfactory to re-moralise the chieftain than to destroy him.</p>
+<p>Professor Geddes concluded by saying that he appreciated the
+admirable
+suggestion of Mr. Still towards the evolution of civic unions. He was
+sure Mr. Still had there an idea of great significance which might be
+developed.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: bold;">NOTES:<br />
+<br />
+</span><a name="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> e.g., Erskine Beveridge, LL.D., Bibliography of
+Dunfermline.&#8212;<i>Dunfermline, 1902.</i> 8vo.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2">[2]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> "Sociological Papers," Vol 1., pp. 103-118.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3">[3]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> Fig. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4">[4]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> For a fuller justification of this thesis as regards
+Switzerland, see the writer's "International Exhibitions," in
+<i>International Monthly</i>, October, 1900.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5">[5]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> For a fuller review of these, compare the writer's "City
+Development," in <i>Contemporary Review</i>, October, 1904.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6">[6]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> A fuller study, upon this method, of the essential origins
+of pastoral evolution, and of its characteristic modern developments,
+will be found in the writer's "Flower of the Grass," in <i>The
+Evergreen</i>,
+Edinburgh and Westminster, 1896. See also "La Science Sociale,"
+<i>passim</i>, especially in its earlier vols. or its number for Jan.
+1905.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7">[7]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> La Nomenclature Sociale (Extrait de La Revue, "La Science
+Sociale," Dec. 1886) Paris, Firmin-Diact, 1887.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8">[8]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> Demoulins, La Science Sociale d'apres F. Le Play 1882-1905;
+Classification Sociale, "La Science Sociale," Jan. 1905.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9">[9]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> Tarde, "L'imitation Sociale," and other works.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10">[10]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> For the sake of brevity, an entire chapter has been
+omitted, discussing the manifold origins of distinct governing classes,
+whether arising from the Folk, or superimposed upon them from without,
+in short, of the contrast of what we may broadly call patricians and
+plebeians, which so constantly appears through history, and in the
+present also. These modes of origin are all in association respectively
+with Place, Work, and Family, or some of the various interactions of
+these. Origin and situation, migration, individual or general, with its
+conflict of races, may be indicated among the first group of factors;
+technical efficiency and its organising power among the second;
+individual qualities and family stocks among the third, as also
+military
+and administrative aptitude, and the institutional privileges which so
+readily arise from them. Nor need we here discuss the rise of
+institutions, so fully dealt with by sociological writers. Enough for
+the present then, if institutions and social classes be taken as we
+find
+them.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11">[11]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> The use of <i>lore</i> as primarily empirical, and derived from
+the senses, it is traditional; it is well therefore to restrict it to
+this, and to revive the old word <i>lear</i>, still understood in
+Scotland in
+these precise senses&#8212;intellectual, rational, yet traditional,
+occupational also.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12">[12]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> Without forgetting the many institutions and workers in
+almost all departments of the field of civics, the rise of definite
+surveys and of scientific groupings like this Society, without ignoring
+also the many admirable workers and institutions of social endeavour,
+and their progressive integration into Social Unions, Institutes of
+Service, and the like, I may be permitted to press for the need of
+uniting both types, the scientific and the practical, into a single
+one&#8212;a civic museum and active centre in one. Of this type, my own
+Outlook Tower at Edinburgh is, so far as I am aware, the earliest
+beginning; and, despite its rudimentary condition, may thus serve to
+suggest a type of institution which will be found of service alike to
+the sociologist and the citizen.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13">[13]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> Cf. the writer's "City Development," Edinburgh and
+Westminster, 1904.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14">[14]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> Since the preceding paper was read, it is encouraging to
+note the practical beginnings of a movement towards a civic exhibition,
+appropriately arising, like so many other valuable contributions to
+civic betterment, from Toynbee Hall. The Cottages Exhibition initiated
+by Mr. St. Loe Strachey at Garden City, and of course also that
+admirable scheme itself, must also be mentioned as importance forces in
+the directions of progress and propaganda advocated above.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 13205 ***</div>
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+Project Gutenberg's Civics: as Applied Sociology, by Patrick Geddes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Civics: as Applied Sociology
+
+Author: Patrick Geddes
+
+Release Date: August 17, 2004 [EBook #13205]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CIVICS: AS APPLIED SOCIOLOGY ***
+
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+Proofreaders Europe, http://dp.rastko.net.
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+
+
+
+_Civics: as Applied Sociology_
+
+by Patrick Geddes
+
+
+
+
+Read before the Sociological Society at a Meeting in the School of
+Economics and Political Science (University of London), Clare Market,
+W.C., at 5 p.m., on Monday, July 18th, 1904; the Rt. Hon. CHARLES BOOTH,
+F.R.S., in the Chair.
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+This department of sociological studies should evidently be, as far as
+possible, concrete in treatment. If it is to appeal to practical men and
+civic workers, it is important that the methods advocated for the
+systematic study of cities, and as underlying fruitful action, be not
+merely the product of the study, but rather be those which may be
+acquired in course of local observation and practical effort. My problem
+is thus to outline such general ideas as may naturally crystallise from
+the experience of any moderately-travelled observer of varied interests;
+so that his observation of city after city, now panoramic and
+impressionist, again detailed, should gradually develop towards an
+orderly Regional Survey. This point of view has next to be correlated
+with the corresponding practical experience, that which may be acquired
+through some varied experiences of citizenship, and thence rise toward a
+larger and more orderly conception of civic action--as Regional Service.
+In a word, then, Applied Sociology in general, or [Page: 104] Civics, as
+one of its main departments, may be defined as the application of Social
+Survey to Social Service.
+
+In this complex field of study as in simpler preliminary ones, our
+everyday experiences and commonsense interpretations gradually become
+more systematic, that is, begin to assume a scientific character; while
+our activities, in becoming more orderly and comprehensive, similarly
+approximate towards art. Thus there is emerging more and more clearly
+for sociological studies in general, for their concrete fields of
+application in city after city, the conception of a scientific centre of
+observation and record on the one hand, and of a corresponding centre of
+experimental endeavour on the other--in short of Sociological
+Observatory and Sociological Laboratory, and of these as increasingly
+co-ordinated. Indeed, is not such association of observations and
+experiments, are not such institutions actually incipient here and
+elsewhere? I need not multiply instances of the correlation of science
+and art, as of chemistry with agriculture, or biology with medicine.
+Yet, on the strictly sociological plane and in civic application they
+are as yet less generally evident, though such obvious connections as
+that of vital statistics with hygienic administration, that of
+commercial statistics with politics, are becoming recognised by all. In
+the paper with which this Society's work lately opened, the intimate
+connection between a scientific demography and a practical eugenics has
+been clearly set forth. But this study of the community in the aggregate
+finds its natural parallel and complement in the study of the community
+as an integrate, with material and immaterial structures and functions,
+which we call the City. Correspondingly, the improvement of the
+individuals of the community, which is the aim of eugenics, involves a
+corresponding civic progress. Using (for the moment at least) a parallel
+nomenclature, we see that the sociologist is concerned not only with
+"demography" but with "politography," and that "eugenics" is inseparable
+from "politogenics." For the struggle for existence, though observed
+mainly from the side of its individuals by the demographer, is not only
+an intra-civic but an inter-civic process; and if so, ameliorative
+selection, now clearly sought for the individuals in detail as eugenics,
+is inseparable from a corresponding civic art--a literal
+"Eupolitogenics."
+
+
+
+A--THE GEOGRAPHIC SURVEY OF CITIES
+
+Coming to concrete Civic Survey, where shall we begin? Not only in
+variety and magnitude of civic activities, but, thanks especially to the
+work of Mr. Charles Booth and his collaborators in actual social survey
+also, London may naturally claim pre-eminence. Yet even at best, does
+not this vastest of world cities remain a less or more foggy labyrinth,
+from which surrounding [Page: 105] regions with their smaller cities can
+be but dimly descried, even with the best intentions of avoiding the
+cheap generalisation of "the provinces"? For our more general and
+comparative study, then, simpler beginnings are preferable. More
+suitable, therefore, to our fundamental thesis--that no less definite
+than the study of races and usages or languages, is that of the
+groupings of men--is the clearer outlook, the more panoramic view of a
+definite geographic region, such, for instance, as lies beneath us upon
+a mountain holiday. Beneath vast hunting desolations lie the pastoral
+hillsides, below these again scattered arable crofts and sparsely dotted
+hamlets lead us to the small upland village of the main glen: from this
+again one descends to the large and prosperous village of the foothills
+and its railway terminus, where lowland and highland meet. East or west,
+each mountain valley has its analogous terminal and initial village,
+upon its fertile fan-shaped slope, and with its corresponding minor
+market; while, central to the broad agricultural strath with its slow
+meandering river, stands the prosperous market town, the road and
+railway junction upon which all the various glen-villages converge. A
+day's march further down, and at the convergence of several such
+valleys, stands the larger county-town--in the region before me as I
+write, one of added importance, since not only well nigh central to
+Scotland, but as the tidal limit of a till lately navigable river.
+Finally, at the mouth of its estuary, rises the smoke of a great
+manufacturing city, a central world-market in its way. Such a river
+system is, as geographer after geographer has pointed out, the essential
+unit for the student of cities and civilisations. Hence this simple
+geographical method of treatment must here be pled for as fundamental to
+any really orderly and comparative treatment of our subject. By
+descending from source to sea we follow the development of civilisation
+from its simple origins to its complex resultants; nor can any element
+of this be omitted. Were we to begin with the peasant hamlet as our
+initial unit, and forget the hinterlands of pasture, forest, and chase
+(an error to which the writer on cities is naturally prone), the
+anthropologist would soon remind us that in forgetting the hunter, we
+had omitted the essential germ of active militarism, and hence very
+largely of aristocratic rule. Similarly, [Page: 106] in ignoring the
+pastoral life, we should be losing sight of a main fount of spiritual
+power, and this not only as regards the historic religions, but all
+later culture elements also, from the poetic to the educational. In
+short, then, it takes the whole region to make the city. As the river
+carries down contributions from its whole course, so each complex
+community, as we descend, is modified by its predecessors. The converse
+is no doubt true also, but commonly in less degree.
+
+In this way with the geographer we may rapidly review and extend our
+knowledge of the grouping of cities. Such a survey of a series of our
+own river-basins, say from Dee to Thames, and of a few leading
+Continental ones, say the Rhine and Meuse, the Seine and Loire, the
+Rhone, the Po, the Danube--and, if possible, in America also, at least
+the Hudson and Mississippi--will be found the soundest of introductions
+to the study of cities. The comparison of corresponding types at once
+yields the conviction of broad general unity of development, structure,
+and function. Thus, with Metschnikoff we recognise the succession of
+potamic, thalassic, and oceanic civilisations; with Reclus we see the
+regular distribution of minor and major towns to have been largely
+influenced not only by geographical position but by convenient journey
+distances. Again, we note how the exigencies of defence and of
+government, the developments of religion, despite all historic
+diversities, have been fundamentally the same. It is not, of course, to
+be forgotten how government, commerce, communications, have
+concentrated, altered or at least disguised the fundamental geographical
+simplicity of this descending hierarchy from mountain-hamlet to
+ocean-metropolis; but it is useful for the student constantly to recover
+the elemental and naturalist-like point of view even in the greatest
+cities. At times we all see London as still fundamentally an
+agglomeration of villages, with their surviving patches of common,
+around a mediaeval seaport; or we discern even in the utmost
+magnificence of Paris, say its Place de l'Etoile, with its spread of
+boulevards, but the hunter's tryst by the fallen tree, with its
+radiating forest-rides, each literally arrow-straight. So the narrow
+rectangular network of an American city is explicable only by the
+unthinking persistence of the peasant thrift, which grudges good land to
+[Page: 107] road-way, and is jealous of oblique short cuts. In short,
+then, in what seems our most studied city planning, we are still
+building from our inherited instincts like the bees. Our Civics is thus
+still far from an Applied Sociology.
+
+
+
+B--THE HISTORIC SURVEY OF CITIES
+
+But a city is more than a place in space, it is a drama in time. Though
+the claim of geography be fundamental our interest in the history of the
+city is supremely greater; it is obviously no mere geographic
+circumstances which developed one hill-fort in Judea, and another in
+Attica, into world centres, to this day more deeply influential and
+significant than are the vastest modern capitals. This very wealth of
+historical interests and resources, the corresponding multiplicity of
+specialisms, more than ever proves the need of some means by which to
+group and classify them. Some panoramic simplification of our ideas of
+history comparable to that of our geography, and if possible congruent
+with this, is plainly what we want. Again the answer comes through
+geography, though no longer in mere map or relief, but now in vertical
+section--in the order of strata ascending from past to present, whether
+we study rock-formations with the geologist, excavate more recent
+accumulations with the archaeologist, or interpret ruins or monuments
+with the historian. Though the primitive conditions we have above noted
+with the physiographer remain apparent, indeed usually permanent, cities
+have none the less their characteristic phases of historic development
+decipherably superposed. Thus below even the characteristically
+patriarchal civilisations, an earlier matriarchal order is often
+becoming disclosed. Our interest in exploring some stately modern or
+Renaissance city is constantly varied by finding some picturesque
+mediaeval remnant; below this some fragment of Roman ruin; below this it
+may be some barbarian fort or mound. Hence the fascinating interest of
+travel, which compels us ever to begin our survey anew. Starting with
+the same river-basin as before, the geographic panorama now gains a new
+and deeper interest. Primitive centres long forgotten start into life;
+pre-historic tumuli give up their dead; to the stone circles the [Page:
+108] worshippers return; the British and the Roman camps again fill with
+armed men, and beside the prosaic market town arises a shadowy Arthurian
+capital. Next, some moment-centuries later, a usurper's tower rises and
+falls; the mediaeval abbey, the great castles, have their day; with the
+Reformation and the Renaissance the towns again are transformed; and
+yet more thoroughly than ever by the Industrial Revolution, with its
+factories, railways, steamships, and all that they bring with them.
+Thus, for instance, almost more important than the internal
+transformation and concentration wrought by railway and telegraph, is
+the selection, amidst the almost innumerable seaports of the older
+order, of the very few adapted to the deep draught of modern ships. In a
+word, not only does the main series of active cities display traces of
+all the past phases of evolution, but beside this lie fossils, or linger
+survivals, of almost every preceding phase.
+
+Hence, after many years of experiment and practice in teaching sociology
+I still find no better method available than that of regional survey,
+historical as well as geographical. Beginning with some popular
+excursion of obvious beauty and romantic interest like that to Melrose,
+we see with every tourist how naturally and fully the atmosphere and
+tradition of the Border found its expression and world influence in Sir
+Walter Scott. Thence, passing by way of contrast through the long
+isolated peninsula of Fife, say to representative towns like Kirkcaldy
+and Largo, we still see the conditions of that individualism of which
+Adam Smith and Alexander Selkirk ("Robinson Crusoe") have each in his
+way become the very prototypes. In such ways the connection of regional
+geography, history, and social psychology becomes increasingly clear.
+Again, we explore the other old Fife seaports, a series of survivals
+like those of the Zuyder Zee, or again work out in the field the
+significance of Stirling, so often the strategic centre of Scotland.
+Again, Dunfermline, as early mediaeval capital and abbey, furnishes a
+convenient object lesson preparatory to the study of the larger
+Edinburgh. Here, again, its triple centre, in the port of Leith, the
+Royal Castle, the Abbey of Holyrood, are the respective analogues of the
+port of London, the Tower, and Westminster; while each city-group has
+its outlying circle of minor burghs, tardily and imperfectly
+incorporated into a civic whole. Again, such a marked contrast of civic
+origins and developments as those of Glasgow and Edinburgh has to be
+accounted for; and thus through such progessively complexer surveys we
+reach the plane of modern civic problems and policies. Understanding the
+present as the development of the past, are we not preparing also to
+understand the future as the development of the present?
+
+The impressiveness of the aspect of Edinburgh to its visitors is thus
+not [Page: 109] merely pictorial. Be the spectator conscious of this or
+no, it turns primarily upon the contrast of the mediaeval hill-city with
+its castle ramparts, its fretted cathedral crown, with park and
+boulevard, with shops, hotels and railway stations. But the historic
+panorama is unusually complete. See the hill-fort defended by lake and
+forest, becoming "_castrum puellarum_," becoming a Roman and an
+Arthurian citadel, a mediaeval stronghold of innumerable sieges, a
+centre of autocratic and military dictatures, oligarchic governments, at
+length a museum of the past. So in the city itself. Here the narrow
+ridge crowded into a single street all the essential organs of a
+capital, and still presents with the rarest completeness of
+concentration a conspectus of modern civic life and development; and
+this alike as regards both spiritual and temporal powers, using these
+terms in their broadest senses as the respective expressions of the
+material order and its immaterial counterparts. Thus the royal and noble
+castles of the Middle Age become with the Renaissance here as everywhere
+something of palaces, while with the industrial revolution they have
+become replaced by factories or transformed into breweries. So the
+guidance of speculative thought, once concentrated in the mediaeval
+abbey, becomes transferred to the Reformation assembly of divines, to
+the Renaissance college; and again at the Revolution, is largely taken
+over by the speculative encyclopædists, of whom Hume and Smith were but
+the most eminent. Nor are later developments less obvious. Of the
+following generation, we have the neo-classic architecture which
+everywhere dominated Europe after the French Revolution and during the
+First Empire, while of the next generation's reaction against all this
+in the romantic movement, the neo-Gothic monument of Scott is the most
+characteristic possible representative. Again, just as in the Oxford
+movement we had the (appropriately regional) renascence of the idealism
+of the Cavaliers, so in Edinburgh we have naturally the simultaneous
+renascence of the Puritan ideal, e.g., in the Free Church, whose
+monument accordingly rises to dominate the city in its turn. The later
+period of prosperous Liberalism, the heroic enthusiasms of Empire, have
+each left their mark; and now in the dominant phase of social evolution,
+that of Finance, the banks, the financial companies, the press are
+having their turn as monument builders. Our Old Edinburgh is thus the
+most condensed example, the visible microcosm of the social evolution
+which is manifest everywhere; so that as a teaching model of
+sociological development it may renew its educational attractiveness
+when its improving hygiene has lessened its medical advantages.
+
+Setting down now these phases of historical development in tabular form,
+we have a diagram such as the following:--
+
+
+            ANCIENT          |          RECENT                 |         CONTEMPORARY          | INCIPIENT
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Primitive | Matri- | Patri-  | Greek | Mediaeval | Renaissance | Revolution | Empire | Finance |   ? ? ?
+          | archal | archal  |  and  |           |             |            |        |         |
+          |        |         | Roman |           |             |            |        |         |
+
+
+which, were it placed erect, we might now compare to the increasing
+[Page: 110] nodes of a growing stem, or rather say the layers of a coral
+reef, in which each generation constructs its characteristic stony
+skeleton as a contribution to the growing yet dying and wearying whole.
+I have elaborated this example of the panoramic aspect of Old Edinburgh
+as a widely familiar instance of the method of literal survey with which
+social and civic studies may so conveniently begin; and I press the
+value of extending these even to the utmost elaborateness of
+photographic survey: in my view, indeed, a sociological society has at
+least as much use for a collection of maps, plans and photographs as of
+statistics, indeed scarcely less than one of books. Of course, in all
+this I am but recalling what every tourist in some measure knows; yet
+his impressions and recollections can become an orderly politography,
+only as he sees each city in terms of its characteristic social
+formations, and as he utilises the best examples from each phase towards
+building up a complete picture of the greatest products of civic
+evolution, temporal and spiritual, of all places and times up to the
+present. Such a parallel of the historic survey of the city to that of
+its underlying geological area is thus in no wise a metaphoric one, but
+one which may be worked out upon maps sections and diagrams almost
+completely in the same way--in fact, with little change save that of
+colours and vertical scale. The attempt to express the characteristic
+and essential life and thought of a given region in each period upon a
+series of maps is in fact the best method of understanding the everyday
+map at which we commonly look so unthinkingly.
+
+Much of the preceding, I am assured, must be most unsatisfactory to
+those who look at cities only from the standpoint of so many committees
+dealing with police, water, finance, and so on; or to those who are
+content to view the magnitude, the wealth and the population, the
+industries and the manufactures of a great city without considering
+whence these have come and whither they are leading; equally
+unsatisfactory also, I fear, to those to whom civic dignities and
+precedence, or the alternations of winning political colours, appear of
+prime importance. I can only hope that some of these may, on
+consideration, admit that the points of view I have endeavoured to
+outline above may be worth some thought and study as elementary
+preliminaries to their own more special and developed interests; and if
+the society permit. I hope to approach these more closely in a later
+paper.
+
+[Page: 111] The abstract economist or legalist, the moral or political
+philosopher may also resent the proposed mode of treatment as an attempt
+to materialise sociology by reducing it to concrete terms alone. But I
+would reply that observation, so far from excluding interpretation, is
+just the very means of preparing for it. It is the observant naturalist,
+the travelled zoologist and botanist, who later becomes the productive
+writer on evolution. It is the historian who may best venture on into
+the philosophy of history;--to think the reverse is to remain in the
+pre-scientific order altogether: hence the construction of systems of
+abstract and deductive economics, politics or morals, has really been
+the last surviving effort of scholasticism. Viewed as Science, Civics is
+that branch of Sociology which deals with Cities--their origin and
+distribution; their development and structure; their functioning,
+internal and external, material and psychological; their evolution,
+individual and associated. Viewed again from the practical side, that of
+applied science, Civics must develop through experimental endeavour into
+the more and more effective Art of enhancing the life of the city and of
+advancing its evolution. With the first of these lines of study, the
+concretely scientific, our philosophical outlook will not fail to widen;
+with the second, the practical, our ethical insight will not fail to
+deepen also.
+
+As primarily a student of living nature in evolution, I have naturally
+approached the city from the side of its geographic and historic survey,
+its environment and functional change; yet it is but a step from these
+to the abstract interpretations of the economist or the politician, even
+of philosopher and moralist. Again, since in everyday practice
+co-ordinating the literal maps of each civic surveys with even more
+concretely detailed plans as gardener and builder, I find less danger
+than may at first appear of ignoring the legitimate demands of the
+needed practical division of labour in the city's service. When the
+first mutual unfamiliarity is got over, there is thus also a greatly
+diminished distance between speculative thinkers and practical men, who
+at present, in this country especially, stand almost unrelated: the
+evolutionist student and worker thus begins to furnish the missing link
+between them.
+
+
+C--THE CITIZEN IN PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT
+
+Leaving now the external survey of the city by help of its material
+framework, its characteristic buildings and predominant styles, for the
+deeper psychological survey of the citizens themselves, we may
+conveniently begin with these also in their process of development--in
+fact, our method compels us to this course. We enter then a school; and
+if we bring fresh eyes we may soon be agreed that the extraordinary
+babel of studies its time-table and curriculum reveal, is intelligible
+from no single one of the various [Page: 112] geographic or historic
+points of view we have traversed from mountain to sea, or from past to
+present. But this unprecedented conflict of studies becomes at once
+intelligible when viewed apart from any and every definite theory of
+education yet promulgated by educationists, and even acquires a fresh
+theory of its own--that of the attempted recapitulation of the survivals
+of each and all preceding periods in their practical or speculative
+aspects, particularly the later legends and literatures, their rituals
+and codes. Thus, the inordinate specialisation upon arithmetic, the
+exaggeration of all three R's, is plainly the survival of the demand for
+cheap yet efficient clerks, characteristic of the recent and
+contemporary financial period.
+
+The ritual of examinations with its correlation of memorising and
+muscular drill is similarly a development of the imperial order,
+historically borrowed from the Napoleonic one; the chaotic "general
+knowledge" is similarly a survival of the encyclopædic period; that is,
+of the French Revolution and the Liberal Movement generally; the Latin
+grammar and verses are of course the survivals of the Renaissance, as
+the precise fidelity to absurd spelling is the imitation of its proof
+readers; the essay is the abridged form of the mediaeval disputation;
+and only such genuine sympathy with Virgil or Tacitus, with Homer or
+Plato as one in a thousand acquires, is truly Roman or Greek at all.
+The religious instruction, however, re-interpreted by the mediaeval
+Church or the Reformation, has still its strength in some of the best
+elements of patriarchal literature; while the fairy tale, by which all
+this superincumbent weight of learning is sometimes alleviated, is the
+child's inheritance from the matriarchal order. Finally, the apple and
+the ball, at the bottom of this whole burden of books, complete the
+recapitulation; as the one, the raw fruit; the other, the ready missile,
+of primeval man. Our child then is heir of all the ages more fully than
+he or his teachers commonly realise. The struggle for mastery of the
+schools is thus no temporary feud, but an unending battle; one destined
+to increase rather than diminish; for in this there is the perpetual
+clash of all the forces of good heredity and evil atavism, of all the
+new variations also, healthy or diseases.
+
+
+
+[Page: 113] D--THE APPLIED SOCIOLOGY OF THE PRESENT
+
+The city and its children thus historically present a thoroughly
+parallel accumulation of survivals or recapitulations of the past in the
+present. Few types nowadays are pure, that is, keep strictly to their
+period; we are all more or less mixed and modernised. Still, whether by
+temporal or spiritual compulsion, whether for the sake of bread or
+honour, each mainly and practically stands by his order, and acts with
+the social formation he belongs to. Thus now the question of the
+practical civics, that is, of the applied sociology, of each individual,
+each body or interests may be broadly defined; it is to emphasise his
+particular historic type, his social formation and influence in the
+civic whole, if not indeed to dominate this as far as may be. We are all
+for progress, but we each define it in his own way. Hence one man of
+industrial energy builds more factories or slums, another as naturally
+more breweries to supply them; and in municipal or national council his
+line of action, conscious or unconscious, remains congruent with these.
+Representative government fails to yield all that its inventors hoped of
+it, simply because it is so tolerably representative of its majorities;
+and there is thus great truth in the common consolation that our
+municipal governments, like larger ones, are seldom much worse than we
+deserve. Each social formation, through each of its material activities,
+exerts its influence upon the civic whole; and each of its ideas and
+ideals wins also its place and power. At one time the legal and
+punitive point of view, directing itself mainly to individual cases, or
+the philanthropic, palliating sufferings, dispute the foremost places;
+and now in their turn hygienic or educational endeavours arise, towards
+treating causes instead of waiting for consequences. Such endeavours are
+still undeniably too vague in thought, too crude in practice, and the
+enthusiast of hygiene or education or temperance may have much to answer
+for. But so, also, has he who stands outside of the actual civic field,
+whether as philistine or aesthete, utopist or cynic, party politician or
+"mug-wump." Between all these extremes it is for the united forces of
+civic survey and civic service to find the middle course. [Page: 114] We
+observe then in the actual city, as among its future citizens, that our
+action is generally the attempt to mould both alike to some past or
+passing social formation, and, therefore, usually towards the type to
+which our interest and our survey incline, be this in our own city or
+more probably in some earlier one. Even in the actual passing detail of
+party politics we are often reminded how directly continuous are the
+rivals with puritan London, with royalist Oxford; but still more is this
+the case throughout the history of thought and action, and the intenser
+the more plainly; for it is in his highest moments of conviction and
+decision that the Puritan feels most in sympathy with the law or the
+prophets of Jerusalem, the scholar with Athens; or that the man of
+action--be he the first French republican or the latest
+imperialist--most frankly draws his inspiration from the corresponding
+developments of Paris. It is a commonplace of psychology that our
+thought is and must be anthropomorphic; a commonplace of history that it
+has been Hebraomorphic, Hellenomorphic, Latinomorphic, and so on by
+turns.
+
+This view has often been well worked out by the historian of inventions
+and discoveries, of customs or laws, of policies or religions, as by the
+historian of language or the fine arts. What we still commonly need,
+however, is to carry this view clearly into our own city and its
+institutions, its streets and schools and homes, until either in the
+private spending or public voting of the smallest sum we know exactly
+whether we are so far determining expenditure and influence towards
+enlarging, say, the influence and example of renascent Florence in one
+generation or of decadent Versailles in another. There is no danger of
+awaking this consciousness too fully; for since we have ceased
+consciously to cite and utilise the high examples of history we have
+been the more faithfully, because sub-consciously and automatically,
+continuing and extending later and lower developments.
+
+
+E--CITIES, PRESENT AND FUTURE
+
+Hence, after a Liberal and an Imperial generation, each happy in their
+respective visions of wealth and expanding greatness [Page: 115], the
+current renewal of civic interests naturally takes the form of an
+awakening survey of our actual environment. First, a literal mapping of
+its regional elements, and then an historic interpretation of
+these--not, alas, merely or mainly in terms of the cities of sacred or
+classic tradition, nor of the Mediaeval or Renaissance cities which
+followed these, but as stupendous extensions of the mediaeval Ghetto, of
+the Wapping Stairs, of the Lancashire factories and of the Black
+Country, relieved by the coarse jollities of Restoration London, and
+adorned for the most part, with debased survivals from the Italian and
+the French Renaissance. There is thus no more question in our civic
+discussions of "bringing in" or "leaving out" geography or history; we
+have been too long unconscious of them, as was M. Jourdain of his
+speaking in prose.
+
+But what of the opening Future? May its coming social developments not
+be discerned by the careful observer in germs and buds already formed or
+forming, or deduced by the thinker from sociological principles? I
+believe in large measure both; yet cannot within these limits attempt to
+justify either. Enough for the present, if it be admitted that the
+practical man in his thought and action in the present is mainly the as
+yet too unconscious child of the past, and that in the city he is still
+working within the grasp of natural conditions.
+
+To realise the geographic and historic factors of our city's life is
+thus the first step to comprehension of the present, one indispensable
+to any attempt at the scientific forecast of the future, which must
+avoid as far as it can the dangers of mere utopianism.
+
+
+F--LITERATURE OF CIVICS
+
+No discussion of the preliminaries and fundamentals of Civics can omit
+some consideration of the vast and ever growing literature of cities.
+But how are we to utilise this? How continue it? How co-ordinate it with
+the needed independent and first-hand survey of city by city? And how
+apply this whole knowledge of past and present towards civic action?
+
+The answer must plainly be a concrete one. Every city [Page: 116]
+however small, has already a copious literature of its topography and
+history in the past; one, in fact, so ample that its mere bibliography
+may readily fill a goodly volume,[1] to which the specialist will long
+be adding fresh entries. This mass of literature may next be viewed as
+the material for a comprehensive monograph, well enriched with maps and
+illustrations, such as many cities can boast; and this again may be
+condensed into a guide-book. Guide-books have long been excellent in
+their descriptive and historical detail, and are becoming increasingly
+interpretative also, especially since Mr. Grant Allen transferred his
+evolutionary insight and his expository clearness from natural to civic
+history.
+
+[1] e.g., Erskine Beveridge, LL.D., Bibliography of
+Dunfermline.--_Dunfermline, 1902._ 8vo.
+
+After this general and preliminary survey of geographic environment and
+historic development, there nowadays begins to appear the material of a
+complementary and contemporary volume, the Social Survey proper. Towards
+this, statistical materials are partly to be found amid parliamentary
+and municipal reports and returns, economic journals and the like, but a
+fresh and first-hand survey in detail is obviously necessary. In this
+class of literature, Mr. Booth's monumental Survey of London, followed
+by others, such as Mr. Rowntree's of York, have already been so widely
+stimulating and suggestive that it may safely be predicted that before
+many years the Social Survey of any given city will be as easily and
+naturally obtainable as is at present its guide-book; and the
+rationalised census of the present condition of its people, their
+occupation and real wages, their family budget and culture-level, should
+be as readily ascertainable from the one, as their antecedents
+understood or their monuments visited by help of the other.
+
+But these two volumes--"The City: Past and Present,"--are not enough. Is
+not a third volume imaginable and possible, that of the opening Civic
+Future? Having taken full note of places as they were and are, of things
+as they have come about, and of people as they are--of their
+occupations, families, and institutions, their ideas and ideals--may we
+not to some extent discern, then patiently plan out, at length boldly
+suggest, something of [Page: 117] their actual or potential development?
+And may not, must not, such discernment, such planning, while primarily,
+of course, for the immediate future, also take account of the remoter
+and higher issues which a city's indefinitely long life and
+correspondingly needed foresight and statesmanship involve? Such a
+volume would thus differ widely from the traditional and contemporary
+"literature of Utopias" in being regional instead of non-regional,
+indeed ir-regional and so realisable, instead of being unrealisable and
+unattainable altogether. The theme of such a volume would thus be to
+indicate the practicable alternatives, and to select and to define from
+these the lines of development of the legitimate _Eu-topia_ possible in
+the given city, and characteristic of it; obviously, therefore, a very
+different thing from a vague _Ou-topia_, concretely realisable nowhere.
+Such abstract counsels of perfection as the descriptions of the ideal
+city, from Augustine through More or Campanella and Bacon to Morris,
+have been consolatory to many, to others inspiring. Still, a Utopia is
+one thing, a plan for our city improvement is another.
+
+Some concrete, if still fragmentary, materials towards such a volume
+are, of course, to be found in all municipal offices, though scattered
+between the offices of the city engineer and health officer, the
+architect and park superintendent; while the private architect and
+landscape gardener, the artist, sometimes even the municipal voters and
+their representatives, may all have ideas of their own. But though our
+cities are still as a whole planless, their growth as yet little better
+than a mere casual accretion and agglomeration, if not a spreading
+blight, American and German cities are now increasingly affording
+examples of comprehensive design of extension and of internal
+improvement. As a specific example of such an attempt towards the
+improvement of a British city, one not indeed comprehending all aspects
+of its life, but detailed and reasoned so far as it goes, and expressing
+that continuity of past and present into future which has been above
+argued for, I am permitted by the courtesy of the Carnegie Dunfermline
+Trust to lay on the Society's library table an early copy of a recent
+study of practicable possibilities in a city typically suitable for
+consideration from the present standpoint, since presenting within a
+moderate and readily intelligible [Page: 118] scale a very marked
+combination of historic interests, and of contemporary and growing
+activity, both industrial and cultural, with hopeful civic outlook.
+
+That co-adjustment of social survey and social service which has been
+above argued for as the essential idea of civics as applied sociology is
+thus no abstract principle, but a concrete and practicable method. Yet
+it is one not lacking in generality of application. For what we have
+reached is really the conception of an _Encyclopædia Civica_, to which
+each city should contribute the Trilogy of its Past, its Present, and
+its Future. Better far, as life transcends books, we may see, and yet
+more, forsee, the growth of civic consciousness and conscience, the
+awakening of citizenship towards civic renascence. All this the
+production of such volumes would at one imply and inspire--life ever
+producing its appropriate expression in literature, and literature
+reacting upon the ennoblement of life.
+
+Apart altogether from what may be the quality and defects of particular
+volumes, such as those cited as examples of each part of such a proposed
+civic trilogy, one as yet nowhere complete, the very conception of such
+a possible threefold series may be of some service. For this would
+present a continuous whole, at once sociological and civic--the views
+and the resources of the scholar and the educationist with their
+treasures of historic culture, of the man of action with his mastery of
+immediate affairs, of the thinker with his vision of the opening future,
+now all co-ordinated by help of the design of the artist, and thence to
+be gradually realised in the growing heritage of the city, the enlarging
+life of the citizen.
+
+NOTE--As an example of the concrete application to a particular city, of
+the sociological methods and principles indicated in the above paper,
+Prof. Geddes exhibited an illustrated volume embodying the results of
+his studies and designs towards the improvement of Dunfermline, under
+the Trust recently established by Mr. Carnegie. This has since been
+published:
+
+P. GEDDES. City Development. Park Gardens and Culture Institutes; a
+Report to the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust. With 138 illustrations.
+Edinburgh, etc.. 1904.
+
+
+
+
+[Page: 119] DISCUSSION
+
+
+The Chairman (MR. CHARLES BOOTH) in opening the discussion said:
+
+The paper we have just heard read is one of the most complete and
+charming papers on a great and interesting subject I have ever heard. I
+think you will all agree in this, and I hope the discussion which
+follows will emphasise and, if that is possible, add to the wealth of
+ideas that this paper contains.
+
+
+
+MR EBENEZER HOWARD (Founder of the Garden City Association) said:
+
+I have read and re-read--in the proof forwarded to me--Professor Geddes'
+wonderfully luminous and picturesque paper with much interest. He has
+given us a graphic description of the geographic process which leads to
+the development of the city. We see vividly the gradual stages by which
+the city grows and swells, with the descent of the population from the
+hillsides into the valleys, even as the river which flows through the
+city is fed continually by the streams which flow down to it. But is
+there not this essential difference between the gathering waters of
+heaven, as they pour into the great city, and the gathering tide of
+population, which follows the path of the waters? The waters flow
+through the city on, on toward the mighty ocean, and are then gradually
+gathered upward into the soft embraces of the clouds and wafted back
+again to the hills, whence they flow down once more to the valleys. But
+the living stream of men, women, and children flows from the
+country-side and leaves it more and more bare of active, vigorous,
+healthy life: it does not, like the waters, "return again to cover the
+earth," but moves ever on to the great city, and from thence, at least
+for the great majority, there is no chance of more than, at best, a very
+short stay in the country. No: the tide flows resistlessly [Page: 120]
+onward to make more crowded our overcrowded tenements, to enlarge our
+overgrown cities, to cause suburb to spread beyond suburb, to submerge
+more and more the beautiful fields and hilly slopes which used to lie
+near the busy life of the people, to make the atmosphere more foul, and
+the task of the social reformer more and yet more difficult.
+
+But surely there must be a way, could we but discover it, of imitating
+the skill and bountifulness of Nature, by creating channels through
+which some of our population shall be attracted back to the fields; so
+that there shall be a stream of population pouring from the city into
+the country, till a healthy balance is restored, and we have solved the
+twin problems of rural depopulation and of the overcrowded, overgrown
+city.
+
+This brings me to the second branch of Prof. Geddes' paper, the
+historical. The Professor reminds us how vestiges of one civilisation
+lie super-imposed upon another, like geological strata, and asks.
+"Understanding the present as the development of the past, are we not
+preparing also to understand the future as the development of the
+present?" Following this line of thought, I venture to suggest that
+while the age in which we live is the age of the great,
+closely-compacted, overcrowded city, there are already signs, for those
+who can read them, of a coming change so great and so momentous that the
+twentieth century will be known as the period of the great exodus, the
+return to the land, the period when by a great and conscious effort a
+new fabric of civilisation shall be reared by those who knew how to
+apply the knowledge gained by "Social Survey to Social Service." What
+are the signs? What words can we place under the head of "Incipient" in
+Prof. Geddes' diagram? I would suggest, for one of Prof. Geddes'
+interrogation marks might be substituted "Decentralisation of
+Industry"--as a great, but yet incipient movement, represented by Port
+Sunlight, Bournville, Garden City. For there are now many agencies at
+work making for industrial decentralisation. Industries are being driven
+out of the great towns by the excessive rents and rates which have to be
+paid there--by the difficulty of obtaining adequate space for the modern
+factory, a one-storey building; and for the homes of our workers, which
+must be vastly different to what they now are if England is to maintain
+her place among the nations. And while factories are being driven from
+the city, they are also being attracted to the country by its
+newly-discovered potentialities. Thus Messrs. Lever Brothers, crowded
+out of Warrington, established an entirely new town on a new site at
+Port Sunlight; and, because the site was new and raw, it was therefore
+possible for Mr. Lever to plan his little town with a single eye to the
+best and most desirable conditions, alike from an industrial and a
+health and housing point of view. And the same is true of Bournville.
+Bournville is one of the most beautiful villages in the world, largely
+again because of the potentialities of a new site acquired for the
+definite purpose of building thereon a village in which overcrowding
+shall be deliberately and permanently prevented, [Page: 121] and in
+which work inside the factory may be varied by work in the garden. Now
+that these successful experiments have been carried out in this country,
+is it not time that the idea of establishing new industries on new
+sites, and of surrounding those industries with healthy homes, should be
+carried forward on a larger scale, with wider and more concerted
+aims--carried forward, too, in such a manner as to make it possible for
+the small manufacturer to take part in a movement which has proved to be
+so beneficial alike to employer and employed? It is out of this thought
+that the Garden City idea has grown, an idea now in course of being
+fulfilled. Three thousand eight hundred acres of land, or nearly ten
+times the area of Bournville or Port Sunlight, have been acquired in
+Hertfordshire, two miles west of the town of Hitchin, and on the branch
+line of railway between that town and Cambridge. State aid has not been
+sought; that would indeed be weary work. But a company has been formed,
+through the untiring efforts of the Garden City Association; plans for
+the town have been carefully prepared, plans which, of course, have
+regard to the contours of the land (which were first taken, showing
+every change of level of five feet), to the preservation of its natural
+beauties--its trees and the picturesque villages of Norton and Willian;
+to the necessity for railway sidings and railway station, now, thanks to
+the Great Northern Railway, already provided; to the making of roads of
+easy gradient and of suitable width, affording access to different parts
+of the estate, actual work on which is progressing; the careful guarding
+from contamination of our water supply, already proved to be abundant;
+the provision of a reservoir of suitable elevation, now in course of
+construction; a system of drainage, about to be started with; the
+provision of parks and playgrounds within the town, as well as a wide
+belt of agricultural land around it; sites for homes for 30,000 persons,
+with good sized gardens. About six cottages have already been built, not
+by the Company but by private enterprise, while many others are just
+about to be started upon; the setting apart of sites for schools,
+churches, and other public buildings, while plans are in preparation for
+lighting the town, as well as for providing it with motive power.
+
+The programme which I have sketched out is certainly not too bold or
+comprehensive for the British race. If a hundredth part of the
+organising skill which the Japanese and the Russians are showing in the
+great war now in progress were shown by ourselves as citizens in our
+great civil war against disease and dirt, poverty and overcrowding, we
+could not only build many new cities on the best models, but could also
+bring our old towns into line with the new and better order. Prof.
+Geddes wishes well, I know, to the Garden City Association, a
+propagandist body, and to its first child, the Garden City Company; and
+I am sure you will all unite with me in the hope that the best and most
+lasting success may crown the generous gift of Mr. Carnegie of £500,000
+to the City of Dunfermline, and reward the efforts of the Trustees and
+of Prof. Geddes to make, by the application of modern [Page: 122] skill,
+science and art, the ancient city of Dunfermline a centre of sweetness
+and light, stimulating us all to higher and yet higher efforts to secure
+civic, national and imperial well-being.
+
+MR. C.H. GRINLING said:
+
+Like most of the audience, doubtless, he came not to speak but to draw
+ever fresh inspiration from Prof. Geddes. But there was one aspect of
+the subject he would like to bring out and emphasise. He referred to the
+sociological institute, which, under the name of the Outlook Tower, had
+grown up in connection with the School of Sociology which Prof. Geddes
+had founded and developed in Edinburgh. That institute was at once an
+organisation for teaching and for research, for social education, and
+for civic action. It was, in fact, a concrete and working application of
+the principle indicated in the paper as the very foundation of
+Civics--"social survey for social service." And, seeing that the Outlook
+Tower was an institution designed in every respect for application to
+any given locality, he urged the Sociological Society to advocate its
+general extension, so that no region should be without its own
+sociological institute or Outlook Tower.
+
+If one individual could accomplish so much, what could not be
+accomplished by the sociologists of our day who would concentrate
+themselves, each on his own locality, not necessarily to do the work,
+but to give the inspiration which would call out the work of collecting
+just that material which Prof. Geddes suggested all through his paper
+was one of the great needs of our time? And so one hoped that papers of
+this kind would not merely lead to discussion, but to workers
+accumulating results of this kind, giving the inspiration to others, and
+thus laying up treasures for the sociologists of the future for their
+interpretation. Thus, the Sociological Society should be not only the
+one scientific society in constant touch with all the leading brains
+over the country, but it should be an inspiration, as Prof. Geddes has
+himself been, to groups of workers everywhere for just the kind of work
+which the Sociological Society has been founded to develop.
+
+
+MR. J.M. ROBERTSON said:
+
+I would first add my tribute to this extremely interesting and
+stimulating paper. It recalled confabulations I had with Prof. Geddes,
+many years ago, when he was first formulating in Edinburgh those ideas
+which have since become so widely known. I would like, however, to
+suggest a few criticisms. The paper is, broadly speaking, an application
+of the view of a biologist to Sociology. It is not so much an
+application of Darwin's view as that of Von Baer. Prof. Geddes has
+characterised his paper as one of elementary preliminaries, but he has
+really contributed a paper that [Page: 123] would form part of a
+preliminary study in a series of studies in Sociology. The paper does
+not quite bear out its title: "Civics: as Applied Sociology." The
+application has not begun. The somewhat disparaging remarks on
+encyclopædias of general knowledge, further, might well be applied to
+the scheme of an encyclopædia of the natural history of every city and
+every village as an original centre. This atomism will not help
+Sociology. Had he to master all that, the sociologist's life would be a
+burden not to be borne, and we would never get to applied sociology at
+all. There is a danger, too, in following this line, of fastening
+attention on one stage of evolution and leaving it there. The true
+principle is that evolution is eternal and continuous; and I think harm
+may be done, possibly, when you take, say, the phenomenon of the
+communication of general knowledge in schools and call it a derivation
+from the French _Encyclopedie_. Why leave it there? Where did that come
+from? If you are going to trace the simple evolution of civic forms, if
+you are to trace how they have come about, it will not do to stick at a
+given point. This is a survival of that. That is a survival of something
+else. The French _Encyclopedie_ will have to be traced back to the
+encyclopædia of the mediaeval period; and even to the still earlier
+period of Isidore of Seville. Then again, there is a danger, I think,
+analogous to the danger met with in early botany--the danger of
+confusing a resemblance with a relationship. It is extremely interesting
+to speculate that the Place de l'Etoile is an evolution from the plan of
+the game-forest, with its shooting avenues radiating from a centre, but
+it would be difficult to show that there is any historical connection.
+The thing is not proved.
+
+Of course, the vital question is not this tracing of evolution. The
+question is: Is "Civics" to be only the study of forms? If so, Sociology
+is a dead science, and will effect little practical good until it is
+vivified by such suggestions as Mr. Crane has put in his paper. Mr.
+Walter Crane brought in a vital question when he said: "How are you
+going to modify the values of your civic life unless you grapple with
+political problems?" I am not forgetting that Prof. Geddes promises to
+deal in another paper with the civics of the future; but I insist that
+it will have to grapple with political questions. As he says, a city is
+not a place, but "a drama in time." The question for the sociological
+student of history is: How has this inequality of wealth and of service
+arisen, and how is it to be prevented in the future? That is the problem
+we have to study if we wish to make sociology a vital interest. A
+definition of progress is really the first step in sociology. Prof.
+Geddes' next paper should give us a definition of progress, and it is
+better that we begin to fight over a definition of progress, in order to
+get a dynamic agreement, than that we should multiply the archaeological
+study of many towns. I admit that it is very interesting. In travelling
+in South Africa, I often tried to gather how communities began; what,
+for example, was the nucleus of this or that village. It was surprising
+how very few had an idea of any nucleus at all. I deprecate the idea,
+however, that [Page: 124] we are all to amass an enormous accumulation
+of such researches. Mr. Booth's single compilation for London is a study
+for years; but Mr. Booth's admirable investigation of the difficulties
+of life among the poor of London does not of itself give any new impulse
+to the solution of the problem of London. It merely gives exact
+knowledge in place of general knowledge. The problem of sociology arose
+on the general knowledge. I fear lest the work of sociology should run
+to an extension of this admirable study instead of to the stimulation of
+action taken on that particular knowledge, or on more general knowledge.
+We all knew there was plenty of poverty, and how it was caused. We all
+had Ideals as to how it was to be got rid of in the future; but the
+question is: Is the collection of detail or the prescription of social
+method the kind of activity that the Sociological Society is to take up?
+
+SIR THOMAS BARCLAY said:
+
+I am not sure that I agree with Mr. Robertson that it is desirable to
+define either "progress" or "civilisation." On the whole, their chances
+lie rather in the great variety of ideas of what constitutes them than
+in any hard-and-fast notion of their meaning. They are generalisations
+of what is, rather than an object towards which effort should tend. But
+neither do I agree with Prof. Geddes' restriction of "civics" to the
+mere outward part of municipal effort. In America the word "civics" is
+applied to the rights and duties of citizens, and I should like to see
+Prof. Geddes include in Civics the connection between citizen life and
+the outward improvement of cities. I am sure, however, Professor Geddes,
+as a practical man, will deal rather with realities than theoretical
+views on the subject for which he has done so much himself. Edinburgh
+owes more than many are willing to admit to Prof. Geddes. I think Ramsay
+Lodge one of the greatest embellishments of the Castle Hill in
+Edinburgh. I hope he will now be successful in doing something still
+more admirable for my native town of Dunfermline. My friend Mr.
+Carnegie, whose native town it also is, I believe intends to show by an
+object lesson what can be done for all cities. Prof. Geddes is helping
+him in this work with his suggestions. I hope they will be carried out.
+In America there are several very beautiful cities. No one can ever
+forget Washington, which is truly a garden city. No money is spared in
+America to beautify and healthify (excuse the barbarism) the habitations
+of the thousands. A beautiful city is an investment for health,
+intellect, imagination. Genius all the world over is associated,
+wherever it has been connected with cities, with beautiful cities. To
+grow up among things of beauty ennobles the population. But I should
+like to see Prof. Geddes extend his projects for Dunfermline to the
+population itself. Most of you know what Mr. Henderson did to utilise
+the Edinburgh [Page: 125] police in the care of children. The future of
+the country depends upon them. The subject is too serious to continue to
+be left to the haphazard mercies of indifferent parents. Every child
+born is an agent for good or for evil among the community, and the
+community cannot afford to neglect how it is brought up, the
+circumstances in which it has its being, the environment from which it
+derives its character and tendencies. Necessity may be the mother of
+invention, but need of food and insufficient clothing develop in the
+child an inventiveness that is not for the good of the community. It
+seems a matter of too great an importance to be left even to private
+initiative, as was done under Mr. Henderson's regime in Edinburgh; but
+everywhere else, or nearly so, very little is done by even private
+initiative for the protection of the children against their vicious
+environment. In short, I do not think that civics, in the sense in which
+my friend Prof. Geddes treats it, is a complete subject at all. Civics,
+to my mind, includes everything that relates to the citizen. Everywhere
+something is being done in one direction or another to make them
+capable, prosperous, and happy. In America happiness is taught in the
+schools. Every schoolmaster's and schoolmistress's first duty is to set
+an example of a happy frame of mind; smiling and laughing are
+encouraged, and it is not thought that the glum face is at all necessary
+for the serious business of life. In fact, the glum face is a
+disqualification; is associated with failure, and bad luck and
+ill-nature. In Germany the schoolmaster is in the first place a trainer
+of the body. One of his chief duties is to watch and prevent the
+deterioration of the eyesight, to promote the development of the lungs,
+to prevent spinal deviation. The second part of his business is to watch
+over the character of the child, and only the third part is to ram
+knowledge into the poor little mind. And wherever you go over the world
+you will find something in the course of being done in civics, as I
+understand the subject. I thank Prof. Geddes for what he is doing for
+Dunfermline, and hope he will understand "progress" without requiring to
+define it.
+
+
+DR. J. LIONEL TAYLER
+
+(Author of "_Aspects of Social Evolution_") said:
+
+While agreeing with Prof. Geddes in his belief in the importance of
+institutional and geographical studies as a basis for the investigation
+of the development of cities, it yet seems to me that these studies
+cannot prove of supreme value to society unless they are accompanied by
+a detailed examination of the _natural_ characteristics of all
+individuals who have been born into and existed in, or merely dwelt in,
+these surroundings. It is not enough to trace out, however accurately,
+the various stages of a town's growth from its commencement to the
+present time, because _the cause_ of [Page: 126] the evolution of any
+city aggregate lies deeper, is in large part animate, and not inanimate,
+in character. The value of the surroundings depends at least as much
+upon the capacity of the individual citizen, singly and collectively, to
+utilise what he or she is brought in contact with as upon the
+peculiarities of these surroundings themselves. Place, tradition, social
+organisation, individual development, education, are factors in town
+evolution that cannot safely be overlooked, and they all vary from age
+to age and in place and place.
+
+If it were possible to completely exchange the inhabitants of a large
+town in England with those of an equally large town in France two groups
+of changes would become more or less rapidly observable: (1) the French
+and English citizens would adapt themselves, as far as they desired and
+were able, to their altered conditions; (2) the characteristics of both
+towns would gradually change, in spite of geographical position, in
+response to the altered human needs. Similarly, a town composed of
+individuals who are naturally uncultured and unprogressive will tend to
+preserve its uncultured and unprogressive characters more than another
+that has alert citizens to carry on its activities. Every profession and
+every trade tends to foster its own social atmosphere; and towns will
+vary with their industrial life, and individuals favourably disposed to
+this atmosphere will come to the town, and those unfavourably inclined
+to it will leave. _These changing citizens, as they act upon and react
+to their surroundings and vary in their powers age by age, are the real
+evolvers of the conditions in which they dwell_; hence the citizen must
+not be omitted from our study if we are to understand city growth.
+
+In other words, I think that every investigation of civic, and for that
+matter country life should be studied from two aspects: (1) to note the
+peculiarities, growth and development of the material, non-living and
+non-thinking elements in the problem--the buildings, their geographical
+position, their age, their fitness for past and present life, and the
+distinctive local features that are evolving or retrogressing with the
+multiplication of some trades and industries and the decline of others
+in each area that is studied; (2) the change in the quality of the
+citizens themselves through racial, educational, and other factors,
+noting how far ideals are altering, not only in the mass of individuals
+taken as a whole, but also by examining the changing outlook in every
+trade and profession. With these two parallel lines of investigation to
+study, we could then determine how far environment--social and
+climatic--how far racial and individual characteristics have been
+powerful in the moulding of the fabric around us.
+
+With these two lines of study to our hands, we could predict the
+vitality, the growing power, and the future possibilities of the social
+life of which we are a tiny though not an insignificant part; we could,
+knowing something of the response that we make to that which surrounds
+us, form some estimate of how the future ages will develop, and, knowing
+the [Page: 127] intensity of the different national desires for progress
+_and the causes which are likely to arouse such desires_, we could
+realise what will stimulate and what will retard all that is best in our
+civic life.
+
+PROFESSOR EARL BARNES (in moving a vote of thanks) said:
+
+For years I have been accumulating a debt of obligation to Prof. Geddes
+for ideas, suggestions, and large synthesis of life, and it gives me
+special pleasure to voice the feeling of this meeting concerning the
+paper read to us this afternoon. To me, as an American, it is especially
+interesting to hear this presentation of life as an organic whole. Life
+is but a period of education, and if there is nothing behind this
+present moment of life it is all extremely insignificant. To an
+American, who has lived at No. 1067 in 63rd Street, Philadelphia, and
+at No. 1718 in G Street, in Washington, it is profoundly interesting to
+think of the possibility of a man's so living that his whole existence
+shall be significant, so that the realities of his world, geographical,
+geological, and material, and all that long development of humanity
+through the historic past--that all these things will be really and
+truly significant to him. Prof. Geddes has himself shown us that is
+possible. Any man who has gone to Edinburgh and seen the restoration of
+the old life that has been carried out there under his hand knows it can
+be done. I suppose we all came here to hear Professor Geddes speak on
+practical affairs because his name is now connected with the plans for
+making a city that shall be really expressive of all its potentialities
+to all of its people. I am personally profoundly grateful to him for his
+paper; and I move you that he be given a very hearty vote of thanks.
+
+The Chairman. (MR. CHARLES BOOTH), in closing the discussion, said: I
+myself entirely agree with what Mr Robertson has said as to the extreme
+difficulty of bringing investigations of the kind referred to, to
+practical conclusions--practical points. Practical work at present needs
+the most attention. I perhaps am too old to do it, but I feel the
+attraction of that kind of work, and that was one reason I was sorry Mr
+Loch had to leave before we could hear what he might have to say. The
+description I have given of London does seem to be a foggy labyrinth I
+agree, but nevertheless I cannot but think that we do require a complete
+conception if we are to do the definite work of putting different people
+in their proper places in an organic whole, such as a city is. I do not
+think we can do without it, and I regard the paper of this evening as an
+important contribution [Page: 128] to that complete conception which I
+feel we need. I should like each worker and thinker to have and to know
+his place in the scheme of civic improvement; and I think it perfectly
+possible for every man to know what it is that he is trying to do, what
+contribution it is that he ought to give to that joint life which is
+called here civics, which is the life of a city and the life in the
+city. One man cannot possibly concentrate it all in himself. Within a
+society such as the Sociological Society a general scheme is possible in
+which each individual and each society shall play its acknowledged and
+recognised part. It does not follow that the work done in one city can
+apply as an example to another. Individuality has too strong a hold;
+but each town may work out something for itself. I have been very much
+interested in the work which Mr. Rowntree has done in York, on which he
+was kind enough to consult me. He entered upon it on quite other grounds
+from mine, but so far as the ground was common between him and me we
+tried to have a common basis. Those of you who have not read Mr.
+Horsfall's volumes on Manchester would do well to do so. Prof. Geddes
+gave us a vivid picture of a larger regional unit which culminates
+geographically in the city as industrial climax. In his particular
+instance he referred, I take, to Dundee. In Dundee there is at this
+moment an inquiry being started, and I am in communication with those
+who are doing it, and I hope it will add something to the completeness
+of the picture we have of that city. In Dundee they have excessive
+difficulties in respect to crowding and female labour. What I suggested
+was, that they should make a special study of such circumstances as are
+special to Dundee. Labour there is very largely sack-making and jute
+manufacture, and there is a great deal of girl labour; and that is one
+of the special subjects that will be considered in that inquiry.
+
+Then, with regard to the preservation of such of the natural beauties
+that do remain even quite near to busy town centres, surely it is of the
+greatest importance that they should be watched and protected and
+preserved. Prof. Geddes has contributed a portion of his practical work
+to that practical question at Dunfermline. His charming volume on
+Dunfermline ("A Study in City Development") shows what beautiful
+features there are near Dunfermline, and how much may be done to
+preserve and improve them in ways that are most interesting to study.
+His use of photography in this matter is extraordinarily successful.
+Prof. Geddes has photographed a scene as it now is, with its background
+and distance and its squalid foreground, already ruined by the debris of
+the city--old tin pots and every [Page: 129] kind of rubbish--thrown
+down by the side of the stream, which is naturally beautiful. By
+manipulating the photographic plates he wipes out that which he does not
+want and introduces other features, including a little waterfall; and
+you have, instead of a miserable suburb, a dignified park. Well now,
+that is practical work. It has in it that element which he has described
+by a question-mark in his diagram, the element of forecast. You have the
+same idea in Manchester, in Mr. Horsfall's work. They have laid out
+their map of Manchester and shown in what way it may develop, so as not
+to spoil the beauty that remains on two sides of Manchester. There is
+really exquisitely beautiful natural scenery close to Manchester, which
+may be entirely spoiled or preserved, according as a forecast is made
+and forethought taken. This is not a question on which there is reason
+to think that people will disagree. The difficulties are always supposed
+to be financial. It is a sad thing that we should be so hampered by our
+methods of finance that we throw away opportunities to retain these
+actual beauties which undoubtedly add to the actual money value of a
+district. I cannot suppose that the way in which cities are laid out
+with narrow streets really results in an increase of value. The
+surroundings of our cities are undeveloped estates, which we have only
+to agree amongst ourselves how to lay out, and everybody would benefit
+by such joint action. There is an excellent illustration in regard to
+that in Mr. Horsfall's work in connection with Germany. It must be said
+that from Germany there is a great deal to learn in civic matters. In
+one of its towns the properties lie in extraordinarily long strips. It
+is the final result of properties having been measured by the length of
+the plough's run. When that method is applied to town sites, it is not
+convenient for streets; and there are some quarters in this German town
+ruined in this way, and the people have agreed together to improve
+matters. Every owner is to be given credit for his share in the total
+value of the improvement that is found to accrue from the re-arrangement
+of these undesirable divisions, and any difference of opinion as to the
+just share and proportion is to be referred to an impartial arbitrator.
+All the owners will gain, though some a little more than others. That is
+an example that we may do well to try and follow, and in some way or
+other improve the money value, and social value, and hygienic value of
+towns, and if necessary compel the carrying out of improvements when
+some few might be disposed to hold out against them.
+
+
+
+
+[Page: 130] WRITTEN COMMUNICATIONS
+
+From PROF. BALDWIN BROWN (Professor of Fine Art in the University of
+Edinburgh)
+
+
+I am glad of this opportunity of saying how cordially I agree with the
+method adopted by my friend Professor Geddes in dealing with the life of
+cities. He treats the modern community and its material shell as things
+of organic growth, with a past and a future as well as a present,
+whereas we too often see these wider considerations ignored in favour of
+some exigency of the moment. A historic British town has recently
+furnished a striking object-lesson in this connection. The town
+possesses portions of an ancient city wall and fosse that were made at a
+time when the town was, for the moment, the most important in Great
+Britain. Yet the Town Council, a year ago, destroyed part of this wall
+and filled a section of the fosse for the purpose of providing a site
+for a new elementary school. No doubt, in that school, books "approved
+by the Department" will instruct scholars in the past history of the
+burgh, but the living witness of that history must first of all be
+carefully obliterated. All the rest of this ancient and historic
+enceinte was condemned a few weeks ago to complete destruction, merely
+on the plea that the site would be convenient for workmen's dwellings.
+The monument has now been saved, but it has taken the whole country to
+do it!
+
+Here were chosen officials, governors of no mean city, absolutely
+oblivious of these important interests committed to their care, and all
+for want of having drilled into them these broader views which Professor
+Geddes puts forward so well.
+
+He has himself done practical work in Edinburgh on the lines he lays
+down, and I have lately had occasion to note, and call attention to the
+advantage to the city of much wise conservatism in regard to our older
+buildings which he and his associates have shown.
+
+In Edinburgh we have the advantage that our older monuments, [Page:
+131] in which so much of the past life of the city is enshrined, are
+firm and solid; and it takes some trouble to knock them down. Hence for
+some time to come we shall preserve here object-lessons in civic
+development that will be of interest to the country at large.
+
+
+From MR. WALTER CRANE (President of Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society)
+
+Professor Geddes' very interesting "Study in City Development" is highly
+suggestive, and shows how great a difference thoughtful and tasteful
+treatment might make in dealing with such problems. It is sad to think
+of the opportunities wasted, and of the more ignorant and often too
+hasty clearances for traffic which have often been apparently the sole
+motives in city improvement. The conservation of historic buildings,
+whenever possible, the planting of trees along our streets, the laying
+out of gardens, the insistence upon a proportional amount of air and
+open space to new buildings would go a long way towards making our
+bricks-and-mortar joyless wildernesses into something human and
+habitable.
+
+Whether, under favourable circumstances and the rare public spirit of
+private owners, much can be done, or to any wide extent, so long as
+absolute individual ownership in land and ground values is allowed,
+seems to me very doubtful. We cannot hope to see great social
+improvements without great economic changes, but every effort in the
+direction of improving the beauty of our cities is welcome to all who
+have the well-being of the community at heart; and such work as Prof.
+Geddes is doing should arouse the keenest interest and the earnest
+attention of all who realise its immense social importance.
+
+
+From MR. J.H. HARLEY, M.A.
+
+If sociology is ever to vindicate itself as an art, it must be able to
+analyse and explain the present, and to some extent at least to cast the
+horoscope of the future. It must feel its way through all the tangled
+labyrinths of city life, and show us where we have arrived and whither
+we are going. But this is exactly the part of Professor Geddes' Applied
+Sociology where he becomes most vague and unsatisfactory. "Enough for
+the present," we are told, "if it be admitted that the practical man in
+his thought and action in the present is mainly as yet the too
+unconscious child of the past, and that in the city he is still working
+within the grasp of natural conditions." Now we must all be willing to
+admit that the present is the child of the past, and that we cannot
+adequately understand [Page: 132] the present until we have led up to
+the present by the study of its antecedents more and less remote. But
+what Professor Geddes fails to bring out is that it is only in the
+present or the more immediate past that the City has really become a
+City in the modern sense of the word. The City as City is a product of
+the Industrial Revolution. Its huge and casual assemblages of human
+life, its overcrowding, its poverty line, its East End and its West End,
+its infantile mortality, its trades massed in their own particular
+districts, it aliens, its criminals and its vices--all these problems of
+social pathology arise from the fact that the conditions of modern
+industry have brought people together who have few interests in common,
+and who were compelled to arrange themselves in some kind of decent
+order within a limited area, without sufficient time being given to
+evolve a suitable environment, or to prepare themselves for the
+environment which they actually found on every side of them. London in
+the past, therefore, cannot help us so very much to solve the riddles of
+London in the present, because London in the past had not developed
+these social growths or offered a mature ground to those social
+parasites which make us sometimes despair of being able to get much
+insight into the London of the present.
+
+The fact seems to be that Prof. Geddes conceives sociology too much as a
+primary and too little as a secondary science. He defines applied
+sociology as the application of social survey to social science, when
+social ratiocination or social philosophy are needed before one can be
+said to have gauged the extent of the influence which this comprehensive
+science may have in our actual practice or on our Budget of the future.
+No doubt, "observation, so far from excluding interpretation, is just
+the very means of preparing for it," but this preparation must be made
+in the various specialisms which make up the complete or encyclopædic
+science of sociology. To me it seems an unwarrantable narrowing of the
+scope or significance of sociology to say that there is no better method
+available of teaching it "than that of regional survey, historical as
+well as geographical." Surely "regional survey" Is the appropriate
+method in the very simplest and most concrete parts of the complete
+science of sociology, and even when we come to history proper we must do
+very much more than make a regional survey. It is very interesting, no
+doubt, to "survey" history in the course of a summer ramble to the ruins
+of some old monastery, but unless the monks had kept records of what had
+been done there in bygone days, the mere outward survey will not carry
+us further than Prof. Geddes is carried in the very general map which he
+makes of the whole field of history. In other words, history, in any
+proper sense, demands more than "survey" in Prof. Geddes' sense of the
+word. It calls to its aid linguistics, criticism, archaeology,
+jurisprudence, and politics--there must be comparison and criticism as
+well as "survey." History is the laboratory in which the sociologist
+sees his social experiments working out their [Page: 133] results, and
+history is to the sociologist what experiment is to the physician, or
+the comparative method to the biologist.
+
+This being so, the scope of "civics" as "applied sociology" is immensely
+widened. The present is the child of the past, but we see that it is
+only in the present that such ancient groups as the colony of Hanseatic
+merchants in Old London have shown us what has been the ultimate
+significance of their embryological life. The modern city bristles with
+sociological problems which demand a knowledge of most of the
+specialisms included in the complete science of sociology, and almost
+invite us to cast the horoscope of the future. We see, as Booth and
+Rowntree saw before us, the poverty line like a fiery portent at every
+point of our study, and we are led finally to ask ourselves whether M.
+Arthur Bauer was not right in choosing the title "Les Classes Sociales"
+as the most characteristic title he could give to his recent and most
+suggestive analysis of the general characteristics of social life.
+
+
+From MR. T.C. HORSFALL
+
+(President, Manchester Citizen's Association, &c.)
+
+The teaching of the paper seems to me to be most sound and helpful. The
+town of the future--I trust of the near future--must by means of its
+schools, its museums, and galleries, its playgrounds, parks and
+gymnasia, its baths, its wide tree-planted streets and the belt of
+unspoilt country which must surround it, bring all its inhabitants in
+some degree under the _best_ influences of all the regions and all the
+stages of civilisation, the influences of which, but not the best
+influences, contribute, and have contributed, to make our towns what
+they are.
+
+
+From H. OSMAN NEWLAND
+
+(Author of "_A Short History of Citizenship_")
+
+The failures of democratic governments in the past have been
+attributable, in part, to the lack of intelligence and
+self-consciousness among the mass of those who were given a voice in the
+government of their country. Citizenship, like morality, was allowed to
+grow by instinct; it was never systematised as a science, or applied as
+an art. Sparta and Athens approached towards a system of civics much
+less elaborate than that expounded by Professor Geddes; but in Sparta
+citizenship became inseparable from Nationalism, and in Athens it
+scarcely rose above Municipalism. In more modern times, civic education
+has had to encounter the same difficulty as in America, where the young
+citizen's first duty is to salute his flag, and as in London, where
+"Civics" is distributed in doles of local [Page: 134] history in which
+the municipality plays a part altogether out of proportion to its
+relation to the country, the age, and the world. Civics, as the applied
+sociology of each individual and each body of interests, has but begun
+to be dreamed of; and before it can be properly developed it is
+desirable, if not necessary, that the general public should know
+something more than at present both of the historic development of the
+"civic" idea, and of the psychology of aggregations as differentiated
+from the psychology of the individual. Not until we can make "the man in
+the street" a conscious citizen, instead of a political automaton, shall
+we be able to enlist his sympathies with "Civics"; and without those
+sympathies the sociologist's "Civics" will, I fear, be but partial and
+inaccurate.
+
+
+From MR. G. BISSET SMITH
+
+(H.M. Registration Examiner for East of Scotland).
+
+There is an elusiveness here and there in this paper which has helped to
+confirm me in the opinion that it is well to emphasise the fact that
+Prof. Geddes is not only a dreamer of lofty dreams but a doer and a
+practical initiator. He has expressed himself not only in words but in
+art and in architecture, and in educational organisation; and he has in
+many ways, sometimes indirectly, influenced scholastic and civic
+activities.
+
+If from the Outlook Tower he dreams of an idealised Edinburgh he has
+only to reply to the scoffer who asks, "What have you done?"
+"_Circumspice!_" There stand the settlements he initiated, the houses
+beautiful, bright, delectable; and the tower itself is an embodiment of
+his ideas, an encyclopædia in stone and in storeys.
+
+We must, in criticising this paper, take into account these attempts
+towards realisation of its principles. The sociological evolutionist is
+"concerned primarily with origins, but ultimately and supremely with
+ideals," we were reminded in a recent paper read before this Society.
+And in the same paper it was affirmed that, "through the formulation of
+its larger generalisations as ideals, sociology may hope to achieve the
+necessary return from theory to practice." Thus, if Civics is applied
+Sociology, we must rest its claims on these criteria. What, then, we
+have to ask is:--(1) What actually are the generalisations of the
+present paper? (2) How far they are warranted by verifiable sociological
+testimony, and (3) What results do they yield when transformed by the
+touch of emotion into ideals of action? To attempt an adequate answer to
+these questions would perhaps transcend the limits of this discussion.
+But merely to raise these questions of presupposition should tend to
+clarify the discussion. Coming to detail, I may say, as one whose
+occupation is demographic, I regret the unavoidable briefness of the
+reference in "Civics" to a "rationalised census of the present condition
+of the people."
+
+[Page: 135] No one, however, who has studied the concluding portion of
+"The Evolution of Sex" can accuse Prof. Geddes of ignoring questions of
+_population_; and his eulogium, written ten years ago, of "Mr. Charles
+Booth as one of our own latest and best Economists," is familiar to all
+readers of "Education for Economics and Citizenship." In that extremely
+suggestive treatise, Prof. Geddes further points out that population
+must have a primary place in consideration, and that "our studies of the
+characteristic occupation of region by region are the essential material
+of a study of its whole civilisation."
+
+Accepting Mr. Branford's definition of _occupation_ as "any and every
+form of human endeavour, past, present, and future," we see that
+occupation must have a large place in the description, explanation, and
+forecasting of the evolution of cities--such as Edinburgh, Glasgow,
+Dundee--in the scheme of survey outlined so sweepingly in "Civics."
+
+"Life and Labour of the People in London" contains several general
+observations almost equally applicable to our largest Scottish cities,
+with the demographic conditions of which my official duties give me
+special opportunities for becoming familiar and for regional survey.
+
+In the concluding volume of that great contribution to sociology Mr.
+Booth (page 23) remarks:--
+
+"Many influences conspire to cause the poor to multiply almost in
+proportion to their poverty, and operate in the other direction in the
+case of the better off, almost in proportion to their wealth. But," says
+Mr. Booth, "when we bring the death-rate into account this law no longer
+holds."
+
+With the poor living under bad conditions in crowded homes the net
+increase is diminished. To those of us who are hopeful of improvement by
+eugenics it is pleasing to note that Mr. Booth--somewhat unlike Mr. Kidd
+in his well-known "Social Evolution"--is optimistic in his conclusion
+that "on the whole it may fairly be expected that concurrently with a
+rising standard of health we may see a fall in birth-rate as well as
+death-rate, and thus have no cause to fear, as the result of better
+sanitation, that the largest natural increase in population will ever be
+contributed by the lowest class." So the heritage of the city may grow
+not only in quantity but also in quality.
+
+From PROFESSOR W.I. THOMAS
+(Professor in the University of Chicago, U.S.A.)
+
+From the standpoint of its applicability to new countries like America,
+Professor Geddes' programme is inadequate because of its failure to
+recognise that a city under these conditions is formed by a rapid and
+contemporaneous movement of population, and not by the lapse of time.
+[Page: 136] The first permanent white settler came to Chicago precisely
+one hundred years ago, and the city has a population at present of about
+two and a quarter millions. It is here not a question of slow historic
+development but of the rapid drifting towards a certain point, of a
+population from all quarters of the globe, and the ethnological
+standpoint therefore becomes of more importance than the historical.
+
+PROFESSOR GEDDES' reply
+
+I am sincerely glad to be able to express myself in substantial
+agreement with the majority of my critics, only asking them in turn to
+recognise that this is but the first half of my subject--an outline of
+civics as in the first place a matter of science, a geographic and
+historic survey of past conditions, a corresponding census of present
+ones--here discussed and insisted on as affording the needful base for
+their demands upon civics as an art, that of effective social service.
+
+In this respect various critics have in fact anticipated large elements
+of this future portion of my paper, so that in general views, at least,
+critics and writer are not so far apart as would appear were the
+preceding pages submitted as a comprehensive outline of the subject,
+instead of as its scientific introduction merely.
+
+Of criticisms strictly applicable to this paper as it stands, there are
+really very few. I am confident that the chairman must be quite alone in
+too modestly applying to his great work that description of London
+itself, with which the paper (Section A, pp. 104-107) opens, since his
+volumes offer really our first effective clue to the labyrinth, and his
+method of intensive and specialised regional survey, the intensest
+searchlight yet brought to bear upon it.
+
+Taking, however, a concrete point of criticism, such as that of the
+monumental planning of modern Paris as derived from forest rides, the
+critic need only walk through any French forest, or even to consult a
+Baedeker, or other guide-book, with its maps of any historic dwelling
+and its surroundings, from Chantilly or Fontainebleau to minor ones, to
+see that this plan, originally devised for the pleasure, success and
+safety [Page: 137] of the hunt, and later adapted to domination and
+defence, became next appreciated as affording the finest possible
+perspectives of the palatially rebuilt chateau. So that it is not at all
+a fantastic hypothesis, but an obvious and inevitable conclusion that
+Napoleon's and Haussman's plans were not at all invented by them for
+Paris, but were directly imitated from the familiar landscape
+architecture of the preceding century, which again was but the simplest
+development from the spacious forest rides of older hunting nobles, laid
+out without any thought of the architectural and city developments they
+were destined in later centuries to determine.
+
+The citizen of Washington had till lately often forgotten that the
+magnificent perspectives of his city are due to the French
+landscape-architect (Major L'Enfant) whom Washington imported for the
+express purpose of laying out his capital; yet it is no less clear that
+this most magnificent of the New World city plans is derived from Old
+World forest rides, than that its monumental edifices descend from
+Renaissance and classic exemplars.
+
+I plead indeed for such studies of the plans of any and every city from
+the point of view of its natural development. The too purely abstract
+and subjective sociology of the dwellers of great cities like London
+would in this way be helped by the facts of their own topographic
+history, already well known and clearly explained by geographer and
+historian, towards again feeling with the naturalist that even the
+modern city is but the most complex evolutionary expression and
+development of the life of Nature.
+
+This view I take to be indeed a commonplace in France; but I account for
+its apparent unfamiliarity to English readers from the fact of our
+scanty forests in this island being left practically wild, our nobles
+not inhabiting them, but the cultivated pasture and arable regions
+below--planting trees indeed, "plantations," but seldom woods, and
+practically never forests at all. This again brings out the fact that
+the French nobles, despite our urban associations with regard to them
+have belonged far more than ours to the social formation and tradition
+of the hunter--while ours, despite their love of sports, are yet
+fundamentally squires, i.e., essentially and historically approximating
+to the peasants of their villages. The bearing of all this upon their
+respective history will be obvious. Here again we have the origins of
+the vivid contrast of the English or so-called naturalistic style of
+landscape-gardening with the more formal French tradition. Yet in a very
+true sense we see the former to be even more highly artificial than the
+latter. [Page: 138] The English citizen who may even admit this way of
+looking at the contrasted city plans of London and Paris may fail,
+unless he has appreciated the principle here involved, to see why London
+and Paris houses are so different--the one separate and self-contained,
+with its door undefended and open upon the street, while the normal
+Parisian house is a populous, high-piled tenement around a central
+court, with high _porte cochère_ closed by massive oaken doors and
+guarded by an always vigilant and often surly _concierge_.
+
+A moment of historical reflection suffices to see that the former is the
+architecture of a long-settled agricultural place, with its spreading
+undefended villages, in which each household had its separate dwelling,
+the other a persistence of the Continental fortified city crowded within
+its walls.
+
+But beyond this we must see the earlier historic, the simpler geographic
+origins of the French courtyard house as a defensible farmyard, of which
+the ample space was needed nightly for defence against wild beasts, if
+not also wilder men, against whom the _concierge_ is not only the
+antique porter but the primitive sentinel.
+
+I may seem unduly to labour such points, yet do so advisedly, in order
+to emphasise and make clearer the essential thesis of this portion of my
+paper--that every scientific survey involves a geographic and historic
+exploration of origins, but that of the still unwritten chapter, that
+the far-reaching forelook, idealistic yet also critical, which is
+needful to any true and enduring contribution to social service, is
+prepared for by habitually imaging the course of evolution in the past.
+
+Speaking personally, as one whose leisure and practical life have alike
+been largely spent in the study and the preservation of ancient
+buildings, I may say that this has not been solely, or even essentially,
+from an antiquarian interest in the historic past, but still more on
+behalf of a practical interest--that of the idealistic, yet economic,
+utilitarian, because educational and evolutionary, transformation of our
+old cities--old Edinburgh, old Dunfermline, and the like--from their
+present sordid unhygienic failure; and therefore industrial and
+commercial insufficiency, towards a future equalling if not transcending
+the recorded greatness of the civic past.
+
+It has, therefore, been to lay the broadest possible basis of
+evolutionary science, of geographic and historic fact, for what would
+otherwise be open to ridicule as a Utopian hope, that of Civics as
+Applied Social Art, that I have insisted at such length above upon
+Civics as Applied Social Science.
+
+
+
+
+[Page: 139] PRESS COMMENTS
+
+_The Times_ (July 20, 1904) in a leading article, said:
+
+In the paper read on Monday at a meeting of the Sociological Society by
+Professor GEDDES--an abstract of which we print--are contained ideas of
+practical value to be recommended to the study of ambitious
+municipalities. This is the age of cities, and all the world is
+city-building. Almost everywhere is a flow from the country town-ward.
+China and India may be still, in the main, lands of villages. But the
+West, Russia perhaps excepted, is more and more peopled by dwellers in
+cities. In a dim sort of way many persons understand that the time has
+come when art and skill and foresight should control what so far has
+been left to chance to work out; that there should be a more orderly
+conception of civic action; that there is a real art of city-making, and
+that it behoves this generation to master and practise it. Professor
+Geddes truly said the land is already full of preparation as to this
+matter; the beginnings of a concrete art of city-making are visible at
+various points. But our city rulers are often among the blindest to
+these considerations; and nowhere probably is to be seen a municipality
+fully and consistently alive to its duties in this respect. London may
+be left out of the question. Still a province rather than a city in the
+strict sense, wanting what, in the view of the early master of political
+science, was an essential of the true city, that it could "easily be
+overseen," with a vast floating population, it will be some time before
+it can be dealt with as an organic whole. But the rulers of such
+communities as Manchester and Newcastle and York ought long ago to have
+realised, much more than has been done, that they are not so much brick
+and mortar, so much rateable area, so many thousands of people
+fortuitously brought together. They have all a regional environment of
+their own which determined their origin and growth. They have all a rich
+past, the monuments of which, generally to be found in abundance by
+careful, reverent inquirers, ought to be preserved; a past which ought
+to be known more or less to all the dwellers therein, and the knowledge
+of which will make the present more interesting. Even when old buildings
+have disappeared, ancient roads, pathways, and streets can be traced;
+place names keep alive much history; and the natural features reveal to
+the practised eye what must have been the look and condition of a town
+in past ages. Professor Geddes gives a sketch of what he conceives the
+vast and ever-growing literature of cities will one day be. Even if the
+comprehensive monographs which he foreshadows are never [Page: 140]
+written, it is not surely fanciful to expect that, with education
+universal, almost every dweller in our old towns will acquire some sort
+of that feeling with which a member of an ancient family looks upon its
+ancestral house or lands--will, even without much reading, have some
+sort of notion of his predecessors and a certain pride in his membership
+of an ancient community. If he has not the good fortune to be a De Vere,
+a De Bohun, a Howard, Mowbray or Cavendish, he may perhaps be a citizen
+of a town which flourished when some of these families were unknown.
+
+Such pride, or, as the lecturer preferred to term it, such "growth of
+civic consciousness and conscience, the awakening of citizenship towards
+civic renascence," will be the best security for a worthy city of the
+future....
+
+Professor Geddes glanced at the opening civic future, "the remoter and
+higher issues which a city's indefinitely long life and correspondingly
+needed foresight and statesmanship involve," the possibilities which may
+be easily realised if only there be true civic pride, foresight, and
+unflagging pursuit of a reasonable ideal.... It remains to be seen what
+our cities will become when for some generations the same spirit of
+pride and reverence shown by old families as to their possessions has
+presided over all civic changes and developments.... Ruskin somewhere
+points out the mediaeval love of cities, unwholesome, dirty, and
+forbidding though they were. He did not teach his generation that that
+affection might with more reason attach to the modern city if its people
+knew what it had been and steadily strove to make it better, if there
+was in every large community patriotism and a polity.
+
+DR. J.H. BRIDGES in _The Positivist Review_ (Sept., 1904), said: Under
+the title, "Civics, as applied Sociology," Prof. Geddes read on July
+18th a very interesting paper before the Sociological Society. The
+importance of the subject will be contested by none. The method adopted
+in handling it, being in many ways original, invites remark ...
+
+What is wanted is first a survey of the facts to be dealt with--a
+regional survey. This point of view has next to be correlated with
+corresponding practical experience acquired by practical civic life, but
+"aiming at a larger and more orderly conception of civic action."....
+Students of Comte will not forget his well-known maxim, _Savoir pour
+prévoir, afin de pourvoir_.
+
+What is to be the area of survey? Prof. Geddes decides that the City may
+be taken "as the integrate of study." Whether any modern towns, and, if
+so, what, may be taken as integrates in the sense which would
+undoubtedly apply to ancient Athens or to mediaeval Florence, may be
+questioned; but it is too soon to interrupt our author.... Every one who
+heard the lecturer must have been fascinated by his picture of a river
+system which he takes for his unit of study; the high mountain tracts,
+the pastoral hillsides, the hamlets and villages in the valleys, the
+market town where the valleys meet, the convergence of the larger
+valleys into a county town, finally, the great city where the river
+meets the sea. The lecturer went on to advocate the systematic study of
+some of the principal river-basins of the world for the purpose of
+examining the laws which govern the grouping of cities. All would agree
+that much instruction might be derived from such [Page: 141] a survey,
+provided two dangers be avoided. One is the exaggeration of the
+influence of the environment on the social organism, an error into which
+the Le Play school have sometimes fallen; as when, for instance, it was
+sought to explain Chinese civilisation by the rice-plant. The other
+danger, which needs much care and thought to avoid, is the accumulation
+of such a mass of irrelevant detail as renders (perhaps sometimes it is
+intended to render) all generalisation impossible. Thinking men are at
+last beginning to regard the accumulation of memoirs as one of the
+principal obstacles to scientific progress. On the pretext of "more
+evidence," conclusions are adjourned, not merely _sine die_, but _sine
+spe diei_. Yet so long as man is man, he must, and will, have
+conclusions; be they final or otherwise.
+
+From the physiography of the city we pass to its history ...
+
+In this part of his subject he has, as we all know, many precursors and
+fellow-workers. The remarkable series, entitled "Historic Towns,"
+instituted by Prof. Freeman, is known to most. The study of towns was
+the life and soul of Mr. Green's historic labours. Eloquent and powerful
+pictures of the great cities of the world fill the greater part of Mr.
+Harrison's well-known volume, "The Meaning of History"; and the student
+of universal history (a few of these, it may be hoped, are still left)
+finds them very stimulating and helpful. The special note of Prof.
+Geddes' method is that he does not limit himself to the greater cities,
+but also, and perhaps by preference, deals with the smaller, and with
+their physical environment; and, above all, that he attempts not merely
+to observe closely and thoroughly, but to generalise as the result of
+his observation. In biology, the study of any single organism, however
+minute and accurate, could reveal no laws (i.e., no general facts) of
+structure or function. As for instance, many forms of heart must be
+examined before the laws governing blood-circulation could be revealed;
+so here. Countless, indeed, are the forms of cities; even limiting our
+field of observation to those that have grown up in the last century
+they are numerous enough. Their differences and analogies would
+doubtless repay analysis, always supposing that we are clear how far the
+modern town, as contrasted with the mediaeval or Graeco-Roman city, can
+usefully be treated as "an integrate." This raises large questions of
+nation, of groups of nations, finally of Humanity, which cannot here be
+touched.
+
+Meantime, from the teacher's standpoint, there can be no question at
+all, among those who look upon education as something more than a
+commercial asset, as to the utility of looking on every old town, with
+the neighbourhood around it, as a condensed record, here and there
+perfect, elsewhere lamentably blotted, yet still a record, of the
+history of our race. Historic memories survive in our villages far more
+widely than is thought. The descendants of the man who found the body of
+Rufus in the New Forest still live hard by. The builder whom the first
+William set to build Corfe Castle was Stephen Mowlem; and the
+Dorsetshire firm of Mowlem still pave London causeways. A poor woman in
+a remote hamlet, untouched by tourist or guide-book, has shown me the
+ash-tree under which Monmouth was seized after Sedgemoor; a Suffolk
+peasant, equally innocent of book-knowledge, has pointed Out "Bloody
+Mary's lane," through which that bugbear of Protestants passed three
+hundred years before on her way to Framlingham. The abbey immortalised
+in Carlyle's "Past and Present," and still the wonder of Eastern
+England, is surrounded now by the same villages that Jocelyn tells us
+of. The town named after St. Alban, with its memories of Cassivellaun
+and Julius Caesar, of an old Roman city, of the Diocletian persecution,
+of the great King Offa, founder of the abbey that was to become [Page:
+142] at once a school of historical research, and our best epitome of
+mediaeval architecture--all this, with the monument of the author of the
+"Novum Organum" crowning the whole--sums up for us sixteen centuries of
+history.
+
+Professor Geddes for more than twenty years has adopted this method of
+teaching sociology in the open air; "in the field," as geologists would
+say....
+
+This is much more than the study and the description of buildings and
+places of historical interest. His aim is first to study the way in
+which a city grows, always having due regard to its physical
+environment; secondly, by comparing like with like, as a naturalist
+compares the individuals of a species, or the species of a genus, to
+throw light on the laws which govern civic development, and thus to help
+forward and direct civic action.
+
+All this is set forth with greater fulness in the Report which Professor
+Geddes has been asked to write for the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust. The
+purpose of the Report (printed, but not yet published) was to suggest
+the way in which the revenue of the Trust, amounting to £25,000, should
+be spent for the benefit of this ancient and historic town. The scheme,
+with its many pictures, real and ideal, of workshops, parks,
+culture-institutes--physical, artistic, and historical--will deeply
+interest even those who reject much of it as Utopian. But it is at least
+a Utopia specially adapted to a given place and time, one in which every
+feature of landscape and history is made the most of, one in which a
+beginning can be made at once, leaving room for further developments as
+occasion may serve. Moreover, it is penetrated through and through with
+the Republican ideal of bringing the highest truth within the reach of
+all.
+
+Comte has pointed out, in the fifth chapter of his "General View of
+Positivism," and elsewhere, that it is not enough to enunciate sound
+principles of social renovation unless they can be rendered visible and
+palpable. "The principal function of art," he says, "is to construct
+types on the basis furnished by Science.... However perfectly the first
+principles of social renovation may be elaborated by thinkers, they will
+still not be sufficiently definite for the practical results.... But, at
+the point where Philosophy must always leave a void, Art steps in, and
+stimulates to practical action.... Hence, in the future, systematic
+formation of Utopias will become habitual; on the distinct understanding
+that as in every other branch of art, the ideal shall be kept in
+subordination to the real."
+
+Now, the Dunfermline Report is an admirable example of art thus allied
+with science for social service. It is an ideal picture, strictly
+adherent to local colour and conditions, of an ancient city prolonging
+its vitality into the present and future by providing a very high form
+of training for its citizens, a training not of intellect only, but of
+the senses, of manual dexterity, of imagination, of Republican
+sympathy--a training in which "laborious inacquaintance with dead
+languages," infusing into the few touched by it a tincture of caste and
+militarism, gives way to comprehensive study of the evolution of Man,
+preparing the whole, and not a section merely, of the new generation for
+social service.
+
+Such a Utopia as this may be looked upon as fulfilling the true social
+function of Art; standing midway between theory and practice; inspired
+by thought, and stimulating action. Only the social artist has to look
+to it that his thoughts be not merely true but adequate, lest he
+degenerate into a mere decorator. How far will a series of "regional
+surveys," like those of [Page: 143] Mr. Booth in London and Mr. Rowntree
+in York, carry us! Not so far, I fear, as Professor Geddes seems to
+hope. Cities in our modern life are organs inseparable from a larger
+whole, the nation; and before the life of cities can be much changed, we
+have to ask ourselves, What is the national life? What is its ethical
+and religious standard? What is its practice as to the acquisition and
+distribution of wealth? And, again, What is to be the intercourse of
+nations? Is it to be war or peace?
+
+Mr. Carnegie has given half a million for the benefit of a town of
+30,000 inhabitants. Magnificent as the donation is, it is not too much;
+not nearly enough, indeed, for the full realisation of Professor Geddes'
+scheme. Still, wisely used, it might accomplish great results. What we
+have recently sunk in the work of suppressing two free States in South
+Africa would have made it possible to do for three hundred towns what
+has been done for Dunfermline. Half of what we are now spending on our
+army and navy would enable us to endow thirty more of such towns
+annually.
+
+Mr. ISRAEL ZANGWILL in _To-day_ (Aug. 10, 1904), said: The Sociological
+Society is forging ahead at American speed; the professors jostle one
+another, and Geddes treads on the heels of Galton. After "Eugenics," or
+the Science of Good Births, comes "Civics," or the Science of Cities. In
+the former Mr. Galton was developing an idea which was in the air, and
+in Wells. In the latter Professor Geddes has struck out a more novel
+line, and a still more novel nomenclature. Politography, Politogenics,
+and Eu-Politogenics, likewise Hebraomorphic and Latinomorphic and
+Eutopia--quite an opposite idea from Utopia--such are some of the
+additions to the dictionary which the science of Civics carries in its
+train. They are all excellent words--with the double-barrelled
+exception--and still more excellent concepts. But I fancy the general
+idea of them all could be conveyed to the man in the street under the
+covering of "the human shell." This shell of ours is the city. It is the
+protective crust we have built round ourselves. In a smaller sense our
+house is our shell, but in a larger sense each house is only a lobe of
+the complex and contorted whole. Geography shapes our shells from
+without, and the spirit of our particular community shapes it from
+within. History tells us how it has been shaped in the past, Art tells
+us how it should be shaped in the future. Professor Geddes, in fact,
+envisages our civic shell as becomes a brilliant biologist, who also
+happens to be a man of historic imagination, ethical impulses, and
+aesthetic perceptions. For the human shell is not merely geometrical and
+architectural, like those of apian or beaverish communities; it holds
+and expresses all those differences by which we are exalted above the
+bee or the beaver. It is coloured with our emotions and ideals, and
+contorted with all the spirals of our history. And all these
+manifestations of humanity may be studied as systematically as those of
+the lower orders of creation, which have till recently monopolised the
+privilege of pin and label. The old lady who admired the benevolence of
+Providence in always placing rivers by the side of large towns was only
+expressing in an exaggerated way the general failure to think of Civics
+scientifically. The geographers, in whom may be found the bases of the
+science, have always pointed out that the river system is the essential
+unit for investigation. From source to sea goes the line of evolution.
+And yet even the peasant hamlet at the source depends, as [Page: 144]
+Professor Geddes reminds us, on the hinterland of pasture, forest, and
+chase; and the hunter is the germ of the soldier and the aristocrat. The
+whole region contributes to the ultimate city, as the whole river to the
+ultimate sea. The Professor says, justly enough, that we should try to
+recover the elemental or naturalist point of view, even for the greatest
+cities. He sees London as "fundamentally an agglomeration of villages
+with their surviving patches of common around a mediaeval seaport." This
+is accurate vision; but when he discerns "even in the utmost
+magnificence of Paris, say, its Place de l'Etoile, its spread of
+boulevards, but the hunter's tryst by the fallen tree, with its
+radiating forest rides, each literally straight," I cannot help
+suspecting the over-ingenuity of a prolific intellect. The view of
+London as a growth from embryos, and the view of Paris as the outcome of
+atavistic instinct, belong to different planes of scientific thinking.
+That Haussmann in reconstructing Paris was merely an unconscious hunter
+and woodlander, building as automatically as a bee, is a fantastic
+hypothesis; since cities, if they are to be built on a plan at all,
+cannot avoid some unifying geometrical pattern; and there are not very
+many possibilities.... In the department of Eu-Politogenics we shall be
+confronted with the problem of consciously overriding what evolution has
+unconsciously evolved, and building towards a fairer future. No doubt
+much of our creation will be imitation, and Professor Geddes is
+particularly suggestive in bidding us, at least, to be aware which of
+the tangled strands of influence we desire to follow; but a measure of
+artistic free-will remains. With the development of a corporate
+conscience we should be able to turn out far more satisfactory shells
+than many that have blundered into being. "Garden City" is only a
+particular application of the science of Civics....
+
+Eu-Politogenics concerns itself, however, with more than the mere
+configuration of our human shell. Its colour and the music it holds are
+considerations no less important. But they are too important to touch at
+the fag-end of an article. Professor Geddes must, however, be
+congratulated on a stimulating paper, and upon his discovery of Eutopia.
+For Eutopia (unlike Utopia, which is really Ou-topia, or no place) is
+merely your own place perfected. And the duty of working towards its
+perfection lies directly upon _you_. "Civics--as applied sociology"
+comes to show you the way.
+
+
+
+
+CIVICS: AS CONCRETE AND APPLIED SOCIOLOGY, PART II
+
+BY PROFESSOR GEDDES
+
+Read before the Sociological Society at a Meeting in the School of
+Economics and Political Science (University of London), Clare Market,
+W.C., on Monday, January 23rd, 1905, the Rt. Hon. CHARLES BOOTH, F.R.S.,
+in the Chair.
+
+
+A--INTRODUCTION: THE NEED OF CIVIC SURVEYS
+
+To the previous discussion of this subject[2] the first portion of this
+present title, "Civics as Concrete Sociology," would have been more
+suitable than the second, (that of "Civics as Applied Sociology")
+actually used. For its aim was essentially to plead for the concrete
+survey and study of cities, their observation and interpretation on
+lines essentially similar to those of the natural sciences. Since
+Comte's demonstration of the necessity of the preliminary sciences to
+social studies, and Spencer's development of this, still more since the
+evolution theory has become generally recognised, no one disputes the
+applicability of biology to [Page: 58] sociology. Many are, indeed,
+vigorously applying the conceptions of life in evolution, in
+geographical distribution and environment, in health and disease, to the
+interpretations of the problems of the times; while with the
+contemporary rise of eugenics to the first plane of interest, both
+social and scientific, these lines of thought, bio-social and
+bio-geographic, must needs be increasingly utilised and developed.
+
+[2] "Sociological Papers," Vol 1., pp. 103-118.
+
+But Comte and Spencer, with most other biologically-minded sociologists
+have been more at home among biological generalisations and theories
+than among the facts they arise from, and hence it is ever needful to
+maintain and extend a first-hand contact with these. I seek, therefore,
+to press home the idea that just as the biologist must earn his
+generalisations through direct and first-hand acquaintance with nature,
+so now must the sociologist work for his generalisations through a
+period of kindred observation and analysis, both geographic and
+historical; his "general laws" thus appearing anew as the abstract of
+regional facts, after due comparison of these as between region and
+region.
+
+May not much of the comparative sterility of post-Comtean (or at any
+rate post-Spencerian) sociology, which is so commonly reproached to us,
+and to which the difficult formation and slow growth of sociological
+societies and schools is largely due, be thus explained? Is it not the
+case that many able and persuasive writers, not only knowing the
+results, but logically using the generalisations of Comte or Spencer, as
+of old of Smith or now-a-days of List in the economic field, are yet
+comparatively sterile of fresh contributions to thought, and still more
+to action? In fact, must we not apply to much of the literature of
+recent sociology, just as to traditional economics, the criticism of
+Comte's well-known law of three states, and inquire if such writers,
+while apparently upon the plane of generalised science, are not really
+in large measure at least arrested upon Comte's "metaphysical stage,"
+Mill's "abstractional" one?
+
+Conversely, the revival of sociological interest in this country at
+present is obviously very largely derived from fresh and freshening work
+like that of Mr Francis Galton and of the Right Hon. Charles Booth
+especially. For here in Mr. Galton's biometrics and eugenics is a return
+to nature, a keen scrutiny of human beings, which is really an orderly
+fruition of that of the same author's "Art of Travel." Similarly, Mr.
+Booth's "Survey of London" is as truly a return to nature as was
+Darwin's Voyage, or his yet more far-reaching studies in his garden and
+farmyard at home. [Page: 59] Is it not the main support of the subtle
+theorisings and far-stretched polemic of Prof. Weismann that he can
+plague his adversaries with the small but literal and concrete mice and
+hydroids and water fleas with which his theories began? And is it not
+for a certain lack of such concrete matter of observation that the vast
+systematisations of M. de Greef, or M. de Roberty, or the original and
+ingenious readings of Prof. Simon Patten leave us too often unconvinced,
+even if not sometimes without sufficiently definite understanding of
+their meaning? The simplest of naturalists must feel that Comte or
+Spencer, despite the frequently able use of the generalisations of
+biology, themselves somewhat lacked the first-hand observation of the
+city and community around them, and suffered thereby; this part of their
+work obviously not being on a level with the historic interpretations of
+the one or the psychological productivity of the other. And if, without
+warlike intent, I may yet strike a conspicuous shield or two within
+these friendly lists, is it not this one element of concrete observation
+and illustration which is sometimes lacking to give its full effect to
+the encyclopædic learning and the sympathetic insight of one of our
+recent papers, to the historic and poetic interpretations of another, or
+to the masterly logic of a third?
+
+Before the polemics of our educationists, the voluminous argumentation
+and casuistic subtlety of our professors of economics and ethics, yet
+more before the profound speculations of the epistemologists, the mere
+naturalist observer can but feel abashed like the truant before his
+schoolmasters; yet he is also not without a certain deep inward
+conviction, born of experience, that his outdoor world is yet more real,
+more vast, and more instructive than is theirs. And this impression
+becomes strengthened, nay verified and established, when he sees that
+the initiative thinkers from whom these claim to descend, have had in
+each and every case no merely academic record, but also a first-hand
+experience, an impulse and message from life and nature. Hence the
+contributions of Locke, of Comenius, and of Rousseau. Hence the
+Physiocrats found economics in peasant life; and thus too Adam Smith
+renewed their science, with due academic logic, doubtless, but from his
+experience of Glasgow and Kirkcaldy manufactures and trade. Even the
+idealist Berkeley owed much of his theory to his iridescent tar-water;
+while surely the greater ethicists are those who have not only been
+dialecticians, but moral forces in the world of men.
+
+In such ways, then, I would justify the thesis that civics is no
+abstract study, but fundamentally a matter of concrete and descriptive
+sociology--perhaps the greatest field of this. Next, that such orderly
+study is in line with the preliminary sciences, and with the general
+doctrine of evolution from simple to complex; and finally with the
+general inquiry into the influence of geographical conditions on social
+development. [Page: 60] In short, the student of civics must be first of
+all an observer of cities; and, if so, of their origins and
+developments, from the small and simple beginnings of which the tiniest
+hamlet is but an arrested germ. The productive sociologist should thus
+be of all investigators a wandering student _par excellence_; in the
+first place, as far as possible, a literal tourist and traveller--and
+this although like the homely Gilbert White or the world voyaging
+Darwin, he may do his best work around his own home.
+
+
+B--INITIAL METHODS OF CONCRETE SURVEY
+
+Hence our civic studies began (vol. 1, p. 105) with the survey of a
+valley region inhabited by its characteristic types--hunter and
+shepherd, peasant and fisher--each on his own level, each evolving or
+degenerating within his own region. Hence the concrete picture of such a
+typical valley section with its types of occupation cannot be brought
+too clearly before our minds.[3]
+
+[3] Fig. 1.
+
+What now of the causes of progress or decay? Are not these first of all
+the qualities and defects inherent in that particular social
+formation?--though we must also consider how these different types act
+and react, how they combine with, transform, subjugate, ruin or replace
+each other in region after region. We thus re-interpret the vicissitudes
+of history in more general terms, those of the differentiation, progress
+or degeneracy of each occupational and social type, and the ascending
+and descending oscillations of these types. In short, these occupational
+struggles underlie and largely interpret even the conflict of races,
+upon which Mr. Stuart-Glennie and other sociologists have so ably
+insisted. The fundamental importance of these initial factors of region
+and occupation to all studies of races and types, of communities and
+institutions, of customs and laws, indeed of language and literature, of
+religion and art, even of ideals and individualities, must be my excuse
+if I seem to insist, in season and out of season, upon [Page: 61] the
+services of Le Play as one of the main founders of sociology; and this
+not only _(a)_ on account of his monographic surveys of modern
+industrial life--those "Monographies Sociales" from which our current
+economic studies of the condition of the worker, of the family budget,
+etc., descend--but _(b)_ yet more on account of his vital reconstruction
+of anthropology (albeit still far from adequately realised by most
+anthropologists) through his renewed insistence upon the elemental
+rustic origins of industry, family types, and social organisation alike,
+from these simplest reactions of man in his struggle for existence in
+varied and varying environment.
+
+It does not suffice to recognise, with many economists, hunting,
+pastoral and agricultural formations, as states _preliminary_ to our
+present industrial and commercial, imperial, and financial order of
+civilisation. This view, still too commonly surviving, is rather of
+hindrance than help; what we need is to see our existing civilisation as
+the complex struggle and resultant of all these types and their
+developments to-day. So far, therefore, from leaving, as at present,
+these simple occupational types to the anthropologist, or at best giving
+him some scant hospitality within our city museum, we are learning to
+see how it is at one time the eager miner, or the conservative shepherd,
+or at another the adventurous fisher or hunter who comes concretely upon
+the first plane of national, imperial or international politics, and who
+awakens new strife among these. We not only begin to see, but the
+soldier frankly tells us, how the current sports of youth, and the
+unprecedented militarism of the past century, are alike profoundly
+connected with the hunting world. Hence the hope of peace lies not only,
+as most at present think in the civilised and civilising development of
+international law, or of culture intercourse, excellent though these
+are, but also in a fuller and complete return to nature than has been
+this recent and persistent obsession of our governing classes with the
+hunter world almost alone; in short, in adding the gentler, yet wider,
+experiences of the naturalist, the sterner experiences of other
+occupations also. Nor does such elementary recognition of these main
+social formations content us; their local differentiations must be noted
+and compared--a comprehensive regional survey, therefore, which does
+justice to each local variety of these great types; speaking henceforth
+of no mere abstract "hunter," but of the specific hunting types of each
+climate, and distinguishing these as clearly as do our own milder
+sportsmen of deer-forest and the turnip field from themselves and from
+each other. After such needed surveys in detail, we may, indeed must,
+compare and generalise them.
+
+Similarly for the pasture, the forest. Every tourist in this country is
+struck by the contrast of Swiss towns and cities with our own, and notes
+[Page: 62] too that on the Swiss pasture he finds a horde of cattle,
+while in Scotland or Yorkshire he left a flock of sheep. And not only
+the tourist, but the historian or the economist too often fail to see
+how Galashiels or Bradford are developments of the wool hamlet, now
+familiar to many in R.L. Stevenson's native Swanston. Again, not only
+Swiss wealth, but Swiss character and institutions, go back essentially
+to the high pasture and the well-filled byre. That this rich Swiss
+cow-pasture rests on limestone, and the poor Scottish sheep-grazing upon
+comparatively unmouldering and impermeable gneiss, is no mere matter of
+geologist's detail; it affords in each case the literal and concrete
+foundation-stone of the subsequent evolution of each region and
+population, and this not only in material and economic development, but
+even in higher and subtler outcomes, aesthetic, intellectual and
+moral.[4] It is for such reasons that one must labour and re-labour this
+geographic and determinist aspect of sociology, and this for no merely
+scientific reason, but also for practical ones. Nowhere perhaps have
+more good and generous souls considered how to better the condition of
+their people than in Swiss, or Irish, or Scottish valleys; yet it is one
+main reason of the continual failure of all such movements, and of such
+minds in the wider world as well, that they do not first acquaint
+themselves with the realities of nature and labour sufficiently to
+appreciate that the fundamental--I do not say the supreme--question is:
+what can be got out of limestone, and what can be got out of gneiss?
+Hence the rare educative value of such a concrete sociological diagram
+and model as was the Swiss Village at the Paris Exposition of 1900, for
+here geographic and economic knowledge and insight were expressed with
+artistic skill and sympathy as perhaps never before. Only as similar
+object-lessons are worked out for other countries, can we adequately
+learn, much less popularly teach, how from nature comes "rustics," and
+from this comes civics. But civics and rustics make up the field of
+politics; they are the concrete of which politics become the
+abstract--commonly the too remotely abstract.
+
+[4] For a fuller justification of this thesis as regards Switzerland,
+see the writer's "International Exhibitions," in _International
+Monthly_, October, 1900.
+
+For final illustration, let us descend to the sea-level. There again,
+taking the fisher, each regional type must be traced in his contribution
+to his town. Take for instance the salmon fisher of Norway, the whaler
+of Dundee, the herring-fisher of Yarmouth, the cod-fisher of
+Newfoundland, the coral fisher of the Ægean; each is a definite varietal
+type, one developing or at least tending to develop characteristic
+normal family relations, and corresponding social outcomes in
+institutions; in which again the appropriate qualities and defects must
+be expressed, even as is the quality and twist of the hemp in the
+strength of the cable, or as is the chemistry and the microscopic
+structure of the alloy in the efficiency of the great gun. [Page: 63]
+Our neighbouring learned societies and museums geographical, geological
+and the rest, are thus avowedly and consciously so many winter shelters
+in which respective groups of regional surveyors tell their tales and
+compare their observations, in which they meet to compare their
+generalisations from their own observations made in the field with those
+made by others. So it must increasingly be for this youngest of
+societies. We may, we should, know best our Thames valley, our London
+basin, our London survey; but the progress of our science implies as
+increasingly varied and thorough an inquiry into rustic and civic
+regions and occupations and resultants throughout the whole world
+present and past, as does the corresponding world survey with our
+geologic neighbours.
+
+I plead then for a sociological survey, rustic and civic, region by
+region, and insist in the first place upon the same itinerant field
+methods of notebook and camera, even for museum collections and the
+rest, as those of the natural sciences. The dreary manuals which have
+too long discredited those sciences in our schools, are now giving place
+to a new and fascinating literature of first-hand nature study.
+Similarly, those too abstract manuals of civics which are at present
+employed in schools[5] must be replaced by concrete and regional ones,
+their abstract counsels of political or personal perfection thus also
+giving place to a corresponding regional idealism which may then be
+supplemented from other regions as far as needs demand and circumstances
+allow.
+
+[5] For a fuller review of these, compare the writer's "City
+Development," in _Contemporary Review_, October, 1904.
+
+C--GEOGRAPHICAL DETERMINISM AND ITS DIFFICULTIES
+
+To interpret then our tangle of ideas, both of the city and its
+citizens, let us now bring more fully to our transverse valley sections,
+and to each occupation separately, the geographical view-point which we
+have found of service to elucidate the development of towns and cities
+upon its longitudinal [Page: 64] slope. But this is neither more nor
+less than the method of Montesquieu, whose classic "Esprit des Lois"
+anticipates and initiates so much of that of later writers--Ritter,
+Buckle, Taine, or Le Play. Once more then let their common, or rather
+their resultant, doctrine be stated in terms expressing the latest of
+these more fully than the first. Given the region, its character
+determines the nature of the fundamental occupation, and this in turn
+essentially determines the type of family. The nature and method of the
+occupation must normally determine the mode of its organisation, e.g.,
+the rise and character of a specialised directive class, and the nature
+of these occupational chiefs as contrasted with the people and with each
+other. Similarly, the types of family tend to develop their appropriate
+types of institutions, e.g., for justice, guidance, and of course
+notably in response to social environment as regards defence or attack.
+
+Thus at this point in fact we seem to be pressing upon the student of
+sociology the essential argument of geographical and evolutionary
+determinism, in fact inviting him to adopt a view, indeed to commit
+himself to a method, which may be not only foreign to his habits, but
+repugnant to his whole view of life and history. And if able advocacy of
+this determinist view of society for at least the past five generations
+has not carried general conviction, why raise so controversial a
+suggestion, in the guise too of a method professing to harmonise all
+comers? Yet this is advisedly done; and as no one will deny some civil
+importance to geographical factors, let patience be granted to examine
+this aspect of the city's map and shield, and to get from it what it can
+teach, under the present assurance to the philosophic and idealist
+critic that his view of other factors, higher and deeper, as supreme in
+human life, and therefore in city making, will not be forgotten, nor
+excluded from consideration when we come to them. All that is really
+insisted upon here is that if anything of naturalistic method of
+evolutionary conception is to be permitted at all, we must obviously
+proceed from this simple towards the more complex, and so begin with it
+here and now.
+
+It is the appropriate slope or steppe, the needful rainfall, that
+conditions the growth of grass, this which conditions the presence of
+herds or flocks, and these again which determine the very existence of
+shepherds. These granted then, not only do the pastoral arts and crafts
+arise, but the patriarchal type and family develop, and this not only
+with their hospitality and other virtues, with their nomadic tendencies,
+at any rate, their unfixed land-tenure, very different from the
+peasant's, but their slow and skilful [Page: 65] diplomacy (till the
+pasture is bared or grown again, as the negotiator's interests incline).
+The patriarch in his venerable age, the caravaneer in his nomadic and
+exploring youth, his disciplined maturity, thus naturally develop as
+different types of chief and leader; and it is therefore not until this
+stage, when all is ready for the entry of Abraham or Job, of Mohammed
+the camel-driver, or Paul the tent-maker, that any real controversy can
+arise between the determinist and his opponent, between the democratic
+and the great-man theories of history, towards which these respectively
+incline.[6] And at that stage, may not the controversy stimulate a
+fruitful analysis? After all, what is the claim of free-will but to
+select among the factors afforded by a given set of circumstances? And
+the utmost stretch of determinism to which geography and civics may lead
+us obviously cannot prove the negative of this. But whether the
+psychologic origins of new ideals be internal to the mind of genius, or
+imparted by some external source, is a matter obviously beyond the scope
+of either the geographer or the historian of civics to settle. Enough
+surely for both controversialists if we use such a means of tabulating
+facts as to beg the question for neither view; and still better if we
+can present the case of each without injustice to either, nay, to each
+with its clearness increased by the sharp edge of contrast. If the
+geographical determinist thesis on one hand, and its ethical and
+psychological antithesis on the other, can thus clearly be defined and
+balanced, their working equilibrium is at hand, even should their
+complete synthesis remain beyond us.
+
+[6] A fuller study, upon this method, of the essential origins of
+pastoral evolution, and of its characteristic modern developments, will
+be found in the writer's "Flower of the Grass," in _The Evergreen_,
+Edinburgh and Westminster, 1896. See also "La Science Sociale,"
+_passim_, especially in its earlier vols. or its number for Jan. 1905.
+
+
+D--NEED OF ABSTRACT METHOD FOR NOTATION AND FOR INTERPRETATION
+
+Not only such general geographical studies, but such social
+interpretations as those above indicated have long been in progress:
+witness the labours of whole schools of historians and critics, among
+whom Montsquieu and his immediate following, or in more recent times
+Buckle and Taine, are but the most prominent; witness the works of
+geographers like Humboldt, Ritter, Reclus, or of developmental
+technologists like Boucher de Perthes and regional economists like Le
+Play. The main lines of a concrete and evolutionary sociology (or at
+[Page: 66] least _sociography_) have thus been laid down for us; but the
+task now before us, in our time, in such a society as this--and indeed
+in such a paper as the present one--its that of extracting from all this
+general teaching its essential scientific method, one everywhere latent
+and implicit, but nowhere fully explicit, or at least adequately
+systematised.
+
+It is in fact only as we can agree upon some definite and orderly method
+of description that our existing literature of social surveys can be
+adequately compared or new ones co-operatively undertaken. Hence the
+importance of discussions of scientific method such as those who have so
+largely occupied our first volume. Yet, I submit, here lies the means of
+escaping from these too abstract (and consequently too static)
+presentments of the general methodology of social science into which
+sociologists are constantly falling; and to which must be largely
+ascribed the prevalent distaste for sociology so general in this
+would-be practical-minded community in which we find ourselves, as
+indeed also the comparative unattractiveness of our studies to the body
+of specialist scientific workers, not even excepting those within what
+we consider sociological fields.
+
+The history of each science, be it mathematics or astronomy, botany,
+zoology or geology, shows us that it is not enough to have the
+intelligent observer, or even the interpretative thinker with his
+personally expressed doctrine. This must be clearly crystallised into a
+definite statement, method, proposition, "law" or theory, stated in
+colourless impersonal form before it is capable of acceptance and
+incorporation into the general body of science. But while astronomer and
+geologist and naturalist can and do describe both the observational
+results and their general conceptions in literary form, requiring from
+the ordinary reader but the patience to master a few unfamiliar terms
+and ideas, they also carry on their work by help of definite and orderly
+technical methods, descriptive and comparative, analytic and synthetic.
+These, as far as possible, have to be crystallised beyond their mere
+verbal statement into formulae, into tabular and graphic presentments,
+and thus not only acquire greater clearness of statement, but become
+more and more active agencies of inquiry--in fact, become literal
+_thinking-machines_. But while the mathematician has his notations and
+his calculus, the geographer and geologist their maps, reliefs and
+sections, the naturalist his orderly classificatory methods, it has been
+the misfortune and delay of political economy, and no small cause of
+that "notorious discord and sterility" with which Comte reproached it,
+that [Page: 67] its cultivators have so commonly sought to dispense with
+the employment of any definite scientific notations; while even its
+avowed statisticians, in this country especially, have long resisted the
+consistent use of graphic methods.
+
+I submit, therefore, for discussion, as even more urgent and pressing
+than that of the general and abstract methodology of the social
+sciences, the problem of elaborating a concrete descriptive method
+readily applicable to the study and comparison of human societies, to
+cities therefore especially. To do justice to this subject, not only the
+descriptive labours of anthropologists, but much of the literature of
+sociology would have to be gone through from the "Tableau Economique" of
+the Physiocratic School to the "Sociological Tables" of Mr. Spencer, and
+still more fruitfully to more recent writers. Among these, besides here
+recognising specially the work of Mr. Booth and its stimulus to younger
+investigators, I would acknowledge the helpful and suggestive impulse
+from the group of social geographers which has arisen from the
+initiative of Le Play[7], and whose classification, especially in its
+later forms[8], cannot but be of interest and value to everyone whose
+thought on social questions is not afloat upon the ocean of the abstract
+without chart or bearings.
+
+[7] La Nomenclature Sociale (Extrait de La Revue, "La Science Sociale,"
+Dec. 1886) Paris, Firmin-Diact, 1887.
+
+[8] Demoulins, La Science Sociale d'apres F. Le Play 1882-1905;
+Classification Sociale, "La Science Sociale," Jan. 1905.
+
+Yet with all respect to each and all these classifications and methods,
+indeed with cordially acknowledge personal obligation and indebtedness
+to them from first to last, no one of these seems fully satisfactory for
+the present purpose; and it is therefore needful to go into the matter
+afresh for ourselves, though utilising these as fully as we can.
+
+
+E--THE CITY-COMPLEX AND ITS USUAL ANALYSIS
+
+In the everyday world, in the city as we find it, what is the working
+classification of ideas, the method of thought of its citizens? That
+the citizens no more think of themselves as using any particular
+sociological method than did M. Jourdain of talking prose does not
+really matter, save that it makes our observation, both of them and it,
+easier and more trustworthy.
+
+They are speaking and thinking for the most part of [Page: 68] People
+and of Affairs; much less of places. In the category of People, we
+observe that individuals, self and others, and this in interest, perhaps
+even more than in interests, commonly take precedence of groups.
+Institutions and Government are, however, of general interest, the state
+being much more prominent than is the church; the press, for many,
+acting as the modern substitute for the latter. In the world of Affairs,
+commerce takes precedence of industry, while sport runs hard upon both.
+War, largely viewed by its distant spectators as the most vivid form of
+sport, also bulks largely. Peace is not viewed as a positive ideal, but
+essentially as a passive state, at best, of non-war, more generally of
+latent war. Central among places are the bank, the market (in its
+financial forms before the material ones). Second to these stand the
+mines then the factories, etc.; and around these the fixed or floating
+fortresses of defence. Of homes, that of the individual alone is
+seriously considered, at most those of his friends, his "set," his
+peers, but too rarely even of the street, much less the neighbourhood,
+at least for their own sake, as distinguished from their reaction upon
+individual and family status or comfort.
+
+This set of views is obviously not easy of precise analysis of exact
+classification. In broad outline, however, a summary may be made, and
+even tabulated as follows:--
+
+THE EVERYDAY TOWN AND ITS ACTIVITIES.
+
+PEOPLE                    AFFAIRS                    PLACES
+(a) INDIVIDUALS        (a) COMMERCE          (a) MARKET, BANK, etc.
+(Self and others).         INDUSTRY, etc.        FACTORY, MINE, etc.
+                           SPORT.
+
+(b) GOVERNMENT(S)      (b) WAR               (b) FORT, FIELD, etc.
+Temporal and Spiritual  and Peace
+(State and Church).    (Latent War).
+
+Next note how from the everyday world of action, there arises a
+corresponding thought-world also. This has,
+[Page: 69] of course, no less numerous
+and varied elements, with its resultantly complex local colour; But a
+selection will suffice, of which the headings may be printed below those
+of the preceding scheme, to denote how to the objective elements there
+are subjective elements corresponding--literal reflections upon the
+pools of memory--the slowly flowing stream of tradition. Thus the
+extended diagram, its objective elements expressed in yet more general
+terms, may now be read anew (noting that mirror images are fully
+reversed).
+
+
+              PEOPLE                AFFAIRS           PLACES
+
+"TOWN"    (a) INDIVIDUALS      (a) OCCUPATIONS      (a) WORK-PLACES
+          (b) INSTITUTIONS     (b) WAR              (b) WAR-PLACES
+
+"SCHOOLS" (b) HISTORY          (b) STATISTICS AND   (b) GEOGRAPHY
+            ("Constitutional")     HISTORY
+                                 ("Military")
+          (a) BIOGRAPHY       (a) ECONOMICS         (a) TOPOGRAPHY
+
+
+Here then we have that general relation of the town life and its
+"schools," alike of thought and of education, which must now be fully
+investigated.
+
+Such diagrammatic presentments, while of course primarily for the
+purpose of clear expression and comparison, are also frequently
+suggestive--by "inspection," as geometers say--of relations not
+previously noticed. In both ways, we may see more clearly how prevalent
+ideas and doctrines have arisen as "reflections upon" the life of
+action, and even account for their qualities and their defects--their
+partial truth or their corresponding inadequacy, according to our own
+appreciative or depreciative standpoint. Thus as regards "People," in
+the first column we see expressed briefly how to (a) the individual
+life, with the corresponding vivid interest in biography, corresponds
+the "great man theory" of history. Conversely with _(b)_ alone is
+associated the insistance upon institutional developments as the main
+factor. Passing to the middle column, that of "Affairs," we may note in
+connection with _(b)_ say the rise of statistics in association with
+the needs of war, a point connected with its too empiric character; or
+note again, a too common converse weakness of economic theory, its
+inadequate inductive [Page: 70] verification. Or finally, in the column
+of "Place," the long weakness of geography as an educational subject,
+yet is periodic renewal upon the field of war, is indicated. We might in
+fact continue such a comparison of the existing world of action and of
+ideas, into all the schools, those of thought and practice, no less than
+those of formal instruction; and thus we should more and more clearly
+unravel how their complexity and entanglement, their frequent
+oppositions and contradictions are related to the various and warring
+elements of the manifold "Town" life from which they derive and survive.
+Such a fuller discussion, however, would too long delay the immediate
+problem--that of understanding "Town" and its "School" in their origins
+and simplest relations.
+
+
+F--PROPOSED METHODICAL ANALYSIS
+
+(1) THE TOWN
+
+More fully to understand this two-fold development of Town and School we
+have first of all apparently to run counter to the preceding popular
+view, which is here, as in so many cases, the precise opposite of that
+reached from the side of science. This, as we have already so fully
+insisted, must set out with geography, thus literally _replacing_ People
+and Affairs in our scheme above.
+
+Starting then once more with the simple biological formula:
+
+
+     ENVIRONMENT ... CONDITIONS ... ORGANISM
+
+this has but to be applied and defined by the social geographer to
+become
+
+
+     REGION ... OCCUPATION ... FAMILY-type and Developments
+
+which summarises precisely that doctrine of Montesquieu and his
+successors already insisted on. Again, in but slight variation from Le
+Play's simplest phrasing _("Lieu, travail, famille")_ we have
+
+
+     PLACE ... WORK ... FOLK
+
+It is from this simple and initial social formula that we have now to
+work our way to a fuller understanding of Town and School. [Page: 71]
+Immediately, therefore, this must be traced upward towards its
+complexities. For Place, it is plain, is no mere topographic site. Work,
+conditioned as it primarily is by natural advantages, is thus really
+first of all _place-work_. Arises the field or garden, the port, the
+mine, the workshop, in fact the _work-place_, as we may simply
+generalise it; while, further, beside this arise the dwellings, the
+_folk-place_.
+
+Nor are these by any means all the elements we are accustomed to lump
+together into Town. As we thus cannot avoid entering into the manifold
+complexities of town-life throughout the world and history, we must
+carry along with us the means of unravelling these; hence the value of
+this simple but precise nomenclature and its regular schematic use.
+Thus, while here keeping to simple words in everyday use, we may employ
+and combine them to analyse out our Town into its elements and their
+inter-relations with all due exactitude, instead of either leaving our
+common terms undefined, or arbitrarily defining them anew, as economists
+have alternately done--too literally losing or shirking essentials of
+Work in the above formula, and with these missing essentials of Folk and
+Place also.
+
+Tabular and schematic presentments, however, such as those to which we
+are proceeding, are apt to be less simple and satisfactory to reader
+than to writer; and this even when in oral exposition the very same
+diagram has been not only welcomed as clear, but seen and felt to be
+convincing. The reason of this difficulty is that with the spoken
+exposition the audience sees the diagram grow upon the blackboard;
+whereas to produce anything of the same effect upon the page, it must be
+printed at several successive stages of development. Thus our initial
+formula,
+
+
+     PLACE ... WORK ... FOLK
+
+readily develops into
+
+                                                    FOLK
+
+    PLACE-WORK                WORK               FOLK-WORK
+(Natural advantages)                            (Occupation)
+
+       PLACE
+
+This again naturally develops into a regular table, of which the [Page:
+72] filling up of some of the squares has been already suggested above,
+and that of the remaining ones will be intelligible on inspection:--
+
+   PLACE FOLK           WORK-FOLK             FOLK
+  ("Natives")         ("Producers")
+
+   PLACE-WORK              WORK             FOLK-WORK
+
+     PLACE              WORK-PLACE         FOLK-PLACE
+
+So complex is the idea of even the simplest Town--even in such a rustic
+germ as the "farm-town" of modern Scottish parlance, the _ton_ of
+place-names without number.
+
+The varying development of the Folk into social classes or castes night
+next be traced, and the influence and interaction of all the various
+factors of Place, Work, and Family tabulated. Suffice it here, however,
+for the present to note that such differentiation does take place,
+without entering into the classification and comparison of the protean
+types of patrician and plebeian throughout geography and history.
+
+
+G--ANALYSIS CONTINUED.--(2) THE SCHOOL
+
+Once and again we have noted how from the everyday life of action--the
+Town proper of our terminology--there arises the corresponding
+subjective world--the _Schools_ of thought, which may express itself
+sooner or later in schools of education. The types of people, their
+kinds and styles of work, their whole environment, all become
+represented in the mind of the community, and these react upon the
+individuals, their activities, their place itself. Thus (the more
+plainly the more the community is a simple and an isolated one, but in
+appreciable measure everywhere and continually) there have obviously
+arisen local turns of thought and modes of speech, ranging from shades
+of accept and idiom to distinctive dialect or language. Similarly, there
+is a characteristic variety of occupational activity, a style of
+workmanship, a way of doing business. There are distinctive [Page: 73]
+manners and customs--there is, in short, a certain recognisable
+likeness, it may be an indefinably subtle or an unmistakably broad and
+general one, which may be traced in faces and costumes, in tongue and
+literature, in courtesy and in conflict, in business and in policy, in
+street and in house, from hovel to palace, from prison to cathedral.
+Thus it is that every folk comes to have its own ways, and every town
+its own school.
+
+While the complex social medium has thus been acquiring its
+characteristic form and composition, a younger generation has been
+arising. In all ways and senses, Heredity is commonly more marked than
+variation--especially when, as in most places at most times, such great
+racial, occupational, environmental transformations occur as those of
+modern cities. In other words, the young folk present not only an
+individual continuity with their organic predecessors which is heredity
+proper, but with their social predecessors also. The elements of organic
+continuity, which we usually think of first of all as organic though of
+course psychic also, are conveniently distinguished as the
+_inheritance_--a term in fact which the biologist seeks to deprive of
+its common economic and social senses altogether, leaving for these the
+term _heritage_, material or immaterial alike. This necessary
+distinction between the inheritance, bodily and mental, and the
+heritage, economic and social, obviously next requires further
+elaboration, and with this further precision of language also. For the
+present, let us leave the term heritage to the economist for the
+material wealth with which he is primarily concerned, and employ the
+term _tradition_ for these immaterial and distinctively social elements
+we are here specially considering. This in fact is no new proposal, but
+really little more than an acceptance of ordinary usage. Broadly
+speaking, tradition is in the life of the community what memory is for
+its individual units. The younger generation, then, not only inherits an
+organic and a psychic diathesis; not only has transmitted to it the
+accumulations, instruments and land of its predecessors, but grows up in
+their tradition also. The importance of imitation in this process, a
+matter of common experience, has been given the fullest sociological
+prominence, by M. Tarde especially.[9] Thanks to these and other
+convergent lines of thought, we no longer consent to look at the
+acquirement of the social tradition as a matter requiring to be imposed
+upon reluctant youth almost entirely from without, and are learning anew
+as of old, with the simplest and the most developed peoples, the
+barbarians and the Greeks, to recognise and respect, and, if it may be,
+to nourish the process of self-instruction, viewed as normal
+accompaniment of each developing being throughout the phases of its
+[Page: 74] organic life, the stages of its social life. Upon the many
+intermediate degrees of advance and decline, however, between these two
+extremes of civilisation, specific institutions for the instruction of
+youth arise, each in some way an artificial substitute, or at least a
+would-be accelerant, for the apprenticeship of imitation in the school
+of experience and the community's tradition, which we term a school in
+the restricted and pedagogic sense. This whole discussion, however, has
+been in order to explain and to justify the present use of the term
+"School" in that wide sense in which the historian of art or
+thought--the sociologist in fact--has ever used the term, while yet
+covering the specialised pedagogic schools of all kinds also.
+
+[9] Tarde, "L'imitation Sociale," and other works.
+
+Once more, then, and in the fullest sense, every folk has its own
+tradition, every town its school.
+
+We need not here discriminate these unique and characteristic elements
+to which the art-historians--say of Venice and of Florence, of Barbizon
+or Glasgow--specially attend from those most widely distributed ones, in
+which the traditions and schools of all towns within the same
+civilisation broadly agree. Indeed, even the most widely distributed of
+these--say from Roman law to modern antiseptic surgery--arose as local
+schools before they became general ones.
+
+Similarly for the general social tradition. The fundamental occupations
+and their division of labour, their differentiation in detail and their
+various interactions up to our own day, at first separately considered,
+are now seen to be closely correlated with the status of woman; while
+all these factors determine not only the mode of union of the parents,
+but their relation to the children, the constitution of the family, with
+which the mode of transmission of property is again thoroughly
+interwoven.
+
+
+H--TOWN AND SCHOOL COMPARED
+
+
+"TOWN"                          FOLK
+
+
+
+               WORK
+
+PLACE
+
+SURVEY
+
+               CRAFT-KNOWLEDGE
+
+"SCHOOL"                         CUSTOM
+
+We may now summarise and tabulate our comparison of Town and
+School,[10] and on the schema (p.75) it will be seen [Page: 76]
+that each element of the second is printed in the position of a
+mirror-reflection of the first. This gives but the merest outline, which
+is ready, however, to be applied in various ways and filled up
+accordingly. A step towards this is made in the next and fuller version
+of the scheme (p. 77). It will be noted in this that the lower
+portion of the diagram, that of School, is more fully filled up than is
+the upper. This is partly for clearness, but partly also to suggest that
+main elements in the origins of natural sciences and geography, of
+economics and social science, are not always so clearly realised as they
+might be. The preceding diagram, elaborating that of Place, Work, Folk
+(p. 75), however, at once suggests these. Other features of the
+scheme will appear on inspection; and the reader will find it of
+interest and suggestiveness to prepare a blank schedule and fill it up
+for himself.
+
+[10] For the sake of brevity, an entire chapter has been omitted,
+discussing the manifold origins of distinct governing classes, whether
+arising from the Folk, or superimposed upon them from without, in short,
+of the contrast of what we may broadly call patricians and plebeians,
+which so constantly appears through history, and in the present also.
+These modes of origin are all in association respectively with Place,
+Work, and Family, or some of the various interactions of these. Origin
+and situation, migration, individual or general, with its conflict of
+races, may be indicated among the first group of factors; technical
+efficiency and its organising power among the second; individual
+qualities and family stocks among the third, as also military and
+administrative aptitude, and the institutional privileges which so
+readily arise from them. Nor need we here discuss the rise of
+institutions, so fully dealt with by sociological writers. Enough for
+the present then, if institutions and social classes be taken as we find
+them.
+
+These two forms of the same diagram, the simple and the more developed,
+thus suggest comparison with the scheme previously outlined, that of
+People, Affairs, Places (p. 68), and is now more easily reconciled
+with this; the greater prominence popularly given to People and Affairs
+being expressed upon the present geographic and evolutionary scheme by
+the ascending position and more emphatic printing (or by viewing the
+diagram as a transparency from the opposite side of the leaf).
+
+In the column of People, the deepening of custom into morals is
+indicated. Emphasis is also placed upon the development of law in
+connection with the rise of governing classes, and its tendency to
+dominate the standards previously taken as morals--in fact, that
+tendency of moral law to become static law, a process of which history
+is full.
+
+                                  GOVERNING
+                                  =========
+                                  =========
+                                  CLASSES
+                                  =======
+                                  =======
+                                     ^
+                                     |
+                                  FAMILY TYPES
+                                  ============
+----------------------------------------------
+               INDUSTRIES
+               ==========
+               ----------
+----------------------------------------------
+                                  (FOLK-PLACE)
+REGION         (WORK PLACE)       ------------
+======         ------------       (TOWN)
+  |                               ======
+  |
+  V
+--------------------------------------------
+  |
+  V
+SURVEY                            ("SCHOOL")
+======                            ==========
+!--LANDSCAPE   (CRAFT-TRADITION)
+               -----------------
+                                  (FOLK-LORE)
+?--TERRITORY                      -----------
+   |
+   |
+   V
+---------------------------------------------
+   |
+   V
+[NATURAL       [APPLIED           [SOCIAL
+--------       ========           =======
+SCIENCES]      SCIENCES]          SCIENCES]
+---------      =========          =========
+   |
+   |
+   V
+-------------------------------------------
+   |                               CUSTOMS
+   V                               -------
+                                   MORALS
+                                   ======
+GEOGRAPHY      ECONOMICS           ------
+---------      =========           &
+                                   LAWS
+                                   ====
+                                   ====
+
+In the present as in the past, we may also note upon the scheme the
+different lines of Place, Work and Folk on which respectively develop
+the natural sciences, the applied or [Page: 78] technical sciences, and
+finally the social sciences, and the generalising of these respectively.
+
+Thus, as we see the popular survey of regions, geography in its literal
+and initial sense, deepening into the various analyses of this and that
+aspect or element of the environment which we call the natural
+sciences--but which we might with advantage also recognise as what they
+really are, each a _geolysis_--so these sciences or geolyses, again, are
+tending to reunite into a higher geography considered as an account of
+the evolution of the cosmos.
+
+Again, in the column of School, corresponding to Work, we have the
+evolution of craft knowledge into the applied sciences, an historic
+process which specialist men of science and their public are alike apt
+to overlook, but which is none the less vitally important. For we cannot
+really understand, say Pasteur, save primarily as a thinking peasant; or
+Lister and his antiseptic surgery better than as the shepherd, with his
+tar-box by his side; or Kelvin or any other electrician, as the thinking
+smith, and so on. The old story of geometry, as "_ars metrike_," and of
+its origin from land-surveying, for which the Egyptian hieroglyph is
+said to be that of "rope stretching," in fact, applies far more fully
+than most realise, and the history of every science, of course already
+thus partially written, will bear a far fuller application of this
+principle. In short, the self-taught man, who is ever the most fertile
+discoverer, is made in the true and fundamental school--that of
+experience.
+
+The need of abbreviating the recapitulation of this, however, sooner or
+later develops the school in the pedagogic sense, and its many
+achievements, its many failures in accomplishing this, might here be
+more fully analysed.
+
+Still more evident is this process in the column of Folk. From the
+mother's knee and the dame's school of the smallest folk-place, the
+townlet or hamlet, _ton_ or home, up to the royal and priestly school of
+the law of ancient capitals, or from the "humanities" of a mediaeval
+university to the "Ecole de Droit" of a modern metropolis, the series of
+essential evolutionary stages may be set down. Or in our everyday
+present, [Page: 79] the rise of schools of all kinds, primary,
+secondary, higher up to the current movement towards university
+colleges, and from these to civic and regional universities, might again
+be traced. The municipalisation of education is thus in fact expressed,
+and so on.
+
+Leaving the schools in the main to speak for themselves of their
+advancing and incipient uses, a word may be said upon the present lines.
+
+As a first and obvious application of this mode of geographic study of
+cities appears the criticism, and; when possible, the amendment of the
+city's plan, the monotonous rectangularity of the American city, and the
+petty irregularity more common in our own, being alike uneconomic and
+inartistic because ungeographic, irrational because irregional. With the
+improvement of communications, the physicist's point of view thus
+introduced--that of the economy of the energies of the community--is
+only beginning; the economy of fuel, the limitation of smoke and fogs
+being symptoms of this and pointing to a more economic organisation of
+industrial activities generally. But this next carries with it the
+improved efficiency of the producers themselves, with whom, however, the
+standpoint changes from the mere economisation of physical energies to
+the higher economy of organic evolution. The convention of traditional
+economics, that the productive capacity of the actual labourer is the
+sole concern of his science, thus gives place to what is at once the
+original conception of economics and the evolutionist one, viz., that
+the success of industry is ultimately measured neither by its return in
+wealth of the capitalist nor in money wages of the labourer, nor even by
+both put together, but in the results of industry upon the concrete
+environment, the family budget, the home, and the corresponding state of
+development of the family--its deterioration or progress. The
+organisation of industrial groups or of representative institutions
+found conducive to the well-being and progress of these prime civic
+units, the families, may now be traced into its highest outcome in city
+government. The method of analysis and graphic statement thus outlined
+may be shown to be even capable of useful application towards the
+statement of the best [Page: 80] arguments of both progressive and
+moderate parties in city politics.
+
+Passing from Politics to Culture. Culture, the needs of this also become
+clearer; each community developing a similar general series of culture
+institutions, from the simplest presentation of its geography,
+landscape and architecture, to the complex development of industrial,
+technical and scientific instruction; and for provision also for the
+institutions of custom and ethic in school, law, and church. Just as
+place, occupation, and family are intimately connected in the practical
+world, so their respective culture institutions must more and more be
+viewed as a whole. Civic improvers will find their ideals more
+realisable as they recognise the complex unity of the city as a social
+development of which all the departments of action and thought are in
+organic relation, be it of health or disease. The view of theoretic
+civics as concrete sociology, and of practical civics as applied
+sociology may be more simply expressed as the co-adjustment of social
+survey and social service, now becoming recognised as rational, indeed
+in many cities being begun.
+
+
+I--DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL, AND ITS REACTION UPON TOWN
+
+The reactions of the School upon the Town are observed in practice to be
+of very different values;--how are these differences to be explained?
+
+From the very first the school is essentially one of memory, the impress
+of the town-life, even at its best and highest individual quality and
+impressiveness, as in the work of a great master, the observation and
+memory of which may long give his stamp to the work of his followers.
+The fading of this into dullness, yet the fixing of it as a convention,
+is familiar to all in arts and crafts, but is no less real in the
+general lapse of appreciation of environment. Most serious of all is the
+fixation of habit and custom, so that at length "custom lies upon us
+with a weight heavy as death, and deep [Page 81] almost as life." This
+continual fixation of fashionable standards as moral ones is thus a
+prime explanation of each reformer's difficulty in making his moral
+standard the fashionable one, and also, when his doctrine has succeeded,
+of the loss of life and mummification of form which it so speedily
+undergoes.
+
+Of conventional "education," considered as the memorisation of past
+records, however authoritative and classic, the decay is thus
+intelligible and plain, and the repetition of criticisms already
+adequately made need not therefore detain us here.
+
+For this process is there no remedy? Science here offers herself--with
+senses open to observe, and intellect awake to interpret. Starting with
+Place, she explores and surveys it, from descriptive travel books at
+very various levels of accuracy, she works on to atlas and gazetteer,
+and beyond these to world-globe and "Geographie Universelle." With her
+charts and descriptions we are now more ready for a journey; with her
+maps and plans we may know our own place as never before; nay, rectify
+it, making the rough places plain and the crooked straight; even
+restoration may come within our powers.
+
+Similarly as regards Work. Though mere empiric craft-mastery dies with
+the individual, and fails with his successors, may we not perpetuate the
+best of this? A museum of art treasures, a collection of the choicest
+examples of all times and lands, will surely raise us from our low level
+of mechanical toil; nay, with these carefully observed, copied,
+memorised, and duly examined upon, we shall be able to imitate them, to
+reproduce their excellencies, even to adapt them to our everyday work.
+To the art museum we have thus but to add a "School of Design," to have
+an output of more and less skilled copyists. The smooth and polished
+successes of this new dual institution, responding as they do to the
+mechanical elements of modern work and of the mechanical worker-mind,
+admitting also of ready multiplications as patterns, ensure the wide
+extension of the prevalent style of imitating past styles, designing
+patchwork of these; and even admit of its scientific reduction to a
+definite series of grades, which imitative youth may easily pass onwards
+from the age of rudest innocence to that of art-knowledge and
+certificated art-mastery. Our School of Design thus becomes a School of
+Art, a length a College, dominating the instruction of the nation, to
+the satisfaction not only of its promoters, but of the general public
+and their representatives, so that annual votes justly increase. Lurking
+discontent may now and then express itself, but is for practical
+purposes negligible.
+
+[Page: 82] The example of art accumulation and art instruction is thus
+naturally followed in other respects. For the commercial information of
+the public, varied representative exhibitions--primarily, therefore,
+international ones--naturally suggest themselves; while so soon as
+expansion of imperial and colonial interests comes upon the first plane,
+a corresponding permanent Exhibition is naturally instituted. But when
+thus advancing commercial instruction, we must also recognise the claims
+of industry in all its crafts and guilds, and in fact the technical
+instruction of the community generally. Hence the past, present, and
+promised rise of technical institutes upon increasing scales of
+completeness.
+
+In the rise of such a truly encylopædic system of schools, the
+university cannot permanently be forgotten. Since from the outset we
+have recognised the prime elements of the school in observation and
+memory, the testing of these by examinations--written, oral, and
+practical--however improvable in detail, must be fairly recognised, and
+the examining body or university has therefore to be adopted as the
+normal crown of our comprehensive educational system. Teaching, however
+is found to be increasingly necessary, especially to examination, and
+for this the main field left open is in our last column, that of People.
+Their lore of the past, whether of sacred or classical learning, their
+history, literature, and criticism, are already actively promoted, or at
+any rate adequately endowed at older seats of learning; while the
+materials, resources, conditions and atmosphere are here of other kinds.
+Hence the accessibility of the new University of London to the study of
+sociology, as yet alone among its peers.
+
+Hence, beside the great London, maritime, commercial and industrial,
+residential and governmental, there has been growing up, tardily indeed,
+as compared with smaller cities, yet now all the more massively and
+completely, a correspondingly comprehensive system of schools; so that
+the historic development of South Kensington within the last half
+century, from International Exhibitions of Work, Natural History Museums
+of Place onwards to its present and its contemplated magnitude, affords
+a striking exemplification of the present view and its classification,
+which is all the more satisfactory since this development has been a
+gradual accretion.
+
+Enough then has been said to show that the rise of schools, their
+qualities and their defects, are all capable of treatment upon the
+present lines; but if so, may we not go farther, and ask by what means
+does thought and life cope with their defects, especially that fixation
+of memory, even at its best, that evil side of examination and the like,
+which we often call Chinese in the bad sense, but which we see arises so
+naturally everywhere?
+
+
+[Page: 83] J--FROM "SCHOOL" TO "CLOISTER"
+
+The preceding view is, as yet, too purely determinist. The due place of
+ideals, individual and corporate, in their reaction upon the function
+and the structure of the city, and even upon its material environment,
+has next to be recognised. For where the town merely makes and fixes its
+industry and makes its corresponding schools, where its habits and
+customs become its laws, even its morality, the community, as we have
+just seen, sinks into routine, and therefore decay. To prevent this a
+twofold process of thought is ever necessary, critical and constructive.
+What are these? On the one hand, a continual and critical selection
+among the ideas derived from experience, and the formulation of these as
+Ideals: and further, the organisation of these into a larger and larger
+whole of thought; in fact, a Synthesis of a new kind. This critical
+spirit it is which produced the prophets of Israel, the questioning of
+Socrates, and so on, to the journalistic and other criticism of life
+to-day. The corresponding constructive endeavour is now no mere School
+of traditional learning or of useful information. It is one of science
+in a new and reorganised sense; one of philosophy also, one of ideals
+above all.
+
+As from the Schools of the Law, as over against these, arise the
+prophets, so from the technical and applied sciences, the descriptive
+natural sciences, should arise the scientific thinkers, reinterpreting
+each his field of knowledge and giving us the pure sciences--pure
+geometry henceforth contrasted with mere land surveying, morphology with
+mere anatomy, and so on; while instead of the mere concrete encyclopædia
+from Pliny or Gesner to Diderot or Chambers, vast subjective
+reorganisations of knowledge, philosophic systems, now appear.
+Similarly, the mere observations of the senses and their records in
+memory become transformed into the images of the poet, the imagery too
+of the artist, for art proper is only thus born. That mere imitation of
+nature, which so commonly in the graphic arts (though happily but rarely
+in music) has been mistaken for [Page: 84] art, thus modestly returns to
+its proper place--that of the iconography of descriptive science.
+
+Thus from the Schools of all kinds of knowledge, past and present, we
+pass into the no less varied Cloisters of contemplation, meditation,
+imagination. With the historian we might explore the Cloisters of the
+past, built at one time from the current ideals of the Good, at another
+of the True, at another of the Beautiful; indeed, in widely varying
+measures and proportions from all of these. How far each of these now
+expresses the present, how far it may yet serve the future, is
+obviously a question of questions, yet for that very reason one
+exceeding our present limits. Enough if in city life the historic place
+of what is here generalised under this antique name of Cloister be here
+recognised; and in some measure the actual need, the potential place be
+recognised also. Here is the need and use, beyond the fundamental claims
+of the material life of the Town, and the everyday sanity of the
+Schools, with all their observations and information, their commonsense
+and experience, their customs and conventions, even their morals and
+their law, for a deeper ethical insight than any rule or precedent can
+afford, for a fuller and freer intellectual outlook than that which has
+been derived from any technical experience or empiric skill, for an
+imagery which is no mere review of the phantasmagoria of the senses. In
+our age of the multiplication and expansion of towns, of their
+enrichment and their impoverishment, of the multiplication and
+enrichment of schools also, it is well for the sociologist to read from
+history, as he then may more fully see also around him that it is ever
+some fresh combination of these threefold products of the
+Cloister--ideal theory, and imagery--emotional, intellectual,
+sensuous--which transforms the thought-world of its time.
+
+The philosopher of old in his academic grove, his porch, the mediaeval
+monk within his studious cloister's pale, are thus more akin to the
+modern scientific thinker than he commonly realises--perhaps because he
+is still, for the most part, of the solitary individualism of the hermit
+of the Thebaid, of Diogenes in his tub. Assuredly, they are less removed
+in essential psychology than their derived fraternities, their [Page:
+85] respective novices and scholars, have often thought. It is thus no
+mere play of language which hands on from the one to the other the
+"travail de Bénédictin," though even here the phrase is inadequate
+savouring too much of the school, into which each cloister of every sort
+declines sooner or later, unless even worse befall.
+
+The decay of the cloister, though thus on the one hand into and with the
+school, may also take place within itself, since imagination and ideal
+may be evil, and theory false. That examples of all these decays abound
+in the history of religion, of philosophy, of art also, is a commonplace
+needing no illustration. Nor should the modern investigator think his
+science or himself immune to the same or kindred germs in turn.
+
+
+K--THE CITY PROPER
+
+Now, "at long last," we are ready to enter the city proper. This is not
+merely the Town of place and work and folk, even were this at their
+economic best. It is not enough to add the School, even at its
+completest; nor the cloister, though with this a yet greater step
+towards the city proper is made. For though this is not itself the City,
+its ideals of human relations, its theory of the universe and man, its
+artistic expression and portrayal of all these, ever sooner or later
+react upon the general view and conduct of life. Hence the Academe of
+Plato and the Lyceum of Aristotle, the mediaeval cloister and the modern
+Research Institute, have been so fertile, so creative in their influence
+upon the city's life, from which they seemed to be retired. Hence it is
+ever some new combination of the threefold product of the
+cloister--ideal, idea, and image--which transforms the world, which
+opens each new epoch. Each new revelation and vision, each system of
+thought, each new outburst of poetry and song, has moved the men of its
+age by no mere mechanical pressure of economic need or external force,
+by no mere scholastic instruction, but in a far subtler way, and into
+new and unexpected groupings, as the [Page: 86] sand upon Chladon's
+vibrating plate leaps into a new figure with each thrill of the
+violinist's bow.
+
+Instead of simply developing our morals from custom, and therefore
+codifying them into law as in the school they are now boldly criticised,
+as in part if not in whole, hindrances to a better state of things. As
+this becomes more and more clearly formulated as an ideal, its ethic
+transcendence of convention and law not only becomes clear, but the
+desire for its realisation becomes expressed. This may be with all
+degrees of clearness of reason and vividness of imagery, yet may remain
+long or altogether in the plane of literature, as has Plato's Republic
+or More's Utopia--standard and characteristic types of the cloister
+library as we may call it, one of inestimable value to the world in the
+past, and perhaps in our time needed as much as ever to help us to see
+somewhat beyond the output of the busy presses of town and school. Yet
+our ideal, our "Civitas Dei," "Civitas Solis," need not remain
+unrealised: it may be not only seriously planned towards realisation, as
+was Platonopolis of old, but bravely founded, as has been done in cases
+without number, from the ancient world to modern communities, by no
+means wholly unsuccessful. Though in our great industrial towns, our
+long settled regions, such new departures seem less easy, the
+principle remains valid--that it is in our ideal of polity and
+citizenship, and in our power of realising this, that the city proper
+has its conception and its birth. Again, instead of simply deriving our
+thought from experience we now project our clarified thought into action
+and into education; so that from cloister of philosophy, and from its
+long novitiate of silence, there grows up the brotherhood of culture,
+the culture city itself. Similarly in art, we no longer imitate nature,
+nor copy traditional designs. Art proper appears, shaping bronze and
+marble into images of the gods, and on a burnt and ruined hill-fort
+renewing the Parthenon. In general terms, instead of simply adjusting,
+as in the school, our mental picture to the outward facts, we reverse
+the process; and with a new art conception, be it good or bad, we
+transform the outward world, like wax under the seal. Thus from the
+[Page: 88] cloister and chapel of the musician, the studio-cell of the
+artist, the scriptorium of the poet, comes forth the architect,
+remodelling the city around his supreme material expression and home of
+its moral and material reorganisation, its renewed temporal and
+spiritual powers. Of this, the city proper, the Acropolis of Athens, the
+Temple of Jerusalem, the Capitol and Forum of Rome are classic and
+central examples, and in the mediaeval city, pre-eminently the
+cathedral; though beside this we must not forget the town house and its
+belfry, the guild houses, the colleges, the great place, the fountains,
+the city cross, and if last, still best if good at all, the streets and
+courts and homes. Returning once more to the history of educational
+development, we have here a means of unravelling the apparently
+perplexing history of universities. For the university past or present
+has but its foundations in the school, with its local and its general
+tradition, whatever may be the accordance of these with well-ascertained
+fact, its true novitiate can only be afforded in the cloister of
+reflection and research, of interpretation and synthesis; while for its
+full development it needs the perpetual renewal of that generous social
+life--that inspiring intercourse "of picked adolescents and picked
+senescents"--which has marked the vital periods of every university
+worthy of the name.
+
+                                         Realisation in
+                                         ACROPOLIS  }
+                                         CATHEDRAL  } CITY
+                                         UNIVERSITY }
+(EU)-POLITY
+   ^
+   |                   CULTURE
+   |                      ^
+Rise towards              |
+Formulation               |                 ART
+and Realisation,       Rise through          ^
+through                                      |
+  { Politics            { Action          Rise to
+  { Church Militant     { Education       expression
+   ^                      ^                  ^
+   |                      |                  |
+   |                      |                  |
+   |                      |                  |
+   |                      |              "IMAGERY"
+   |                      |              AESTHETICS
+   |                      |              (Beautiful)
+SOCIAL. ECON. POL.     "IDEAS"
+   ^                  SYNTHETICS
+   |                   (True)
+"IDEALS"
+ ETHICS
+ (Good)                                  Criticism, Selection,
+                                         Re-synthesis, in
+                                           HERMITAGE
+                                           ACADEME
+                                           CLOISTER, etc.
+
+In summary then, to the town has been added the school, with its
+advantages, its increasingly obvious limitations also, which it is for
+the cloister to remedy--even the advantages of the barrack finding a
+main element of its claim in this no less than in its professed training
+as regards citizenship. But here also it is for few to remain, albeit
+free for each to return at will. Ideals, to survive, must surely live,
+that is, be realised; hence for full life one needs "to meditate with
+the free solitary; yet to live secular, and serve mankind."
+
+  TOWN                       |                      CITY
+                    FOLK     |    POLITY
+                             |
+         WORK                |               CULTURE
+                             |
+PLACE                        |                         ART
+-----------------------------+--------------------------------
+SURVEY                       |                         IMAGERY
+                             |
+         KNOWLEDGE           |               IDEAS
+                             |
+                    MORALS   |    SOC. ECON.
+                             |    IDEALS
+                    LAW      |    ETHICS
+  SCHOOL                     |                      CLOISTER
+
+
+L--THE CITY COMPLIED: TOWN, SCHOOL, CLOISTER, AND CITY PROPER
+
+In course of this fourfold analysis, it is plain that we have reached
+the very converse--or at all events the [Page: 90] complement--of that
+geographical determinism with which we started, and that we have
+returned to a view corresponding to the popular one (of "People,
+Affairs, Places," p. 69), which we then set aside for the reasons given.
+The "great man theory" of history, at best less crudely stated, thus
+reappears; in short, to the initial thesis we have now the distinct
+antithesis. It is time, therefore, to bring these together towards the
+needed synthesis. Hence to the page (p. 77) on which was summarised the
+determinist view of Town and School, we now require the complemental
+statement upon page (p. 87) of Cloister and City proper. Nor must we be
+content, with too many controversialists hitherto, to keep in view only
+one at a time; but by folding back the pages of print between these two
+half-schemes, as the book lies open, to take in both together.
+
+We may thus finally compress the essentials of this whole paper into a
+simple formula--
+
+TOWN                  |                   CITY
+                      |
+               FOLK   |  POLITY
+                      |
+        WORK          |          CULTURE
+                 |    |    ^
+PLACE            |    |    |              ART
+-----------------|----|----|----------------------
+LORE             |    |    |              IMAGERY
+                 v    |    |
+        LEAR          |           IDEA
+                      |
+               LOVE   |  IDEAL
+                      |
+SCHOOL                |                   CLOISTER
+
+or most briefly--
+
+|  TOWN   | CITY     ^
+|  -------+--------- |
+v  SCHOOL | CLOISTER |
+
+[Page: 91]--noting in every case the opposite direction of the arrows.
+The application of this formula to different types of town, such as
+those already indicated in the former instalment of this paper (Vol. I.,
+p. 107) or in the present one, will not be found to present any
+insuperable difficulty. It must, however, be kept clearly in view that
+the city of each day and generation subsides or decays more or less
+completely into the mere town anew, as the cloister into the schools.
+The towns and cities of the world are thus classifiable in terms of
+their past development and present condition.
+
+
+Summary
+
+Condensing now this lengthy, yet compressed and abbreviated series of
+analyses into a single page of summary, we may briefly define the main
+aspects and departments of civics from the present point of view. First
+then, comes the study of civics as fundamentally (and ever anew) an
+orderly development--at once geographic, economic, and anthropologic in
+its nature--a survey of place, work, and folk--and these not merely or
+mainly as broken up into the fine dust of censuses and statistics, nor
+even of the three too separate sciences above named, but as a living
+unity, the human hive, the Town.
+
+Corresponding to this objective and organic life we reorganise its
+fundamental subjective life. This is fundamentally, and ever partially,
+the record and reflex of the life of the hive, the Town: of all its
+general and particular environment and function, its family type and
+development; and however overlaid by imported culture or by decayed
+ideals, it is fundamentally expressed in local knowledge, in craft
+tradition, in kinship and its associated kindness, in habits and
+customs, and their developments up to morals and laws. Simple terms
+corresponding to place, work, and folk, are hard to find; say, however,
+till better be suggested, that in close relation to the maternal arms in
+which general social thought and its utmost pedagogic developments
+alike begin, it is place-lore, work-lear, and folk-love, which are the
+essentials of every [Page: 92] School.[11] That existing educational
+machineries may not adequately recognise these is not of course the
+question here.
+
+[11] The use of _lore_ as primarily empirical, and derived from the
+senses, it is traditional; it is well therefore to restrict it to this,
+and to revive the old word _lear_, still understood in Scotland in these
+precise senses--intellectual, rational, yet traditional, occupational
+also.
+
+These three terms, lore, lear, and love are thus well related to their
+respectively deepening levels of sense, intelligence and feeling; and
+their respective relation is thus more plain to the imagery, the theory,
+and the idealism above defined as the essentials of the Cloister. The
+psychology of the processes of poetic, philosophic and spiritual
+awakening and renewal is in these days being approached anew, both from
+the individual and social side, but cannot here be entered upon.
+
+Finally and supremely arises the City proper--its individuality
+dependent upon the measure and form in which ideals are expressed and
+harmonised in social life and polity, ideas synthetised in culture, and
+beauty carried outwards from the study or chamber of the recluse into
+the world of art.
+
+
+
+Practical conclusion
+
+
+The investigation of the City thus tends towards the practice of
+citizenship. Thus social survey prepares for social service, as
+diagnosis towards treatment and hygiene; and these react fruitfully upon
+our knowledge and understanding anew. Beyond social observations, and
+the needed observatories for making them more adequately, we need social
+activities and the laboratories for preparing them, or at least the
+leavens of them; or, again, in happier phrase, at once simple and more
+synthetic, we need some shelter[12] into which to gather the best
+[Page: 93] seed of past flowerings and in which to raise and tend the
+seedlings of coming summers. We need definitely to acquire such a centre
+of survey and service in each and every city--in a word, a Civicentre
+for sociologist and citizen.
+
+[12] Without forgetting the many institutions and workers in almost all
+departments of the field of civics, the rise of definite surveys and of
+scientific groupings like this Society, without ignoring also the many
+admirable workers and institutions of social endeavour, and their
+progressive integration into Social Unions, Institutes of Service, and
+the like, I may be permitted to press for the need of uniting both
+types, the scientific and the practical, into a single one--a civic
+museum and active centre in one. Of this type, my own Outlook Tower at
+Edinburgh is, so far as I am aware, the earliest beginning; and, despite
+its rudimentary condition, may thus serve to suggest a type of
+institution which will be found of service alike to the sociologist and
+the citizen.
+
+
+M--THE HISTORIC CITY-COMPLEX
+
+The criticism may have already arisen in the reader's mind that the
+"Town" and "School" of our analysis are by no means so simple as we have
+assumed them. Our surveys of antique towns ever disclose the material
+survivals, at least the vestiges, of the cloister or the acropolis of
+the past, of its cathedral or its forum. The processes of our
+industries, in what is now their daily artisan routine, include, repeat,
+condense, what were yesterday or longer ago living inventions, each
+instinct with Promethean fire. The hackneyed ornament of our homes was
+once glowing with beauty, radiant or dark with symbolism. So it is for
+our everyday customs and institutions, and so for living languages; our
+own, perhaps, most of all. These, of course, are facts made familiar by
+investigators of all orders, from the scholar and antiquary of old, the
+historian and philologist of yesterday, to the geographer or the
+sociologist of our own time: witness Mr. Spencer's masterly treatment of
+their main results. How, then, shall we correlate this process of all
+things growing old with the analysis of cities above attempted? In other
+words, how shall we interpret the course of their historic evolution,
+their renewed growth and decay, progress and degeneracy, their present
+condition, crowded with residues of the past, with those potentialities
+which our outline discloses? This is the more necessary since this
+fourfold analysis applies in principle to all human groupings from the
+simplest village to the Eternal City. To this, indeed, we have in
+principle already traced it, onwards from our primitive valley section
+with its humble hamlets, its fundamental occupations. Returning then to
+our main diagram, with its four-fold analysis of the City so soon as we
+have completed this, and [Page: 94] carried its progress up to the level
+of city life proper, we must next turn over the leaf and begin a new
+page, with place and work and folk once more. This simplest of acts
+expresses with graphic significance the very process of history; for in
+closing our diagram page its "Cloister" has been folded down on the
+"School," our cathedral and forum, our "City" proper upon the "Town."
+Thus it is that the ideals and the achievements of one day and
+generation and city are ever melting away, and passing out of sight of
+the next; so that to the joy or sorrow of the successors the new page
+seems well nigh bare, though ever there comes faintly through some image
+or at least blurred suggestion of the fading past. Hence each page of
+history is a palimpsest. Hence our modern town, even when yesterday but
+prairie, was no mere vacant site, but was at once enriched and
+encumbered by the surviving traditions of the past; so that even its new
+buildings are for the most part but vacant shells of past art, of which
+now only the student cares to trace the objective annals, much less
+penetrate to the inner history. So for the decayed Renaissance learning
+of our schools, for the most part so literally dead since the
+"Grammarian's Funeral"; and so, too, for the unthinking routines, the
+dead customs and conventions, and largely too the laws and rituals of
+our urban lives. Hence, then, it is that for the arrest and the decay of
+cities we have no need to go for our examples to the ancient East. These
+processes, like those of individual senility and death, are going on
+everywhere day by day.
+
+Upon the new page, then, it is but a complexer "Town" and "School" anew:
+we have no continuing City. This too commonly has existed at its best
+but for the rare generation which created it, or little longer; though
+its historic glories, like those of sunset and of after-glow, may long
+shed radiance and glamour upon its town, and linger in the world's
+memory long after not only these have faded, but their very folk have
+vanished, their walls fallen, nay their very site been buried or
+forgotten. Upon all these degrees of dying, all these faint and fading
+steps between immortality and oblivion, we may arrange what we call our
+historic cities. Obviously in the [Page: 95] deeper and more living
+sense the city exists only in actualising itself; and thus to us it is
+that the ideal city lies ever in the future. Yet it is the very essence
+of this whole argument that an ideal city is latent in every town. Where
+shall we in these days find our cloistered retreats to think out such
+ideals as may be applicable in our time and circumstances: the needed
+kinetic ethics, the needed synthetic philosophy and science, the needed
+vision and imagery and expression of them all?
+
+
+N--THE EVILS OF THE CITY
+
+Disease, defect, vice and crime
+
+I have spoken little of town evils, and much of town ideals, primarily
+for the reason that even to recognise, much less treat, the abnormal, we
+must know something of the normal course of evolution. Hence, the old
+and useful phrase by which physiology used to be known, that of "the
+institutes of medicine." Sociology has thus to become "the institutes of
+citizenship."
+
+Often though philanthropists forget this, diagnosis should precede
+treatment. The evils of the city, by the very nature of our hypothesis,
+demand special survey, and this no less thoroughly than do the normal
+place and work and industry. It is only our most permanent intellectual
+impulse, that of seeking for unity, which excuses the cheap unitary
+explanations so often current; as, for instance, that social evils are
+mainly to be explained by intemperance, as for one school of reformers;
+by poverty or luxury, for a second and third; by Tammany or other form
+of party government, by socialism or by individualism for yet others;
+that they are due to dissent or to church, to ignorance or to the spread
+of science, and so on almost indefinitely--doubtless not without
+elements of truth in each!
+
+Yet let me offer as yet another explanation of civic evils, this more
+general one--distinguished from the preceding by including them all and
+more--that not only is our "Town" in itself imperfect, but the other
+three elements we have been characterising as school, cloister and city,
+are yet more imperfect, since disordered, decayed, or undeveloped anew.
+It is because of each and all of these imperfect realisations of our
+civic life, that the evils of life sink down, or flame out, into these
+complex eruptions of social evils with which our human aggregations are
+as yet cursed.
+
+Hence, to those who are struggling with disease and pain, with ignorance
+and defect, with vice, and with crime, but for the most part too
+separately, it is time to say that all these four evils are capable of
+being viewed together, and largely even treated together. They are not
+unrelated, but correspond each as the negative to that fourfold
+presentment of ideals we have hitherto been raising. To this ideal unity
+of healthy town, with its practical and scientific schools of all kinds,
+with its meditative cloister of ethical and social idealism, of unified
+science and philosophy, of imagination and drama, all culminating in
+the polity, culture, and art which make a city proper, we have here the
+corresponding defects in detail.
+
+The evils of existing city life are thus largely reinterpreted; and if
+so more efficiently combated; since the poverty, squalor and ugliness of
+our cities, their disease and their intemperance, their ignorance,
+dulness and mental defect, their vice and crime are thus capable not
+only of separate treatment but of an increasingly unified civic hygiene,
+and this in the widest sense, material and moral, economic and idealist,
+utilitarian and artistic. Even the most earnest and capable workers
+towards civic betterment in these many fields may gain at once in hope
+and in efficiency as they see their special interests and tasks
+converging into the conception of the city as an organic unity, and this
+not fixed and settled, nor even in process of progress or degeneration
+from causes beyond our ken, but as an orderly development which we may
+aid towards higher perfection, geographic and cultural alike.
+
+Our modern town is thus in a very real sense, one not hopeless, but as
+hopeful as may be, a veritable purgatory; that is a struggle of lower
+and higher idealisms, amid the respective expressions and outcomes of
+these. Indeed, in our own present [Page: 97] cities, as they have come
+to be, is not each of us ever finding his own Inferno, or it may be his
+Paradise? Does he not see the dark fate of some, the striving and rising
+hope of others, the redemption also?
+
+The supreme poetic utterance of the mediaeval world is thus in great
+measure, as each thoughtful reader sees, an expression of impassioned
+citizenship and this at one of the golden moments of the long history of
+city life. This expression--this exiled citizen's autobiographic
+thought-stream--is resumed at every level, from youthful home and local
+colour, from boyish love and hopes, from active citizenship and party
+struggle, to the transfiguration of all these. Hence these mystic
+visions, and these world ambitions, temporal and spiritual; hence this
+rise from cloistered faith and philosophy into many-sided culture; hence
+the transformation of all these through intensest symbol-visions into
+enduring song.
+
+Am I thus suggesting the _Divina Comedia_ as a guide-book to cities?
+Without doubt, though not necessarily for beginners. Yet who can see
+Florence without this, though we may pack below it Baedeker and Murray?
+Or who, that can really read, can open a volume of Mr. Booth's severely
+statistical Survey of London, with all its studious reserve, its
+scientific repression, without seeing between its lines the Dantean
+circles; happy if he can sometimes read them upward as well as down?
+
+
+O--A CIVIC SYMBOL AND ITS MEANING
+
+But such books of the city, whether of the new and observant type, from
+Baedeker to Booth, or of the old and interpretative Dantean one, are too
+vast and varied to keep open before us. Even the preceding open page of
+diagram is complex enough with its twofold, indeed four-fold city; and
+we are called back to our daily work in the first of these divisions,
+that of the everyday town. Since its subjective aspects of school and
+cloister may fade from memory, its higher aspect also, that of city
+proper, how can we retain this fourfold [Page: 98] analysis, and how
+test if it be true? Take then one final illustration; this time no mere
+logical skeleton, however simple or graphic, but an image more easily
+retained, because a concrete and artistic one, and moreover in terms of
+that form of life-labour and thought-notation--that of current
+coin--which, in our day especially, dominates this vastest of cities;
+and hence inherits for the region of its home and centre--"the Bank"
+which has so thoroughly taken precedence of the town-house and
+cathedral, of the fortress and palace--the honoured name of "City." The
+coinages of each time and place combine concrete and social use with
+statements of historic facts; and they add to both of these a wealth of
+emblematic suggestions: but that is to say, they express not only their
+town, and something of its _school_, but much of its thought also, its
+_cloister_ in my present terminology.
+
+So before me lies an old "bawbee" of my own home city. On one side
+stands the hammerman at his anvil, below him the motto of his guild,
+"_Non marte sed arte_." Here then the industrial "Town" and its "School"
+express themselves plainly enough, and precisely as they have been above
+defined. But on the other side spreads the imperial double eagle; since
+Perth _(Bertha aurea)_ had been the northmost of all Rome's provincial
+capitals, her re-named "Victoria" accordingly, as the mediaeval herald
+must proudly have remembered, so strengthened his associations with the
+Holy Roman Empire with something of that vague and shadowy historic
+dignity which the Scot was wont to value so much, and vaunt so high. On
+the eagle's breast is a shield, tressured like the royal standard,
+since Perth was the national capital until the "King's Tragedy" of
+1457; but instead of the ruddy lion the shield bears the lamb with the
+banner of St. John, the city's saint. This side, too, has its motto, and
+one befitting an old capital of King and Commons, both in continual
+strife with the feudal nobles, "_Pro Rege, Lege, et Grege_." Here then,
+plain upon this apparent arbitrarily levised trifle, this petty
+provincial money-token, this poor bawbee, that is, this coin not only of
+the very humblest order, but proverbially sordid at that, we find
+clearly set down, long generations ago, the whole [Page:99] four-fold
+analysis and synthesis of civic life we have been above labouring for.
+For what makes the industrial Town, what can better keep it than
+strenuous industry at its anvil? How better express its craft school,
+its local style and skill, its reaction too upon the town's life in
+peace and war, than by this Hal o' the Wynd by his forge? Nay, what
+better symbol than this hammer, this primitive tool and ever typical
+one, of the peaceful education of experience, form Prometheus to Kelvin,
+of the warlike, from Thor to modern cannon-forge? Turning now from Town
+and School to Cloister, to the life of secluded peace and
+meditation--from which, however, the practical issues of life are ever
+renewed--what plainer symbol, yet what more historic or more mystic one
+can we ask than this of the lamb with the banner? While of the
+contrasted yet complemental civic life of fullest, broadest action, what
+expression like the Roman eagle--the very eyes of keenness, and the
+spreading wings of power?
+
+So rarely perfect then is this civic symbol, that I must not omit to
+mention that it has only come to my notice since the body of this paper,
+with its four-fold analysis of cities as above outlined, was essentially
+finished. Since it thus has not in any particular suggested the
+treatment of cities here advocated, it is the more interesting and
+encouraging as a confirmation of it. It is also to my mind plain that in
+this, as in many other of our apparent "advances in science," and
+doubtless those in social studies particularly, we are but learning to
+think things anew, long after our forefathers have lived them, even
+expressed them--and these in their ways no less clear and popular than
+can ever be ours. That we may also again live them is once more
+curiously expressed by the same symbol; for its re-appearance is due to
+its having been appropriately revived, in a fitting art form, that of
+the commemorative and prize medal of the local arts and crafts
+exhibition, held in the new Public Library, under civic auspices. Little
+scrutiny of this last sentence will be needed to see the four-fold
+completeness of the civic event which it describes.
+
+For just as we have seen on the old coin the hammerman [Page: 100] and
+his motto answer to the town and school; so now on its reissue to the
+renascent local arts and crafts, with their commemoration in this
+library. And as the greater motto, that of widest policy, corresponds to
+the cloister of reflection and resolve, so we note that this new impulse
+to civic betterment is associated with the new library--no mere
+school-house of memory, but also the open cloister of our day. Finally,
+note that this impulse is no longer merely one of aesthetic purpose, of
+"art for art's sake," nor its execution that of a cultured minority
+merely; it announces a re-union of this culture and art with the civic
+polity. What fitter occasion, then, for the striking of a medal, than
+this renewal of civic life, with municipal organisation and polity, art
+and culture, renascent in unison. That such events are nowadays far from
+exceptional is so true that we are in danger of losing sight of their
+significance. Yet it is amid such city developments that the future
+Pericles must arise.
+
+We thus see that our analysis is no mere structural one, made
+post-mortem from civic history; but that it applies to the modern
+functioning of everyday life in an everyday city, so soon as this
+becomes touched anew towards cultural issues. Furthermore, it is thus
+plain that civic life not only has long ago anticipated and embodied our
+theories of it, but once more outruns them, expressing them far better
+than in words--in life and practice. In this way the reader who may most
+resent these unfamiliar methods of exposition, alternately by abstract
+diagram or concrete illustration--which may seem to him too remote from
+ordinary life and experience, perhaps too trivial--may now test the
+present theory of the city, or amend it, by means of the ample
+illustrations of the processes and results of social life which are
+provided by his daily newspaper, and these on well-nigh all its fields
+and levels.
+
+Note finally that it is the eagle and lamb of temporal and spiritual
+idealism that form the "head" of this coin, the craftsman and anvil but
+the modest "tail." The application is obvious.
+
+Thus even numismatics revives from amid the fossil [Page: 100] sciences.
+For from this to our own common coinage, or notably to that of France,
+America, Switzerland, etc., the transition is easy, and still better to
+that of the noblest civic past, both classic and mediaeval. Without
+pursuing this further here my present point is gained, if we see, even
+in the everyday local details of work and people, the enduring stamp,
+the inextinguishable promise, of the flowering of our everyday
+industries and schools into worthier ideals than they at present
+express, and of the fruition of these in turn upon nobler heights of
+life and practice. It expresses the essential truth of the popular view
+of the city; that in terms of the formula--People ... Affairs ...
+Places--above referred to (page 69). It also explains the persistent
+vitality of this view, despite its frequent crudity, and lack of order
+in detail, in face of the more scientific treatment here at first
+employed, that in the elementary geographic order--Place ... Work ...
+People. For though this objective order be fundamental, it is the
+complementary subjective evolution which throughout history has ever
+become supreme; so that our scheme must combine the outward geographic
+presentment with the inward psychological one. This may be graphically
+expressed by changing the order of presentment from that used
+hitherto:--
+
+Town    |   City                   City    |  Town
+--------------------     to     ----------------------
+School  | Cloister                Cloister |  School
+
+
+P--FORECAST OF CITY DEVELOPMENT. SPECIAL AND GENERAL
+
+The dual and four-fold development of the city, as above sketched, is by
+no means far advanced in most of our present towns or cities, which have
+obviously but scanty expression of the ideas shadowed forth for the
+modern equivalents of cloister and cathedral, of academe and acropolis.
+But this is to say that such towns, however large, populous and rich
+according to conventional economic standards, are to that extent small
+and poor, indeed too often little better than cities by courtesy. Yet
+their further development, upon this [Page: 102] four-fold view of civic
+evolution, though in principle the same for each and all, has always
+been, and let us hope may always be, in large measure an individual
+(because regional) one. For if each human individuality be unique, how
+much more must that of every city?
+
+In one concrete case, that of Dunfermline, I have already submitted
+definite suggestions towards the realisation of the civic Utopia, and
+even architectural designs towards its execution,[13] so that these may
+at any rate suffice to show how local study and adaptive design are
+needed for each individual city, indeed for every point of it. It is
+thus, and thus only, that we can hope to have a city development truly
+evolutionary, that is, one utilising the local features, advantages, and
+possibilities of place, occupation, and people. Of course, it is needful
+to supplement these by the example of other cities; but it is no less
+needful to avoid weighting down the local life with replicas of
+institutions, however excellent elsewhere, if really irregional here.
+With the re-awakening of regional life in our various centres, and of
+some comprehension of its conditions among our rulers, they will cease
+to establish, say, a school of mines in Piccadilly, or again one of
+engineering and the like in South Kensington. The magistrates of
+Edinburgh have long abandoned their old attempt to plant mulberries and
+naturalise silk culture upon their wind-swept Calton Hill; albeit this
+was a comparatively rational endeavour, since a population of Huguenot
+refugee silk weavers had actually come upon their hands.
+
+[13] Cf. the writer's "City Development," Edinburgh and Westminster,
+1904.
+
+Similarly, it is plain that we must develop Oxford as Oxford, Edinburgh
+as Edinburgh, and so on with all other cities, great or small--York or
+Winchester, Westminster or London. And so with Chelsea or Hampstead,
+with Woolwich or Battersea. Has not the last of these grown from a mere
+outlying vestry, like so many others, into a centre of genuine vitality
+and interior progress, indeed of ever-widening interest and example; and
+all this in half a generation, apparently through the sagacious
+leadership--say, rather the devoted, the [Page: 103] impassioned
+citizenship--of a single man? And does not his popular park at times
+come near giving us a vital indication of the needed modern analogue of
+cathedral and forum? Civic development is thus no mere external matter,
+either of "Haussmannising" its streets, or of machine-educating its
+people; the true progress of the city and its citizenship must alike
+grow and flower from within albeit alive and open to every truly
+fertilising impulse from without.
+
+Yet since national interests, international industry, commerce,
+science, and therefore progress are nowadays and increasingly so
+largely one, may we not in conclusion foresee something at least of the
+great lines of development which are common to cities, and generalise
+these as we are accustomed to do in history? Witness the Classical,
+Mediaeval, and Renaissance types to which historic cities
+preponderatingly belong, and within which we group their varied
+individualities, as after all of comparative detail.
+
+Here then it is time to recall the presentment of ancient, recent and
+contemporary evolution already outlined in the part of this paper
+previously read (Vol. I, p. 109), dealing with the historic survey of
+cities. We have now to face the question, then postponed, indeed left in
+interrogation-marks--that of seeking not indeed sharply to define the
+future order of things, yet in some measure to discern such elements of
+progress as may be already incipient in the existing order, if not yet
+largely manifest there. Such elements may be reasonably expected to grow
+in the near future, perhaps increasingly, and whatever be their rate of
+growth are surely worthy of our attention.
+
+Contemporary science, with its retrospective inquiries into origins in
+the past, its everyday observation of the present, is apt practically to
+overlook that the highest criterion and achievement of science is not to
+decipher the past, nor record the present, not even to interpret both.
+It is to foresee: only thus can it subserve action, of which the present
+task ever lies towards the future, since it is for this that we have to
+provide. Why then should not Comte's famous aphorism--"_Voir pour
+prévoir, prévoir pour pourvoir_," become applicable in our civic studies
+no less than in the general social and political fields to [Page: 104]
+which he applied it? In navigation or engineering, in agriculture or
+hygiene, prevision and provision alike are ever increasing; yet these
+are no mere combinations of the preliminary sciences and the fundamental
+occupations, but obviously contain very large social elements.
+
+It is proverbially safe to prophesy when one knows; and it is but this
+safe prediction which we make every day of child or bud, where we can
+hardly fail to see the growing man, the coming flower. Yet do not most
+people practically forget that even now, in mid-winter, next summer's
+leaves are already waiting, nay, that they were conceived nine months
+ago? That they thus grow in small, commonly unnoticed beginnings, and
+lie in bud for a period twice as long as the summer of their adult and
+manifest life, is yet a fact, and one to which the social analogies are
+many and worth considering.
+
+While recognising, then, the immense importance of the historic element
+of our heritage, renaissance and mediaeval, classic and earlier;
+recognising also the predominance of contemporary forces and ideas,
+industrial and liberal, imperial and bureaucratic, financial and
+journalistic, can we not seek also, hidden under all these leaves, for
+those of the still-but-developing bud, which next season must be so much
+more important than they are to day? It is a commonplace, yet mainly of
+educational meetings, to note that the next generation is now at school;
+but how seldom do we recognise its pioneers, albeit already among our
+own contemporaries? At any rate we may see here and there that their
+leaven is already at work.
+
+In this respect, cities greatly differ--one is far more initiative than
+another. In the previous paper (vol. I, p. 109), we saw how individuals,
+edifices, institutions, might represent all past phases; these,
+therefore, often predominate in different cities sufficiently to give
+its essential stamp. Why then should we not make a further survey and
+seek to see something of the cities of the future; though we may have to
+look for these in quarters where at first sight there may seem as yet
+scanty promise of flower?
+
+[Page: 105] To recall an instance employed above, probably every member
+of this Society is old enough to remember incredulous questionings of
+whether any good thing could come out of Battersea. Again, how few, even
+in America, much less than in Europe, a few years ago, forsaw the rapid
+growth of those culture-elements in St. Louis, of which the recent
+World-Exposition will not have been the only outcome?
+
+Only a few years earlier, it was Chicago which, for New England no less
+than for the Old World, seemed but the byword of a hopelessly
+materialised community. So Birmingham or Glasgow has won its present
+high position among cities in comparatively recent times; so it may now
+be the turn of older cities, once far more eminent, like Newcastle or
+Dundee, to overtake and in turn, perhaps, outstrip them. But all this is
+still too general and needs further definition; let us attempt this,
+therefore, somewhat more fully, in the concrete case of Glasgow.
+
+
+Q--GLASGOW AS TYPICAL OF CIVIC TRANSITION--FROM "PALEOTECHNIC" TO
+"NEOTECHNIC"
+
+My own appreciation of the significance of Glasgow was first really
+awakened over twenty years ago by William Morris, who in his vivid way
+pointed out to me how, despite the traditional culture--superiority of
+Edinburgh, Glasgow was not only the Scottish capital, but, in his view,
+in real progressiveness the leading and initiative city of the whole
+United Kingdom. And this for him was not merely or mainly in its
+municipal enterprise, then merely in its infancy--although he expressed
+this development in the phrase "In London, people talked socialism
+without living it; but in Glasgow, they were socialists without knowing
+it!" Despite all the ugliness which had so repelled Ruskin, the squalor
+which moved Matthew Arnold to the fiercest scorn in all his writings,
+Morris's appreciation arose from his craftsman's knowledge and respect
+for supreme craftsmanship. The great ships building upon the Clyde were
+for him "the greatest achievement of [Page: 106] humanity since the days
+of the cathedral-builders," nay, for him actually surpassing these,
+since calling forth an even more complex combination and "co-operation
+of all the material arts and sciences" into a mighty and organic whole;
+and correspondingly of all their respective workers also, this being for
+him of the very essence of his social ideal.
+
+For these reasons he insisted, to my then surprise that the social
+reorganisation he then so ardently hoped for "was coming faster upon the
+Clyde than upon the Thames": he explained as for him the one main reason
+for his then discouragement as to the progress of London that there East
+and West, North and South, are not only too remote each from the other,
+but in their occupations all much too specialised--there to finance,
+there to manufactures, or here to leisure, and so on; while on the Clyde
+industrial organisation and social progress could not but develop
+together, through the very nature of the essential and working unity of
+the ship.
+
+Since Morris's day, a local art movement, of which he knew little, has
+risen to eminence, a foreign critic would say to pre-eminence, in this
+country at least. Since Ruskin's savage response to a Glasgow invitation
+to lecture--"first burn your city, and cleanse your river,"--a new
+generation of architects and hygienists have not a little transformed
+the one, and vigorous measures have been taken towards the purification
+of the other. That the city and university pre-eminently associated
+with the invention of the steam-engine, and consequently with the advent
+of the industrial revolution throughout the world, should, a century
+later, have produced a scarcely less pre-eminent leader of applied
+science towards the command of electricity is thus no isolated
+coincidence. And as political economy, which is ever the theory
+corresponding to our phase of industrial practice, and there some of
+its foremost pioneers, and later its classical exponent, Adam Smith
+himself, so once more there are signs at least of a corresponding wave
+of theoretic progress. Students of primitive civilisation and industry
+have now long familiarised us with their reinterpretation of what was
+long known as the stone age, into two very distinct [Page: 107] periods,
+the earlier characterised by few and rough implements, roughly used by a
+rude people, the second by more varied tools, of better shape, and finer
+edge, often of exquisite material and polish. We know that these were
+wielded more skilfully, by a people of higher type, better bred and
+better nourished; and that these, albeit of less hunting and militant
+life, but of pacific agricultural skill, prevailed in every way in the
+struggle for existence; thanks thus not only to more advanced arts, but
+probably above all to the higher status of woman. This distinction of
+Paleolithic and Neolithic ages and men, has long passed into the
+terminology of sociological science, and even into current speech: is it
+too much then, similarly, to focus the largely analogous progress which
+is so observable in what we have been wont to generalise too crudely as
+the modern Industrial Age? All are agreed that the discoveries and
+inventions of this extraordinary period of history constitute an epoch
+of material advance only paralleled, if at all, in magnitude and
+significance by those of prehistory with its shadowy Promethean figures.
+Our own advance from a lower industrial civilisation towards a higher
+thus no less demands definite characterisation, and this may be broadly
+expressed as from an earlier or _Paleotechnic_ phase, towards a later or
+more advanced _Neotechnic_ one. If definition be needed, this may be
+broadly given as from a comparatively crude and wasteful technic age,
+characterised by coal, steam, and cheap machine products, and a
+corresponding _quantitative_ ideal of "progress of wealth and
+population"--towards a finer civilisation, characterised by the wider
+command, yet greater economy of natural energies, by the predominance of
+electricity, and by the increasing victory of an ideal of qualitative
+progress, expressed in terms of skill and art, of hygiene and education,
+of social polity, etc.
+
+The Neotechnic phase, though itself as yet far from completely replacing
+the paleotechnic order which is still quantitatively predominant in most
+of our cities, begins itself to show signs of a higher stage of
+progress, as in the co-ordination of the many industries required for
+the building of a ship, or in the yet more recent developments which
+begin to renew for us the conception of the worthy construction of a
+city. As [Page: 108] the former period may be characterised by the
+predominance of the relatively unskilled workman and of the skilled, so
+this next incipient age by the development of the chief workman proper,
+the literal _architectos_ or architect; and by his companion the rustic
+improver, gardener and forester, farmer, irrigator, and their
+correspondingly evolving types of civil engineer.
+
+To this phase then the term _Geotechnic_ may fairly be applied. Into its
+corresponding theoretic and ideal developments we need not here enter,
+beyond noting that these are similarly of synthetic character; on the
+concrete side the sciences unifying as geography, and on their more
+abstract side as the classification and philosophy of the
+sciences,--while both abstract and concrete movements of thought are
+becoming more and more thoroughly evolutionary in character.
+
+But evolutionary theories, especially as they rise towards
+comprehensiveness, cannot permanently content themselves with origins,
+or with classifications merely, nor with concentrating on nature rather
+than on man. Nature furnishes after all but the stage for evolution in
+its highest terms; of this man himself is the hero; so that thus our
+Geotechnic phase, Synthetic age (call it what we will) in its turn gives
+birth to a further advance--that concerned with human evolution, above
+all subordinating all things to him; whereas in all these preceding
+industrial phases, even if decreasingly, "things are in the saddle and
+ride mankind." This age, now definitely evolutionist in policy, as the
+geotechnic was in theory and in environment we may term the _Eugenic_.
+For its theory, still less advanced, the term _Eupsychic_ may complete
+our proposed nomenclature.
+
+Thus then our conception of the opening future may be increasingly
+defined, since all these apparently predicted phases are already
+incipient among us, and are thus really matters of observed fact, of
+social embryology let us say; in short, of city development.
+
+In summary, then, the diagram of the former instalment of this paper
+(vol. 1, p. 109)
+
+              ANCIENT                 ||
+Primitive | Matriarchal | Patriarchal ||
+
+                 RECENT                   ||
+Greek and Roman | Mediaeval | Renaissance ||
+
+        CONTEMPORARY          ||
+Revolution | Empire | Finance ||
+
+         INCIPIENT
+         ?   ?   ?
+
+[Page: 109] has thus its interrogations filled up. Omitting the
+left-hand half, that generalised as Ancient and Recent in the above
+diagram, so as to give more space to the Contemporary and Incipient
+phases, these now stand as follows:--
+
+          CONTEMPORARY           ||           INCIPIENT
+Revolution | Revolution | Empire ||Neotechnic | Geotechnic | Eugenic
+
+To elaborate this farther would, of course, exceed my present limits;
+but I may be permitted to say that long use of this schematic outline,
+especially of course in more developed forms, has satisfied me of its
+usefulness alike in the study of current events and in the practical
+work of education and city betterment. I venture then to recommend it to
+others as worth trial.
+
+
+R--A PRACTICAL PROPOSAL--A CIVIC EXHIBITION
+
+How shall we more fully correlate our theoretic civics, i.e., our
+observations of cities interpreted as above, with our moral ideas and
+our practical policy--i.e., our Applied Civics. Our ideals have to be
+selected, our ideas defined, our plans matured; and the whole of these
+applied; that is realised, in polity, in culture, and in art. But if
+this be indeed the due correlation of civic survey and civic service,
+how may we now best promote the diffusion and the advancement of both?
+At this stage therefore, I venture to submit to the Society a practical
+proposal for its consideration and discussion; and if approved, I would
+fain hope for its recommendation to towns and cities, to organisations
+and to the public likely to be interested.
+
+Here then is my proposal. Is not the time ripe for bringing together the
+movements of Civics and Eugenics, now here and indeed everywhere plainly
+nascent, and of setting these before the public of this country in some
+such large and concrete ways, as indeed, in the latter subject at
+least, have been so strongly desiderated by Mr. Galton? As regards
+Civics, such have been afforded to America during the summer of 1904 by
+the Municipal Section of the St. Louis Exhibition; in [Page: 110]
+Dresden also, at the recent Towns Exhibition; and by kindred Exhibitions
+and Congresses in Paris and elsewhere.
+
+All these have taken form since the Paris Exposition of 1900, with its
+important section of social economy and its many relevant special
+congresses. Among these may be specially mentioned here as of popular
+interest, and civic stimulus, the _Congres de L'Art Public_; the more
+since this also held an important Exhibition, to which many Continental
+cities sent instructive exhibits.
+
+Other exhibitions might be mentioned; so that the fact appears that in
+well-nigh every important and progressive country, save our own, the
+great questions of civics have already been fully opened, and vividly
+brought before their public, by these great contemporary museums with
+their associated congresses.
+
+With our present Chairman, the Rt. Hon. Charles Booth, with Canon
+Barnett, Mr. Horsfall, and so many other eminent civic workers among us;
+with our committee and its most organising of secretaries, might not a
+real impulse be given in this way by this Society towards civic
+education and action?
+
+Let me furthermore recall the two facts; first, that in every important
+exhibition which has been held in this country or abroad, no exhibits
+have been more instructive and more popular than have been (1) the
+picturesque reconstructions of ancient cities, and the presentment of
+their city life, and (2) the corresponding surveys of the present
+conditions of town life, and of the resources and means of bettering
+them.
+
+Even as a show then, I venture to submit that such a "Towneries" might
+readily be arranged to excel in interest, and surpass in usefulness, the
+excellent "Fisheries," "Healtheries", and other successful exhibitions
+in the record and recent memory of London. The advantages of such an
+exhibition are indeed too numerous for even an outline here; but they
+may be easily thought out more and more fully. Indeed, I purposely
+abstain for the present from more concrete suggestion; for the
+discussion of its elements, methods, plans, and scale will be found to
+raise the whole range of civic questions, and to set these in freshening
+lights.
+
+[Page: 111] At this time of social transition, when we all more or less
+feel the melting away of old divisions and parties, of old barriers of
+sects and schools, and the emergence of new possibilities, the continual
+appearance of new groupings of thought and action, such a Civic
+Exhibition would surely be specially valuable. In the interest, then, of
+the incipient renascence of civic progress, I plead for a Civic
+Exhibition.[14]
+
+[14] Since the preceding paper was read, it is encouraging to note the
+practical beginnings of a movement towards a civic exhibition,
+appropriately arising, like so many other valuable contributions to
+civic betterment, from Toynbee Hall. The Cottages Exhibition initiated
+by Mr. St. Loe Strachey at Garden City, and of course also that
+admirable scheme itself, must also be mentioned as importance forces in
+the directions of progress and propaganda advocated above.
+
+Of such an exhibition, the very catalogue would be in principle that
+_Encyclopædia Civica_, into which, in the previous instalment of this
+paper (vol. I, p. 118) I have sought to group the literature of civics.
+We should thus pass before us, in artistic expression, and therefore in
+universal appeal, the historic drama of the great civic past, the
+mingled present, the phantasmagoria and the tragi comedy of both of
+these. We should then know more of the ideals potential for the future,
+and, it may be, help onward some of the Eutopias which are already
+struggling towards birth.
+
+
+
+
+DISCUSSION
+
+
+The Chairman (THE RT. HON. CHARLES BOOTH) said:
+
+I feel always the inspiring character of Professor Geddes' addresses. He
+seems to widen and deepen the point of view, and to widen and deepen
+one's own ideas, and enables us to hold them more firmly and better than
+one can do without the aid of the kind of insight Professor Geddes has
+given into the methods of his own mind. I believe that we all hold our
+conceptions by some sort of tenure. I am afraid I hold mine by columns
+and statistics much underlined--a horrible prosaic sort of arrangement
+on ruled paper. I remember a lady of my acquaintance who had a place for
+everything. The discovery of America was in the left-hand corner; the
+Papacy was in the middle; and for everything she had some local
+habitation in an imaginary world. Professor Geddes is far more ingenious
+than that, and it is most interesting and instructive and helpful to
+follow these charming diagrams which spring evidently from the method he
+himself uses in holding and forming his conceptions. That it is of the
+utmost value to have large conceptions there can be no doubt--large
+conceptions both in time and place, large conceptions of all those
+various ideas to which he has called our attention. By some means or
+other we have to have them; and having got them, every individual,
+single fact has redoubled value. We put it in its place. So I hope that
+in our discussion, while we may develop each in his own way, the mental
+methods we pursue, we may bring forward anything that strikes us as
+germane, as a practical point of application to the life of the world,
+and especially anything having an application to the life of London. I
+would make my contribution to that with regard to a scheme that has been
+explained to me by its originator, Mrs. Barnett, the wife of Canon
+Barnett of Toynbee Hall. The idea concerns an open [Page: 113] space
+which has recently been secured in Hampstead. It is known to you all
+that a certain piece of ground belonging to the trustees of Eton College
+has been secured, which extends the open space of Hampstead Heath in
+such a way as to protect a great amount of beauty. The further proposal
+is to acquire an estate surrounding that open space which has now been
+secured for ever to the people, and to use this extension to make what
+is called a "garden suburb." It is a following out of the "garden-city"
+idea which is seizing hold of all our minds, and it seems to me an
+exceedingly practical adaptation of that idea. Where it comes in, in
+connection with the address we have just heard, is that the root idea is
+that it shall bring together all the good elements of civic life. It is
+not to be for one class, or one idea, but for all classes, and all
+ideas--a mixed population with all its needs thought for and provided
+for; and above everything, the beauty of those fields and those hills is
+not to be sacrificed, but to be used for the good of the suburb and the
+good of London. I hope that out of it will come an example that will be
+followed. That is a little contribution I wish to make to the discussion
+to-day, and if I can interest any one here in forwarding it, I shall be
+exceedingly glad.
+
+
+MR. SWINNY said:
+
+Towards the close of his lecture, Professor Geddes remarked that the
+cities of America inherited a great part of their civilisation from
+Greece and Rome and the Europe of the Middle Age. I believe that thought
+will lead us to consider the point whether this geographical survey
+should precede or follow a general historical survey. Now, if we
+consider that a river valley in England, with the towns in that valley,
+are part of the English nation, and that the English nation has shared
+in the general historical evolution of Western Europe, it would seem
+that the first simplification the question allows of is: What is there
+in the historical development of that city that is common to the whole
+of Western Europe, and what is peculiar to its position as an English
+city? And the second simplification that the problem allows of is to
+consider what part of the evolution of a particular city is due to its
+peculiar position in that river valley? So that it seems necessary first
+to get a general idea of the historical evolution of England and the
+West; and then you can proceed to consider what is due to the part
+played by the city in that evolution. Thus you have to consider not so
+much the city as a result of its immediate environment, but the effect
+of its environment in modifying the general course of civilisation as it
+affected that city.
+
+
+DR. J.L. TAYLER,
+
+[Page: 114] referring to Professor Geddes' remarks on the working
+craftsman and the thinking craftsman, said he believed that in a country
+like England, where the prevailing tendencies of thought and action were
+of an essentially practical nature, many people who now felt contempt
+for higher mental ideals would alter their views, if this idea of the
+_causal_ relationship between thinkers and workers could be driven home.
+If business men and women could be made to realise that in the higher
+regions of pure science there were always to be found some thinkers who
+belonged to the same craft or trade as they themselves, they would
+naturally tend to rely on these thinkers when dealing with problems that
+necessitate a wide mental outlook.
+
+Moreover, the thought that students of great mental powers studied the
+objects with which working craftsmen were in daily contact, could not
+fail to deepen, refine and purify their more practical and, in some
+respects, grosser aims; while the knowledge that every science-study had
+an industrial as well as a scientific aspect would make the thinking
+craftsmen more alive to the needs of everyday existence.
+
+Such conceptions, if spread through all classes of our community, would
+inevitably change the feeling of distrust of learning into one of
+healthful enthusiasm, and give in addition a unity and direction to our
+various life pursuits which might in time generate a true modern
+national spirit; for it is precisely this divorce of mental and
+physical, of theoretical and practical, class and individual
+effort--which such a thinking and working craft theory would
+rectify--that destroys our efficiency by creating an unreal chasm
+between refined and unrefined, learned and unlearned, where there should
+be only a progressive evolution from the lower to the higher, from the
+immediate practical to the ultimate ideal.
+
+
+THE REV. DR. AVELING said:
+
+There was one point that the lecturer made which, I think, might be a
+fit and fruitful subject for discussion. He said that we were the
+product of the city. To a great extent that is undoubtedly true; but on
+the other hand, he advocated an improvement in the conditions of
+environment, to be brought about by our own endeavours. Therefore, the
+city can be shaped and made by us. What, then, is the exact value to be
+given to the seemingly contradictory doctrines that the individual is
+the product of the city and also that the city is the product of the
+citizen? The establishing of some fixed relation between--or the
+adjusting of the relations of--these two causes of social progress would
+be, I think, interesting to the philosopher, and useful to the
+economist. The problem is [Page: 115] without doubt a difficult one, but
+its solution would be of great value. I do not venture to offer any
+answer to the question I raise--I merely state it.
+
+
+MR. A.W. STILL said:
+
+We have been passing through a period in which the city has created a
+type of man so wholly absorbed in the promotion of his own individual
+interests that he tends almost entirely to forget the social obligations
+which ought to make the greatest appeal to him. We may take some hope
+from what Professor Geddes has said, that the time is coming when we
+shall bring the force of our own characters to bear on our environment,
+and endeavour to break away from conditions which have made us the
+slaves of environment. I know the lovely little garden city of
+Bourneville intimately, and some of the experiments in other quarters.
+But in the common expansion of cities, I have seen that as the people
+get away from one set of slums, they are creating new areas which will
+become as degraded and abominable as those which are left behind. It has
+always seemed to me that there is room for good work by some committee,
+or some body of men, who would be voluntary guardians of the city's
+well-being, who would make it their business to acquire all that
+knowledge which Professor Geddes has just put before us in terms so
+enchanting, and would use all the ability that they possess in order to
+lead the minds of the community towards the cultivation of the best and
+highest ideals in civic life. I do not think it need be regarded as
+impossible that, from an association of this kind, such a movement as I
+have mentioned should spring. I conceive the possibility of each group
+developing into a trust, capable of acting in the interests of the city
+in years to come, exercising a mighty influence, being relied upon for
+guidance, and administering great funds for the common good. If we could
+get in each of our populous centres a dozen thoroughly intelligent
+broad-minded men, capable of watching all the streams of tendency--all
+the developments of civic life, bringing their judgment to bear on its
+progress, and urging the public to move in the right direction, a great
+service might be rendered. At least once a year, these little groups of
+men might meet together at some general conference, and, by the exchange
+of their opinions and by the mutual helpfulness of intellectual
+intercourse, raise up and perfect civic ideals which would be a boon to
+this country. We suffer at present, I think, from the too great
+particularisation of our efforts. We get one man devoting himself
+exclusively to a blind asylum, another seeming to take no interest in
+anything but a deaf-and-dumb institute or the like, and yet another
+devoting himself to charity organisation. It is all excellent work, but
+the difficulty is to get broad, comprehensive views taken of the common
+good. To reduce poverty and to check physical degeneracy, there must be
+an effort continuously made to [Page: 116] raise the tone of the
+environment in which we live. The home and the city need to be made
+wholesome and beautiful, and the people need to be encouraged to enlarge
+their minds by contact with nature, and by the study of all that is
+elevating and that increases the sum of social responsibility.
+
+
+MR. E.S. WEYMOUTH said:
+
+He found it somewhat difficult to see what was to be the practical
+outcome of civics if studied in the way proposed. Would Professor Geddes
+consider it the duty of any Londoner, who wished to study sociology
+practically, to map out London, and also the surrounding districts, with
+special reference to the Thames River Basin, as appeared to be suggested
+in both Professor Geddes' papers? Looking at civics in its practical or
+ethical aspect, he was bound to confess that, though he had acquired a
+tolerable knowledge of the geography of the Thames Basin, he did not
+feel it helped him materially towards becoming a better citizen of
+London. Would Professor Geddes wish them to study, first, London with
+its wealth side by side with its squalor and filth, and then proceed to
+study another large town, where the same phenomena presented themselves?
+What gain would there be in that proportionate to the labour entailed?
+In his own case, so disheartened had he felt by observing that all their
+efforts, public and private, for the improvement of their civic
+conditions seemed to end in raising considerably the rents of the ground
+landlords of London, while leaving the bulk of the population engaged in
+a hard struggle for their existence, that he had for years past found it
+difficult to take much interest in municipal affairs, so long as the
+rates and taxes were--as it seemed to him--put upon the wrong shoulders.
+And for the study of civics, he had preferred to turn to those cities
+where efforts were being made to establish communal life on what seemed
+to him juster conditions. In 1897, he was struck with the title of an
+article in the "Daily Telegraph." It was headed, "The Land of Beauty,
+Society without Poverty, Life without Care." He found the article was a
+description of Durban in Natal. The writer attributed the prosperity of
+this town to the fact that the suburbs were kept in the hands of the
+community, instead of being handed over to private owners who would
+absorb all the unearned increment. Even if this eulogium betrayed
+exaggeration still a student of civics might feel that the economic
+conditions of that town were worth studying. Similarly, in New Zealand,
+the adoption in 1891 of the tax on land values brought prosperity to the
+towns, and changed the tide of emigration from New Zealand into
+immigration. Again, at home they had Bourneville, Port Sunlight, and
+that most interesting of all present-day experiments in this country,
+the Garden City, all of these being founded by men with ideals. He could
+not help feeling [Page: 117] that a student of civics, possessed of such
+a fair working knowledge of the city he lived in as most of them might
+reasonably lay claim to, would make more real progress by studying the
+success or failure of social experiments, than by entering on the very
+formidable task that seemed to be set before them by Professor Geddes.
+However, when they left abstract civics, as they had it portrayed to
+them in these papers, and turned to the architectural or the historical
+side of concrete civics, there should be no better guide than Professor
+Geddes, whose labours in Edinburgh, and whose projected schemes for the
+improvement of Dunfermline, were becoming widely known.
+
+
+MR. TOMKINS (_of the London Trades Council_) said:
+
+If before any person was allowed to serve on our different public
+bodies, he should be required to attend a course of lectures such as
+those given by Professor Geddes on civics, that would surely be a means
+of developing his social interests, and would tend to eliminate that
+self-interest which too often actuated public men. There was nothing
+more difficult than for workmen to-day to be able to take larger views.
+The workman's whole business was now so different from what is was in
+the days of the arts and crafts guilds of the Middle Ages; they now
+found him ground down into some little division of industry, and it was
+quite impossible for him to work in his own way. Thus he got
+narrow-minded, because concentrated on some minor process. He was kept
+at work with his nose to the mill the whole time, and it became too
+exhausting for him to try and take these larger views of life. He often
+thought of the amount of talent and energy and practical beauty which
+was wasted in our workshops to-day. Referring to the Garden Cities of
+this country and the United States, Mr. Tomkins said the idea of getting
+great Trusts to use their money in a social spirit, and not merely to
+get the workers tied to their mills, was really something which opened
+out a vista of grand possibilities in the future; but if any movement
+was to be successful it would be necessary to teach the great masses of
+workers, and to create a real sound social public opinion amongst them.
+
+
+PROFESSOR GEDDES' reply
+
+Professor Geddes, in replying to the discussion, said he entirely agreed
+with the point made by Mr. Swinny, and he should just like to correct
+what he had said in his lecture by reference to what he meant by a civic
+museum. In Edinburgh, he had in his museum a large room, with a
+geographical model [Page: 118] of the old town with its hill-fort, and
+so on; and he hung round this maps and diagrams of historical and
+geographical details. On the opposite side of the room, he had a symbol
+of the market-cross, which stood for the centre of its municipal life,
+of its ideals and independence of environment. Around it was grouped
+what represented the other side of the city; and here he might answer
+another point, and say that they could never settle the great
+philosophical controversy of determinism and free-will. They would
+always incline when young to the novel of circumstance, and later, to
+the novel of character, but they should always feel that life was a game
+of individual skill with interfering circumstances. These diagrams of
+his were only the page split. On the one side, he meant to push to the
+extreme the idea that the place makes us, and on the other side, that we
+make the place. By what process do men struggle towards the selection of
+their ideals? They find themselves within the grasp of their
+environment, their whole heritage of culture, of good and ill, the whole
+tradition of the past; but they must select certain elements of
+these--the elements that seem to them good, and so they might escape
+from the manner of the city. Pointing to a drawing of the old Scotch
+bawbee, Professor Geddes said it was not a very dignified symbol of the
+coinage of the world, but let them mark how it had on the one side the
+hammerman at his work, with his motto "_Beat deus artem_," and, on the
+other side, a larger legend, with the eagle of the empire and the lamb
+of Saint John.
+
+To return to his civic museum: the room below the one he had described
+was the larger museum for Scotland, and in the room below that, again,
+the museum for England, Ireland and America, the whole English-speaking
+world--not the Empire only. And the whole stood on a museum and library
+representing that larger evolution of the occidental civilisation which
+showed them they were merely children of the past. Professor Geddes
+pleaded for museums in which every city displayed its own past and
+present, but related itself to the whole of Europe and the whole
+occident.
+
+One or two practical questions of great importance had [Page: 119] been
+raised; but, with all respect, he submitted that they could consider
+what was practical and practicable without requiring to go into the
+question of taxing land. That was a matter of political opinion. It was
+as if they were discussing the geology of coal, which they could do,
+without reference to coal royalties. Mr. Weymouth was with them on the
+subject of preserving old buildings; and he thought there was a great
+deal to be learned, if Mr. Weymouth would descend the valley of the
+Thames once more. It was of great importance if he found a great city at
+the tidal limit. Going down the Thames and the Tay, they would find, at
+the last ford of one, the old Abbey of Westminster, and at the last ford
+of the other, the old Abbey of Scoon. The kings of England and Scotland
+were crowned there because these were the most important places--a point
+of great historic interest. As a matter of practical interest, he might
+mention that Scoon and Westminster alike passed out of supreme
+importance when bridges were built across the river below; and he would
+next point out how just as Perth became of subordinate importance when
+the great Tay Bridge was built, so it became a tremendously important
+question to London, as it might in turn be much affected by the making
+of a great and a new bridge much further down the stream. This study of
+the descending river had real and practical, as well as historical
+importance. He had been about considerably in the great cities of the
+United States, and had been struck by the amount of good endeavour
+there. It was not, however, by denouncing Tammany that they could beat
+it, but by understanding it. They must understand the mechanism by which
+the Celtic chieftain ruled his clan, and they must deal with these
+methods by still other methods; and they might often find it more
+satisfactory to re-moralise the chieftain than to destroy him.
+
+Professor Geddes concluded by saying that he appreciated the admirable
+suggestion of Mr. Still towards the evolution of civic unions. He was
+sure Mr. Still had there an idea of great significance which might be
+developed.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Civics: as Applied Sociology, by Patrick Geddes
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+Project Gutenberg's Civics: as Applied Sociology, by Patrick Geddes
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+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
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+Title: Civics: as Applied Sociology
+
+Author: Patrick Geddes
+
+Release Date: August 17, 2004 [EBook #13205]
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+Language: English
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CIVICS: AS APPLIED SOCIOLOGY ***
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+
+<br />
+<h1><i>Civics: as Applied Sociology</i></h1>
+<h2>by Patrick Geddes</h2>
+<br />
+<hr style="width: 35%; height: 2px;" /><br />
+<p style="font-weight: bold;">Read before the Sociological Society at a
+Meeting in the School of
+Economics and Political Science (University of London), Clare Market,
+W.C., at 5 p.m., on Monday, July 18th, 1904; the Rt. Hon. CHARLES
+BOOTH,
+F.R.S., in the Chair.</p>
+<br />
+<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+<br />
+<p>This department of sociological studies should evidently be, as far
+as
+possible, concrete in treatment. If it is to appeal to practical men
+and
+civic workers, it is important that the methods advocated for the
+systematic study of cities, and as underlying fruitful action, be not
+merely the product of the study, but rather be those which may be
+acquired in course of local observation and practical effort. My
+problem
+is thus to outline such general ideas as may naturally crystallise from
+the experience of any moderately-travelled observer of varied
+interests;
+so that his observation of city after city, now panoramic and
+impressionist, again detailed, should gradually develop towards an
+orderly Regional Survey. This point of view has next to be correlated
+with the corresponding practical experience, that which may be acquired
+through some varied experiences of citizenship, and thence rise toward
+a
+larger and more orderly conception of civic action&#8212;as Regional Service.
+In a word, then, Applied Sociology in general, or <span class="pagenum">p. 104</span> Civics, as
+one of its main departments, may be defined as the application of
+Social
+Survey to Social Service.</p>
+<p>In this complex field of study as in simpler preliminary ones, our
+everyday experiences and commonsense interpretations gradually become
+more systematic, that is, begin to assume a scientific character; while
+our activities, in becoming more orderly and comprehensive, similarly
+approximate towards art. Thus there is emerging more and more clearly
+for sociological studies in general, for their concrete fields of
+application in city after city, the conception of a scientific centre
+of
+observation and record on the one hand, and of a corresponding centre
+of
+experimental endeavour on the other&#8212;in short of Sociological
+Observatory and Sociological Laboratory, and of these as increasingly
+co-ordinated. Indeed, is not such association of observations and
+experiments, are not such institutions actually incipient here and
+elsewhere? I need not multiply instances of the correlation of science
+and art, as of chemistry with agriculture, or biology with medicine.
+Yet, on the strictly sociological plane and in civic application they
+are as yet less generally evident, though such obvious connections as
+that of vital statistics with hygienic administration, that of
+commercial statistics with politics, are becoming recognised by all. In
+the paper with which this Society's work lately opened, the intimate
+connection between a scientific demography and a practical eugenics has
+been clearly set forth. But this study of the community in the
+aggregate
+finds its natural parallel and complement in the study of the community
+as an integrate, with material and immaterial structures and functions,
+which we call the City. Correspondingly, the improvement of the
+individuals of the community, which is the aim of eugenics, involves a
+corresponding civic progress. Using (for the moment at least) a
+parallel
+nomenclature, we see that the sociologist is concerned not only with
+"demography" but with "politography," and that "eugenics" is
+inseparable
+from "politogenics." For the struggle for existence, though observed
+mainly from the side of its individuals by the demographer, is not only
+an intra-civic but an inter-civic process; and if so, ameliorative
+selection, now clearly sought for the individuals in detail as
+eugenics,
+is inseparable from a corresponding civic art&#8212;a literal
+"Eupolitogenics."</p>
+<br />
+<h3>A&#8212;THE GEOGRAPHIC SURVEY OF CITIES</h3>
+<p>Coming to concrete Civic Survey, where shall we begin? Not only in
+variety and magnitude of civic activities, but, thanks especially to
+the
+work of Mr. Charles Booth and his collaborators in actual social survey
+also, London may naturally claim pre-eminence. Yet even at best, does
+not this vastest of world cities remain a less or more foggy labyrinth,
+from which surrounding <span class="pagenum"><a name='p_105'></a>p. 105</span> regions with their smaller cities can
+be but dimly descried, even with the best intentions of avoiding the
+cheap generalisation of "the provinces"? For our more general and
+comparative study, then, simpler beginnings are preferable. More
+suitable, therefore, to our fundamental thesis&#8212;that no less definite
+than the study of races and usages or languages, is that of the
+groupings of men&#8212;is the clearer outlook, the more panoramic view of a
+definite geographic region, such, for instance, as lies beneath us upon
+a mountain holiday. Beneath vast hunting desolations lie the pastoral
+hillsides, below these again scattered arable crofts and sparsely
+dotted
+hamlets lead us to the small upland village of the main glen: from this
+again one descends to the large and prosperous village of the foothills
+and its railway terminus, where lowland and highland meet. East or
+west,
+each mountain valley has its analogous terminal and initial village,
+upon its fertile fan-shaped slope, and with its corresponding minor
+market; while, central to the broad agricultural strath with its slow
+meandering river, stands the prosperous market town, the road and
+railway junction upon which all the various glen-villages converge. A
+day's march further down, and at the convergence of several such
+valleys, stands the larger county-town&#8212;in the region before me as I
+write, one of added importance, since not only well nigh central to
+Scotland, but as the tidal limit of a till lately navigable river.
+Finally, at the mouth of its estuary, rises the smoke of a great
+manufacturing city, a central world-market in its way. Such a river
+system is, as geographer after geographer has pointed out, the
+essential
+unit for the student of cities and civilisations. Hence this simple
+geographical method of treatment must here be pled for as fundamental
+to
+any really orderly and comparative treatment of our subject. By
+descending from source to sea we follow the development of civilisation
+from its simple origins to its complex resultants; nor can any element
+of this be omitted. Were we to begin with the peasant hamlet as our
+initial unit, and forget the hinterlands of pasture, forest, and chase
+(an error to which the writer on cities is naturally prone), the
+anthropologist would soon remind us that in forgetting the hunter, we
+had omitted the essential germ of active militarism, and hence very
+largely of aristocratic rule. Similarly, <span class="pagenum">p. 106</span> in ignoring the
+pastoral life, we should be losing sight of a main fount of spiritual
+power, and this not only as regards the historic religions, but all
+later culture elements also, from the poetic to the educational. In
+short, then, it takes the whole region to make the city. As the river
+carries down contributions from its whole course, so each complex
+community, as we descend, is modified by its predecessors. The converse
+is no doubt true also, but commonly in less degree.</p>
+<p>In this way with the geographer we may rapidly review and extend our
+knowledge of the grouping of cities. Such a survey of a series of our
+own river-basins, say from Dee to Thames, and of a few leading
+Continental ones, say the Rhine and Meuse, the Seine and Loire, the
+Rhone, the Po, the Danube&#8212;and, if possible, in America also, at least
+the Hudson and Mississippi&#8212;will be found the soundest of introductions
+to the study of cities. The comparison of corresponding types at once
+yields the conviction of broad general unity of development, structure,
+and function. Thus, with Metschnikoff we recognise the succession of
+potamic, thalassic, and oceanic civilisations; with Reclus we see the
+regular distribution of minor and major towns to have been largely
+influenced not only by geographical position but by convenient journey
+distances. Again, we note how the exigencies of defence and of
+government, the developments of religion, despite all historic
+diversities, have been fundamentally the same. It is not, of course, to
+be forgotten how government, commerce, communications, have
+concentrated, altered or at least disguised the fundamental
+geographical
+simplicity of this descending hierarchy from mountain-hamlet to
+ocean-metropolis; but it is useful for the student constantly to
+recover
+the elemental and naturalist-like point of view even in the greatest
+cities. At times we all see London as still fundamentally an
+agglomeration of villages, with their surviving patches of common,
+around a mediaeval seaport; or we discern even in the utmost
+magnificence of Paris, say its Place de l'Etoile, with its spread of
+boulevards, but the hunter's tryst by the fallen tree, with its
+radiating forest-rides, each literally arrow-straight. So the narrow
+rectangular network of an American city is explicable only by the
+unthinking persistence of the peasant thrift, which grudges good land
+to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name='p_107'></a>p. 107</span>
+road-way, and is jealous of oblique short cuts. In short,
+then, in what seems our most studied city planning, we are still
+building from our inherited instincts like the bees. Our Civics is thus
+still far from an Applied Sociology.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>B&#8212;THE HISTORIC SURVEY OF CITIES</h3>
+<p>But a city is more than a place in space, it is a drama in time.
+Though
+the claim of geography be fundamental our interest in the history of
+the
+city is supremely greater; it is obviously no mere geographic
+circumstances which developed one hill-fort in Judea, and another in
+Attica, into world centres, to this day more deeply influential and
+significant than are the vastest modern capitals. This very wealth of
+historical interests and resources, the corresponding multiplicity of
+specialisms, more than ever proves the need of some means by which to
+group and classify them. Some panoramic simplification of our ideas of
+history comparable to that of our geography, and if possible congruent
+with this, is plainly what we want. Again the answer comes through
+geography, though no longer in mere map or relief, but now in vertical
+section&#8212;in the order of strata ascending from past to present, whether
+we study rock-formations with the geologist, excavate more recent
+accumulations with the archaeologist, or interpret ruins or monuments
+with the historian. Though the primitive conditions we have above noted
+with the physiographer remain apparent, indeed usually permanent,
+cities
+have none the less their characteristic phases of historic development
+decipherably superposed. Thus below even the characteristically
+patriarchal civilisations, an earlier matriarchal order is often
+becoming disclosed. Our interest in exploring some stately modern or
+Renaissance city is constantly varied by finding some picturesque
+mediaeval remnant; below this some fragment of Roman ruin; below this
+it
+may be some barbarian fort or mound. Hence the fascinating interest of
+travel, which compels us ever to begin our survey anew. Starting with
+the same river-basin as before, the geographic panorama now gains a new
+and deeper interest. Primitive centres long forgotten start into life;
+pre-historic tumuli give up their dead; to the stone circles the <span class="pagenum">p. 108</span>
+worshippers return; the British and the Roman camps again fill
+with
+armed men, and beside the prosaic market town arises a shadowy
+Arthurian
+capital. Next, some moment-centuries later, a usurper's tower rises and
+falls; the mediaeval abbey, the great castles, have their day; with the
+Reformation and the Renaissance the towns again are transformed; and
+yet more thoroughly than ever by the Industrial Revolution, with its
+factories, railways, steamships, and all that they bring with them.
+Thus, for instance, almost more important than the internal
+transformation and concentration wrought by railway and telegraph, is
+the selection, amidst the almost innumerable seaports of the older
+order, of the very few adapted to the deep draught of modern ships. In
+a
+word, not only does the main series of active cities display traces of
+all the past phases of evolution, but beside this lie fossils, or
+linger
+survivals, of almost every preceding phase.</p>
+<p>Hence, after many years of experiment and practice in teaching
+sociology
+I still find no better method available than that of regional survey,
+historical as well as geographical. Beginning with some popular
+excursion of obvious beauty and romantic interest like that to Melrose,
+we see with every tourist how naturally and fully the atmosphere and
+tradition of the Border found its expression and world influence in Sir
+Walter Scott. Thence, passing by way of contrast through the long
+isolated peninsula of Fife, say to representative towns like Kirkcaldy
+and Largo, we still see the conditions of that individualism of which
+Adam Smith and Alexander Selkirk ("Robinson Crusoe") have each in his
+way become the very prototypes. In such ways the connection of regional
+geography, history, and social psychology becomes increasingly clear.
+Again, we explore the other old Fife seaports, a series of survivals
+like those of the Zuyder Zee, or again work out in the field the
+significance of Stirling, so often the strategic centre of Scotland.
+Again, Dunfermline, as early mediaeval capital and abbey, furnishes a
+convenient object lesson preparatory to the study of the larger
+Edinburgh. Here, again, its triple centre, in the port of Leith, the
+Royal Castle, the Abbey of Holyrood, are the respective analogues of
+the
+port of London, the Tower, and Westminster; while each city-group has
+its outlying circle of minor burghs, tardily and imperfectly
+incorporated into a civic whole. Again, such a marked contrast of civic
+origins and developments as those of Glasgow and Edinburgh has to be
+accounted for; and thus through such progessively complexer surveys we
+reach the plane of modern civic problems and policies. Understanding
+the
+present as the development of the past, are we not preparing also to
+understand the future as the development of the present?</p>
+<p>The impressiveness of the aspect of Edinburgh to its visitors is
+thus
+not <span class="pagenum"><a name='p_109'></a>p. 109</span>
+merely pictorial. Be the spectator conscious of this or
+no, it turns primarily upon the contrast of the mediaeval hill-city
+with
+its castle ramparts, its fretted cathedral crown, with park and
+boulevard, with shops, hotels and railway stations. But the historic
+panorama is unusually complete. See the hill-fort defended by lake and
+forest, becoming "<i>castrum puellarum</i>," becoming a Roman and an
+Arthurian citadel, a mediaeval stronghold of innumerable sieges, a
+centre of autocratic and military dictatures, oligarchic governments,
+at
+length a museum of the past. So in the city itself. Here the narrow
+ridge crowded into a single street all the essential organs of a
+capital, and still presents with the rarest completeness of
+concentration a conspectus of modern civic life and development; and
+this alike as regards both spiritual and temporal powers, using these
+terms in their broadest senses as the respective expressions of the
+material order and its immaterial counterparts. Thus the royal and
+noble
+castles of the Middle Age become with the Renaissance here as
+everywhere
+something of palaces, while with the industrial revolution they have
+become replaced by factories or transformed into breweries. So the
+guidance of speculative thought, once concentrated in the mediaeval
+abbey, becomes transferred to the Reformation assembly of divines, to
+the Renaissance college; and again at the Revolution, is largely taken
+over by the speculative encyclop&aelig;dists, of whom Hume and Smith
+were but
+the most eminent. Nor are later developments less obvious. Of the
+following generation, we have the neo-classic architecture which
+everywhere dominated Europe after the French Revolution and during the
+First Empire, while of the next generation's reaction against all this
+in the romantic movement, the neo-Gothic monument of Scott is the most
+characteristic possible representative. Again, just as in the Oxford
+movement we had the (appropriately regional) renascence of the idealism
+of the Cavaliers, so in Edinburgh we have naturally the simultaneous
+renascence of the Puritan ideal, e.g., in the Free Church, whose
+monument accordingly rises to dominate the city in its turn. The later
+period of prosperous Liberalism, the heroic enthusiasms of Empire, have
+each left their mark; and now in the dominant phase of social
+evolution,
+that of Finance, the banks, the financial companies, the press are
+having their turn as monument builders. Our Old Edinburgh is thus the
+most condensed example, the visible microcosm of the social evolution
+which is manifest everywhere; so that as a teaching model of
+sociological development it may renew its educational attractiveness
+when its improving hygiene has lessened its medical advantages.</p>
+<p>Setting down now these phases of historical development in tabular
+form,
+we have a diagram such as the following:&#8212;</p>
+<br />
+<table summary="Ancient, recent, contemporary societies"
+ style="width: 100%;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3" rowspan="1">ANCIENT <br />
+      </td>
+      <td colspan="3" rowspan="1"
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">RECENT </td>
+      <td colspan="3" rowspan="1"
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"> CONTEMPORARY </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> INCIPIENT</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;">Primitive </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Matriarchal </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Patriarchal </td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;"> Greek
+and Roman </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Mediaeval </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Renaissance </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Revolution </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Empire </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Finance </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> ? ? ?</td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>which, were it placed erect, we might now compare to the increasing
+<span class="pagenum">p. 110</span>
+nodes of a growing stem, or rather say the layers of a coral
+reef, in which each generation constructs its characteristic stony
+skeleton as a contribution to the growing yet dying and wearying whole.
+I have elaborated this example of the panoramic aspect of Old Edinburgh
+as a widely familiar instance of the method of literal survey with
+which
+social and civic studies may so conveniently begin; and I press the
+value of extending these even to the utmost elaborateness of
+photographic survey: in my view, indeed, a sociological society has at
+least as much use for a collection of maps, plans and photographs as of
+statistics, indeed scarcely less than one of books. Of course, in all
+this I am but recalling what every tourist in some measure knows; yet
+his impressions and recollections can become an orderly politography,
+only as he sees each city in terms of its characteristic social
+formations, and as he utilises the best examples from each phase
+towards
+building up a complete picture of the greatest products of civic
+evolution, temporal and spiritual, of all places and times up to the
+present. Such a parallel of the historic survey of the city to that of
+its underlying geological area is thus in no wise a metaphoric one, but
+one which may be worked out upon maps sections and diagrams almost
+completely in the same way&#8212;in fact, with little change save that of
+colours and vertical scale. The attempt to express the characteristic
+and essential life and thought of a given region in each period upon a
+series of maps is in fact the best method of understanding the everyday
+map at which we commonly look so unthinkingly.</p>
+<p>Much of the preceding, I am assured, must be most unsatisfactory to
+those who look at cities only from the standpoint of so many committees
+dealing with police, water, finance, and so on; or to those who are
+content to view the magnitude, the wealth and the population, the
+industries and the manufactures of a great city without considering
+whence these have come and whither they are leading; equally
+unsatisfactory also, I fear, to those to whom civic dignities and
+precedence, or the alternations of winning political colours, appear of
+prime importance. I can only hope that some of these may, on
+consideration, admit that the points of view I have endeavoured to
+outline above may be worth some thought and study as elementary
+preliminaries to their own more special and developed interests; and if
+the society permit. I hope to approach these more closely in a later
+paper.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 111</span>
+The abstract economist or legalist, the moral or political
+philosopher may also resent the proposed mode of treatment as an
+attempt
+to materialise sociology by reducing it to concrete terms alone. But I
+would reply that observation, so far from excluding interpretation, is
+just the very means of preparing for it. It is the observant
+naturalist,
+the travelled zoologist and botanist, who later becomes the productive
+writer on evolution. It is the historian who may best venture on into
+the philosophy of history;&#8212;to think the reverse is to remain in the
+pre-scientific order altogether: hence the construction of systems of
+abstract and deductive economics, politics or morals, has really been
+the last surviving effort of scholasticism. Viewed as Science, Civics
+is
+that branch of Sociology which deals with Cities&#8212;their origin and
+distribution; their development and structure; their functioning,
+internal and external, material and psychological; their evolution,
+individual and associated. Viewed again from the practical side, that
+of
+applied science, Civics must develop through experimental endeavour
+into
+the more and more effective Art of enhancing the life of the city and
+of
+advancing its evolution. With the first of these lines of study, the
+concretely scientific, our philosophical outlook will not fail to
+widen;
+with the second, the practical, our ethical insight will not fail to
+deepen also.</p>
+<p>As primarily a student of living nature in evolution, I have
+naturally
+approached the city from the side of its geographic and historic
+survey,
+its environment and functional change; yet it is but a step from these
+to the abstract interpretations of the economist or the politician,
+even
+of philosopher and moralist. Again, since in everyday practice
+co-ordinating the literal maps of each civic surveys with even more
+concretely detailed plans as gardener and builder, I find less danger
+than may at first appear of ignoring the legitimate demands of the
+needed practical division of labour in the city's service. When the
+first mutual unfamiliarity is got over, there is thus also a greatly
+diminished distance between speculative thinkers and practical men, who
+at present, in this country especially, stand almost unrelated: the
+evolutionist student and worker thus begins to furnish the missing link
+between them.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>C&#8212;THE CITIZEN IN PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT</h3>
+<p>Leaving now the external survey of the city by help of its material
+framework, its characteristic buildings and predominant styles, for the
+deeper psychological survey of the citizens themselves, we may
+conveniently begin with these also in their process of development&#8212;in
+fact, our method compels us to this course. We enter then a school; and
+if we bring fresh eyes we may soon be agreed that the extraordinary
+babel of studies its time-table and curriculum reveal, is intelligible
+from no single one of the various <span class="pagenum">p. 112</span> geographic or historic
+points of view we have traversed from mountain to sea, or from past to
+present. But this unprecedented conflict of studies becomes at once
+intelligible when viewed apart from any and every definite theory of
+education yet promulgated by educationists, and even acquires a fresh
+theory of its own&#8212;that of the attempted recapitulation of the survivals
+of each and all preceding periods in their practical or speculative
+aspects, particularly the later legends and literatures, their rituals
+and codes. Thus, the inordinate specialisation upon arithmetic, the
+exaggeration of all three R's, is plainly the survival of the demand
+for
+cheap yet efficient clerks, characteristic of the recent and
+contemporary financial period.</p>
+<p>The ritual of examinations with its correlation of memorising and
+muscular drill is similarly a development of the imperial order,
+historically borrowed from the Napoleonic one; the chaotic "general
+knowledge" is similarly a survival of the encyclop&aelig;dic period;
+that is,
+of the French Revolution and the Liberal Movement generally; the Latin
+grammar and verses are of course the survivals of the Renaissance, as
+the precise fidelity to absurd spelling is the imitation of its proof
+readers; the essay is the abridged form of the mediaeval disputation;
+and only such genuine sympathy with Virgil or Tacitus, with Homer or
+Plato as one in a thousand acquires, is truly Roman or Greek at all.
+The religious instruction, however, re-interpreted by the mediaeval
+Church or the Reformation, has still its strength in some of the best
+elements of patriarchal literature; while the fairy tale, by which all
+this superincumbent weight of learning is sometimes alleviated, is the
+child's inheritance from the matriarchal order. Finally, the apple and
+the ball, at the bottom of this whole burden of books, complete the
+recapitulation; as the one, the raw fruit; the other, the ready
+missile,
+of primeval man. Our child then is heir of all the ages more fully than
+he or his teachers commonly realise. The struggle for mastery of the
+schools is thus no temporary feud, but an unending battle; one destined
+to increase rather than diminish; for in this there is the perpetual
+clash of all the forces of good heredity and evil atavism, of all the
+new variations also, healthy or diseases.</p>
+<span class="pagenum">p. 113</span><br />
+<h3>&nbsp;D&#8212;THE APPLIED SOCIOLOGY OF THE PRESENT</h3>
+<p>The city and its children thus historically present a thoroughly
+parallel accumulation of survivals or recapitulations of the past in
+the
+present. Few types nowadays are pure, that is, keep strictly to their
+period; we are all more or less mixed and modernised. Still, whether by
+temporal or spiritual compulsion, whether for the sake of bread or
+honour, each mainly and practically stands by his order, and acts with
+the social formation he belongs to. Thus now the question of the
+practical civics, that is, of the applied sociology, of each
+individual,
+each body or interests may be broadly defined; it is to emphasise his
+particular historic type, his social formation and influence in the
+civic whole, if not indeed to dominate this as far as may be. We are
+all
+for progress, but we each define it in his own way. Hence one man of
+industrial energy builds more factories or slums, another as naturally
+more breweries to supply them; and in municipal or national council his
+line of action, conscious or unconscious, remains congruent with these.
+Representative government fails to yield all that its inventors hoped
+of
+it, simply because it is so tolerably representative of its majorities;
+and there is thus great truth in the common consolation that our
+municipal governments, like larger ones, are seldom much worse than we
+deserve. Each social formation, through each of its material
+activities,
+exerts its influence upon the civic whole; and each of its ideas and
+ideals wins also its place and power. At one time the legal and
+punitive point of view, directing itself mainly to individual cases, or
+the philanthropic, palliating sufferings, dispute the foremost places;
+and now in their turn hygienic or educational endeavours arise, towards
+treating causes instead of waiting for consequences. Such endeavours
+are
+still undeniably too vague in thought, too crude in practice, and the
+enthusiast of hygiene or education or temperance may have much to
+answer
+for. But so, also, has he who stands outside of the actual civic field,
+whether as philistine or aesthete, utopist or cynic, party politician
+or
+"mug-wump." Between all these extremes it is for the united forces of
+civic survey and civic service to find the middle course. <span class="pagenum">p. 114</span> We
+observe then in the actual city, as among its future citizens, that our
+action is generally the attempt to mould both alike to some past or
+passing social formation, and, therefore, usually towards the type to
+which our interest and our survey incline, be this in our own city or
+more probably in some earlier one. Even in the actual passing detail of
+party politics we are often reminded how directly continuous are the
+rivals with puritan London, with royalist Oxford; but still more is
+this
+the case throughout the history of thought and action, and the intenser
+the more plainly; for it is in his highest moments of conviction and
+decision that the Puritan feels most in sympathy with the law or the
+prophets of Jerusalem, the scholar with Athens; or that the man of
+action&#8212;be he the first French republican or the latest
+imperialist&#8212;most frankly draws his inspiration from the corresponding
+developments of Paris. It is a commonplace of psychology that our
+thought is and must be anthropomorphic; a commonplace of history that
+it
+has been Hebraomorphic, Hellenomorphic, Latinomorphic, and so on by
+turns.</p>
+<p>This view has often been well worked out by the historian of
+inventions
+and discoveries, of customs or laws, of policies or religions, as by
+the
+historian of language or the fine arts. What we still commonly need,
+however, is to carry this view clearly into our own city and its
+institutions, its streets and schools and homes, until either in the
+private spending or public voting of the smallest sum we know exactly
+whether we are so far determining expenditure and influence towards
+enlarging, say, the influence and example of renascent Florence in one
+generation or of decadent Versailles in another. There is no danger of
+awaking this consciousness too fully; for since we have ceased
+consciously to cite and utilise the high examples of history we have
+been the more faithfully, because sub-consciously and automatically,
+continuing and extending later and lower developments.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>E&#8212;CITIES, PRESENT AND FUTURE</h3>
+<p>Hence, after a Liberal and an Imperial generation, each happy in
+their
+respective visions of wealth and expanding greatness <span class="pagenum">p. 115</span>, the
+current renewal of civic interests naturally takes the form of an
+awakening survey of our actual environment. First, a literal mapping of
+its regional elements, and then an historic interpretation of
+these&#8212;not, alas, merely or mainly in terms of the cities of sacred or
+classic tradition, nor of the Mediaeval or Renaissance cities which
+followed these, but as stupendous extensions of the mediaeval Ghetto,
+of
+the Wapping Stairs, of the Lancashire factories and of the Black
+Country, relieved by the coarse jollities of Restoration London, and
+adorned for the most part, with debased survivals from the Italian and
+the French Renaissance. There is thus no more question in our civic
+discussions of "bringing in" or "leaving out" geography or history; we
+have been too long unconscious of them, as was M. Jourdain of his
+speaking in prose.</p>
+<p>But what of the opening Future? May its coming social developments
+not
+be discerned by the careful observer in germs and buds already formed
+or
+forming, or deduced by the thinker from sociological principles? I
+believe in large measure both; yet cannot within these limits attempt
+to
+justify either. Enough for the present, if it be admitted that the
+practical man in his thought and action in the present is mainly the as
+yet too unconscious child of the past, and that in the city he is still
+working within the grasp of natural conditions.</p>
+<p>To realise the geographic and historic factors of our city's life is
+thus the first step to comprehension of the present, one indispensable
+to any attempt at the scientific forecast of the future, which must
+avoid as far as it can the dangers of mere utopianism.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>F&#8212;LITERATURE OF CIVICS</h3>
+<p>No discussion of the preliminaries and fundamentals of Civics can
+omit
+some consideration of the vast and ever growing literature of cities.
+But how are we to utilise this? How continue it? How co-ordinate it
+with
+the needed independent and first-hand survey of city by city? And how
+apply this whole knowledge of past and present towards civic action?</p>
+<p>The answer must plainly be a concrete one. Every city <span class="pagenum">p. 116</span>
+however small, has already a copious literature of its topography and
+history in the past; one, in fact, so ample that its mere bibliography
+may readily fill a goodly volume,<a name="FNanchor_1"></a><a
+ href="#Footnote_1"><sup>[1]</sup></a> to which the specialist will
+long
+be adding fresh entries. This mass of literature may next be viewed as
+the material for a comprehensive monograph, well enriched with maps and
+illustrations, such as many cities can boast; and this again may be
+condensed into a guide-book. Guide-books have long been excellent in
+their descriptive and historical detail, and are becoming increasingly
+interpretative also, especially since Mr. Grant Allen transferred his
+evolutionary insight and his expository clearness from natural to civic
+history.</p>
+<p>After this general and preliminary survey of geographic environment
+and
+historic development, there nowadays begins to appear the material of a
+complementary and contemporary volume, the Social Survey proper.
+Towards
+this, statistical materials are partly to be found amid parliamentary
+and municipal reports and returns, economic journals and the like, but
+a
+fresh and first-hand survey in detail is obviously necessary. In this
+class of literature, Mr. Booth's monumental Survey of London, followed
+by others, such as Mr. Rowntree's of York, have already been so widely
+stimulating and suggestive that it may safely be predicted that before
+many years the Social Survey of any given city will be as easily and
+naturally obtainable as is at present its guide-book; and the
+rationalised census of the present condition of its people, their
+occupation and real wages, their family budget and culture-level,
+should
+be as readily ascertainable from the one, as their antecedents
+understood or their monuments visited by help of the other.</p>
+<p>But these two volumes&#8212;"The City: Past and Present,"&#8212;are not enough.
+Is
+not a third volume imaginable and possible, that of the opening Civic
+Future? Having taken full note of places as they were and are, of
+things
+as they have come about, and of people as they are&#8212;of their
+occupations, families, and institutions, their ideas and ideals&#8212;may we
+not to some extent discern, then patiently plan out, at length boldly
+suggest, something of <span class="pagenum">p. 117</span> their actual or potential development?
+And may not, must not, such discernment, such planning, while
+primarily,
+of course, for the immediate future, also take account of the remoter
+and higher issues which a city's indefinitely long life and
+correspondingly needed foresight and statesmanship involve? Such a
+volume would thus differ widely from the traditional and contemporary
+"literature of Utopias" in being regional instead of non-regional,
+indeed ir-regional and so realisable, instead of being unrealisable and
+unattainable altogether. The theme of such a volume would thus be to
+indicate the practicable alternatives, and to select and to define from
+these the lines of development of the legitimate <i>Eu-topia</i>
+possible in
+the given city, and characteristic of it; obviously, therefore, a very
+different thing from a vague <i>Ou-topia</i>, concretely realisable
+nowhere.
+Such abstract counsels of perfection as the descriptions of the ideal
+city, from Augustine through More or Campanella and Bacon to Morris,
+have been consolatory to many, to others inspiring. Still, a Utopia is
+one thing, a plan for our city improvement is another.</p>
+<p>Some concrete, if still fragmentary, materials towards such a volume
+are, of course, to be found in all municipal offices, though scattered
+between the offices of the city engineer and health officer, the
+architect and park superintendent; while the private architect and
+landscape gardener, the artist, sometimes even the municipal voters and
+their representatives, may all have ideas of their own. But though our
+cities are still as a whole planless, their growth as yet little better
+than a mere casual accretion and agglomeration, if not a spreading
+blight, American and German cities are now increasingly affording
+examples of comprehensive design of extension and of internal
+improvement. As a specific example of such an attempt towards the
+improvement of a British city, one not indeed comprehending all aspects
+of its life, but detailed and reasoned so far as it goes, and
+expressing
+that continuity of past and present into future which has been above
+argued for, I am permitted by the courtesy of the Carnegie Dunfermline
+Trust to lay on the Society's library table an early copy of a recent
+study of practicable possibilities in a city typically suitable for
+consideration from the present standpoint, since presenting within a
+moderate and readily intelligible <span class="pagenum"><a name='p_118'></a>p. 118</span> scale a very marked
+combination of historic interests, and of contemporary and growing
+activity, both industrial and cultural, with hopeful civic outlook.</p>
+<p>That co-adjustment of social survey and social service which has
+been
+above argued for as the essential idea of civics as applied sociology
+is
+thus no abstract principle, but a concrete and practicable method. Yet
+it is one not lacking in generality of application. For what we have
+reached is really the conception of an <i>Encyclop&aelig;dia Civica</i>,
+to which
+each city should contribute the Trilogy of its Past, its Present, and
+its Future. Better far, as life transcends books, we may see, and yet
+more, forsee, the growth of civic consciousness and conscience, the
+awakening of citizenship towards civic renascence. All this the
+production of such volumes would at one imply and inspire&#8212;life ever
+producing its appropriate expression in literature, and literature
+reacting upon the ennoblement of life.</p>
+<p>Apart altogether from what may be the quality and defects of
+particular
+volumes, such as those cited as examples of each part of such a
+proposed
+civic trilogy, one as yet nowhere complete, the very conception of such
+a possible threefold series may be of some service. For this would
+present a continuous whole, at once sociological and civic&#8212;the views
+and the resources of the scholar and the educationist with their
+treasures of historic culture, of the man of action with his mastery of
+immediate affairs, of the thinker with his vision of the opening
+future,
+now all co-ordinated by help of the design of the artist, and thence to
+be gradually realised in the growing heritage of the city, the
+enlarging
+life of the citizen.</p>
+<p>NOTE&#8212;As an example of the concrete application to a particular city,
+of
+the sociological methods and principles indicated in the above paper,
+Prof. Geddes exhibited an illustrated volume embodying the results of
+his studies and designs towards the improvement of Dunfermline, under
+the Trust recently established by Mr. Carnegie. This has since been
+published:</p>
+<p>P. GEDDES. City Development. Park Gardens and Culture Institutes; a
+Report to the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust. With 138 illustrations.
+Edinburgh, etc.. 1904.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum">p. 119</span><br />
+<h3>&nbsp;DISCUSSION</h3>
+<br />
+<p>The Chairman (MR. CHARLES BOOTH) in opening the discussion said:</p>
+<p>The paper we have just heard read is one of the most complete and
+charming papers on a great and interesting subject I have ever heard. I
+think you will all agree in this, and I hope the discussion which
+follows will emphasise and, if that is possible, add to the wealth of
+ideas that this paper contains.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">MR EBENEZER HOWARD (Founder of the
+Garden City Association) said:</p>
+<p>I have read and re-read&#8212;in the proof forwarded to me&#8212;Professor
+Geddes'
+wonderfully luminous and picturesque paper with much interest. He has
+given us a graphic description of the geographic process which leads to
+the development of the city. We see vividly the gradual stages by which
+the city grows and swells, with the descent of the population from the
+hillsides into the valleys, even as the river which flows through the
+city is fed continually by the streams which flow down to it. But is
+there not this essential difference between the gathering waters of
+heaven, as they pour into the great city, and the gathering tide of
+population, which follows the path of the waters? The waters flow
+through the city on, on toward the mighty ocean, and are then gradually
+gathered upward into the soft embraces of the clouds and wafted back
+again to the hills, whence they flow down once more to the valleys. But
+the living stream of men, women, and children flows from the
+country-side and leaves it more and more bare of active, vigorous,
+healthy life: it does not, like the waters, "return again to cover the
+earth," but moves ever on to the great city, and from thence, at least
+for the great majority, there is no chance of more than, at best, a
+very
+short stay in the country. No: the tide flows resistlessly <span class="pagenum">p. 120</span>
+onward to make more crowded our overcrowded tenements, to enlarge our
+overgrown cities, to cause suburb to spread beyond suburb, to submerge
+more and more the beautiful fields and hilly slopes which used to lie
+near the busy life of the people, to make the atmosphere more foul, and
+the task of the social reformer more and yet more difficult.</p>
+<p>But surely there must be a way, could we but discover it, of
+imitating
+the skill and bountifulness of Nature, by creating channels through
+which some of our population shall be attracted back to the fields; so
+that there shall be a stream of population pouring from the city into
+the country, till a healthy balance is restored, and we have solved the
+twin problems of rural depopulation and of the overcrowded, overgrown
+city.</p>
+<p>This brings me to the second branch of Prof. Geddes' paper, the
+historical. The Professor reminds us how vestiges of one civilisation
+lie super-imposed upon another, like geological strata, and asks.
+"Understanding the present as the development of the past, are we not
+preparing also to understand the future as the development of the
+present?" Following this line of thought, I venture to suggest that
+while the age in which we live is the age of the great,
+closely-compacted, overcrowded city, there are already signs, for those
+who can read them, of a coming change so great and so momentous that
+the
+twentieth century will be known as the period of the great exodus, the
+return to the land, the period when by a great and conscious effort a
+new fabric of civilisation shall be reared by those who knew how to
+apply the knowledge gained by "Social Survey to Social Service." What
+are the signs? What words can we place under the head of "Incipient" in
+Prof. Geddes' diagram? I would suggest, for one of Prof. Geddes'
+interrogation marks might be substituted "Decentralisation of
+Industry"&#8212;as a great, but yet incipient movement, represented by Port
+Sunlight, Bournville, Garden City. For there are now many agencies at
+work making for industrial decentralisation. Industries are being
+driven
+out of the great towns by the excessive rents and rates which have to
+be
+paid there&#8212;by the difficulty of obtaining adequate space for the modern
+factory, a one-storey building; and for the homes of our workers, which
+must be vastly different to what they now are if England is to maintain
+her place among the nations. And while factories are being driven from
+the city, they are also being attracted to the country by its
+newly-discovered potentialities. Thus Messrs. Lever Brothers, crowded
+out of Warrington, established an entirely new town on a new site at
+Port Sunlight; and, because the site was new and raw, it was therefore
+possible for Mr. Lever to plan his little town with a single eye to the
+best and most desirable conditions, alike from an industrial and a
+health and housing point of view. And the same is true of Bournville.
+Bournville is one of the most beautiful villages in the world, largely
+again because of the potentialities of a new site acquired for the
+definite purpose of building thereon a village in which overcrowding
+shall be deliberately and permanently prevented, <span class="pagenum">p. 121</span> and in
+which work inside the factory may be varied by work in the garden. Now
+that these successful experiments have been carried out in this
+country,
+is it not time that the idea of establishing new industries on new
+sites, and of surrounding those industries with healthy homes, should
+be
+carried forward on a larger scale, with wider and more concerted
+aims&#8212;carried forward, too, in such a manner as to make it possible for
+the small manufacturer to take part in a movement which has proved to
+be
+so beneficial alike to employer and employed? It is out of this thought
+that the Garden City idea has grown, an idea now in course of being
+fulfilled. Three thousand eight hundred acres of land, or nearly ten
+times the area of Bournville or Port Sunlight, have been acquired in
+Hertfordshire, two miles west of the town of Hitchin, and on the branch
+line of railway between that town and Cambridge. State aid has not been
+sought; that would indeed be weary work. But a company has been formed,
+through the untiring efforts of the Garden City Association; plans for
+the town have been carefully prepared, plans which, of course, have
+regard to the contours of the land (which were first taken, showing
+every change of level of five feet), to the preservation of its natural
+beauties&#8212;its trees and the picturesque villages of Norton and Willian;
+to the necessity for railway sidings and railway station, now, thanks
+to
+the Great Northern Railway, already provided; to the making of roads of
+easy gradient and of suitable width, affording access to different
+parts
+of the estate, actual work on which is progressing; the careful
+guarding
+from contamination of our water supply, already proved to be abundant;
+the provision of a reservoir of suitable elevation, now in course of
+construction; a system of drainage, about to be started with; the
+provision of parks and playgrounds within the town, as well as a wide
+belt of agricultural land around it; sites for homes for 30,000
+persons,
+with good sized gardens. About six cottages have already been built,
+not
+by the Company but by private enterprise, while many others are just
+about to be started upon; the setting apart of sites for schools,
+churches, and other public buildings, while plans are in preparation
+for
+lighting the town, as well as for providing it with motive power.</p>
+<p>The programme which I have sketched out is certainly not too bold or
+comprehensive for the British race. If a hundredth part of the
+organising skill which the Japanese and the Russians are showing in the
+great war now in progress were shown by ourselves as citizens in our
+great civil war against disease and dirt, poverty and overcrowding, we
+could not only build many new cities on the best models, but could also
+bring our old towns into line with the new and better order. Prof.
+Geddes wishes well, I know, to the Garden City Association, a
+propagandist body, and to its first child, the Garden City Company; and
+I am sure you will all unite with me in the hope that the best and most
+lasting success may crown the generous gift of Mr. Carnegie of
+&pound;500,000
+to the City of Dunfermline, and reward the efforts of the Trustees and
+of Prof. Geddes to make, by the application of modern <span class="pagenum">p. 122</span>
+skill,
+science and art, the ancient city of Dunfermline a centre of sweetness
+and light, stimulating us all to higher and yet higher efforts to
+secure
+civic, national and imperial well-being.</p>
+<p style="text-align: center;">MR. C.H. GRINLING said:</p>
+<p>Like most of the audience, doubtless, he came not to speak but to
+draw
+ever fresh inspiration from Prof. Geddes. But there was one aspect of
+the subject he would like to bring out and emphasise. He referred to
+the
+sociological institute, which, under the name of the Outlook Tower, had
+grown up in connection with the School of Sociology which Prof. Geddes
+had founded and developed in Edinburgh. That institute was at once an
+organisation for teaching and for research, for social education, and
+for civic action. It was, in fact, a concrete and working application
+of
+the principle indicated in the paper as the very foundation of
+Civics&#8212;"social survey for social service." And, seeing that the Outlook
+Tower was an institution designed in every respect for application to
+any given locality, he urged the Sociological Society to advocate its
+general extension, so that no region should be without its own
+sociological institute or Outlook Tower.</p>
+<p>If one individual could accomplish so much, what could not be
+accomplished by the sociologists of our day who would concentrate
+themselves, each on his own locality, not necessarily to do the work,
+but to give the inspiration which would call out the work of collecting
+just that material which Prof. Geddes suggested all through his paper
+was one of the great needs of our time? And so one hoped that papers of
+this kind would not merely lead to discussion, but to workers
+accumulating results of this kind, giving the inspiration to others,
+and
+thus laying up treasures for the sociologists of the future for their
+interpretation. Thus, the Sociological Society should be not only the
+one scientific society in constant touch with all the leading brains
+over the country, but it should be an inspiration, as Prof. Geddes has
+himself been, to groups of workers everywhere for just the kind of work
+which the Sociological Society has been founded to develop.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">MR. J.M. ROBERTSON said:</p>
+<p>I would first add my tribute to this extremely interesting and
+stimulating paper. It recalled confabulations I had with Prof. Geddes,
+many years ago, when he was first formulating in Edinburgh those ideas
+which have since become so widely known. I would like, however, to
+suggest a few criticisms. The paper is, broadly speaking, an
+application
+of the view of a biologist to Sociology. It is not so much an
+application of Darwin's view as that of Von Baer. Prof. Geddes has
+characterised his paper as one of elementary preliminaries, but he has
+really contributed a paper that <span class="pagenum">p. 123</span> would form part of a
+preliminary study in a series of studies in Sociology. The paper does
+not quite bear out its title: "Civics: as Applied Sociology." The
+application has not begun. The somewhat disparaging remarks on
+encyclop&aelig;dias of general knowledge, further, might well be
+applied to
+the scheme of an encyclop&aelig;dia of the natural history of every
+city and
+every village as an original centre. This atomism will not help
+Sociology. Had he to master all that, the sociologist's life would be a
+burden not to be borne, and we would never get to applied sociology at
+all. There is a danger, too, in following this line, of fastening
+attention on one stage of evolution and leaving it there. The true
+principle is that evolution is eternal and continuous; and I think harm
+may be done, possibly, when you take, say, the phenomenon of the
+communication of general knowledge in schools and call it a derivation
+from the French <i>Encyclopedie</i>. Why leave it there? Where did
+that come
+from? If you are going to trace the simple evolution of civic forms, if
+you are to trace how they have come about, it will not do to stick at a
+given point. This is a survival of that. That is a survival of
+something
+else. The French <i>Encyclopedie</i> will have to be traced back to
+the
+encyclop&aelig;dia of the mediaeval period; and even to the still
+earlier
+period of Isidore of Seville. Then again, there is a danger, I think,
+analogous to the danger met with in early botany&#8212;the danger of
+confusing a resemblance with a relationship. It is extremely
+interesting
+to speculate that the Place de l'Etoile is an evolution from the plan
+of
+the game-forest, with its shooting avenues radiating from a centre, but
+it would be difficult to show that there is any historical connection.
+The thing is not proved.</p>
+<p>Of course, the vital question is not this tracing of evolution. The
+question is: Is "Civics" to be only the study of forms? If so,
+Sociology
+is a dead science, and will effect little practical good until it is
+vivified by such suggestions as Mr. Crane has put in his paper. Mr.
+Walter Crane brought in a vital question when he said: "How are you
+going to modify the values of your civic life unless you grapple with
+political problems?" I am not forgetting that Prof. Geddes promises to
+deal in another paper with the civics of the future; but I insist that
+it will have to grapple with political questions. As he says, a city is
+not a place, but "a drama in time." The question for the sociological
+student of history is: How has this inequality of wealth and of service
+arisen, and how is it to be prevented in the future? That is the
+problem
+we have to study if we wish to make sociology a vital interest. A
+definition of progress is really the first step in sociology. Prof.
+Geddes' next paper should give us a definition of progress, and it is
+better that we begin to fight over a definition of progress, in order
+to
+get a dynamic agreement, than that we should multiply the
+archaeological
+study of many towns. I admit that it is very interesting. In travelling
+in South Africa, I often tried to gather how communities began; what,
+for example, was the nucleus of this or that village. It was surprising
+how very few had an idea of any nucleus at all. I deprecate the idea,
+however, that <span class="pagenum">p. 124</span> we are all to amass an enormous accumulation
+of such researches. Mr. Booth's single compilation for London is a
+study
+for years; but Mr. Booth's admirable investigation of the difficulties
+of life among the poor of London does not of itself give any new
+impulse
+to the solution of the problem of London. It merely gives exact
+knowledge in place of general knowledge. The problem of sociology arose
+on the general knowledge. I fear lest the work of sociology should run
+to an extension of this admirable study instead of to the stimulation
+of
+action taken on that particular knowledge, or on more general
+knowledge.
+We all knew there was plenty of poverty, and how it was caused. We all
+had Ideals as to how it was to be got rid of in the future; but the
+question is: Is the collection of detail or the prescription of social
+method the kind of activity that the Sociological Society is to take up?</p>
+<p style="text-align: center;">SIR THOMAS BARCLAY said:</p>
+<p>I am not sure that I agree with Mr. Robertson that it is desirable
+to
+define either "progress" or "civilisation." On the whole, their chances
+lie rather in the great variety of ideas of what constitutes them than
+in any hard-and-fast notion of their meaning. They are generalisations
+of what is, rather than an object towards which effort should tend. But
+neither do I agree with Prof. Geddes' restriction of "civics" to the
+mere outward part of municipal effort. In America the word "civics" is
+applied to the rights and duties of citizens, and I should like to see
+Prof. Geddes include in Civics the connection between citizen life and
+the outward improvement of cities. I am sure, however, Professor
+Geddes,
+as a practical man, will deal rather with realities than theoretical
+views on the subject for which he has done so much himself. Edinburgh
+owes more than many are willing to admit to Prof. Geddes. I think
+Ramsay
+Lodge one of the greatest embellishments of the Castle Hill in
+Edinburgh. I hope he will now be successful in doing something still
+more admirable for my native town of Dunfermline. My friend Mr.
+Carnegie, whose native town it also is, I believe intends to show by an
+object lesson what can be done for all cities. Prof. Geddes is helping
+him in this work with his suggestions. I hope they will be carried out.
+In America there are several very beautiful cities. No one can ever
+forget Washington, which is truly a garden city. No money is spared in
+America to beautify and healthify (excuse the barbarism) the
+habitations
+of the thousands. A beautiful city is an investment for health,
+intellect, imagination. Genius all the world over is associated,
+wherever it has been connected with cities, with beautiful cities. To
+grow up among things of beauty ennobles the population. But I should
+like to see Prof. Geddes extend his projects for Dunfermline to the
+population itself. Most of you know what Mr. Henderson did to utilise
+the Edinburgh<span class="pagenum">p. 125</span> police in the care of children. The future of
+the country depends upon them. The subject is too serious to continue
+to
+be left to the haphazard mercies of indifferent parents. Every child
+born is an agent for good or for evil among the community, and the
+community cannot afford to neglect how it is brought up, the
+circumstances in which it has its being, the environment from which it
+derives its character and tendencies. Necessity may be the mother of
+invention, but need of food and insufficient clothing develop in the
+child an inventiveness that is not for the good of the community. It
+seems a matter of too great an importance to be left even to private
+initiative, as was done under Mr. Henderson's regime in Edinburgh; but
+everywhere else, or nearly so, very little is done by even private
+initiative for the protection of the children against their vicious
+environment. In short, I do not think that civics, in the sense in
+which
+my friend Prof. Geddes treats it, is a complete subject at all. Civics,
+to my mind, includes everything that relates to the citizen. Everywhere
+something is being done in one direction or another to make them
+capable, prosperous, and happy. In America happiness is taught in the
+schools. Every schoolmaster's and schoolmistress's first duty is to set
+an example of a happy frame of mind; smiling and laughing are
+encouraged, and it is not thought that the glum face is at all
+necessary
+for the serious business of life. In fact, the glum face is a
+disqualification; is associated with failure, and bad luck and
+ill-nature. In Germany the schoolmaster is in the first place a trainer
+of the body. One of his chief duties is to watch and prevent the
+deterioration of the eyesight, to promote the development of the lungs,
+to prevent spinal deviation. The second part of his business is to
+watch
+over the character of the child, and only the third part is to ram
+knowledge into the poor little mind. And wherever you go over the world
+you will find something in the course of being done in civics, as I
+understand the subject. I thank Prof. Geddes for what he is doing for
+Dunfermline, and hope he will understand "progress" without requiring
+to
+define it.</p>
+<br />
+<div style="text-align: center;">DR. J. LIONEL TAYLER<br />
+(Author of "<i>Aspects of Social Evolution</i>") said:</div>
+<p>While agreeing with Prof. Geddes in his belief in the importance of
+institutional and geographical studies as a basis for the investigation
+of the development of cities, it yet seems to me that these studies
+cannot prove of supreme value to society unless they are accompanied by
+a detailed examination of the <i>natural</i> characteristics of all
+individuals who have been born into and existed in, or merely dwelt in,
+these surroundings. It is not enough to trace out, however accurately,
+the various stages of a town's growth from its commencement to the
+present time, because <i>the cause</i> of <span class="pagenum">p. 126</span> the evolution of
+any
+city aggregate lies deeper, is in large part animate, and not
+inanimate,
+in character. The value of the surroundings depends at least as much
+upon the capacity of the individual citizen, singly and collectively,
+to
+utilise what he or she is brought in contact with as upon the
+peculiarities of these surroundings themselves. Place, tradition,
+social
+organisation, individual development, education, are factors in town
+evolution that cannot safely be overlooked, and they all vary from age
+to age and in place and place.</p>
+<p>If it were possible to completely exchange the inhabitants of a
+large
+town in England with those of an equally large town in France two
+groups
+of changes would become more or less rapidly observable: (1) the French
+and English citizens would adapt themselves, as far as they desired and
+were able, to their altered conditions; (2) the characteristics of both
+towns would gradually change, in spite of geographical position, in
+response to the altered human needs. Similarly, a town composed of
+individuals who are naturally uncultured and unprogressive will tend to
+preserve its uncultured and unprogressive characters more than another
+that has alert citizens to carry on its activities. Every profession
+and
+every trade tends to foster its own social atmosphere; and towns will
+vary with their industrial life, and individuals favourably disposed to
+this atmosphere will come to the town, and those unfavourably inclined
+to it will leave. <i>These changing citizens, as they act upon and
+react
+to their surroundings and vary in their powers age by age, are the real
+evolvers of the conditions in which they dwell</i>; hence the citizen
+must
+not be omitted from our study if we are to understand city growth.</p>
+<p>In other words, I think that every investigation of civic, and for
+that
+matter country life should be studied from two aspects: (1) to note the
+peculiarities, growth and development of the material, non-living and
+non-thinking elements in the problem&#8212;the buildings, their geographical
+position, their age, their fitness for past and present life, and the
+distinctive local features that are evolving or retrogressing with the
+multiplication of some trades and industries and the decline of others
+in each area that is studied; (2) the change in the quality of the
+citizens themselves through racial, educational, and other factors,
+noting how far ideals are altering, not only in the mass of individuals
+taken as a whole, but also by examining the changing outlook in every
+trade and profession. With these two parallel lines of investigation to
+study, we could then determine how far environment&#8212;social and
+climatic&#8212;how far racial and individual characteristics have been
+powerful in the moulding of the fabric around us.</p>
+<p>With these two lines of study to our hands, we could predict the
+vitality, the growing power, and the future possibilities of the social
+life of which we are a tiny though not an insignificant part; we could,
+knowing something of the response that we make to that which surrounds
+us, form some estimate of how the future ages will develop, and,
+knowing
+the <span class="pagenum">p. 127</span>
+intensity of the different national desires for progress
+<i>and the causes which are likely to arouse such desires</i>, we could
+realise what will stimulate and what will retard all that is best in
+our
+civic life.</p>
+<p style="text-align: center;">PROFESSOR EARL BARNES (in moving a vote
+of thanks) said:</p>
+<p>For years I have been accumulating a debt of obligation to Prof.
+Geddes
+for ideas, suggestions, and large synthesis of life, and it gives me
+special pleasure to voice the feeling of this meeting concerning the
+paper read to us this afternoon. To me, as an American, it is
+especially
+interesting to hear this presentation of life as an organic whole. Life
+is but a period of education, and if there is nothing behind this
+present moment of life it is all extremely insignificant. To an
+American, who has lived at No. 1067 in 63rd Street, Philadelphia, and
+at No. 1718 in G Street, in Washington, it is profoundly interesting to
+think of the possibility of a man's so living that his whole existence
+shall be significant, so that the realities of his world, geographical,
+geological, and material, and all that long development of humanity
+through the historic past&#8212;that all these things will be really and
+truly significant to him. Prof. Geddes has himself shown us that is
+possible. Any man who has gone to Edinburgh and seen the restoration of
+the old life that has been carried out there under his hand knows it
+can
+be done. I suppose we all came here to hear Professor Geddes speak on
+practical affairs because his name is now connected with the plans for
+making a city that shall be really expressive of all its potentialities
+to all of its people. I am personally profoundly grateful to him for
+his
+paper; and I move you that he be given a very hearty vote of thanks.</p>
+<p>The Chairman. (MR. CHARLES BOOTH), in closing the discussion, said:
+I
+myself entirely agree with what Mr Robertson has said as to the extreme
+difficulty of bringing investigations of the kind referred to, to
+practical conclusions&#8212;practical points. Practical work at present needs
+the most attention. I perhaps am too old to do it, but I feel the
+attraction of that kind of work, and that was one reason I was sorry Mr
+Loch had to leave before we could hear what he might have to say. The
+description I have given of London does seem to be a foggy labyrinth I
+agree, but nevertheless I cannot but think that we do require a
+complete
+conception if we are to do the definite work of putting different
+people
+in their proper places in an organic whole, such as a city is. I do not
+think we can do without it, and I regard the paper of this evening as
+an
+important contribution <span class="pagenum">p. 128</span> to that complete conception which I
+feel we need. I should like each worker and thinker to have and to know
+his place in the scheme of civic improvement; and I think it perfectly
+possible for every man to know what it is that he is trying to do, what
+contribution it is that he ought to give to that joint life which is
+called here civics, which is the life of a city and the life in the
+city. One man cannot possibly concentrate it all in himself. Within a
+society such as the Sociological Society a general scheme is possible
+in
+which each individual and each society shall play its acknowledged and
+recognised part. It does not follow that the work done in one city can
+apply as an example to another. Individuality has too strong a hold;
+but each town may work out something for itself. I have been very much
+interested in the work which Mr. Rowntree has done in York, on which he
+was kind enough to consult me. He entered upon it on quite other
+grounds
+from mine, but so far as the ground was common between him and me we
+tried to have a common basis. Those of you who have not read Mr.
+Horsfall's volumes on Manchester would do well to do so. Prof. Geddes
+gave us a vivid picture of a larger regional unit which culminates
+geographically in the city as industrial climax. In his particular
+instance he referred, I take, to Dundee. In Dundee there is at this
+moment an inquiry being started, and I am in communication with those
+who are doing it, and I hope it will add something to the completeness
+of the picture we have of that city. In Dundee they have excessive
+difficulties in respect to crowding and female labour. What I suggested
+was, that they should make a special study of such circumstances as are
+special to Dundee. Labour there is very largely sack-making and jute
+manufacture, and there is a great deal of girl labour; and that is one
+of the special subjects that will be considered in that inquiry.</p>
+<p>Then, with regard to the preservation of such of the natural
+beauties
+that do remain even quite near to busy town centres, surely it is of
+the
+greatest importance that they should be watched and protected and
+preserved. Prof. Geddes has contributed a portion of his practical work
+to that practical question at Dunfermline. His charming volume on
+Dunfermline ("A Study in City Development") shows what beautiful
+features there are near Dunfermline, and how much may be done to
+preserve and improve them in ways that are most interesting to study.
+His use of photography in this matter is extraordinarily successful.
+Prof. Geddes has photographed a scene as it now is, with its background
+and distance and its squalid foreground, already ruined by the debris
+of
+the city&#8212;old tin pots and every <span class="pagenum">p. 129</span> kind of rubbish&#8212;thrown
+down by the side of the stream, which is naturally beautiful. By
+manipulating the photographic plates he wipes out that which he does
+not
+want and introduces other features, including a little waterfall; and
+you have, instead of a miserable suburb, a dignified park. Well now,
+that is practical work. It has in it that element which he has
+described
+by a question-mark in his diagram, the element of forecast. You have
+the
+same idea in Manchester, in Mr. Horsfall's work. They have laid out
+their map of Manchester and shown in what way it may develop, so as not
+to spoil the beauty that remains on two sides of Manchester. There is
+really exquisitely beautiful natural scenery close to Manchester, which
+may be entirely spoiled or preserved, according as a forecast is made
+and forethought taken. This is not a question on which there is reason
+to think that people will disagree. The difficulties are always
+supposed
+to be financial. It is a sad thing that we should be so hampered by our
+methods of finance that we throw away opportunities to retain these
+actual beauties which undoubtedly add to the actual money value of a
+district. I cannot suppose that the way in which cities are laid out
+with narrow streets really results in an increase of value. The
+surroundings of our cities are undeveloped estates, which we have only
+to agree amongst ourselves how to lay out, and everybody would benefit
+by such joint action. There is an excellent illustration in regard to
+that in Mr. Horsfall's work in connection with Germany. It must be said
+that from Germany there is a great deal to learn in civic matters. In
+one of its towns the properties lie in extraordinarily long strips. It
+is the final result of properties having been measured by the length of
+the plough's run. When that method is applied to town sites, it is not
+convenient for streets; and there are some quarters in this German town
+ruined in this way, and the people have agreed together to improve
+matters. Every owner is to be given credit for his share in the total
+value of the improvement that is found to accrue from the
+re-arrangement
+of these undesirable divisions, and any difference of opinion as to the
+just share and proportion is to be referred to an impartial arbitrator.
+All the owners will gain, though some a little more than others. That
+is
+an example that we may do well to try and follow, and in some way or
+other improve the money value, and social value, and hygienic value of
+towns, and if necessary compel the carrying out of improvements when
+some few might be disposed to hold out against them.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum">p. 130</span><br />
+<h3>&nbsp;WRITTEN COMMUNICATIONS</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center;">From PROF. BALDWIN BROWN (Professor of
+Fine Art in the University of
+Edinburgh)</p>
+I am glad of this opportunity of saying how cordially I agree with the
+method adopted by my friend Professor Geddes in dealing with the life
+of
+cities. He treats the modern community and its material shell as things
+of organic growth, with a past and a future as well as a present,
+whereas we too often see these wider considerations ignored in favour
+of
+some exigency of the moment. A historic British town has recently
+furnished a striking object-lesson in this connection. The town
+possesses portions of an ancient city wall and fosse that were made at
+a
+time when the town was, for the moment, the most important in Great
+Britain. Yet the Town Council, a year ago, destroyed part of this wall
+and filled a section of the fosse for the purpose of providing a site
+for a new elementary school. No doubt, in that school, books "approved
+by the Department" will instruct scholars in the past history of the
+burgh, but the living witness of that history must first of all be
+carefully obliterated. All the rest of this ancient and historic
+enceinte was condemned a few weeks ago to complete destruction, merely
+on the plea that the site would be convenient for workmen's dwellings.
+The monument has now been saved, but it has taken the whole country to
+do it!
+<p>Here were chosen officials, governors of no mean city, absolutely
+oblivious of these important interests committed to their care, and all
+for want of having drilled into them these broader views which
+Professor
+Geddes puts forward so well.</p>
+<p>He has himself done practical work in Edinburgh on the lines he lays
+down, and I have lately had occasion to note, and call attention to the
+advantage to the city of much wise conservatism in regard to our older
+buildings which he and his associates have shown.</p>
+<p>In Edinburgh we have the advantage that our older monuments, <span class="pagenum">p. 131</span> in
+which so much of the past life of the city is enshrined, are
+firm and solid; and it takes some trouble to knock them down. Hence for
+some time to come we shall preserve here object-lessons in civic
+development that will be of interest to the country at large.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">From MR. WALTER CRANE (President of Arts
+and Crafts Exhibition Society)</p>
+<p>Professor Geddes' very interesting "Study in City Development" is
+highly
+suggestive, and shows how great a difference thoughtful and tasteful
+treatment might make in dealing with such problems. It is sad to think
+of the opportunities wasted, and of the more ignorant and often too
+hasty clearances for traffic which have often been apparently the sole
+motives in city improvement. The conservation of historic buildings,
+whenever possible, the planting of trees along our streets, the laying
+out of gardens, the insistence upon a proportional amount of air and
+open space to new buildings would go a long way towards making our
+bricks-and-mortar joyless wildernesses into something human and
+habitable.</p>
+<p>Whether, under favourable circumstances and the rare public spirit
+of
+private owners, much can be done, or to any wide extent, so long as
+absolute individual ownership in land and ground values is allowed,
+seems to me very doubtful. We cannot hope to see great social
+improvements without great economic changes, but every effort in the
+direction of improving the beauty of our cities is welcome to all who
+have the well-being of the community at heart; and such work as Prof.
+Geddes is doing should arouse the keenest interest and the earnest
+attention of all who realise its immense social importance.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">From MR. J.H. HARLEY, M.A.</p>
+<p>If sociology is ever to vindicate itself as an art, it must be able
+to
+analyse and explain the present, and to some extent at least to cast
+the
+horoscope of the future. It must feel its way through all the tangled
+labyrinths of city life, and show us where we have arrived and whither
+we are going. But this is exactly the part of Professor Geddes' Applied
+Sociology where he becomes most vague and unsatisfactory. "Enough for
+the present," we are told, "if it be admitted that the practical man in
+his thought and action in the present is mainly as yet the too
+unconscious child of the past, and that in the city he is still working
+within the grasp of natural conditions." Now we must all be willing to
+admit that the present is the child of the past, and that we cannot
+adequately understand <span class="pagenum">p. 132</span> the present until we have led up to
+the present by the study of its antecedents more and less remote. But
+what Professor Geddes fails to bring out is that it is only in the
+present or the more immediate past that the City has really become a
+City in the modern sense of the word. The City as City is a product of
+the Industrial Revolution. Its huge and casual assemblages of human
+life, its overcrowding, its poverty line, its East End and its West
+End,
+its infantile mortality, its trades massed in their own particular
+districts, it aliens, its criminals and its vices&#8212;all these problems of
+social pathology arise from the fact that the conditions of modern
+industry have brought people together who have few interests in common,
+and who were compelled to arrange themselves in some kind of decent
+order within a limited area, without sufficient time being given to
+evolve a suitable environment, or to prepare themselves for the
+environment which they actually found on every side of them. London in
+the past, therefore, cannot help us so very much to solve the riddles
+of
+London in the present, because London in the past had not developed
+these social growths or offered a mature ground to those social
+parasites which make us sometimes despair of being able to get much
+insight into the London of the present.</p>
+<p>The fact seems to be that Prof. Geddes conceives sociology too much
+as a
+primary and too little as a secondary science. He defines applied
+sociology as the application of social survey to social science, when
+social ratiocination or social philosophy are needed before one can be
+said to have gauged the extent of the influence which this
+comprehensive
+science may have in our actual practice or on our Budget of the future.
+No doubt, "observation, so far from excluding interpretation, is just
+the very means of preparing for it," but this preparation must be made
+in the various specialisms which make up the complete or
+encyclop&aelig;dic
+science of sociology. To me it seems an unwarrantable narrowing of the
+scope or significance of sociology to say that there is no better
+method
+available of teaching it "than that of regional survey, historical as
+well as geographical." Surely "regional survey" Is the appropriate
+method in the very simplest and most concrete parts of the complete
+science of sociology, and even when we come to history proper we must
+do
+very much more than make a regional survey. It is very interesting, no
+doubt, to "survey" history in the course of a summer ramble to the
+ruins
+of some old monastery, but unless the monks had kept records of what
+had
+been done there in bygone days, the mere outward survey will not carry
+us further than Prof. Geddes is carried in the very general map which
+he
+makes of the whole field of history. In other words, history, in any
+proper sense, demands more than "survey" in Prof. Geddes' sense of the
+word. It calls to its aid linguistics, criticism, archaeology,
+jurisprudence, and politics&#8212;there must be comparison and criticism as
+well as "survey." History is the laboratory in which the sociologist
+sees his social experiments working out their <span class="pagenum">p. 133</span> results, and
+history is to the sociologist what experiment is to the physician, or
+the comparative method to the biologist.</p>
+<p>This being so, the scope of "civics" as "applied sociology" is
+immensely
+widened. The present is the child of the past, but we see that it is
+only in the present that such ancient groups as the colony of Hanseatic
+merchants in Old London have shown us what has been the ultimate
+significance of their embryological life. The modern city bristles with
+sociological problems which demand a knowledge of most of the
+specialisms included in the complete science of sociology, and almost
+invite us to cast the horoscope of the future. We see, as Booth and
+Rowntree saw before us, the poverty line like a fiery portent at every
+point of our study, and we are led finally to ask ourselves whether M.
+Arthur Bauer was not right in choosing the title "Les Classes Sociales"
+as the most characteristic title he could give to his recent and most
+suggestive analysis of the general characteristics of social life.</p>
+<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
+From MR. T.C. HORSFALL<br />
+</div>
+<div style="text-align: center;">(President, Manchester Citizen's
+Association, &amp;c.)</div>
+<p>The teaching of the paper seems to me to be most sound and helpful.
+The
+town of the future&#8212;I trust of the near future&#8212;must by means of its
+schools, its museums, and galleries, its playgrounds, parks and
+gymnasia, its baths, its wide tree-planted streets and the belt of
+unspoilt country which must surround it, bring all its inhabitants in
+some degree under the <i>best</i> influences of all the regions and
+all the
+stages of civilisation, the influences of which, but not the best
+influences, contribute, and have contributed, to make our towns what
+they are.</p>
+<br />
+<div style="text-align: center;">From H. OSMAN NEWLAND<br />
+(Author of "<i>A Short History of Citizenship</i>")</div>
+<p>The failures of democratic governments in the past have been
+attributable, in part, to the lack of intelligence and
+self-consciousness among the mass of those who were given a voice in
+the
+government of their country. Citizenship, like morality, was allowed to
+grow by instinct; it was never systematised as a science, or applied as
+an art. Sparta and Athens approached towards a system of civics much
+less elaborate than that expounded by Professor Geddes; but in Sparta
+citizenship became inseparable from Nationalism, and in Athens it
+scarcely rose above Municipalism. In more modern times, civic education
+has had to encounter the same difficulty as in America, where the young
+citizen's first duty is to salute his flag, and as in London, where
+"Civics" is distributed in doles of local <span class="pagenum">p. 134</span> history in which
+the municipality plays a part altogether out of proportion to its
+relation to the country, the age, and the world. Civics, as the applied
+sociology of each individual and each body of interests, has but begun
+to be dreamed of; and before it can be properly developed it is
+desirable, if not necessary, that the general public should know
+something more than at present both of the historic development of the
+"civic" idea, and of the psychology of aggregations as differentiated
+from the psychology of the individual. Not until we can make "the man
+in
+the street" a conscious citizen, instead of a political automaton,
+shall
+we be able to enlist his sympathies with "Civics"; and without those
+sympathies the sociologist's "Civics" will, I fear, be but partial and
+inaccurate.</p>
+<br />
+
+<div style="text-align: center;">From MR. G. BISSET SMITH<br />
+(H.M. Registration Examiner for East of Scotland).</div>
+<p>There is an elusiveness here and there in this paper which has
+helped to
+confirm me in the opinion that it is well to emphasise the fact that
+Prof. Geddes is not only a dreamer of lofty dreams but a doer and a
+practical initiator. He has expressed himself not only in words but in
+art and in architecture, and in educational organisation; and he has in
+many ways, sometimes indirectly, influenced scholastic and civic
+activities.</p>
+<p>If from the Outlook Tower he dreams of an idealised Edinburgh he has
+only to reply to the scoffer who asks, "What have you done?"
+"<i>Circumspice!</i>" There stand the settlements he initiated, the
+houses
+beautiful, bright, delectable; and the tower itself is an embodiment of
+his ideas, an encyclop&aelig;dia in stone and in storeys.</p>
+<p>We must, in criticising this paper, take into account these attempts
+towards realisation of its principles. The sociological evolutionist is
+"concerned primarily with origins, but ultimately and supremely with
+ideals," we were reminded in a recent paper read before this Society.
+And in the same paper it was affirmed that, "through the formulation of
+its larger generalisations as ideals, sociology may hope to achieve the
+necessary return from theory to practice." Thus, if Civics is applied
+Sociology, we must rest its claims on these criteria. What, then, we
+have to ask is:&#8212;(1) What actually are the generalisations of the
+present paper? (2) How far they are warranted by verifiable
+sociological
+testimony, and (3) What results do they yield when transformed by the
+touch of emotion into ideals of action? To attempt an adequate answer
+to
+these questions would perhaps transcend the limits of this discussion.
+But merely to raise these questions of presupposition should tend to
+clarify the discussion. Coming to detail, I may say, as one whose
+occupation is demographic, I regret the unavoidable briefness of the
+reference in "Civics" to a "rationalised census of the present
+condition
+of the people."</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 135</span>
+No one, however, who has studied the concluding portion of
+"The Evolution of Sex" can accuse Prof. Geddes of ignoring questions of
+<i>population</i>; and his eulogium, written ten years ago, of "Mr.
+Charles
+Booth as one of our own latest and best Economists," is familiar to all
+readers of "Education for Economics and Citizenship." In that extremely
+suggestive treatise, Prof. Geddes further points out that population
+must have a primary place in consideration, and that "our studies of
+the
+characteristic occupation of region by region are the essential
+material
+of a study of its whole civilisation."</p>
+<p>Accepting Mr. Branford's definition of <i>occupation</i> as "any
+and every
+form of human endeavour, past, present, and future," we see that
+occupation must have a large place in the description, explanation, and
+forecasting of the evolution of cities&#8212;such as Edinburgh, Glasgow,
+Dundee&#8212;in the scheme of survey outlined so sweepingly in "Civics."</p>
+<p>"Life and Labour of the People in London" contains several general
+observations almost equally applicable to our largest Scottish cities,
+with the demographic conditions of which my official duties give me
+special opportunities for becoming familiar and for regional survey.</p>
+<p>In the concluding volume of that great contribution to sociology Mr.
+Booth (page 23) remarks:&#8212;</p>
+<p>"Many influences conspire to cause the poor to multiply almost in
+proportion to their poverty, and operate in the other direction in the
+case of the better off, almost in proportion to their wealth. But,"
+says
+Mr. Booth, "when we bring the death-rate into account this law no
+longer
+holds."</p>
+<p>With the poor living under bad conditions in crowded homes the net
+increase is diminished. To those of us who are hopeful of improvement
+by
+eugenics it is pleasing to note that Mr. Booth&#8212;somewhat unlike Mr. Kidd
+in his well-known "Social Evolution"&#8212;is optimistic in his conclusion
+that "on the whole it may fairly be expected that concurrently with a
+rising standard of health we may see a fall in birth-rate as well as
+death-rate, and thus have no cause to fear, as the result of better
+sanitation, that the largest natural increase in population will ever
+be
+contributed by the lowest class." So the heritage of the city may grow
+not only in quantity but also in quality.</p>
+<div style="text-align: center;">From PROFESSOR W.I. THOMAS<br />
+(Professor in the University of Chicago, U.S.A.)<br />
+</div>
+<p>From the standpoint of its applicability to new countries like
+America,
+Professor Geddes' programme is inadequate because of its failure to
+recognise that a city under these conditions is formed by a rapid and
+contemporaneous movement of population, and not by the lapse of time.
+<span class="pagenum">p. 136</span>
+The first permanent white settler came to Chicago precisely
+one hundred years ago, and the city has a population at present of
+about
+two and a quarter millions. It is here not a question of slow historic
+development but of the rapid drifting towards a certain point, of a
+population from all quarters of the globe, and the ethnological
+standpoint therefore becomes of more importance than the historical.</p>
+<p style="text-align: center;">PROFESSOR GEDDES' reply</p>
+<p>I am sincerely glad to be able to express myself in substantial
+agreement with the majority of my critics, only asking them in turn to
+recognise that this is but the first half of my subject&#8212;an outline of
+civics as in the first place a matter of science, a geographic and
+historic survey of past conditions, a corresponding census of present
+ones&#8212;here discussed and insisted on as affording the needful base for
+their demands upon civics as an art, that of effective social service.</p>
+<p>In this respect various critics have in fact anticipated large
+elements
+of this future portion of my paper, so that in general views, at least,
+critics and writer are not so far apart as would appear were the
+preceding pages submitted as a comprehensive outline of the subject,
+instead of as its scientific introduction merely.</p>
+<p>Of criticisms strictly applicable to this paper as it stands, there
+are
+really very few. I am confident that the chairman must be quite alone
+in
+too modestly applying to his great work that description of London
+itself, with which the paper (Section A, pp. 104-107) opens, since his
+volumes offer really our first effective clue to the labyrinth, and his
+method of intensive and specialised regional survey, the intensest
+searchlight yet brought to bear upon it.</p>
+<p>Taking, however, a concrete point of criticism, such as that of the
+monumental planning of modern Paris as derived from forest rides, the
+critic need only walk through any French forest, or even to consult a
+Baedeker, or other guide-book, with its maps of any historic dwelling
+and its surroundings, from Chantilly or Fontainebleau to minor ones, to
+see that this plan, originally devised for the pleasure, success and
+safety <span class="pagenum">p.
+137</span> of the hunt, and later adapted to domination and
+defence, became next appreciated as affording the finest possible
+perspectives of the palatially rebuilt chateau. So that it is not at
+all
+a fantastic hypothesis, but an obvious and inevitable conclusion that
+Napoleon's and Haussman's plans were not at all invented by them for
+Paris, but were directly imitated from the familiar landscape
+architecture of the preceding century, which again was but the simplest
+development from the spacious forest rides of older hunting nobles,
+laid
+out without any thought of the architectural and city developments they
+were destined in later centuries to determine.</p>
+<p>The citizen of Washington had till lately often forgotten that the
+magnificent perspectives of his city are due to the French
+landscape-architect (Major L'Enfant) whom Washington imported for the
+express purpose of laying out his capital; yet it is no less clear that
+this most magnificent of the New World city plans is derived from Old
+World forest rides, than that its monumental edifices descend from
+Renaissance and classic exemplars.</p>
+<p>I plead indeed for such studies of the plans of any and every city
+from
+the point of view of its natural development. The too purely abstract
+and subjective sociology of the dwellers of great cities like London
+would in this way be helped by the facts of their own topographic
+history, already well known and clearly explained by geographer and
+historian, towards again feeling with the naturalist that even the
+modern city is but the most complex evolutionary expression and
+development of the life of Nature.</p>
+<p>This view I take to be indeed a commonplace in France; but I account
+for
+its apparent unfamiliarity to English readers from the fact of our
+scanty forests in this island being left practically wild, our nobles
+not inhabiting them, but the cultivated pasture and arable regions
+below&#8212;planting trees indeed, "plantations," but seldom woods, and
+practically never forests at all. This again brings out the fact that
+the French nobles, despite our urban associations with regard to them
+have belonged far more than ours to the social formation and tradition
+of the hunter&#8212;while ours, despite their love of sports, are yet
+fundamentally squires, i.e., essentially and historically approximating
+to the peasants of their villages. The bearing of all this upon their
+respective history will be obvious. Here again we have the origins of
+the vivid contrast of the English or so-called naturalistic style of
+landscape-gardening with the more formal French tradition. Yet in a
+very
+true sense we see the former to be even more highly artificial than the
+latter. <span class="pagenum">p.
+138</span> The English citizen who may even admit this way of
+looking at the contrasted city plans of London and Paris may fail,
+unless he has appreciated the principle here involved, to see why
+London
+and Paris houses are so different&#8212;the one separate and self-contained,
+with its door undefended and open upon the street, while the normal
+Parisian house is a populous, high-piled tenement around a central
+court, with high <i>porte coch&egrave;re</i> closed by massive oaken
+doors and
+guarded by an always vigilant and often surly <i>concierge</i>.</p>
+<p>A moment of historical reflection suffices to see that the former is
+the
+architecture of a long-settled agricultural place, with its spreading
+undefended villages, in which each household had its separate dwelling,
+the other a persistence of the Continental fortified city crowded
+within
+its walls.</p>
+<p>But beyond this we must see the earlier historic, the simpler
+geographic
+origins of the French courtyard house as a defensible farmyard, of
+which
+the ample space was needed nightly for defence against wild beasts, if
+not also wilder men, against whom the <i>concierge</i> is not only the
+antique porter but the primitive sentinel.</p>
+<p>I may seem unduly to labour such points, yet do so advisedly, in
+order
+to emphasise and make clearer the essential thesis of this portion of
+my
+paper&#8212;that every scientific survey involves a geographic and historic
+exploration of origins, but that of the still unwritten chapter, that
+the far-reaching forelook, idealistic yet also critical, which is
+needful to any true and enduring contribution to social service, is
+prepared for by habitually imaging the course of evolution in the past.</p>
+<p>Speaking personally, as one whose leisure and practical life have
+alike
+been largely spent in the study and the preservation of ancient
+buildings, I may say that this has not been solely, or even
+essentially,
+from an antiquarian interest in the historic past, but still more on
+behalf of a practical interest&#8212;that of the idealistic, yet economic,
+utilitarian, because educational and evolutionary, transformation of
+our
+old cities&#8212;old Edinburgh, old Dunfermline, and the like&#8212;from their
+present sordid unhygienic failure; and therefore industrial and
+commercial insufficiency, towards a future equalling if not
+transcending
+the recorded greatness of the civic past.</p>
+<p>It has, therefore, been to lay the broadest possible basis of
+evolutionary science, of geographic and historic fact, for what would
+otherwise be open to ridicule as a Utopian hope, that of Civics as
+Applied Social Art, that I have insisted at such length above upon
+Civics as Applied Social Science.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum">p. 139</span><br />
+<h3>&nbsp;PRESS COMMENTS</h3>
+<p style="text-align: center;"><i>The Times</i> (July 20, 1904)<br />
+in a leading article, said:</p>
+<p>In the paper read on Monday at a meeting of the Sociological Society
+by
+Professor GEDDES&#8212;an abstract of which we print&#8212;are contained ideas of
+practical value to be recommended to the study of ambitious
+municipalities. This is the age of cities, and all the world is
+city-building. Almost everywhere is a flow from the country town-ward.
+China and India may be still, in the main, lands of villages. But the
+West, Russia perhaps excepted, is more and more peopled by dwellers in
+cities. In a dim sort of way many persons understand that the time has
+come when art and skill and foresight should control what so far has
+been left to chance to work out; that there should be a more orderly
+conception of civic action; that there is a real art of city-making,
+and
+that it behoves this generation to master and practise it. Professor
+Geddes truly said the land is already full of preparation as to this
+matter; the beginnings of a concrete art of city-making are visible at
+various points. But our city rulers are often among the blindest to
+these considerations; and nowhere probably is to be seen a municipality
+fully and consistently alive to its duties in this respect. London may
+be left out of the question. Still a province rather than a city in the
+strict sense, wanting what, in the view of the early master of
+political
+science, was an essential of the true city, that it could "easily be
+overseen," with a vast floating population, it will be some time before
+it can be dealt with as an organic whole. But the rulers of such
+communities as Manchester and Newcastle and York ought long ago to have
+realised, much more than has been done, that they are not so much brick
+and mortar, so much rateable area, so many thousands of people
+fortuitously brought together. They have all a regional environment of
+their own which determined their origin and growth. They have all a
+rich
+past, the monuments of which, generally to be found in abundance by
+careful, reverent inquirers, ought to be preserved; a past which ought
+to be known more or less to all the dwellers therein, and the knowledge
+of which will make the present more interesting. Even when old
+buildings
+have disappeared, ancient roads, pathways, and streets can be traced;
+place names keep alive much history; and the natural features reveal to
+the practised eye what must have been the look and condition of a town
+in past ages. Professor Geddes gives a sketch of what he conceives the
+vast and ever-growing literature of cities will one day be. Even if the
+comprehensive monographs which he foreshadows are never <span class="pagenum">p. 140</span>
+written, it is not surely fanciful to expect that, with education
+universal, almost every dweller in our old towns will acquire some sort
+of that feeling with which a member of an ancient family looks upon its
+ancestral house or lands&#8212;will, even without much reading, have some
+sort of notion of his predecessors and a certain pride in his
+membership
+of an ancient community. If he has not the good fortune to be a De
+Vere,
+a De Bohun, a Howard, Mowbray or Cavendish, he may perhaps be a citizen
+of a town which flourished when some of these families were unknown.</p>
+<p>Such pride, or, as the lecturer preferred to term it, such "growth
+of
+civic consciousness and conscience, the awakening of citizenship
+towards
+civic renascence," will be the best security for a worthy city of the
+future....</p>
+<p>Professor Geddes glanced at the opening civic future, "the remoter
+and
+higher issues which a city's indefinitely long life and correspondingly
+needed foresight and statesmanship involve," the possibilities which
+may
+be easily realised if only there be true civic pride, foresight, and
+unflagging pursuit of a reasonable ideal.... It remains to be seen what
+our cities will become when for some generations the same spirit of
+pride and reverence shown by old families as to their possessions has
+presided over all civic changes and developments.... Ruskin somewhere
+points out the mediaeval love of cities, unwholesome, dirty, and
+forbidding though they were. He did not teach his generation that that
+affection might with more reason attach to the modern city if its
+people
+knew what it had been and steadily strove to make it better, if there
+was in every large community patriotism and a polity.</p>
+<div style="text-align: center;">DR. J.H. BRIDGES in <i>The Positivist
+Review</i> (Sept., 1904), said: <br />
+</div>
+<p>Under
+the title, "Civics, as applied Sociology," Prof. Geddes read on July
+18th a very interesting paper before the Sociological Society. The
+importance of the subject will be contested by none. The method adopted
+in handling it, being in many ways original, invites remark ...</p>
+<p>What is wanted is first a survey of the facts to be dealt with&#8212;a
+regional survey. This point of view has next to be correlated with
+corresponding practical experience acquired by practical civic life,
+but
+"aiming at a larger and more orderly conception of civic action."....
+Students of Comte will not forget his well-known maxim, <i>Savoir pour
+pr&eacute;voir, afin de pourvoir</i>.</p>
+<p>What is to be the area of survey? Prof. Geddes decides that the City
+may
+be taken "as the integrate of study." Whether any modern towns, and, if
+so, what, may be taken as integrates in the sense which would
+undoubtedly apply to ancient Athens or to mediaeval Florence, may be
+questioned; but it is too soon to interrupt our author.... Every one
+who
+heard the lecturer must have been fascinated by his picture of a river
+system which he takes for his unit of study; the high mountain tracts,
+the pastoral hillsides, the hamlets and villages in the valleys, the
+market town where the valleys meet, the convergence of the larger
+valleys into a county town, finally, the great city where the river
+meets the sea. The lecturer went on to advocate the systematic study of
+some of the principal river-basins of the world for the purpose of
+examining the laws which govern the grouping of cities. All would agree
+that much instruction might be derived from such <span class="pagenum">p. 141</span> a survey,
+provided two dangers be avoided. One is the exaggeration of the
+influence of the environment on the social organism, an error into
+which
+the Le Play school have sometimes fallen; as when, for instance, it was
+sought to explain Chinese civilisation by the rice-plant. The other
+danger, which needs much care and thought to avoid, is the accumulation
+of such a mass of irrelevant detail as renders (perhaps sometimes it is
+intended to render) all generalisation impossible. Thinking men are at
+last beginning to regard the accumulation of memoirs as one of the
+principal obstacles to scientific progress. On the pretext of "more
+evidence," conclusions are adjourned, not merely <i>sine die</i>, but <i>sine
+spe diei</i>. Yet so long as man is man, he must, and will, have
+conclusions; be they final or otherwise.</p>
+<p>From the physiography of the city we pass to its history ...</p>
+<p>In this part of his subject he has, as we all know, many precursors
+and
+fellow-workers. The remarkable series, entitled "Historic Towns,"
+instituted by Prof. Freeman, is known to most. The study of towns was
+the life and soul of Mr. Green's historic labours. Eloquent and
+powerful
+pictures of the great cities of the world fill the greater part of Mr.
+Harrison's well-known volume, "The Meaning of History"; and the student
+of universal history (a few of these, it may be hoped, are still left)
+finds them very stimulating and helpful. The special note of Prof.
+Geddes' method is that he does not limit himself to the greater cities,
+but also, and perhaps by preference, deals with the smaller, and with
+their physical environment; and, above all, that he attempts not merely
+to observe closely and thoroughly, but to generalise as the result of
+his observation. In biology, the study of any single organism, however
+minute and accurate, could reveal no laws (i.e., no general facts) of
+structure or function. As for instance, many forms of heart must be
+examined before the laws governing blood-circulation could be revealed;
+so here. Countless, indeed, are the forms of cities; even limiting our
+field of observation to those that have grown up in the last century
+they are numerous enough. Their differences and analogies would
+doubtless repay analysis, always supposing that we are clear how far
+the
+modern town, as contrasted with the mediaeval or Graeco-Roman city, can
+usefully be treated as "an integrate." This raises large questions of
+nation, of groups of nations, finally of Humanity, which cannot here be
+touched.</p>
+<p>Meantime, from the teacher's standpoint, there can be no question at
+all, among those who look upon education as something more than a
+commercial asset, as to the utility of looking on every old town, with
+the neighbourhood around it, as a condensed record, here and there
+perfect, elsewhere lamentably blotted, yet still a record, of the
+history of our race. Historic memories survive in our villages far more
+widely than is thought. The descendants of the man who found the body
+of
+Rufus in the New Forest still live hard by. The builder whom the first
+William set to build Corfe Castle was Stephen Mowlem; and the
+Dorsetshire firm of Mowlem still pave London causeways. A poor woman in
+a remote hamlet, untouched by tourist or guide-book, has shown me the
+ash-tree under which Monmouth was seized after Sedgemoor; a Suffolk
+peasant, equally innocent of book-knowledge, has pointed Out "Bloody
+Mary's lane," through which that bugbear of Protestants passed three
+hundred years before on her way to Framlingham. The abbey immortalised
+in Carlyle's "Past and Present," and still the wonder of Eastern
+England, is surrounded now by the same villages that Jocelyn tells us
+of. The town named after St. Alban, with its memories of Cassivellaun
+and Julius Caesar, of an old Roman city, of the Diocletian persecution,
+of the great King Offa, founder of the abbey that was to become <span class="pagenum">p. 142</span> at
+once a school of historical research, and our best epitome of
+mediaeval architecture&#8212;all this, with the monument of the author of the
+"Novum Organum" crowning the whole&#8212;sums up for us sixteen centuries of
+history.</p>
+<p>Professor Geddes for more than twenty years has adopted this method
+of
+teaching sociology in the open air; "in the field," as geologists would
+say....</p>
+<p>This is much more than the study and the description of buildings
+and
+places of historical interest. His aim is first to study the way in
+which a city grows, always having due regard to its physical
+environment; secondly, by comparing like with like, as a naturalist
+compares the individuals of a species, or the species of a genus, to
+throw light on the laws which govern civic development, and thus to
+help
+forward and direct civic action.</p>
+<p>All this is set forth with greater fulness in the Report which
+Professor
+Geddes has been asked to write for the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust. The
+purpose of the Report (printed, but not yet published) was to suggest
+the way in which the revenue of the Trust, amounting to &pound;25,000,
+should
+be spent for the benefit of this ancient and historic town. The scheme,
+with its many pictures, real and ideal, of workshops, parks,
+culture-institutes&#8212;physical, artistic, and historical&#8212;will deeply
+interest even those who reject much of it as Utopian. But it is at
+least
+a Utopia specially adapted to a given place and time, one in which
+every
+feature of landscape and history is made the most of, one in which a
+beginning can be made at once, leaving room for further developments as
+occasion may serve. Moreover, it is penetrated through and through with
+the Republican ideal of bringing the highest truth within the reach of
+all.</p>
+<p>Comte has pointed out, in the fifth chapter of his "General View of
+Positivism," and elsewhere, that it is not enough to enunciate sound
+principles of social renovation unless they can be rendered visible and
+palpable. "The principal function of art," he says, "is to construct
+types on the basis furnished by Science.... However perfectly the first
+principles of social renovation may be elaborated by thinkers, they
+will
+still not be sufficiently definite for the practical results.... But,
+at
+the point where Philosophy must always leave a void, Art steps in, and
+stimulates to practical action.... Hence, in the future, systematic
+formation of Utopias will become habitual; on the distinct
+understanding
+that as in every other branch of art, the ideal shall be kept in
+subordination to the real."</p>
+<p>Now, the Dunfermline Report is an admirable example of art thus
+allied
+with science for social service. It is an ideal picture, strictly
+adherent to local colour and conditions, of an ancient city prolonging
+its vitality into the present and future by providing a very high form
+of training for its citizens, a training not of intellect only, but of
+the senses, of manual dexterity, of imagination, of Republican
+sympathy&#8212;a training in which "laborious inacquaintance with dead
+languages," infusing into the few touched by it a tincture of caste and
+militarism, gives way to comprehensive study of the evolution of Man,
+preparing the whole, and not a section merely, of the new generation
+for
+social service.</p>
+<p>Such a Utopia as this may be looked upon as fulfilling the true
+social
+function of Art; standing midway between theory and practice; inspired
+by thought, and stimulating action. Only the social artist has to look
+to it that his thoughts be not merely true but adequate, lest he
+degenerate into a mere decorator. How far will a series of "regional
+surveys," like those of <span class="pagenum">p. 143</span> Mr. Booth in London and Mr. Rowntree
+in York, carry us! Not so far, I fear, as Professor Geddes seems to
+hope. Cities in our modern life are organs inseparable from a larger
+whole, the nation; and before the life of cities can be much changed,
+we
+have to ask ourselves, What is the national life? What is its ethical
+and religious standard? What is its practice as to the acquisition and
+distribution of wealth? And, again, What is to be the intercourse of
+nations? Is it to be war or peace?</p>
+<p>Mr. Carnegie has given half a million for the benefit of a town of
+30,000 inhabitants. Magnificent as the donation is, it is not too much;
+not nearly enough, indeed, for the full realisation of Professor
+Geddes'
+scheme. Still, wisely used, it might accomplish great results. What we
+have recently sunk in the work of suppressing two free States in South
+Africa would have made it possible to do for three hundred towns what
+has been done for Dunfermline. Half of what we are now spending on our
+army and navy would enable us to endow thirty more of such towns
+annually.</p>
+<div style="text-align: center;">Mr. ISRAEL ZANGWILL in <i>To-day</i>
+(Aug. 10, 1904), said: <br />
+</div>
+<p>The Sociological
+Society is forging ahead at American speed; the professors jostle one
+another, and Geddes treads on the heels of Galton. After "Eugenics," or
+the Science of Good Births, comes "Civics," or the Science of Cities.
+In
+the former Mr. Galton was developing an idea which was in the air, and
+in Wells. In the latter Professor Geddes has struck out a more novel
+line, and a still more novel nomenclature. Politography, Politogenics,
+and Eu-Politogenics, likewise Hebraomorphic and Latinomorphic and
+Eutopia&#8212;quite an opposite idea from Utopia&#8212;such are some of the
+additions to the dictionary which the science of Civics carries in its
+train. They are all excellent words&#8212;with the double-barrelled
+exception&#8212;and still more excellent concepts. But I fancy the general
+idea of them all could be conveyed to the man in the street under the
+covering of "the human shell." This shell of ours is the city. It is
+the
+protective crust we have built round ourselves. In a smaller sense our
+house is our shell, but in a larger sense each house is only a lobe of
+the complex and contorted whole. Geography shapes our shells from
+without, and the spirit of our particular community shapes it from
+within. History tells us how it has been shaped in the past, Art tells
+us how it should be shaped in the future. Professor Geddes, in fact,
+envisages our civic shell as becomes a brilliant biologist, who also
+happens to be a man of historic imagination, ethical impulses, and
+aesthetic perceptions. For the human shell is not merely geometrical
+and
+architectural, like those of apian or beaverish communities; it holds
+and expresses all those differences by which we are exalted above the
+bee or the beaver. It is coloured with our emotions and ideals, and
+contorted with all the spirals of our history. And all these
+manifestations of humanity may be studied as systematically as those of
+the lower orders of creation, which have till recently monopolised the
+privilege of pin and label. The old lady who admired the benevolence of
+Providence in always placing rivers by the side of large towns was only
+expressing in an exaggerated way the general failure to think of Civics
+scientifically. The geographers, in whom may be found the bases of the
+science, have always pointed out that the river system is the essential
+unit for investigation. From source to sea goes the line of evolution.
+And yet even the peasant hamlet at the source depends, as <span class="pagenum">p. 144</span>
+Professor Geddes reminds us, on the hinterland of pasture, forest, and
+chase; and the hunter is the germ of the soldier and the aristocrat.
+The
+whole region contributes to the ultimate city, as the whole river to
+the
+ultimate sea. The Professor says, justly enough, that we should try to
+recover the elemental or naturalist point of view, even for the
+greatest
+cities. He sees London as "fundamentally an agglomeration of villages
+with their surviving patches of common around a mediaeval seaport."
+This
+is accurate vision; but when he discerns "even in the utmost
+magnificence of Paris, say, its Place de l'Etoile, its spread of
+boulevards, but the hunter's tryst by the fallen tree, with its
+radiating forest rides, each literally straight," I cannot help
+suspecting the over-ingenuity of a prolific intellect. The view of
+London as a growth from embryos, and the view of Paris as the outcome
+of
+atavistic instinct, belong to different planes of scientific thinking.
+That Haussmann in reconstructing Paris was merely an unconscious hunter
+and woodlander, building as automatically as a bee, is a fantastic
+hypothesis; since cities, if they are to be built on a plan at all,
+cannot avoid some unifying geometrical pattern; and there are not very
+many possibilities.... In the department of Eu-Politogenics we shall be
+confronted with the problem of consciously overriding what evolution
+has
+unconsciously evolved, and building towards a fairer future. No doubt
+much of our creation will be imitation, and Professor Geddes is
+particularly suggestive in bidding us, at least, to be aware which of
+the tangled strands of influence we desire to follow; but a measure of
+artistic free-will remains. With the development of a corporate
+conscience we should be able to turn out far more satisfactory shells
+than many that have blundered into being. "Garden City" is only a
+particular application of the science of Civics....</p>
+<p>Eu-Politogenics concerns itself, however, with more than the mere
+configuration of our human shell. Its colour and the music it holds are
+considerations no less important. But they are too important to touch
+at
+the fag-end of an article. Professor Geddes must, however, be
+congratulated on a stimulating paper, and upon his discovery of
+Eutopia.
+For Eutopia (unlike Utopia, which is really Ou-topia, or no place) is
+merely your own place perfected. And the duty of working towards its
+perfection lies directly upon <i>you</i>. "Civics&#8212;as applied
+sociology"
+comes to show you the way.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CIVICS: AS CONCRETE AND APPLIED SOCIOLOGY, PART II</h2>
+<h2>BY PROFESSOR GEDDES</h2>
+<p style="font-weight: bold;">Read before the Sociological Society at a
+Meeting in the School of
+Economics and Political Science (University of London), Clare Market,
+W.C., on Monday, January 23rd, 1905, the Rt. Hon. CHARLES BOOTH,
+F.R.S.,
+in the Chair.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>A&#8212;INTRODUCTION: THE NEED OF CIVIC SURVEYS</h3>
+<p>To the previous discussion of this subject<a name="FNanchor_2"></a><a
+ href="#Footnote_2"><sup>[2]</sup></a> the first portion of this
+present title, "Civics as Concrete Sociology," would have been more
+suitable than the second, (that of "Civics as Applied Sociology")
+actually used. For its aim was essentially to plead for the concrete
+survey and study of cities, their observation and interpretation on
+lines essentially similar to those of the natural sciences. Since
+Comte's demonstration of the necessity of the preliminary sciences to
+social studies, and Spencer's development of this, still more since the
+evolution theory has become generally recognised, no one disputes the
+applicability of biology to <span class="pagenum">p. 58</span> sociology. Many are, indeed,
+vigorously applying the conceptions of life in evolution, in
+geographical distribution and environment, in health and disease, to
+the
+interpretations of the problems of the times; while with the
+contemporary rise of eugenics to the first plane of interest, both
+social and scientific, these lines of thought, bio-social and
+bio-geographic, must needs be increasingly utilised and developed.</p>
+<p>But Comte and Spencer, with most other biologically-minded
+sociologists
+have been more at home among biological generalisations and theories
+than among the facts they arise from, and hence it is ever needful to
+maintain and extend a first-hand contact with these. I seek, therefore,
+to press home the idea that just as the biologist must earn his
+generalisations through direct and first-hand acquaintance with nature,
+so now must the sociologist work for his generalisations through a
+period of kindred observation and analysis, both geographic and
+historical; his "general laws" thus appearing anew as the abstract of
+regional facts, after due comparison of these as between region and
+region.</p>
+<p>May not much of the comparative sterility of post-Comtean (or at any
+rate post-Spencerian) sociology, which is so commonly reproached to us,
+and to which the difficult formation and slow growth of sociological
+societies and schools is largely due, be thus explained? Is it not the
+case that many able and persuasive writers, not only knowing the
+results, but logically using the generalisations of Comte or Spencer,
+as
+of old of Smith or now-a-days of List in the economic field, are yet
+comparatively sterile of fresh contributions to thought, and still more
+to action? In fact, must we not apply to much of the literature of
+recent sociology, just as to traditional economics, the criticism of
+Comte's well-known law of three states, and inquire if such writers,
+while apparently upon the plane of generalised science, are not really
+in large measure at least arrested upon Comte's "metaphysical stage,"
+Mill's "abstractional" one?</p>
+<p>Conversely, the revival of sociological interest in this country at
+present is obviously very largely derived from fresh and freshening
+work
+like that of Mr Francis Galton and of the Right Hon. Charles Booth
+especially. For here in Mr. Galton's biometrics and eugenics is a
+return
+to nature, a keen scrutiny of human beings, which is really an orderly
+fruition of that of the same author's "Art of Travel." Similarly, Mr.
+Booth's "Survey of London" is as truly a return to nature as was
+Darwin's Voyage, or his yet more far-reaching studies in his garden and
+farmyard at home. <span class="pagenum">p. 59</span> Is it not the main support of the subtle
+theorisings and far-stretched polemic of Prof. Weismann that he can
+plague his adversaries with the small but literal and concrete mice and
+hydroids and water fleas with which his theories began? And is it not
+for a certain lack of such concrete matter of observation that the vast
+systematisations of M. de Greef, or M. de Roberty, or the original and
+ingenious readings of Prof. Simon Patten leave us too often
+unconvinced,
+even if not sometimes without sufficiently definite understanding of
+their meaning? The simplest of naturalists must feel that Comte or
+Spencer, despite the frequently able use of the generalisations of
+biology, themselves somewhat lacked the first-hand observation of the
+city and community around them, and suffered thereby; this part of
+their
+work obviously not being on a level with the historic interpretations
+of
+the one or the psychological productivity of the other. And if, without
+warlike intent, I may yet strike a conspicuous shield or two within
+these friendly lists, is it not this one element of concrete
+observation
+and illustration which is sometimes lacking to give its full effect to
+the encyclop&aelig;dic learning and the sympathetic insight of one of
+our
+recent papers, to the historic and poetic interpretations of another,
+or
+to the masterly logic of a third?</p>
+<p>Before the polemics of our educationists, the voluminous
+argumentation
+and casuistic subtlety of our professors of economics and ethics, yet
+more before the profound speculations of the epistemologists, the mere
+naturalist observer can but feel abashed like the truant before his
+schoolmasters; yet he is also not without a certain deep inward
+conviction, born of experience, that his outdoor world is yet more
+real,
+more vast, and more instructive than is theirs. And this impression
+becomes strengthened, nay verified and established, when he sees that
+the initiative thinkers from whom these claim to descend, have had in
+each and every case no merely academic record, but also a first-hand
+experience, an impulse and message from life and nature. Hence the
+contributions of Locke, of Comenius, and of Rousseau. Hence the
+Physiocrats found economics in peasant life; and thus too Adam Smith
+renewed their science, with due academic logic, doubtless, but from his
+experience of Glasgow and Kirkcaldy manufactures and trade. Even the
+idealist Berkeley owed much of his theory to his iridescent tar-water;
+while surely the greater ethicists are those who have not only been
+dialecticians, but moral forces in the world of men.</p>
+<p>In such ways, then, I would justify the thesis that civics is no
+abstract study, but fundamentally a matter of concrete and descriptive
+sociology&#8212;perhaps the greatest field of this. Next, that such orderly
+study is in line with the preliminary sciences, and with the general
+doctrine of evolution from simple to complex; and finally with the
+general inquiry into the influence of geographical conditions on social
+development. <span class="pagenum">p.
+60</span> In short, the student of civics must be first of
+all an observer of cities; and, if so, of their origins and
+developments, from the small and simple beginnings of which the tiniest
+hamlet is but an arrested germ. The productive sociologist should thus
+be of all investigators a wandering student <i>par excellence</i>; in
+the
+first place, as far as possible, a literal tourist and traveller&#8212;and
+this although like the homely Gilbert White or the world voyaging
+Darwin, he may do his best work around his own home.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>B&#8212;INITIAL METHODS OF CONCRETE SURVEY</h3>
+<p>Hence our civic studies began (vol. 1, <a href='#p_105'>p. 105</a>)
+with the survey of a
+valley region inhabited by its characteristic types&#8212;hunter and
+shepherd, peasant and fisher&#8212;each on his own level, each evolving or
+degenerating within his own region. Hence the concrete picture of such
+a
+typical valley section with its types of occupation cannot be brought
+too clearly before our minds.<a name="FNanchor_3"></a><a
+ href="#Footnote_3"><sup>[3]</sup></a></p>
+<p>What now of the causes of progress or decay? Are not these first of
+all
+the qualities and defects inherent in that particular social
+formation?&#8212;though we must also consider how these different types act
+and react, how they combine with, transform, subjugate, ruin or replace
+each other in region after region. We thus re-interpret the
+vicissitudes
+of history in more general terms, those of the differentiation,
+progress
+or degeneracy of each occupational and social type, and the ascending
+and descending oscillations of these types. In short, these
+occupational
+struggles underlie and largely interpret even the conflict of races,
+upon which Mr. Stuart-Glennie and other sociologists have so ably
+insisted. The fundamental importance of these initial factors of region
+and occupation to all studies of races and types, of communities and
+institutions, of customs and laws, indeed of language and literature,
+of
+religion and art, even of ideals and individualities, must be my excuse
+if I seem to insist, in season and out of season, upon <span class="pagenum">p. 61</span> the
+services of Le Play as one of the main founders of sociology; and this
+not only <i>(a)</i> on account of his monographic surveys of modern
+industrial life&#8212;those "Monographies Sociales" from which our current
+economic studies of the condition of the worker, of the family budget,
+etc., descend&#8212;but <i>(b)</i> yet more on account of his vital
+reconstruction
+of anthropology (albeit still far from adequately realised by most
+anthropologists) through his renewed insistence upon the elemental
+rustic origins of industry, family types, and social organisation
+alike,
+from these simplest reactions of man in his struggle for existence in
+varied and varying environment.</p>
+<p>It does not suffice to recognise, with many economists, hunting,
+pastoral and agricultural formations, as states <i>preliminary</i> to
+our
+present industrial and commercial, imperial, and financial order of
+civilisation. This view, still too commonly surviving, is rather of
+hindrance than help; what we need is to see our existing civilisation
+as
+the complex struggle and resultant of all these types and their
+developments to-day. So far, therefore, from leaving, as at present,
+these simple occupational types to the anthropologist, or at best
+giving
+him some scant hospitality within our city museum, we are learning to
+see how it is at one time the eager miner, or the conservative
+shepherd,
+or at another the adventurous fisher or hunter who comes concretely
+upon
+the first plane of national, imperial or international politics, and
+who
+awakens new strife among these. We not only begin to see, but the
+soldier frankly tells us, how the current sports of youth, and the
+unprecedented militarism of the past century, are alike profoundly
+connected with the hunting world. Hence the hope of peace lies not
+only,
+as most at present think in the civilised and civilising development of
+international law, or of culture intercourse, excellent though these
+are, but also in a fuller and complete return to nature than has been
+this recent and persistent obsession of our governing classes with the
+hunter world almost alone; in short, in adding the gentler, yet wider,
+experiences of the naturalist, the sterner experiences of other
+occupations also. Nor does such elementary recognition of these main
+social formations content us; their local differentiations must be
+noted
+and compared&#8212;a comprehensive regional survey, therefore, which does
+justice to each local variety of these great types; speaking henceforth
+of no mere abstract "hunter," but of the specific hunting types of each
+climate, and distinguishing these as clearly as do our own milder
+sportsmen of deer-forest and the turnip field from themselves and from
+each other. After such needed surveys in detail, we may, indeed must,
+compare and generalise them.</p>
+<p>Similarly for the pasture, the forest. Every tourist in this country
+is
+struck by the contrast of Swiss towns and cities with our own, and
+notes
+<span class="pagenum">p. 62</span> too
+that on the Swiss pasture he finds a horde of cattle,
+while in Scotland or Yorkshire he left a flock of sheep. And not only
+the tourist, but the historian or the economist too often fail to see
+how Galashiels or Bradford are developments of the wool hamlet, now
+familiar to many in R.L. Stevenson's native Swanston. Again, not only
+Swiss wealth, but Swiss character and institutions, go back essentially
+to the high pasture and the well-filled byre. That this rich Swiss
+cow-pasture rests on limestone, and the poor Scottish sheep-grazing
+upon
+comparatively unmouldering and impermeable gneiss, is no mere matter of
+geologist's detail; it affords in each case the literal and concrete
+foundation-stone of the subsequent evolution of each region and
+population, and this not only in material and economic development, but
+even in higher and subtler outcomes, aesthetic, intellectual and
+moral.<a name="FNanchor_4"></a><a href="#Footnote_4"><sup>[4]</sup></a>
+It is for such reasons that one must labour and re-labour this
+geographic and determinist aspect of sociology, and this for no merely
+scientific reason, but also for practical ones. Nowhere perhaps have
+more good and generous souls considered how to better the condition of
+their people than in Swiss, or Irish, or Scottish valleys; yet it is
+one
+main reason of the continual failure of all such movements, and of such
+minds in the wider world as well, that they do not first acquaint
+themselves with the realities of nature and labour sufficiently to
+appreciate that the fundamental&#8212;I do not say the supreme&#8212;question is:
+what can be got out of limestone, and what can be got out of gneiss?
+Hence the rare educative value of such a concrete sociological diagram
+and model as was the Swiss Village at the Paris Exposition of 1900, for
+here geographic and economic knowledge and insight were expressed with
+artistic skill and sympathy as perhaps never before. Only as similar
+object-lessons are worked out for other countries, can we adequately
+learn, much less popularly teach, how from nature comes "rustics," and
+from this comes civics. But civics and rustics make up the field of
+politics; they are the concrete of which politics become the
+abstract&#8212;commonly the too remotely abstract.</p>
+<p>For final illustration, let us descend to the sea-level. There
+again,
+taking the fisher, each regional type must be traced in his
+contribution
+to his town. Take for instance the salmon fisher of Norway, the whaler
+of Dundee, the herring-fisher of Yarmouth, the cod-fisher of
+Newfoundland, the coral fisher of the &AElig;gean; each is a definite
+varietal
+type, one developing or at least tending to develop characteristic
+normal family relations, and corresponding social outcomes in
+institutions; in which again the appropriate qualities and defects must
+be expressed, even as is the quality and twist of the hemp in the
+strength of the cable, or as is the chemistry and the microscopic
+structure of the alloy in the efficiency of the great gun.<span class="pagenum">p. 63</span>
+Our neighbouring learned societies and museums geographical, geological
+and the rest, are thus avowedly and consciously so many winter shelters
+in which respective groups of regional surveyors tell their tales and
+compare their observations, in which they meet to compare their
+generalisations from their own observations made in the field with
+those
+made by others. So it must increasingly be for this youngest of
+societies. We may, we should, know best our Thames valley, our London
+basin, our London survey; but the progress of our science implies as
+increasingly varied and thorough an inquiry into rustic and civic
+regions and occupations and resultants throughout the whole world
+present and past, as does the corresponding world survey with our
+geologic neighbours.</p>
+<p>I plead then for a sociological survey, rustic and civic, region by
+region, and insist in the first place upon the same itinerant field
+methods of notebook and camera, even for museum collections and the
+rest, as those of the natural sciences. The dreary manuals which have
+too long discredited those sciences in our schools, are now giving
+place
+to a new and fascinating literature of first-hand nature study.
+Similarly, those too abstract manuals of civics which are at present
+employed in schools<a name="FNanchor_5"></a><a href="#Footnote_5"><sup>[5]</sup></a>
+must be replaced by concrete and regional ones,
+their abstract counsels of political or personal perfection thus also
+giving place to a corresponding regional idealism which may then be
+supplemented from other regions as far as needs demand and
+circumstances
+allow.</p>
+<h3><br />
+</h3>
+<h3>C&#8212;GEOGRAPHICAL DETERMINISM AND ITS DIFFICULTIES</h3>
+<p>To interpret then our tangle of ideas, both of the city and its
+citizens, let us now bring more fully to our transverse valley
+sections,
+and to each occupation separately, the geographical view-point which we
+have found of service to elucidate the development of towns and cities
+upon its longitudinal <span class="pagenum">p. 64</span> slope. But this is neither more nor
+less than the method of Montesquieu, whose classic "Esprit des Lois"
+anticipates and initiates so much of that of later writers&#8212;Ritter,
+Buckle, Taine, or Le Play. Once more then let their common, or rather
+their resultant, doctrine be stated in terms expressing the latest of
+these more fully than the first. Given the region, its character
+determines the nature of the fundamental occupation, and this in turn
+essentially determines the type of family. The nature and method of the
+occupation must normally determine the mode of its organisation, e.g.,
+the rise and character of a specialised directive class, and the nature
+of these occupational chiefs as contrasted with the people and with
+each
+other. Similarly, the types of family tend to develop their appropriate
+types of institutions, e.g., for justice, guidance, and of course
+notably in response to social environment as regards defence or attack.</p>
+<p>Thus at this point in fact we seem to be pressing upon the student
+of
+sociology the essential argument of geographical and evolutionary
+determinism, in fact inviting him to adopt a view, indeed to commit
+himself to a method, which may be not only foreign to his habits, but
+repugnant to his whole view of life and history. And if able advocacy
+of
+this determinist view of society for at least the past five generations
+has not carried general conviction, why raise so controversial a
+suggestion, in the guise too of a method professing to harmonise all
+comers? Yet this is advisedly done; and as no one will deny some civil
+importance to geographical factors, let patience be granted to examine
+this aspect of the city's map and shield, and to get from it what it
+can
+teach, under the present assurance to the philosophic and idealist
+critic that his view of other factors, higher and deeper, as supreme in
+human life, and therefore in city making, will not be forgotten, nor
+excluded from consideration when we come to them. All that is really
+insisted upon here is that if anything of naturalistic method of
+evolutionary conception is to be permitted at all, we must obviously
+proceed from this simple towards the more complex, and so begin with it
+here and now.</p>
+<p>It is the appropriate slope or steppe, the needful rainfall, that
+conditions the growth of grass, this which conditions the presence of
+herds or flocks, and these again which determine the very existence of
+shepherds. These granted then, not only do the pastoral arts and crafts
+arise, but the patriarchal type and family develop, and this not only
+with their hospitality and other virtues, with their nomadic
+tendencies,
+at any rate, their unfixed land-tenure, very different from the
+peasant's, but their slow and skilful <span class="pagenum">p. 65</span> diplomacy (till the
+pasture is bared or grown again, as the negotiator's interests
+incline).
+The patriarch in his venerable age, the caravaneer in his nomadic and
+exploring youth, his disciplined maturity, thus naturally develop as
+different types of chief and leader; and it is therefore not until this
+stage, when all is ready for the entry of Abraham or Job, of Mohammed
+the camel-driver, or Paul the tent-maker, that any real controversy can
+arise between the determinist and his opponent, between the democratic
+and the great-man theories of history, towards which these respectively
+incline.<a name="FNanchor_6"></a><a href="#Footnote_6"><sup>[6]</sup></a>
+And at that stage, may not the controversy stimulate a
+fruitful analysis? After all, what is the claim of free-will but to
+select among the factors afforded by a given set of circumstances? And
+the utmost stretch of determinism to which geography and civics may
+lead
+us obviously cannot prove the negative of this. But whether the
+psychologic origins of new ideals be internal to the mind of genius, or
+imparted by some external source, is a matter obviously beyond the
+scope
+of either the geographer or the historian of civics to settle. Enough
+surely for both controversialists if we use such a means of tabulating
+facts as to beg the question for neither view; and still better if we
+can present the case of each without injustice to either, nay, to each
+with its clearness increased by the sharp edge of contrast. If the
+geographical determinist thesis on one hand, and its ethical and
+psychological antithesis on the other, can thus clearly be defined and
+balanced, their working equilibrium is at hand, even should their
+complete synthesis remain beyond us.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>D&#8212;NEED OF ABSTRACT METHOD FOR NOTATION AND FOR INTERPRETATION</h3>
+<p>Not only such general geographical studies, but such social
+interpretations as those above indicated have long been in progress:
+witness the labours of whole schools of historians and critics, among
+whom Montsquieu and his immediate following, or in more recent times
+Buckle and Taine, are but the most prominent; witness the works of
+geographers like Humboldt, Ritter, Reclus, or of developmental
+technologists like Boucher de Perthes and regional economists like Le
+Play. The main lines of a concrete and evolutionary sociology (or at
+<span class="pagenum">p. 66</span> least
+<i>sociography</i>) have thus been laid down for us; but the
+task now before us, in our time, in such a society as this&#8212;and indeed
+in such a paper as the present one&#8212;its that of extracting from all this
+general teaching its essential scientific method, one everywhere latent
+and implicit, but nowhere fully explicit, or at least adequately
+systematised.</p>
+<p>It is in fact only as we can agree upon some definite and orderly
+method
+of description that our existing literature of social surveys can be
+adequately compared or new ones co-operatively undertaken. Hence the
+importance of discussions of scientific method such as those who have
+so
+largely occupied our first volume. Yet, I submit, here lies the means
+of
+escaping from these too abstract (and consequently too static)
+presentments of the general methodology of social science into which
+sociologists are constantly falling; and to which must be largely
+ascribed the prevalent distaste for sociology so general in this
+would-be practical-minded community in which we find ourselves, as
+indeed also the comparative unattractiveness of our studies to the body
+of specialist scientific workers, not even excepting those within what
+we consider sociological fields.</p>
+<p>The history of each science, be it mathematics or astronomy, botany,
+zoology or geology, shows us that it is not enough to have the
+intelligent observer, or even the interpretative thinker with his
+personally expressed doctrine. This must be clearly crystallised into a
+definite statement, method, proposition, "law" or theory, stated in
+colourless impersonal form before it is capable of acceptance and
+incorporation into the general body of science. But while astronomer
+and
+geologist and naturalist can and do describe both the observational
+results and their general conceptions in literary form, requiring from
+the ordinary reader but the patience to master a few unfamiliar terms
+and ideas, they also carry on their work by help of definite and
+orderly
+technical methods, descriptive and comparative, analytic and synthetic.
+These, as far as possible, have to be crystallised beyond their mere
+verbal statement into formulae, into tabular and graphic presentments,
+and thus not only acquire greater clearness of statement, but become
+more and more active agencies of inquiry&#8212;in fact, become literal
+<i>thinking-machines</i>. But while the mathematician has his notations
+and
+his calculus, the geographer and geologist their maps, reliefs and
+sections, the naturalist his orderly classificatory methods, it has
+been
+the misfortune and delay of political economy, and no small cause of
+that "notorious discord and sterility" with which Comte reproached it,
+that <span class="pagenum">p. 67</span>
+its cultivators have so commonly sought to dispense with
+the employment of any definite scientific notations; while even its
+avowed statisticians, in this country especially, have long resisted
+the
+consistent use of graphic methods.</p>
+<p>I submit, therefore, for discussion, as even more urgent and
+pressing
+than that of the general and abstract methodology of the social
+sciences, the problem of elaborating a concrete descriptive method
+readily applicable to the study and comparison of human societies, to
+cities therefore especially. To do justice to this subject, not only
+the
+descriptive labours of anthropologists, but much of the literature of
+sociology would have to be gone through from the "Tableau Economique"
+of
+the Physiocratic School to the "Sociological Tables" of Mr. Spencer,
+and
+still more fruitfully to more recent writers. Among these, besides here
+recognising specially the work of Mr. Booth and its stimulus to younger
+investigators, I would acknowledge the helpful and suggestive impulse
+from the group of social geographers which has arisen from the
+initiative of Le Play<a name="FNanchor_7"></a><a href="#Footnote_7"><sup>[7]</sup></a>,
+and whose classification, especially in its
+later forms<a name="FNanchor_8"></a><a href="#Footnote_8"><sup>[8]</sup></a>,
+cannot but be of interest and value to everyone whose
+thought on social questions is not afloat upon the ocean of the
+abstract
+without chart or bearings.</p>
+<p>Yet with all respect to each and all these classifications and
+methods,
+indeed with cordially acknowledge personal obligation and indebtedness
+to them from first to last, no one of these seems fully satisfactory
+for
+the present purpose; and it is therefore needful to go into the matter
+afresh for ourselves, though utilising these as fully as we can.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>E&#8212;THE CITY-COMPLEX AND ITS USUAL ANALYSIS</h3>
+<p>In the everyday world, in the city as we find it, what is the
+working
+classification of ideas, the method of thought of its citizens? That
+the citizens no more think of themselves as using any particular
+sociological method than did M. Jourdain of talking prose does not
+really matter, save that it makes our observation, both of them and it,
+easier and more trustworthy.</p>
+<p>They are speaking and thinking for the most part of <span class="pagenum"><a name='p_68'></a>p. 68</span> People
+and of Affairs; much less of places. In the category of People, we
+observe that individuals, self and others, and this in interest,
+perhaps
+even more than in interests, commonly take precedence of groups.
+Institutions and Government are, however, of general interest, the
+state
+being much more prominent than is the church; the press, for many,
+acting as the modern substitute for the latter. In the world of
+Affairs,
+commerce takes precedence of industry, while sport runs hard upon both.
+War, largely viewed by its distant spectators as the most vivid form of
+sport, also bulks largely. Peace is not viewed as a positive ideal, but
+essentially as a passive state, at best, of non-war, more generally of
+latent war. Central among places are the bank, the market (in its
+financial forms before the material ones). Second to these stand the
+mines then the factories, etc.; and around these the fixed or floating
+fortresses of defence. Of homes, that of the individual alone is
+seriously considered, at most those of his friends, his "set," his
+peers, but too rarely even of the street, much less the neighbourhood,
+at least for their own sake, as distinguished from their reaction upon
+individual and family status or comfort.</p>
+<p>This set of views is obviously not easy of precise analysis of exact
+classification. In broad outline, however, a summary may be made, and
+even tabulated as follows:&#8212;</p>
+<h4>THE EVERYDAY TOWN AND ITS ACTIVITIES.</h4>
+<table summary="THE EVERYDAY TOWN AND ITS ACTIVITIES"
+ style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 707px; height: 218px;"
+ border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">PEOPLE</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">AFFAIRS</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">PLACES</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;">(a)
+INDIVIDUALS (Self and others).</td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;">(a)COMMERCE
+INDUSTRY, etc.<br />
+SPORT.</td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;">(a)
+MARKET, BANK, etc.FACTORY, MINE, etc.</td>
+
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;">(b)
+GOVERNMENT(S)<br />
+Temporal and Spiritual<br />
+(State and Church).</td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;">(b) WAR
+and Peace<br />
+(Latent War).</td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;">(b) FORT,
+FIELD, etc.</td>
+    </tr>
+
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>Next note how from the everyday world of action, there arises a
+corresponding thought-world also. This has, <span class="pagenum"><a name='p_69'></a>p. 69</span>of course, no less
+numerous
+and varied elements, with its resultantly complex local colour; But a
+selection will suffice, of which the headings may be printed below
+those
+of the preceding scheme, to denote how to the objective elements there
+are subjective elements corresponding&#8212;literal reflections upon the
+pools of memory&#8212;the slowly flowing stream of tradition. Thus the
+extended diagram, its objective elements expressed in yet more general
+terms, may now be read anew (noting that mirror images are fully
+reversed).</p>
+<br />
+<table
+ style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 490px; height: 288px;"
+ border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="Town and schools">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr align="center">
+      <td><br />
+      </td>
+      <td>PEOPLE </td>
+      <td> AFFAIRS</td>
+      <td>PLACES<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr align="center">
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="2">"TOWN" </td>
+      <td>(a) INDIVIDUALS </td>
+      <td>(a) OCCUPATIONS</td>
+      <td>(a) WORK-PLACES<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr align="center">
+      <td>(b) INSTITUTIONS </td>
+      <td> (b) WAR</td>
+      <td>(b) WAR-PLACES<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="2"
+ style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">"SCHOOLS"</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">(b)
+HISTORY ("Constitutional")</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">(b)
+STATISTICS AND HISTORY<br />
+("Military")</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">(b)
+GEOGRAPHY</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">(a)
+BIOGRAPHY</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">(a)
+ECONOMICS</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">(a)
+TOPOGRAPHY</td>
+    </tr>
+
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>Here then we have that general relation of the town life and its
+"schools," alike of thought and of education, which must now be fully
+investigated.</p>
+<p>Such diagrammatic presentments, while of course primarily for the
+purpose of clear expression and comparison, are also frequently
+suggestive&#8212;by "inspection," as geometers say&#8212;of relations not
+previously noticed. In both ways, we may see more clearly how prevalent
+ideas and doctrines have arisen as "reflections upon" the life of
+action, and even account for their qualities and their defects&#8212;their
+partial truth or their corresponding inadequacy, according to our own
+appreciative or depreciative standpoint. Thus as regards "People," in
+the first column we see expressed briefly how to (a) the individual
+life, with the corresponding vivid interest in biography, corresponds
+the "great man theory" of history. Conversely with <i>(b)</i> alone is
+associated the insistance upon institutional developments as the main
+factor. Passing to the middle column, that of "Affairs," we may note in
+connection with <i>(b)</i> say the rise of statistics in association
+with
+the needs of war, a point connected with its too empiric character; or
+note again, a too common converse weakness of economic theory, its
+inadequate inductive <span class="pagenum">p. 70</span> verification. Or finally, in the column
+of "Place," the long weakness of geography as an educational subject,
+yet is periodic renewal upon the field of war, is indicated. We might
+in
+fact continue such a comparison of the existing world of action and of
+ideas, into all the schools, those of thought and practice, no less
+than
+those of formal instruction; and thus we should more and more clearly
+unravel how their complexity and entanglement, their frequent
+oppositions and contradictions are related to the various and warring
+elements of the manifold "Town" life from which they derive and
+survive.
+Such a fuller discussion, however, would too long delay the immediate
+problem&#8212;that of understanding "Town" and its "School" in their origins
+and simplest relations.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>F&#8212;PROPOSED METHODICAL ANALYSIS</h3>
+<h4>(1) THE TOWN</h4>
+<p>More fully to understand this two-fold development of Town and
+School we
+have first of all apparently to run counter to the preceding popular
+view, which is here, as in so many cases, the precise opposite of that
+reached from the side of science. This, as we have already so fully
+insisted, must set out with geography, thus literally <i>replacing</i>
+People
+and Affairs in our scheme above.</p>
+<p>Starting then once more with the simple biological formula:</p>
+<div class="blkquot">
+<p>ENVIRONMENT ... CONDITIONS ... ORGANISM</p>
+</div>
+<p>this has but to be applied and defined by the social geographer to
+become</p>
+<div class="blkquot">
+<p>REGION ... OCCUPATION ... FAMILY-type and Developments</p>
+</div>
+<p>which summarises precisely that doctrine of Montesquieu and his
+successors already insisted on. Again, in but slight variation from Le
+Play's simplest phrasing <i>("Lieu, travail, famille")</i> we have</p>
+<div class="blkquot">
+<p>PLACE ... WORK ... FOLK</p>
+</div>
+<p>It is from this simple and initial social formula that we have now
+to
+work our way to a fuller understanding of Town and School. <span class="pagenum">p. 71</span>
+Immediately, therefore, this must be traced upward towards its
+complexities. For Place, it is plain, is no mere topographic site.
+Work,
+conditioned as it primarily is by natural advantages, is thus really
+first of all <i>place-work</i>. Arises the field or garden, the port,
+the
+mine, the workshop, in fact the <i>work-place</i>, as we may simply
+generalise it; while, further, beside this arise the dwellings, the
+<i>folk-place</i>.</p>
+<p>Nor are these by any means all the elements we are accustomed to
+lump
+together into Town. As we thus cannot avoid entering into the manifold
+complexities of town-life throughout the world and history, we must
+carry along with us the means of unravelling these; hence the value of
+this simple but precise nomenclature and its regular schematic use.
+Thus, while here keeping to simple words in everyday use, we may employ
+and combine them to analyse out our Town into its elements and their
+inter-relations with all due exactitude, instead of either leaving our
+common terms undefined, or arbitrarily defining them anew, as
+economists
+have alternately done&#8212;too literally losing or shirking essentials of
+Work in the above formula, and with these missing essentials of Folk
+and
+Place also.</p>
+<p>Tabular and schematic presentments, however, such as those to which
+we
+are proceeding, are apt to be less simple and satisfactory to reader
+than to writer; and this even when in oral exposition the very same
+diagram has been not only welcomed as clear, but seen and felt to be
+convincing. The reason of this difficulty is that with the spoken
+exposition the audience sees the diagram grow upon the blackboard;
+whereas to produce anything of the same effect upon the page, it must
+be
+printed at several successive stages of development. Thus our initial
+formula,</p>
+<div class="blkquot">
+<p>PLACE ... WORK ... FOLK</p>
+</div>
+<p>readily develops into</p>
+<span style="margin-left: 26em;">FOLK</span><br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">PLACE-WORK&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; WORK&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;
+&nbsp; &nbsp; FOLK-WORK</span><br />
+&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; (Natural
+advantages)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+(Occupation)<br />
+<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 3.5em;">PLACE</span><br />
+<p>This again naturally develops into a regular table, of which the <span class="pagenum">p. 72</span> filling
+up of some of the squares has been already suggested above,
+and that of the remaining ones will be intelligible on inspection:&#8212;</p>
+<br />
+<table
+ style="text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 644px; height: 108px;"
+ border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2" summary="place work folk">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"><span
+ style="margin-left: 1.5em;">PLACE FOLK <br />
+      </span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">("Natives") </span></td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;" colspan="1" rowspan="1"> WORK-FOLK<br />
+("Producers")</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;"> FOLK</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">PLACE-WORK
+      </span></td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">WORK</span>
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> FOLK-WORK</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">PLACE</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> WORK-PLACE </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> FOLK-PLACE</td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<p>So complex is the idea of even the simplest Town&#8212;even in such a
+rustic
+germ as the "farm-town" of modern Scottish parlance, the <i>ton</i> of
+place-names without number.</p>
+<p>The varying development of the Folk into social classes or castes
+night
+next be traced, and the influence and interaction of all the various
+factors of Place, Work, and Family tabulated. Suffice it here, however,
+for the present to note that such differentiation does take place,
+without entering into the classification and comparison of the protean
+types of patrician and plebeian throughout geography and history.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>G&#8212;ANALYSIS CONTINUED.&#8212;(2) THE SCHOOL</h3>
+<p>Once and again we have noted how from the everyday life of
+action&#8212;the
+Town proper of our terminology&#8212;there arises the corresponding
+subjective world&#8212;the <i>Schools</i> of thought, which may express
+itself
+sooner or later in schools of education. The types of people, their
+kinds and styles of work, their whole environment, all become
+represented in the mind of the community, and these react upon the
+individuals, their activities, their place itself. Thus (the more
+plainly the more the community is a simple and an isolated one, but in
+appreciable measure everywhere and continually) there have obviously
+arisen local turns of thought and modes of speech, ranging from shades
+of accept and idiom to distinctive dialect or language. Similarly,
+there
+is a characteristic variety of occupational activity, a style of
+workmanship, a way of doing business. There are distinctive <span class="pagenum">p. 73</span>
+manners and customs&#8212;there is, in short, a certain recognisable
+likeness, it may be an indefinably subtle or an unmistakably broad and
+general one, which may be traced in faces and costumes, in tongue and
+literature, in courtesy and in conflict, in business and in policy, in
+street and in house, from hovel to palace, from prison to cathedral.
+Thus it is that every folk comes to have its own ways, and every town
+its own school.</p>
+<p>While the complex social medium has thus been acquiring its
+characteristic form and composition, a younger generation has been
+arising. In all ways and senses, Heredity is commonly more marked than
+variation&#8212;especially when, as in most places at most times, such great
+racial, occupational, environmental transformations occur as those of
+modern cities. In other words, the young folk present not only an
+individual continuity with their organic predecessors which is heredity
+proper, but with their social predecessors also. The elements of
+organic
+continuity, which we usually think of first of all as organic though of
+course psychic also, are conveniently distinguished as the
+<i>inheritance</i>&#8212;a term in fact which the biologist seeks to deprive
+of
+its common economic and social senses altogether, leaving for these the
+term <i>heritage</i>, material or immaterial alike. This necessary
+distinction between the inheritance, bodily and mental, and the
+heritage, economic and social, obviously next requires further
+elaboration, and with this further precision of language also. For the
+present, let us leave the term heritage to the economist for the
+material wealth with which he is primarily concerned, and employ the
+term <i>tradition</i> for these immaterial and distinctively social
+elements
+we are here specially considering. This in fact is no new proposal, but
+really little more than an acceptance of ordinary usage. Broadly
+speaking, tradition is in the life of the community what memory is for
+its individual units. The younger generation, then, not only inherits
+an
+organic and a psychic diathesis; not only has transmitted to it the
+accumulations, instruments and land of its predecessors, but grows up
+in
+their tradition also. The importance of imitation in this process, a
+matter of common experience, has been given the fullest sociological
+prominence, by M. Tarde especially.<a name="FNanchor_9"></a><a
+ href="#Footnote_9"><sup>[9]</sup></a> Thanks to these and other
+convergent lines of thought, we no longer consent to look at the
+acquirement of the social tradition as a matter requiring to be imposed
+upon reluctant youth almost entirely from without, and are learning
+anew
+as of old, with the simplest and the most developed peoples, the
+barbarians and the Greeks, to recognise and respect, and, if it may be,
+to nourish the process of self-instruction, viewed as normal
+accompaniment of each developing being throughout the phases of its
+<span class="pagenum">p. 74</span>
+organic life, the stages of its social life. Upon the many
+intermediate degrees of advance and decline, however, between these two
+extremes of civilisation, specific institutions for the instruction of
+youth arise, each in some way an artificial substitute, or at least a
+would-be accelerant, for the apprenticeship of imitation in the school
+of experience and the community's tradition, which we term a school in
+the restricted and pedagogic sense. This whole discussion, however, has
+been in order to explain and to justify the present use of the term
+"School" in that wide sense in which the historian of art or
+thought&#8212;the sociologist in fact&#8212;has ever used the term, while yet
+covering the specialised pedagogic schools of all kinds also.</p>
+<p>Once more, then, and in the fullest sense, every folk has its own
+tradition, every town its school.</p>
+<p>We need not here discriminate these unique and characteristic
+elements
+to which the art-historians&#8212;say of Venice and of Florence, of Barbizon
+or Glasgow&#8212;specially attend from those most widely distributed ones, in
+which the traditions and schools of all towns within the same
+civilisation broadly agree. Indeed, even the most widely distributed of
+these&#8212;say from Roman law to modern antiseptic surgery&#8212;arose as local
+schools before they became general ones.</p>
+<p>Similarly for the general social tradition. The fundamental
+occupations
+and their division of labour, their differentiation in detail and their
+various interactions up to our own day, at first separately considered,
+are now seen to be closely correlated with the status of woman; while
+all these factors determine not only the mode of union of the parents,
+but their relation to the children, the constitution of the family,
+with
+which the mode of transmission of property is again thoroughly
+interwoven.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>H&#8212;TOWN AND SCHOOL COMPARED</h3>
+<br /><span class="pagenum"><a name='p_75'></a>p. 75</span>
+<table summary="Town and school compared"
+ style="text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 380px; height: 89px;"
+ border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td
+ style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><big>"TOWN"</big></td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td
+ style="text-align: center; text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">FOLK&nbsp;
+      <br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+WORK&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;">PLACE</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+
+<hr style="width: 35%; height: 2px;" /><br />
+<table summary="School comparison"
+ style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 374px; height: 88px;"
+ border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;">SURVEY</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold;">CRAFT-KNOWLEDGE</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline;"><big>"SCHOOL"</big></td>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center; text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">CUSTOM</td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<p>We may now summarise and tabulate our comparison of Town and
+School,<a name="FNanchor_10"></a><a href="#Footnote_10"><sup>[10]</sup></a>
+and on the schema (<a href='#p_75'>p. 75</a>) it will be seen <span class="pagenum">p. 76</span>
+that each element of the second is printed in the position of a
+mirror-reflection of the first. This gives but the merest outline,
+which
+is ready, however, to be applied in various ways and filled up
+accordingly. A step towards this is made in the next and fuller version
+of the scheme (<a href='#p_77'>p. 77</a>). It will be noted in this
+that the lower
+portion of the diagram, that of School, is more fully filled up than is
+the upper. This is partly for clearness, but partly also to suggest
+that
+main elements in the origins of natural sciences and geography, of
+economics and social science, are not always so clearly realised as
+they
+might be. The preceding diagram, elaborating that of Place, Work, Folk
+(<a href='#p_75'>p. 75</a>),
+however, at once suggests these. Other features of the
+scheme will appear on inspection; and the reader will find it of
+interest and suggestiveness to prepare a blank schedule and fill it up
+for himself.</p>
+<p>These two forms of the same diagram, the simple and the more
+developed,
+thus suggest comparison with the scheme previously outlined, that of
+People, Affairs, Places (<a href='#p_68'>p. 68</a>), and is now more
+easily reconciled
+with this; the greater prominence popularly given to People and Affairs
+being expressed upon the present geographic and evolutionary scheme by
+the ascending position and more emphatic printing (or by viewing the
+diagram as a transparency from the opposite side of the leaf).</p>
+<p>In the column of People, the deepening of custom into morals is
+indicated. Emphasis is also placed upon the development of law in
+connection with the rise of governing classes, and its tendency to
+dominate the standards previously taken as morals&#8212;in fact, that
+tendency of moral law to become static law, a process of which history
+is full.</p>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name='p_77'></a>p. 77</span>
+<table summary="Governing classes"
+ style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 536px; height: 354px;"
+ border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">GOVERNING
+CLASSES</span><br />
+/\<br />
+|<br />
+      <span style="font-weight: bold;">Family types</span><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline;">INDUSTRIES</span><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="font-weight: bold;">REGION<br />
+|<br />
+      </span></td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="text-decoration: underline;">(WORK-PLACE)</span><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">FOLK-PLACE<br />
+      <span style="font-weight: bold;">(TOWN)</span><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">\/<br />
+      <span style="font-weight: bold;">SURVEY</span><br />
+! - LANDSCAPE<br />
+? - TERRITORY<br />
+|<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">(<span
+ style="text-decoration: underline;">CRAFT-TRADITION</span>)<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="font-weight: bold;">("SCHOOL")</span><br />
+(FOLK-LORE)<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">\/<br />
+[NATURAL SCIENCES]<br />
+|<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="font-weight: bold;">[</span><span
+ style="text-decoration: underline; font-weight: bold;">APPLIED SCIENCES</span><span
+ style="font-weight: bold;">]</span><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="font-weight: bold;">[SOCIAL SCIENCES]</span><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">\/<br />
+GEOGRAPHY<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="font-weight: bold;">ECONOMICS</span><br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"><span
+ style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration: underline;">CUSTOM MORALS
+&amp; LAWS</span><br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<br />
+<br />
+><br />
+><br />
+<p>In the present as in the past, we may also note upon the scheme the
+different lines of Place, Work and Folk on which respectively develop
+the natural sciences, the applied or <span class="pagenum">p. 78</span> technical sciences, and
+finally the social sciences, and the generalising of these respectively.</p>
+<p>Thus, as we see the popular survey of regions, geography in its
+literal
+and initial sense, deepening into the various analyses of this and that
+aspect or element of the environment which we call the natural
+sciences&#8212;but which we might with advantage also recognise as what they
+really are, each a <i>geolysis</i>&#8212;so these sciences or geolyses,
+again, are
+tending to reunite into a higher geography considered as an account of
+the evolution of the cosmos.</p>
+<p>Again, in the column of School, corresponding to Work, we have the
+evolution of craft knowledge into the applied sciences, an historic
+process which specialist men of science and their public are alike apt
+to overlook, but which is none the less vitally important. For we
+cannot
+really understand, say Pasteur, save primarily as a thinking peasant;
+or
+Lister and his antiseptic surgery better than as the shepherd, with his
+tar-box by his side; or Kelvin or any other electrician, as the
+thinking
+smith, and so on. The old story of geometry, as "<i>ars metrike</i>,"
+and of
+its origin from land-surveying, for which the Egyptian hieroglyph is
+said to be that of "rope stretching," in fact, applies far more fully
+than most realise, and the history of every science, of course already
+thus partially written, will bear a far fuller application of this
+principle. In short, the self-taught man, who is ever the most fertile
+discoverer, is made in the true and fundamental school&#8212;that of
+experience.</p>
+<p>The need of abbreviating the recapitulation of this, however, sooner
+or
+later develops the school in the pedagogic sense, and its many
+achievements, its many failures in accomplishing this, might here be
+more fully analysed.</p>
+<p>Still more evident is this process in the column of Folk. From the
+mother's knee and the dame's school of the smallest folk-place, the
+townlet or hamlet, <i>ton</i> or home, up to the royal and priestly
+school of
+the law of ancient capitals, or from the "humanities" of a mediaeval
+university to the "Ecole de Droit" of a modern metropolis, the series
+of
+essential evolutionary stages may be set down. Or in our everyday
+present, <span class="pagenum">p. 79</span>
+the rise of schools of all kinds, primary,
+secondary, higher up to the current movement towards university
+colleges, and from these to civic and regional universities, might
+again
+be traced. The municipalisation of education is thus in fact expressed,
+and so on.</p>
+<p>Leaving the schools in the main to speak for themselves of their
+advancing and incipient uses, a word may be said upon the present lines.</p>
+<p>As a first and obvious application of this mode of geographic study
+of
+cities appears the criticism, and; when possible, the amendment of the
+city's plan, the monotonous rectangularity of the American city, and
+the
+petty irregularity more common in our own, being alike uneconomic and
+inartistic because ungeographic, irrational because irregional. With
+the
+improvement of communications, the physicist's point of view thus
+introduced&#8212;that of the economy of the energies of the community&#8212;is
+only beginning; the economy of fuel, the limitation of smoke and fogs
+being symptoms of this and pointing to a more economic organisation of
+industrial activities generally. But this next carries with it the
+improved efficiency of the producers themselves, with whom, however,
+the
+standpoint changes from the mere economisation of physical energies to
+the higher economy of organic evolution. The convention of traditional
+economics, that the productive capacity of the actual labourer is the
+sole concern of his science, thus gives place to what is at once the
+original conception of economics and the evolutionist one, viz., that
+the success of industry is ultimately measured neither by its return in
+wealth of the capitalist nor in money wages of the labourer, nor even
+by
+both put together, but in the results of industry upon the concrete
+environment, the family budget, the home, and the corresponding state
+of
+development of the family&#8212;its deterioration or progress. The
+organisation of industrial groups or of representative institutions
+found conducive to the well-being and progress of these prime civic
+units, the families, may now be traced into its highest outcome in city
+government. The method of analysis and graphic statement thus outlined
+may be shown to be even capable of useful application towards the
+statement of the best<span class="pagenum">p. 80</span> arguments of both progressive and
+moderate parties in city politics.</p>
+<p>Passing from Politics to Culture. Culture, the needs of this also
+become
+clearer; each community developing a similar general series of culture
+institutions, from the simplest presentation of its geography,
+landscape and architecture, to the complex development of industrial,
+technical and scientific instruction; and for provision also for the
+institutions of custom and ethic in school, law, and church. Just as
+place, occupation, and family are intimately connected in the practical
+world, so their respective culture institutions must more and more be
+viewed as a whole. Civic improvers will find their ideals more
+realisable as they recognise the complex unity of the city as a social
+development of which all the departments of action and thought are in
+organic relation, be it of health or disease. The view of theoretic
+civics as concrete sociology, and of practical civics as applied
+sociology may be more simply expressed as the co-adjustment of social
+survey and social service, now becoming recognised as rational, indeed
+in many cities being begun.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>I&#8212;DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL, AND ITS REACTION UPON TOWN</h3>
+<p>The reactions of the School upon the Town are observed in practice
+to be
+of very different values;&#8212;how are these differences to be explained?</p>
+<p>From the very first the school is essentially one of memory, the
+impress
+of the town-life, even at its best and highest individual quality and
+impressiveness, as in the work of a great master, the observation and
+memory of which may long give his stamp to the work of his followers.
+The fading of this into dullness, yet the fixing of it as a convention,
+is familiar to all in arts and crafts, but is no less real in the
+general lapse of appreciation of environment. Most serious of all is
+the
+fixation of habit and custom, so that at length "custom lies upon us
+with a weight heavy as death, and deep <span class="pagenum">p. 81</span> almost as life." This
+continual fixation of fashionable standards as moral ones is thus a
+prime explanation of each reformer's difficulty in making his moral
+standard the fashionable one, and also, when his doctrine has
+succeeded,
+of the loss of life and mummification of form which it so speedily
+undergoes.</p>
+<p>Of conventional "education," considered as the memorisation of past
+records, however authoritative and classic, the decay is thus
+intelligible and plain, and the repetition of criticisms already
+adequately made need not therefore detain us here.</p>
+<p>For this process is there no remedy? Science here offers
+herself&#8212;with
+senses open to observe, and intellect awake to interpret. Starting with
+Place, she explores and surveys it, from descriptive travel books at
+very various levels of accuracy, she works on to atlas and gazetteer,
+and beyond these to world-globe and "Geographie Universelle." With her
+charts and descriptions we are now more ready for a journey; with her
+maps and plans we may know our own place as never before; nay, rectify
+it, making the rough places plain and the crooked straight; even
+restoration may come within our powers.</p>
+<p>Similarly as regards Work. Though mere empiric craft-mastery dies
+with
+the individual, and fails with his successors, may we not perpetuate
+the
+best of this? A museum of art treasures, a collection of the choicest
+examples of all times and lands, will surely raise us from our low
+level
+of mechanical toil; nay, with these carefully observed, copied,
+memorised, and duly examined upon, we shall be able to imitate them, to
+reproduce their excellencies, even to adapt them to our everyday work.
+To the art museum we have thus but to add a "School of Design," to have
+an output of more and less skilled copyists. The smooth and polished
+successes of this new dual institution, responding as they do to the
+mechanical elements of modern work and of the mechanical worker-mind,
+admitting also of ready multiplications as patterns, ensure the wide
+extension of the prevalent style of imitating past styles, designing
+patchwork of these; and even admit of its scientific reduction to a
+definite series of grades, which imitative youth may easily pass
+onwards
+from the age of rudest innocence to that of art-knowledge and
+certificated art-mastery. Our School of Design thus becomes a School of
+Art, a length a College, dominating the instruction of the nation, to
+the satisfaction not only of its promoters, but of the general public
+and their representatives, so that annual votes justly increase.
+Lurking
+discontent may now and then express itself, but is for practical
+purposes negligible.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 82</span>
+The example of art accumulation and art instruction is thus
+naturally followed in other respects. For the commercial information of
+the public, varied representative exhibitions&#8212;primarily, therefore,
+international ones&#8212;naturally suggest themselves; while so soon as
+expansion of imperial and colonial interests comes upon the first
+plane,
+a corresponding permanent Exhibition is naturally instituted. But when
+thus advancing commercial instruction, we must also recognise the
+claims
+of industry in all its crafts and guilds, and in fact the technical
+instruction of the community generally. Hence the past, present, and
+promised rise of technical institutes upon increasing scales of
+completeness.</p>
+<p>In the rise of such a truly encylop&aelig;dic system of schools, the
+university cannot permanently be forgotten. Since from the outset we
+have recognised the prime elements of the school in observation and
+memory, the testing of these by examinations&#8212;written, oral, and
+practical&#8212;however improvable in detail, must be fairly recognised, and
+the examining body or university has therefore to be adopted as the
+normal crown of our comprehensive educational system. Teaching, however
+is found to be increasingly necessary, especially to examination, and
+for this the main field left open is in our last column, that of
+People.
+Their lore of the past, whether of sacred or classical learning, their
+history, literature, and criticism, are already actively promoted, or
+at
+any rate adequately endowed at older seats of learning; while the
+materials, resources, conditions and atmosphere are here of other
+kinds.
+Hence the accessibility of the new University of London to the study of
+sociology, as yet alone among its peers.</p>
+<p>Hence, beside the great London, maritime, commercial and industrial,
+residential and governmental, there has been growing up, tardily
+indeed,
+as compared with smaller cities, yet now all the more massively and
+completely, a correspondingly comprehensive system of schools; so that
+the historic development of South Kensington within the last half
+century, from International Exhibitions of Work, Natural History
+Museums
+of Place onwards to its present and its contemplated magnitude, affords
+a striking exemplification of the present view and its classification,
+which is all the more satisfactory since this development has been a
+gradual accretion.</p>
+<p>Enough then has been said to show that the rise of schools, their
+qualities and their defects, are all capable of treatment upon the
+present lines; but if so, may we not go farther, and ask by what means
+does thought and life cope with their defects, especially that fixation
+of memory, even at its best, that evil side of examination and the
+like,
+which we often call Chinese in the bad sense, but which we see arises
+so
+naturally everywhere?</p>
+<br />
+<span class="pagenum">p. 83</span>
+<h3>&nbsp;J&#8212;FROM "SCHOOL" TO "CLOISTER"</h3>
+<p>The preceding view is, as yet, too purely determinist. The due place
+of
+ideals, individual and corporate, in their reaction upon the function
+and the structure of the city, and even upon its material environment,
+has next to be recognised. For where the town merely makes and fixes
+its
+industry and makes its corresponding schools, where its habits and
+customs become its laws, even its morality, the community, as we have
+just seen, sinks into routine, and therefore decay. To prevent this a
+twofold process of thought is ever necessary, critical and
+constructive.
+What are these? On the one hand, a continual and critical selection
+among the ideas derived from experience, and the formulation of these
+as
+Ideals: and further, the organisation of these into a larger and larger
+whole of thought; in fact, a Synthesis of a new kind. This critical
+spirit it is which produced the prophets of Israel, the questioning of
+Socrates, and so on, to the journalistic and other criticism of life
+to-day. The corresponding constructive endeavour is now no mere School
+of traditional learning or of useful information. It is one of science
+in a new and reorganised sense; one of philosophy also, one of ideals
+above all.</p>
+<p>As from the Schools of the Law, as over against these, arise the
+prophets, so from the technical and applied sciences, the descriptive
+natural sciences, should arise the scientific thinkers, reinterpreting
+each his field of knowledge and giving us the pure sciences&#8212;pure
+geometry henceforth contrasted with mere land surveying, morphology
+with
+mere anatomy, and so on; while instead of the mere concrete
+encyclop&aelig;dia
+from Pliny or Gesner to Diderot or Chambers, vast subjective
+reorganisations of knowledge, philosophic systems, now appear.
+Similarly, the mere observations of the senses and their records in
+memory become transformed into the images of the poet, the imagery too
+of the artist, for art proper is only thus born. That mere imitation of
+nature, which so commonly in the graphic arts (though happily but
+rarely
+in music) has been mistaken for <span class="pagenum">p. 84</span> art, thus modestly returns to
+its proper place&#8212;that of the iconography of descriptive science.</p>
+<p>Thus from the Schools of all kinds of knowledge, past and present,
+we
+pass into the no less varied Cloisters of contemplation, meditation,
+imagination. With the historian we might explore the Cloisters of the
+past, built at one time from the current ideals of the Good, at another
+of the True, at another of the Beautiful; indeed, in widely varying
+measures and proportions from all of these. How far each of these now
+expresses the present, how far it may yet serve the future, is
+obviously a question of questions, yet for that very reason one
+exceeding our present limits. Enough if in city life the historic place
+of what is here generalised under this antique name of Cloister be here
+recognised; and in some measure the actual need, the potential place be
+recognised also. Here is the need and use, beyond the fundamental
+claims
+of the material life of the Town, and the everyday sanity of the
+Schools, with all their observations and information, their commonsense
+and experience, their customs and conventions, even their morals and
+their law, for a deeper ethical insight than any rule or precedent can
+afford, for a fuller and freer intellectual outlook than that which has
+been derived from any technical experience or empiric skill, for an
+imagery which is no mere review of the phantasmagoria of the senses. In
+our age of the multiplication and expansion of towns, of their
+enrichment and their impoverishment, of the multiplication and
+enrichment of schools also, it is well for the sociologist to read from
+history, as he then may more fully see also around him that it is ever
+some fresh combination of these threefold products of the
+Cloister&#8212;ideal theory, and imagery&#8212;emotional, intellectual,
+sensuous&#8212;which transforms the thought-world of its time.</p>
+<p>The philosopher of old in his academic grove, his porch, the
+mediaeval
+monk within his studious cloister's pale, are thus more akin to the
+modern scientific thinker than he commonly realises&#8212;perhaps because he
+is still, for the most part, of the solitary individualism of the
+hermit
+of the Thebaid, of Diogenes in his tub. Assuredly, they are less
+removed
+in essential psychology than their derived fraternities, their <span class="pagenum">p. 85</span>
+respective novices and scholars, have often thought. It is thus no
+mere play of language which hands on from the one to the other the
+"travail de B&eacute;n&eacute;dictin," though even here the phrase is
+inadequate
+savouring too much of the school, into which each cloister of every
+sort
+declines sooner or later, unless even worse befall.</p>
+<p>The decay of the cloister, though thus on the one hand into and with
+the
+school, may also take place within itself, since imagination and ideal
+may be evil, and theory false. That examples of all these decays abound
+in the history of religion, of philosophy, of art also, is a
+commonplace
+needing no illustration. Nor should the modern investigator think his
+science or himself immune to the same or kindred germs in turn.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>K&#8212;THE CITY PROPER</h3>
+<p>Now, "at long last," we are ready to enter the city proper. This is
+not
+merely the Town of place and work and folk, even were this at their
+economic best. It is not enough to add the School, even at its
+completest; nor the cloister, though with this a yet greater step
+towards the city proper is made. For though this is not itself the
+City,
+its ideals of human relations, its theory of the universe and man, its
+artistic expression and portrayal of all these, ever sooner or later
+react upon the general view and conduct of life. Hence the Academe of
+Plato and the Lyceum of Aristotle, the mediaeval cloister and the
+modern
+Research Institute, have been so fertile, so creative in their
+influence
+upon the city's life, from which they seemed to be retired. Hence it is
+ever some new combination of the threefold product of the
+cloister&#8212;ideal, idea, and image&#8212;which transforms the world, which
+opens each new epoch. Each new revelation and vision, each system of
+thought, each new outburst of poetry and song, has moved the men of its
+age by no mere mechanical pressure of economic need or external force,
+by no mere scholastic instruction, but in a far subtler way, and into
+new and unexpected groupings, as the <span class="pagenum">p. 86</span> sand upon Chladon's
+vibrating plate leaps into a new figure with each thrill of the
+violinist's bow.</p>
+<p>Instead of simply developing our morals from custom, and therefore
+codifying them into law as in the school they are now boldly
+criticised,
+as in part if not in whole, hindrances to a better state of things. As
+this becomes more and more clearly formulated as an ideal, its ethic
+transcendence of convention and law not only becomes clear, but the
+desire for its realisation becomes expressed. This may be with all
+degrees of clearness of reason and vividness of imagery, yet may remain
+long or altogether in the plane of literature, as has Plato's Republic
+or More's Utopia&#8212;standard and characteristic types of the cloister
+library as we may call it, one of inestimable value to the world in the
+past, and perhaps in our time needed as much as ever to help us to see
+somewhat beyond the output of the busy presses of town and school. Yet
+our ideal, our "Civitas Dei," "Civitas Solis," need not remain
+unrealised: it may be not only seriously planned towards realisation,
+as
+was Platonopolis of old, but bravely founded, as has been done in cases
+without number, from the ancient world to modern communities, by no
+means wholly unsuccessful. Though in our great industrial towns, our
+long settled regions, such new departures seem less easy, the
+principle remains valid&#8212;that it is in our ideal of polity and
+citizenship, and in our power of realising this, that the city proper
+has its conception and its birth. Again, instead of simply deriving our
+thought from experience we now project our clarified thought into
+action
+and into education; so that from cloister of philosophy, and from its
+long novitiate of silence, there grows up the brotherhood of culture,
+the culture city itself. Similarly in art, we no longer imitate nature,
+nor copy traditional designs. Art proper appears, shaping bronze and
+marble into images of the gods, and on a burnt and ruined hill-fort
+renewing the Parthenon. In general terms, instead of simply adjusting,
+as in the school, our mental picture to the outward facts, we reverse
+the process; and with a new art conception, be it good or bad, we
+transform the outward world, like wax under the seal. Thus from the
+<span class="pagenum">p. 88</span>
+cloister and chapel of the musician, the studio-cell of the
+artist, the scriptorium of the poet, comes forth the architect,
+remodelling the city around his supreme material expression and home of
+its moral and material reorganisation, its renewed temporal and
+spiritual powers. Of this, the city proper, the Acropolis of Athens,
+the
+Temple of Jerusalem, the Capitol and Forum of Rome are classic and
+central examples, and in the mediaeval city, pre-eminently the
+cathedral; though beside this we must not forget the town house and its
+belfry, the guild houses, the colleges, the great place, the fountains,
+the city cross, and if last, still best if good at all, the streets and
+courts and homes. Returning once more to the history of educational
+development, we have here a means of unravelling the apparently
+perplexing history of universities. For the university past or present
+has but its foundations in the school, with its local and its general
+tradition, whatever may be the accordance of these with
+well-ascertained
+fact, its true novitiate can only be afforded in the cloister of
+reflection and research, of interpretation and synthesis; while for its
+full development it needs the perpetual renewal of that generous social
+life&#8212;that inspiring intercourse "of picked adolescents and picked
+senescents"&#8212;which has marked the vital periods of every university
+worthy of the name.<br />
+</p><a name='p_87'></a>
+<p style="text-align: center;"><img alt="(EU)-POLITY"
+ title="(EU)-POLITY" src="images/img001.jpg"
+ style="width: 512px; height: 780px;" /><br />
+</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<p>In summary then, to the town has been added the school, with its
+advantages, its increasingly obvious limitations also, which it is for
+the cloister to remedy&#8212;even the advantages of the barrack finding a
+main element of its claim in this no less than in its professed
+training
+as regards citizenship. But here also it is for few to remain, albeit
+free for each to return at will. Ideals, to survive, must surely live,
+that is, be realised; hence for full life one needs "to meditate with
+the free solitary; yet to live secular, and serve mankind."</p>
+<div style="text-align: center;"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><img
+ alt="Town, school, cloister and city."
+ title="Town, school, cloister and city." src="images/img002.jpg"
+ style="width: 400px; height: 260px;" /></span><br />
+</div>
+<br />
+<h3>L&#8212;THE CITY COMPLIED: TOWN, SCHOOL, CLOISTER, AND CITY PROPER</h3>
+<p>In course of this fourfold analysis, it is plain that we have
+reached
+the very converse&#8212;or at all events the <span class="pagenum">p. 90</span> complement&#8212;of that
+geographical determinism with which we started, and that we have
+returned to a view corresponding to the popular one (of "People,
+Affairs, Places," <a href='#p_69'>p. 69</a>), which we then set
+aside for the reasons
+given.
+The "great man theory" of history, at best less crudely stated, thus
+reappears; in short, to the initial thesis we have now the distinct
+antithesis. It is time, therefore, to bring these together towards the
+needed synthesis. Hence to the page (<a href='#p_77'>p. 77</a>) on
+which was summarised the
+determinist view of Town and School, we now require the complemental
+statement upon page (<a href='#p_87'>p. 87</a>) of Cloister and City
+proper. Nor must we be
+content, with too many controversialists hitherto, to keep in view only
+one at a time; but by folding back the pages of print between these two
+half-schemes, as the book lies open, to take in both together.</p>
+<p>We may thus finally compress the essentials of this whole paper into
+a
+simple formula&#8212;</p>
+<div style="text-align: center;"><img
+ alt="Town, school, cloister and city."
+ title="Town, school, cloister and city." src="images/img003.jpg"
+ style="width: 512px; height: 336px;" /><br />
+</div>
+<p>or most briefly&#8212;</p>
+<br />
+<table summary="Town, city, cloister, school"
+ style="text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 254px; height: 102px;">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="2" style="text-align: center;">|<br />
+|<br />
+|<br />
+\/<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> TOWN </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> CITY<br />
+      </td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="2"
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">/\<br />
+|<br />
+|<br />
+|<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> SCHOOL</td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> CLOISTER</td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 91</span>&#8212;noting
+in every case the opposite direction of the arrows.
+The application of this formula to different types of town, such as
+those already indicated in the former instalment of this paper (Vol.
+I.,
+<a href='#p_107'>p. 107</a>) or in the present one, will not be found
+to present any
+insuperable difficulty. It must, however, be kept clearly in view that
+the city of each day and generation subsides or decays more or less
+completely into the mere town anew, as the cloister into the schools.
+The towns and cities of the world are thus classifiable in terms of
+their past development and present condition.</p>
+<br />
+<h4>SUMMARY</h4>
+<p>Condensing now this lengthy, yet compressed and abbreviated series
+of
+analyses into a single page of summary, we may briefly define the main
+aspects and departments of civics from the present point of view. First
+then, comes the study of civics as fundamentally (and ever anew) an
+orderly development&#8212;at once geographic, economic, and anthropologic in
+its nature&#8212;a survey of place, work, and folk&#8212;and these not merely or
+mainly as broken up into the fine dust of censuses and statistics, nor
+even of the three too separate sciences above named, but as a living
+unity, the human hive, the Town.</p>
+<p>Corresponding to this objective and organic life we reorganise its
+fundamental subjective life. This is fundamentally, and ever partially,
+the record and reflex of the life of the hive, the Town: of all its
+general and particular environment and function, its family type and
+development; and however overlaid by imported culture or by decayed
+ideals, it is fundamentally expressed in local knowledge, in craft
+tradition, in kinship and its associated kindness, in habits and
+customs, and their developments up to morals and laws. Simple terms
+corresponding to place, work, and folk, are hard to find; say, however,
+till better be suggested, that in close relation to the maternal arms
+in
+which general social thought and its utmost pedagogic developments
+alike begin, it is place-lore, work-lear, and folk-love, which are the
+essentials of every <span class="pagenum">p. 92</span> School.<a name="FNanchor_11"></a><a
+ href="#Footnote_11"><sup>[11]</sup></a> That existing educational
+machineries may not adequately recognise these is not of course the
+question here.</p>
+<p>These three terms, lore, lear, and love are thus well related to
+their
+respectively deepening levels of sense, intelligence and feeling; and
+their respective relation is thus more plain to the imagery, the
+theory,
+and the idealism above defined as the essentials of the Cloister. The
+psychology of the processes of poetic, philosophic and spiritual
+awakening and renewal is in these days being approached anew, both from
+the individual and social side, but cannot here be entered upon.</p>
+<p>Finally and supremely arises the City proper&#8212;its individuality
+dependent upon the measure and form in which ideals are expressed and
+harmonised in social life and polity, ideas synthetised in culture, and
+beauty carried outwards from the study or chamber of the recluse into
+the world of art.</p>
+<br />
+<h4>Practical conclusion</h4>
+The investigation of the City thus tends towards the practice of
+citizenship. Thus social survey prepares for social service, as
+diagnosis towards treatment and hygiene; and these react fruitfully
+upon
+our knowledge and understanding anew. Beyond social observations, and
+the needed observatories for making them more adequately, we need
+social
+activities and the laboratories for preparing them, or at least the
+leavens of them; or, again, in happier phrase, at once simple and more
+synthetic, we need some shelter<a name="FNanchor_12"></a><a
+ href="#Footnote_12"><sup>[12]</sup></a> into which to gather the best
+<span class="pagenum">p. 93</span> seed
+of past flowerings and in which to raise and tend the
+seedlings of coming summers. We need definitely to acquire such a
+centre
+of survey and service in each and every city&#8212;in a word, a Civicentre
+for sociologist and citizen.
+<br />
+<p><br />
+</p>
+<h3>M&#8212;THE HISTORIC CITY-COMPLEX</h3>
+<p>The criticism may have already arisen in the reader's mind that the
+"Town" and "School" of our analysis are by no means so simple as we
+have
+assumed them. Our surveys of antique towns ever disclose the material
+survivals, at least the vestiges, of the cloister or the acropolis of
+the past, of its cathedral or its forum. The processes of our
+industries, in what is now their daily artisan routine, include,
+repeat,
+condense, what were yesterday or longer ago living inventions, each
+instinct with Promethean fire. The hackneyed ornament of our homes was
+once glowing with beauty, radiant or dark with symbolism. So it is for
+our everyday customs and institutions, and so for living languages; our
+own, perhaps, most of all. These, of course, are facts made familiar by
+investigators of all orders, from the scholar and antiquary of old, the
+historian and philologist of yesterday, to the geographer or the
+sociologist of our own time: witness Mr. Spencer's masterly treatment
+of
+their main results. How, then, shall we correlate this process of all
+things growing old with the analysis of cities above attempted? In
+other
+words, how shall we interpret the course of their historic evolution,
+their renewed growth and decay, progress and degeneracy, their present
+condition, crowded with residues of the past, with those potentialities
+which our outline discloses? This is the more necessary since this
+fourfold analysis applies in principle to all human groupings from the
+simplest village to the Eternal City. To this, indeed, we have in
+principle already traced it, onwards from our primitive valley section
+with its humble hamlets, its fundamental occupations. Returning then to
+our main diagram, with its four-fold analysis of the City so soon as we
+have completed this, and <span class="pagenum">p. 94</span> carried its progress up to the level
+of city life proper, we must next turn over the leaf and begin a new
+page, with place and work and folk once more. This simplest of acts
+expresses with graphic significance the very process of history; for in
+closing our diagram page its "Cloister" has been folded down on the
+"School," our cathedral and forum, our "City" proper upon the "Town."
+Thus it is that the ideals and the achievements of one day and
+generation and city are ever melting away, and passing out of sight of
+the next; so that to the joy or sorrow of the successors the new page
+seems well nigh bare, though ever there comes faintly through some
+image
+or at least blurred suggestion of the fading past. Hence each page of
+history is a palimpsest. Hence our modern town, even when yesterday but
+prairie, was no mere vacant site, but was at once enriched and
+encumbered by the surviving traditions of the past; so that even its
+new
+buildings are for the most part but vacant shells of past art, of which
+now only the student cares to trace the objective annals, much less
+penetrate to the inner history. So for the decayed Renaissance learning
+of our schools, for the most part so literally dead since the
+"Grammarian's Funeral"; and so, too, for the unthinking routines, the
+dead customs and conventions, and largely too the laws and rituals of
+our urban lives. Hence, then, it is that for the arrest and the decay
+of
+cities we have no need to go for our examples to the ancient East.
+These
+processes, like those of individual senility and death, are going on
+everywhere day by day.</p>
+<p>Upon the new page, then, it is but a complexer "Town" and "School"
+anew:
+we have no continuing City. This too commonly has existed at its best
+but for the rare generation which created it, or little longer; though
+its historic glories, like those of sunset and of after-glow, may long
+shed radiance and glamour upon its town, and linger in the world's
+memory long after not only these have faded, but their very folk have
+vanished, their walls fallen, nay their very site been buried or
+forgotten. Upon all these degrees of dying, all these faint and fading
+steps between immortality and oblivion, we may arrange what we call our
+historic cities. Obviously in the <span class="pagenum">p. 95</span> deeper and more living
+sense the city exists only in actualising itself; and thus to us it is
+that the ideal city lies ever in the future. Yet it is the very essence
+of this whole argument that an ideal city is latent in every town.
+Where
+shall we in these days find our cloistered retreats to think out such
+ideals as may be applicable in our time and circumstances: the needed
+kinetic ethics, the needed synthetic philosophy and science, the needed
+vision and imagery and expression of them all?</p>
+<br />
+<h3>N&#8212;THE EVILS OF THE CITY</h3>
+<h3>Disease, defect, vice and crime</h3>
+<p>I have spoken little of town evils, and much of town ideals,
+primarily
+for the reason that even to recognise, much less treat, the abnormal,
+we
+must know something of the normal course of evolution. Hence, the old
+and useful phrase by which physiology used to be known, that of "the
+institutes of medicine." Sociology has thus to become "the institutes
+of
+citizenship."</p>
+<p>Often though philanthropists forget this, diagnosis should precede
+treatment. The evils of the city, by the very nature of our hypothesis,
+demand special survey, and this no less thoroughly than do the normal
+place and work and industry. It is only our most permanent intellectual
+impulse, that of seeking for unity, which excuses the cheap unitary
+explanations so often current; as, for instance, that social evils are
+mainly to be explained by intemperance, as for one school of reformers;
+by poverty or luxury, for a second and third; by Tammany or other form
+of party government, by socialism or by individualism for yet others;
+that they are due to dissent or to church, to ignorance or to the
+spread
+of science, and so on almost indefinitely&#8212;doubtless not without
+elements of truth in each!</p>
+<p>Yet let me offer as yet another explanation of civic evils, this
+more
+general one&#8212;distinguished from the preceding by including them all and
+more&#8212;that not only is our "Town" in itself imperfect, but the other
+three elements we have been characterising as school, cloister and
+city,
+are yet more imperfect, since disordered, decayed, or undeveloped anew.
+It is because of each and all of these imperfect realisations of our
+civic life, that the evils of life sink down, or flame out, into these
+complex eruptions of social evils with which our human aggregations are
+as yet cursed.</p>
+<p>Hence, to those who are struggling with disease and pain, with
+ignorance
+and defect, with vice, and with crime, but for the most part too
+separately, it is time to say that all these four evils are capable of
+being viewed together, and largely even treated together. They are not
+unrelated, but correspond each as the negative to that fourfold
+presentment of ideals we have hitherto been raising. To this ideal
+unity
+of healthy town, with its practical and scientific schools of all
+kinds,
+with its meditative cloister of ethical and social idealism, of unified
+science and philosophy, of imagination and drama, all culminating in
+the polity, culture, and art which make a city proper, we have here the
+corresponding defects in detail.</p>
+<p>The evils of existing city life are thus largely reinterpreted; and
+if
+so more efficiently combated; since the poverty, squalor and ugliness
+of
+our cities, their disease and their intemperance, their ignorance,
+dulness and mental defect, their vice and crime are thus capable not
+only of separate treatment but of an increasingly unified civic
+hygiene,
+and this in the widest sense, material and moral, economic and
+idealist,
+utilitarian and artistic. Even the most earnest and capable workers
+towards civic betterment in these many fields may gain at once in hope
+and in efficiency as they see their special interests and tasks
+converging into the conception of the city as an organic unity, and
+this
+not fixed and settled, nor even in process of progress or degeneration
+from causes beyond our ken, but as an orderly development which we may
+aid towards higher perfection, geographic and cultural alike.</p>
+<p>Our modern town is thus in a very real sense, one not hopeless, but
+as
+hopeful as may be, a veritable purgatory; that is a struggle of lower
+and higher idealisms, amid the respective expressions and outcomes of
+these. Indeed, in our own present <span class="pagenum">p. 97</span> cities, as they have come
+to be, is not each of us ever finding his own Inferno, or it may be his
+Paradise? Does he not see the dark fate of some, the striving and
+rising
+hope of others, the redemption also?</p>
+<p>The supreme poetic utterance of the mediaeval world is thus in great
+measure, as each thoughtful reader sees, an expression of impassioned
+citizenship and this at one of the golden moments of the long history
+of
+city life. This expression&#8212;this exiled citizen's autobiographic
+thought-stream&#8212;is resumed at every level, from youthful home and local
+colour, from boyish love and hopes, from active citizenship and party
+struggle, to the transfiguration of all these. Hence these mystic
+visions, and these world ambitions, temporal and spiritual; hence this
+rise from cloistered faith and philosophy into many-sided culture;
+hence
+the transformation of all these through intensest symbol-visions into
+enduring song.</p>
+<p>Am I thus suggesting the <i>Divina Comedia</i> as a guide-book to
+cities?
+Without doubt, though not necessarily for beginners. Yet who can see
+Florence without this, though we may pack below it Baedeker and Murray?
+Or who, that can really read, can open a volume of Mr. Booth's severely
+statistical Survey of London, with all its studious reserve, its
+scientific repression, without seeing between its lines the Dantean
+circles; happy if he can sometimes read them upward as well as down?</p>
+<br />
+<h3>O&#8212;A CIVIC SYMBOL AND ITS MEANING</h3>
+<p>But such books of the city, whether of the new and observant type,
+from
+Baedeker to Booth, or of the old and interpretative Dantean one, are
+too
+vast and varied to keep open before us. Even the preceding open page of
+diagram is complex enough with its twofold, indeed four-fold city; and
+we are called back to our daily work in the first of these divisions,
+that of the everyday town. Since its subjective aspects of school and
+cloister may fade from memory, its higher aspect also, that of city
+proper, how can we retain this fourfold <span class="pagenum">p. 98</span> analysis, and how
+test if it be true? Take then one final illustration; this time no mere
+logical skeleton, however simple or graphic, but an image more easily
+retained, because a concrete and artistic one, and moreover in terms of
+that form of life-labour and thought-notation&#8212;that of current
+coin&#8212;which, in our day especially, dominates this vastest of cities;
+and hence inherits for the region of its home and centre&#8212;"the Bank"
+which has so thoroughly taken precedence of the town-house and
+cathedral, of the fortress and palace&#8212;the honoured name of "City." The
+coinages of each time and place combine concrete and social use with
+statements of historic facts; and they add to both of these a wealth of
+emblematic suggestions: but that is to say, they express not only their
+town, and something of its <i>school</i>, but much of its thought
+also, its
+<i>cloister</i> in my present terminology.</p>
+<p>So before me lies an old "bawbee" of my own home city. On one side
+stands the hammerman at his anvil, below him the motto of his guild,
+"<i>Non marte sed arte</i>." Here then the industrial "Town" and its
+"School"
+express themselves plainly enough, and precisely as they have been
+above
+defined. But on the other side spreads the imperial double eagle; since
+Perth <i>(Bertha aurea)</i> had been the northmost of all Rome's
+provincial
+capitals, her re-named "Victoria" accordingly, as the mediaeval herald
+must proudly have remembered, so strengthened his associations with the
+Holy Roman Empire with something of that vague and shadowy historic
+dignity which the Scot was wont to value so much, and vaunt so high. On
+the eagle's breast is a shield, tressured like the royal standard,
+since Perth was the national capital until the "King's Tragedy" of
+1457; but instead of the ruddy lion the shield bears the lamb with the
+banner of St. John, the city's saint. This side, too, has its motto,
+and
+one befitting an old capital of King and Commons, both in continual
+strife with the feudal nobles, "<i>Pro Rege, Lege, et Grege</i>." Here
+then,
+plain upon this apparent arbitrarily levised trifle, this petty
+provincial money-token, this poor bawbee, that is, this coin not only
+of
+the very humblest order, but proverbially sordid at that, we find
+clearly set down, long generations ago, the whole <span class="pagenum">p. 99</span> four-fold
+analysis and synthesis of civic life we have been above labouring for.
+For what makes the industrial Town, what can better keep it than
+strenuous industry at its anvil? How better express its craft school,
+its local style and skill, its reaction too upon the town's life in
+peace and war, than by this Hal o' the Wynd by his forge? Nay, what
+better symbol than this hammer, this primitive tool and ever typical
+one, of the peaceful education of experience, form Prometheus to
+Kelvin,
+of the warlike, from Thor to modern cannon-forge? Turning now from Town
+and School to Cloister, to the life of secluded peace and
+meditation&#8212;from which, however, the practical issues of life are ever
+renewed&#8212;what plainer symbol, yet what more historic or more mystic one
+can we ask than this of the lamb with the banner? While of the
+contrasted yet complemental civic life of fullest, broadest action,
+what
+expression like the Roman eagle&#8212;the very eyes of keenness, and the
+spreading wings of power?</p>
+<p>So rarely perfect then is this civic symbol, that I must not omit to
+mention that it has only come to my notice since the body of this
+paper,
+with its four-fold analysis of cities as above outlined, was
+essentially
+finished. Since it thus has not in any particular suggested the
+treatment of cities here advocated, it is the more interesting and
+encouraging as a confirmation of it. It is also to my mind plain that
+in
+this, as in many other of our apparent "advances in science," and
+doubtless those in social studies particularly, we are but learning to
+think things anew, long after our forefathers have lived them, even
+expressed them&#8212;and these in their ways no less clear and popular than
+can ever be ours. That we may also again live them is once more
+curiously expressed by the same symbol; for its re-appearance is due to
+its having been appropriately revived, in a fitting art form, that of
+the commemorative and prize medal of the local arts and crafts
+exhibition, held in the new Public Library, under civic auspices.
+Little
+scrutiny of this last sentence will be needed to see the four-fold
+completeness of the civic event which it describes.</p>
+<p>For just as we have seen on the old coin the hammerman <span class="pagenum">p. 100</span> and
+his motto answer to the town and school; so now on its reissue to the
+renascent local arts and crafts, with their commemoration in this
+library. And as the greater motto, that of widest policy, corresponds
+to
+the cloister of reflection and resolve, so we note that this new
+impulse
+to civic betterment is associated with the new library&#8212;no mere
+school-house of memory, but also the open cloister of our day. Finally,
+note that this impulse is no longer merely one of aesthetic purpose, of
+"art for art's sake," nor its execution that of a cultured minority
+merely; it announces a re-union of this culture and art with the civic
+polity. What fitter occasion, then, for the striking of a medal, than
+this renewal of civic life, with municipal organisation and polity, art
+and culture, renascent in unison. That such events are nowadays far
+from
+exceptional is so true that we are in danger of losing sight of their
+significance. Yet it is amid such city developments that the future
+Pericles must arise.</p>
+<p>We thus see that our analysis is no mere structural one, made
+post-mortem from civic history; but that it applies to the modern
+functioning of everyday life in an everyday city, so soon as this
+becomes touched anew towards cultural issues. Furthermore, it is thus
+plain that civic life not only has long ago anticipated and embodied
+our
+theories of it, but once more outruns them, expressing them far better
+than in words&#8212;in life and practice. In this way the reader who may most
+resent these unfamiliar methods of exposition, alternately by abstract
+diagram or concrete illustration&#8212;which may seem to him too remote from
+ordinary life and experience, perhaps too trivial&#8212;may now test the
+present theory of the city, or amend it, by means of the ample
+illustrations of the processes and results of social life which are
+provided by his daily newspaper, and these on well-nigh all its fields
+and levels.</p>
+<p>Note finally that it is the eagle and lamb of temporal and spiritual
+idealism that form the "head" of this coin, the craftsman and anvil but
+the modest "tail." The application is obvious.</p>
+<p>Thus even numismatics revives from amid the fossil <span
+ class="pagenum">p. 100</span>
+sciences.
+For from this to our own common coinage, or notably to that of France,
+America, Switzerland, etc., the transition is easy, and still better to
+that of the noblest civic past, both classic and mediaeval. Without
+pursuing this further here my present point is gained, if we see, even
+in the everyday local details of work and people, the enduring stamp,
+the inextinguishable promise, of the flowering of our everyday
+industries and schools into worthier ideals than they at present
+express, and of the fruition of these in turn upon nobler heights of
+life and practice. It expresses the essential truth of the popular view
+of the city; that in terms of the formula&#8212;People ... Affairs ...
+Places&#8212;above referred to (<a href='#p_69'>page 69</a>). It also
+explains the persistent
+vitality of this view, despite its frequent crudity, and lack of order
+in detail, in face of the more scientific treatment here at first
+employed, that in the elementary geographic order&#8212;Place ... Work ...
+People. For though this objective order be fundamental, it is the
+complementary subjective evolution which throughout history has ever
+become supreme; so that our scheme must combine the outward geographic
+presentment with the inward psychological one. This may be graphically
+expressed by changing the order of presentment from that used
+hitherto:&#8212;</p>
+<br />
+<table summary="Town, city, cloister, school"
+ style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; text-align: left; width: 210px; height: 60px;"
+ border="1" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">TOWN<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">CITY<br />
+      </td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="2"
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;
+TO<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">CITY<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">TOWN<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">SCHOOL<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">CLOISTER<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">CLOISTER<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">SCHOOL<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<br />
+<p>P&#8212;FORECAST OF CITY DEVELOPMENT. SPECIAL AND GENERAL</p>
+<p>The dual and four-fold development of the city, as above sketched,
+is by
+no means far advanced in most of our present towns or cities, which
+have
+obviously but scanty expression of the ideas shadowed forth for the
+modern equivalents of cloister and cathedral, of academe and acropolis.
+But this is to say that such towns, however large, populous and rich
+according to conventional economic standards, are to that extent small
+and poor, indeed too often little better than cities by courtesy. Yet
+their further development, upon this <span class="pagenum">p. 102</span> four-fold view of civic
+evolution, though in principle the same for each and all, has always
+been, and let us hope may always be, in large measure an individual
+(because regional) one. For if each human individuality be unique, how
+much more must that of every city?</p>
+<p>In one concrete case, that of Dunfermline, I have already submitted
+definite suggestions towards the realisation of the civic Utopia, and
+even architectural designs towards its execution,<a name="FNanchor_13"></a><a
+ href="#Footnote_13"><sup>[13]</sup></a> so that these may
+at any rate suffice to show how local study and adaptive design are
+needed for each individual city, indeed for every point of it. It is
+thus, and thus only, that we can hope to have a city development truly
+evolutionary, that is, one utilising the local features, advantages,
+and
+possibilities of place, occupation, and people. Of course, it is
+needful
+to supplement these by the example of other cities; but it is no less
+needful to avoid weighting down the local life with replicas of
+institutions, however excellent elsewhere, if really irregional here.
+With the re-awakening of regional life in our various centres, and of
+some comprehension of its conditions among our rulers, they will cease
+to establish, say, a school of mines in Piccadilly, or again one of
+engineering and the like in South Kensington. The magistrates of
+Edinburgh have long abandoned their old attempt to plant mulberries and
+naturalise silk culture upon their wind-swept Calton Hill; albeit this
+was a comparatively rational endeavour, since a population of Huguenot
+refugee silk weavers had actually come upon their hands.</p>
+<p>Similarly, it is plain that we must develop Oxford as Oxford,
+Edinburgh
+as Edinburgh, and so on with all other cities, great or small&#8212;York or
+Winchester, Westminster or London. And so with Chelsea or Hampstead,
+with Woolwich or Battersea. Has not the last of these grown from a mere
+outlying vestry, like so many others, into a centre of genuine vitality
+and interior progress, indeed of ever-widening interest and example;
+and
+all this in half a generation, apparently through the sagacious
+leadership&#8212;say, rather the devoted, the <span class="pagenum">p. 103</span> impassioned
+citizenship&#8212;of a single man? And does not his popular park at times
+come near giving us a vital indication of the needed modern analogue of
+cathedral and forum? Civic development is thus no mere external matter,
+either of "Haussmannising" its streets, or of machine-educating its
+people; the true progress of the city and its citizenship must alike
+grow and flower from within albeit alive and open to every truly
+fertilising impulse from without.</p>
+<p>Yet since national interests, international industry, commerce,
+science, and therefore progress are nowadays and increasingly so
+largely one, may we not in conclusion foresee something at least of the
+great lines of development which are common to cities, and generalise
+these as we are accustomed to do in history? Witness the Classical,
+Mediaeval, and Renaissance types to which historic cities
+preponderatingly belong, and within which we group their varied
+individualities, as after all of comparative detail.</p>
+<p>Here then it is time to recall the presentment of ancient, recent
+and
+contemporary evolution already outlined in the part of this paper
+previously read (Vol. I, <a href='#p_109'>p. 109</a>), dealing with
+the historic survey of
+cities. We have now to face the question, then postponed, indeed left
+in
+interrogation-marks&#8212;that of seeking not indeed sharply to define the
+future order of things, yet in some measure to discern such elements of
+progress as may be already incipient in the existing order, if not yet
+largely manifest there. Such elements may be reasonably expected to
+grow
+in the near future, perhaps increasingly, and whatever be their rate of
+growth are surely worthy of our attention.</p>
+<p>Contemporary science, with its retrospective inquiries into origins
+in
+the past, its everyday observation of the present, is apt practically
+to
+overlook that the highest criterion and achievement of science is not
+to
+decipher the past, nor record the present, not even to interpret both.
+It is to foresee: only thus can it subserve action, of which the
+present
+task ever lies towards the future, since it is for this that we have to
+provide. Why then should not Comte's famous aphorism&#8212;"<i>Voir pour
+pr&eacute;voir, pr&eacute;voir pour pourvoir</i>," become applicable in
+our civic studies
+no less than in the general social and political fields to <span class="pagenum">p. 104</span>
+which he applied it? In navigation or engineering, in agriculture or
+hygiene, prevision and provision alike are ever increasing; yet these
+are no mere combinations of the preliminary sciences and the
+fundamental
+occupations, but obviously contain very large social elements.</p>
+<p>It is proverbially safe to prophesy when one knows; and it is but
+this
+safe prediction which we make every day of child or bud, where we can
+hardly fail to see the growing man, the coming flower. Yet do not most
+people practically forget that even now, in mid-winter, next summer's
+leaves are already waiting, nay, that they were conceived nine months
+ago? That they thus grow in small, commonly unnoticed beginnings, and
+lie in bud for a period twice as long as the summer of their adult and
+manifest life, is yet a fact, and one to which the social analogies are
+many and worth considering.</p>
+<p>While recognising, then, the immense importance of the historic
+element
+of our heritage, renaissance and mediaeval, classic and earlier;
+recognising also the predominance of contemporary forces and ideas,
+industrial and liberal, imperial and bureaucratic, financial and
+journalistic, can we not seek also, hidden under all these leaves, for
+those of the still-but-developing bud, which next season must be so
+much
+more important than they are to day? It is a commonplace, yet mainly of
+educational meetings, to note that the next generation is now at
+school;
+but how seldom do we recognise its pioneers, albeit already among our
+own contemporaries? At any rate we may see here and there that their
+leaven is already at work.</p>
+<p>In this respect, cities greatly differ&#8212;one is far more initiative
+than
+another. In the previous paper (vol. I, <a href='#p_109'>p. 109</a>),
+we saw how
+individuals,
+edifices, institutions, might represent all past phases; these,
+therefore, often predominate in different cities sufficiently to give
+its essential stamp. Why then should we not make a further survey and
+seek to see something of the cities of the future; though we may have
+to
+look for these in quarters where at first sight there may seem as yet
+scanty promise of flower?</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 105</span>
+To recall an instance employed above, probably every member
+of this Society is old enough to remember incredulous questionings of
+whether any good thing could come out of Battersea. Again, how few,
+even
+in America, much less than in Europe, a few years ago, forsaw the rapid
+growth of those culture-elements in St. Louis, of which the recent
+World-Exposition will not have been the only outcome?</p>
+<p>Only a few years earlier, it was Chicago which, for New England no
+less
+than for the Old World, seemed but the byword of a hopelessly
+materialised community. So Birmingham or Glasgow has won its present
+high position among cities in comparatively recent times; so it may now
+be the turn of older cities, once far more eminent, like Newcastle or
+Dundee, to overtake and in turn, perhaps, outstrip them. But all this
+is
+still too general and needs further definition; let us attempt this,
+therefore, somewhat more fully, in the concrete case of Glasgow.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>Q&#8212;GLASGOW AS TYPICAL OF CIVIC TRANSITION&#8212;FROM "PALEOTECHNIC" TO
+"NEOTECHNIC"</h3>
+<p>My own appreciation of the significance of Glasgow was first really
+awakened over twenty years ago by William Morris, who in his vivid way
+pointed out to me how, despite the traditional culture&#8212;superiority of
+Edinburgh, Glasgow was not only the Scottish capital, but, in his view,
+in real progressiveness the leading and initiative city of the whole
+United Kingdom. And this for him was not merely or mainly in its
+municipal enterprise, then merely in its infancy&#8212;although he expressed
+this development in the phrase "In London, people talked socialism
+without living it; but in Glasgow, they were socialists without knowing
+it!" Despite all the ugliness which had so repelled Ruskin, the squalor
+which moved Matthew Arnold to the fiercest scorn in all his writings,
+Morris's appreciation arose from his craftsman's knowledge and respect
+for supreme craftsmanship. The great ships building upon the Clyde were
+for him "the greatest achievement of <span class="pagenum">p. 106</span> humanity since the days
+of the cathedral-builders," nay, for him actually surpassing these,
+since calling forth an even more complex combination and "co-operation
+of all the material arts and sciences" into a mighty and organic whole;
+and correspondingly of all their respective workers also, this being
+for
+him of the very essence of his social ideal.</p>
+<p>For these reasons he insisted, to my then surprise that the social
+reorganisation he then so ardently hoped for "was coming faster upon
+the
+Clyde than upon the Thames": he explained as for him the one main
+reason
+for his then discouragement as to the progress of London that there
+East
+and West, North and South, are not only too remote each from the other,
+but in their occupations all much too specialised&#8212;there to finance,
+there to manufactures, or here to leisure, and so on; while on the
+Clyde
+industrial organisation and social progress could not but develop
+together, through the very nature of the essential and working unity of
+the ship.</p>
+<p>Since Morris's day, a local art movement, of which he knew little,
+has
+risen to eminence, a foreign critic would say to pre-eminence, in this
+country at least. Since Ruskin's savage response to a Glasgow
+invitation
+to lecture&#8212;"first burn your city, and cleanse your river,"&#8212;a new
+generation of architects and hygienists have not a little transformed
+the one, and vigorous measures have been taken towards the purification
+of the other. That the city and university pre-eminently associated
+with the invention of the steam-engine, and consequently with the
+advent
+of the industrial revolution throughout the world, should, a century
+later, have produced a scarcely less pre-eminent leader of applied
+science towards the command of electricity is thus no isolated
+coincidence. And as political economy, which is ever the theory
+corresponding to our phase of industrial practice, and there some of
+its foremost pioneers, and later its classical exponent, Adam Smith
+himself, so once more there are signs at least of a corresponding wave
+of theoretic progress. Students of primitive civilisation and industry
+have now long familiarised us with their reinterpretation of what was
+long known as the stone age, into two very distinct <span class="pagenum">p. 107</span> periods,
+the earlier characterised by few and rough implements, roughly used by
+a
+rude people, the second by more varied tools, of better shape, and
+finer
+edge, often of exquisite material and polish. We know that these were
+wielded more skilfully, by a people of higher type, better bred and
+better nourished; and that these, albeit of less hunting and militant
+life, but of pacific agricultural skill, prevailed in every way in the
+struggle for existence; thanks thus not only to more advanced arts, but
+probably above all to the higher status of woman. This distinction of
+Paleolithic and Neolithic ages and men, has long passed into the
+terminology of sociological science, and even into current speech: is
+it
+too much then, similarly, to focus the largely analogous progress which
+is so observable in what we have been wont to generalise too crudely as
+the modern Industrial Age? All are agreed that the discoveries and
+inventions of this extraordinary period of history constitute an epoch
+of material advance only paralleled, if at all, in magnitude and
+significance by those of prehistory with its shadowy Promethean
+figures.
+Our own advance from a lower industrial civilisation towards a higher
+thus no less demands definite characterisation, and this may be broadly
+expressed as from an earlier or <i>Paleotechnic</i> phase, towards a
+later or
+more advanced <i>Neotechnic</i> one. If definition be needed, this may
+be
+broadly given as from a comparatively crude and wasteful technic age,
+characterised by coal, steam, and cheap machine products, and a
+corresponding <i>quantitative</i> ideal of "progress of wealth and
+population"&#8212;towards a finer civilisation, characterised by the wider
+command, yet greater economy of natural energies, by the predominance
+of
+electricity, and by the increasing victory of an ideal of qualitative
+progress, expressed in terms of skill and art, of hygiene and
+education,
+of social polity, etc.</p>
+<p>The Neotechnic phase, though itself as yet far from completely
+replacing
+the paleotechnic order which is still quantitatively predominant in
+most
+of our cities, begins itself to show signs of a higher stage of
+progress, as in the co-ordination of the many industries required for
+the building of a ship, or in the yet more recent developments which
+begin to renew for us the conception of the worthy construction of a
+city. As <span class="pagenum">p.
+108</span> the former period may be characterised by the
+predominance of the relatively unskilled workman and of the skilled, so
+this next incipient age by the development of the chief workman proper,
+the literal <i>architectos</i> or architect; and by his companion the
+rustic
+improver, gardener and forester, farmer, irrigator, and their
+correspondingly evolving types of civil engineer.</p>
+<p>To this phase then the term <i>Geotechnic</i> may fairly be
+applied. Into its
+corresponding theoretic and ideal developments we need not here enter,
+beyond noting that these are similarly of synthetic character; on the
+concrete side the sciences unifying as geography, and on their more
+abstract side as the classification and philosophy of the
+sciences,&#8212;while both abstract and concrete movements of thought are
+becoming more and more thoroughly evolutionary in character.</p>
+<p>But evolutionary theories, especially as they rise towards
+comprehensiveness, cannot permanently content themselves with origins,
+or with classifications merely, nor with concentrating on nature rather
+than on man. Nature furnishes after all but the stage for evolution in
+its highest terms; of this man himself is the hero; so that thus our
+Geotechnic phase, Synthetic age (call it what we will) in its turn
+gives
+birth to a further advance&#8212;that concerned with human evolution, above
+all subordinating all things to him; whereas in all these preceding
+industrial phases, even if decreasingly, "things are in the saddle and
+ride mankind." This age, now definitely evolutionist in policy, as the
+geotechnic was in theory and in environment we may term the <i>Eugenic</i>.
+For its theory, still less advanced, the term <i>Eupsychic</i> may
+complete
+our proposed nomenclature.</p>
+<p>Thus then our conception of the opening future may be increasingly
+defined, since all these apparently predicted phases are already
+incipient among us, and are thus really matters of observed fact, of
+social embryology let us say; in short, of city development.</p>
+<p>In summary, then, the diagram of the former instalment of this paper
+(vol. 1, <a href='#p_109'>p. 109</a>)</p>
+<br />
+<table summary="Ancient, recent, contemporary societies"
+ style="width: 100%;" border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;" colspan="3" rowspan="1">ANCIENT <br />
+      </td>
+      <td colspan="3" rowspan="1"
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">RECENT </td>
+      <td colspan="3" rowspan="1"
+ style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"> CONTEMPORARY </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> INCIPIENT</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;">Primitive </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Matriarchal </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Patriarchal </td>
+      <td colspan="1" rowspan="1" style="text-align: center;"> Greek
+and Roman </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Mediaeval </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Renaissance </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Revolution </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Empire </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Finance </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> ? ? ?</td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 109</span>
+has thus its interrogations filled up. Omitting the
+left-hand half, that generalised as Ancient and Recent in the above
+diagram, so as to give more space to the Contemporary and Incipient
+phases, these now stand as follows:&#8212;</p>
+<br />
+<table summary="contemporary societies"
+ style="text-align: left; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; width: 669px; height: 80px;"
+ border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="2">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr>
+      <td colspan="3" rowspan="1"
+ style="vertical-align: middle; text-align: center;"> CONTEMPORARY</td>
+      <td colspan="3" rowspan="1"
+ style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;"> INCIPIENT</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Revolution </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Empire </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center;"> Finance </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Neotechnic<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Geotechnic<br />
+      </td>
+      <td style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle;">Eugenic<br />
+      </td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+<p>To elaborate this farther would, of course, exceed my present
+limits;
+but I may be permitted to say that long use of this schematic outline,
+especially of course in more developed forms, has satisfied me of its
+usefulness alike in the study of current events and in the practical
+work of education and city betterment. I venture then to recommend it
+to
+others as worth trial.</p>
+<br />
+<h3>R&#8212;A PRACTICAL PROPOSAL&#8212;A CIVIC EXHIBITION</h3>
+<p>How shall we more fully correlate our theoretic civics, i.e., our
+observations of cities interpreted as above, with our moral ideas and
+our practical policy&#8212;i.e., our Applied Civics. Our ideals have to be
+selected, our ideas defined, our plans matured; and the whole of these
+applied; that is realised, in polity, in culture, and in art. But if
+this be indeed the due correlation of civic survey and civic service,
+how may we now best promote the diffusion and the advancement of both?
+At this stage therefore, I venture to submit to the Society a practical
+proposal for its consideration and discussion; and if approved, I would
+fain hope for its recommendation to towns and cities, to organisations
+and to the public likely to be interested.</p>
+<p>Here then is my proposal. Is not the time ripe for bringing together
+the
+movements of Civics and Eugenics, now here and indeed everywhere
+plainly
+nascent, and of setting these before the public of this country in some
+such large and concrete ways, as indeed, in the latter subject at
+least, have been so strongly desiderated by Mr. Galton? As regards
+Civics, such have been afforded to America during the summer of 1904 by
+the Municipal Section of the St. Louis Exhibition; in <span class="pagenum">p. 110</span>
+Dresden also, at the recent Towns Exhibition; and by kindred
+Exhibitions
+and Congresses in Paris and elsewhere.</p>
+<p>All these have taken form since the Paris Exposition of 1900, with
+its
+important section of social economy and its many relevant special
+congresses. Among these may be specially mentioned here as of popular
+interest, and civic stimulus, the <i>Congres de L'Art Public</i>; the
+more
+since this also held an important Exhibition, to which many Continental
+cities sent instructive exhibits.</p>
+<p>Other exhibitions might be mentioned; so that the fact appears that
+in
+well-nigh every important and progressive country, save our own, the
+great questions of civics have already been fully opened, and vividly
+brought before their public, by these great contemporary museums with
+their associated congresses.</p>
+<p>With our present Chairman, the Rt. Hon. Charles Booth, with Canon
+Barnett, Mr. Horsfall, and so many other eminent civic workers among
+us;
+with our committee and its most organising of secretaries, might not a
+real impulse be given in this way by this Society towards civic
+education and action?</p>
+<p>Let me furthermore recall the two facts; first, that in every
+important
+exhibition which has been held in this country or abroad, no exhibits
+have been more instructive and more popular than have been (1) the
+picturesque reconstructions of ancient cities, and the presentment of
+their city life, and (2) the corresponding surveys of the present
+conditions of town life, and of the resources and means of bettering
+them.</p>
+<p>Even as a show then, I venture to submit that such a "Towneries"
+might
+readily be arranged to excel in interest, and surpass in usefulness,
+the
+excellent "Fisheries," "Healtheries", and other successful exhibitions
+in the record and recent memory of London. The advantages of such an
+exhibition are indeed too numerous for even an outline here; but they
+may be easily thought out more and more fully. Indeed, I purposely
+abstain for the present from more concrete suggestion; for the
+discussion of its elements, methods, plans, and scale will be found to
+raise the whole range of civic questions, and to set these in
+freshening
+lights.</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 111</span>
+At this time of social transition, when we all more or less
+feel the melting away of old divisions and parties, of old barriers of
+sects and schools, and the emergence of new possibilities, the
+continual
+appearance of new groupings of thought and action, such a Civic
+Exhibition would surely be specially valuable. In the interest, then,
+of
+the incipient renascence of civic progress, I plead for a Civic
+Exhibition.<a name="FNanchor_14"></a><a href="#Footnote_14"><sup>[14]</sup></a></p>
+<p>Of such an exhibition, the very catalogue would be in principle that
+<i>Encyclop&aelig;dia Civica</i>, into which, in the previous
+instalment of this
+paper (vol. I, <a href='#p_118'>p. 118</a>) I have sought to group
+the literature of civics.
+We should thus pass before us, in artistic expression, and therefore in
+universal appeal, the historic drama of the great civic past, the
+mingled present, the phantasmagoria and the tragi comedy of both of
+these. We should then know more of the ideals potential for the future,
+and, it may be, help onward some of the Eutopias which are already
+struggling towards birth.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<br />
+<h3>DISCUSSION</h3>
+<br />
+<p>The Chairman (THE RT. HON. CHARLES BOOTH) said:</p>
+<p>I feel always the inspiring character of Professor Geddes'
+addresses. He
+seems to widen and deepen the point of view, and to widen and deepen
+one's own ideas, and enables us to hold them more firmly and better
+than
+one can do without the aid of the kind of insight Professor Geddes has
+given into the methods of his own mind. I believe that we all hold our
+conceptions by some sort of tenure. I am afraid I hold mine by columns
+and statistics much underlined&#8212;a horrible prosaic sort of arrangement
+on ruled paper. I remember a lady of my acquaintance who had a place
+for
+everything. The discovery of America was in the left-hand corner; the
+Papacy was in the middle; and for everything she had some local
+habitation in an imaginary world. Professor Geddes is far more
+ingenious
+than that, and it is most interesting and instructive and helpful to
+follow these charming diagrams which spring evidently from the method
+he
+himself uses in holding and forming his conceptions. That it is of the
+utmost value to have large conceptions there can be no doubt&#8212;large
+conceptions both in time and place, large conceptions of all those
+various ideas to which he has called our attention. By some means or
+other we have to have them; and having got them, every individual,
+single fact has redoubled value. We put it in its place. So I hope that
+in our discussion, while we may develop each in his own way, the mental
+methods we pursue, we may bring forward anything that strikes us as
+germane, as a practical point of application to the life of the world,
+and especially anything having an application to the life of London. I
+would make my contribution to that with regard to a scheme that has
+been
+explained to me by its originator, Mrs. Barnett, the wife of Canon
+Barnett of Toynbee Hall. The idea concerns an open <span class="pagenum">p. 113</span> space
+which has recently been secured in Hampstead. It is known to you all
+that a certain piece of ground belonging to the trustees of Eton
+College
+has been secured, which extends the open space of Hampstead Heath in
+such a way as to protect a great amount of beauty. The further proposal
+is to acquire an estate surrounding that open space which has now been
+secured for ever to the people, and to use this extension to make what
+is called a "garden suburb." It is a following out of the "garden-city"
+idea which is seizing hold of all our minds, and it seems to me an
+exceedingly practical adaptation of that idea. Where it comes in, in
+connection with the address we have just heard, is that the root idea
+is
+that it shall bring together all the good elements of civic life. It is
+not to be for one class, or one idea, but for all classes, and all
+ideas&#8212;a mixed population with all its needs thought for and provided
+for; and above everything, the beauty of those fields and those hills
+is
+not to be sacrificed, but to be used for the good of the suburb and the
+good of London. I hope that out of it will come an example that will be
+followed. That is a little contribution I wish to make to the
+discussion
+to-day, and if I can interest any one here in forwarding it, I shall be
+exceedingly glad.</p>
+<div style="text-align: center;"><br />
+</div>
+<p style="text-align: center;">MR. SWINNY said:</p>
+<p>Towards the close of his lecture, Professor Geddes remarked that the
+cities of America inherited a great part of their civilisation from
+Greece and Rome and the Europe of the Middle Age. I believe that
+thought
+will lead us to consider the point whether this geographical survey
+should precede or follow a general historical survey. Now, if we
+consider that a river valley in England, with the towns in that valley,
+are part of the English nation, and that the English nation has shared
+in the general historical evolution of Western Europe, it would seem
+that the first simplification the question allows of is: What is there
+in the historical development of that city that is common to the whole
+of Western Europe, and what is peculiar to its position as an English
+city? And the second simplification that the problem allows of is to
+consider what part of the evolution of a particular city is due to its
+peculiar position in that river valley? So that it seems necessary
+first
+to get a general idea of the historical evolution of England and the
+West; and then you can proceed to consider what is due to the part
+played by the city in that evolution. Thus you have to consider not so
+much the city as a result of its immediate environment, but the effect
+of its environment in modifying the general course of civilisation as
+it
+affected that city.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">DR. J.L. TAYLER,</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum">p. 114</span>
+referring to Professor Geddes' remarks on the working
+craftsman and the thinking craftsman, said he believed that in a
+country
+like England, where the prevailing tendencies of thought and action
+were
+of an essentially practical nature, many people who now felt contempt
+for higher mental ideals would alter their views, if this idea of the
+<i>causal</i> relationship between thinkers and workers could be driven
+home.
+If business men and women could be made to realise that in the higher
+regions of pure science there were always to be found some thinkers who
+belonged to the same craft or trade as they themselves, they would
+naturally tend to rely on these thinkers when dealing with problems
+that
+necessitate a wide mental outlook.</p>
+<p>Moreover, the thought that students of great mental powers studied
+the
+objects with which working craftsmen were in daily contact, could not
+fail to deepen, refine and purify their more practical and, in some
+respects, grosser aims; while the knowledge that every science-study
+had
+an industrial as well as a scientific aspect would make the thinking
+craftsmen more alive to the needs of everyday existence.</p>
+<p>Such conceptions, if spread through all classes of our community,
+would
+inevitably change the feeling of distrust of learning into one of
+healthful enthusiasm, and give in addition a unity and direction to our
+various life pursuits which might in time generate a true modern
+national spirit; for it is precisely this divorce of mental and
+physical, of theoretical and practical, class and individual
+effort&#8212;which such a thinking and working craft theory would
+rectify&#8212;that destroys our efficiency by creating an unreal chasm
+between refined and unrefined, learned and unlearned, where there
+should
+be only a progressive evolution from the lower to the higher, from the
+immediate practical to the ultimate ideal.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">THE REV. DR. AVELING said:</p>
+<p>There was one point that the lecturer made which, I think, might be
+a
+fit and fruitful subject for discussion. He said that we were the
+product of the city. To a great extent that is undoubtedly true; but on
+the other hand, he advocated an improvement in the conditions of
+environment, to be brought about by our own endeavours. Therefore, the
+city can be shaped and made by us. What, then, is the exact value to be
+given to the seemingly contradictory doctrines that the individual is
+the product of the city and also that the city is the product of the
+citizen? The establishing of some fixed relation between&#8212;or the
+adjusting of the relations of&#8212;these two causes of social progress would
+be, I think, interesting to the philosopher, and useful to the
+economist. The problem is <span class="pagenum">p. 115</span> without doubt a difficult one, but
+its solution would be of great value. I do not venture to offer any
+answer to the question I raise&#8212;I merely state it.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">MR. A.W. STILL said:</p>
+<p>We have been passing through a period in which the city has created
+a
+type of man so wholly absorbed in the promotion of his own individual
+interests that he tends almost entirely to forget the social
+obligations
+which ought to make the greatest appeal to him. We may take some hope
+from what Professor Geddes has said, that the time is coming when we
+shall bring the force of our own characters to bear on our environment,
+and endeavour to break away from conditions which have made us the
+slaves of environment. I know the lovely little garden city of
+Bourneville intimately, and some of the experiments in other quarters.
+But in the common expansion of cities, I have seen that as the people
+get away from one set of slums, they are creating new areas which will
+become as degraded and abominable as those which are left behind. It
+has
+always seemed to me that there is room for good work by some committee,
+or some body of men, who would be voluntary guardians of the city's
+well-being, who would make it their business to acquire all that
+knowledge which Professor Geddes has just put before us in terms so
+enchanting, and would use all the ability that they possess in order to
+lead the minds of the community towards the cultivation of the best and
+highest ideals in civic life. I do not think it need be regarded as
+impossible that, from an association of this kind, such a movement as I
+have mentioned should spring. I conceive the possibility of each group
+developing into a trust, capable of acting in the interests of the city
+in years to come, exercising a mighty influence, being relied upon for
+guidance, and administering great funds for the common good. If we
+could
+get in each of our populous centres a dozen thoroughly intelligent
+broad-minded men, capable of watching all the streams of tendency&#8212;all
+the developments of civic life, bringing their judgment to bear on its
+progress, and urging the public to move in the right direction, a great
+service might be rendered. At least once a year, these little groups of
+men might meet together at some general conference, and, by the
+exchange
+of their opinions and by the mutual helpfulness of intellectual
+intercourse, raise up and perfect civic ideals which would be a boon to
+this country. We suffer at present, I think, from the too great
+particularisation of our efforts. We get one man devoting himself
+exclusively to a blind asylum, another seeming to take no interest in
+anything but a deaf-and-dumb institute or the like, and yet another
+devoting himself to charity organisation. It is all excellent work, but
+the difficulty is to get broad, comprehensive views taken of the common
+good. To reduce poverty and to check physical degeneracy, there must be
+an effort continuously made to <span class="pagenum">p. 116</span> raise the tone of the
+environment in which we live. The home and the city need to be made
+wholesome and beautiful, and the people need to be encouraged to
+enlarge
+their minds by contact with nature, and by the study of all that is
+elevating and that increases the sum of social responsibility.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">MR. E.S. WEYMOUTH said:</p>
+<p>He found it somewhat difficult to see what was to be the practical
+outcome of civics if studied in the way proposed. Would Professor
+Geddes
+consider it the duty of any Londoner, who wished to study sociology
+practically, to map out London, and also the surrounding districts,
+with
+special reference to the Thames River Basin, as appeared to be
+suggested
+in both Professor Geddes' papers? Looking at civics in its practical or
+ethical aspect, he was bound to confess that, though he had acquired a
+tolerable knowledge of the geography of the Thames Basin, he did not
+feel it helped him materially towards becoming a better citizen of
+London. Would Professor Geddes wish them to study, first, London with
+its wealth side by side with its squalor and filth, and then proceed to
+study another large town, where the same phenomena presented
+themselves?
+What gain would there be in that proportionate to the labour entailed?
+In his own case, so disheartened had he felt by observing that all
+their
+efforts, public and private, for the improvement of their civic
+conditions seemed to end in raising considerably the rents of the
+ground
+landlords of London, while leaving the bulk of the population engaged
+in
+a hard struggle for their existence, that he had for years past found
+it
+difficult to take much interest in municipal affairs, so long as the
+rates and taxes were&#8212;as it seemed to him&#8212;put upon the wrong shoulders.
+And for the study of civics, he had preferred to turn to those cities
+where efforts were being made to establish communal life on what seemed
+to him juster conditions. In 1897, he was struck with the title of an
+article in the "Daily Telegraph." It was headed, "The Land of Beauty,
+Society without Poverty, Life without Care." He found the article was a
+description of Durban in Natal. The writer attributed the prosperity of
+this town to the fact that the suburbs were kept in the hands of the
+community, instead of being handed over to private owners who would
+absorb all the unearned increment. Even if this eulogium betrayed
+exaggeration still a student of civics might feel that the economic
+conditions of that town were worth studying. Similarly, in New Zealand,
+the adoption in 1891 of the tax on land values brought prosperity to
+the
+towns, and changed the tide of emigration from New Zealand into
+immigration. Again, at home they had Bourneville, Port Sunlight, and
+that most interesting of all present-day experiments in this country,
+the Garden City, all of these being founded by men with ideals. He
+could
+not help feeling <span class="pagenum">p. 117</span> that a student of civics, possessed of such
+a fair working knowledge of the city he lived in as most of them might
+reasonably lay claim to, would make more real progress by studying the
+success or failure of social experiments, than by entering on the very
+formidable task that seemed to be set before them by Professor Geddes.
+However, when they left abstract civics, as they had it portrayed to
+them in these papers, and turned to the architectural or the historical
+side of concrete civics, there should be no better guide than Professor
+Geddes, whose labours in Edinburgh, and whose projected schemes for the
+improvement of Dunfermline, were becoming widely known.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">MR. TOMKINS (<i>of the London Trades
+Council</i>) said:</p>
+<p>If before any person was allowed to serve on our different public
+bodies, he should be required to attend a course of lectures such as
+those given by Professor Geddes on civics, that would surely be a means
+of developing his social interests, and would tend to eliminate that
+self-interest which too often actuated public men. There was nothing
+more difficult than for workmen to-day to be able to take larger views.
+The workman's whole business was now so different from what is was in
+the days of the arts and crafts guilds of the Middle Ages; they now
+found him ground down into some little division of industry, and it was
+quite impossible for him to work in his own way. Thus he got
+narrow-minded, because concentrated on some minor process. He was kept
+at work with his nose to the mill the whole time, and it became too
+exhausting for him to try and take these larger views of life. He often
+thought of the amount of talent and energy and practical beauty which
+was wasted in our workshops to-day. Referring to the Garden Cities of
+this country and the United States, Mr. Tomkins said the idea of
+getting
+great Trusts to use their money in a social spirit, and not merely to
+get the workers tied to their mills, was really something which opened
+out a vista of grand possibilities in the future; but if any movement
+was to be successful it would be necessary to teach the great masses of
+workers, and to create a real sound social public opinion amongst them.</p>
+<br />
+<p style="text-align: center;">PROFESSOR GEDDES' reply</p>
+<p>Professor Geddes, in replying to the discussion, said he entirely
+agreed
+with the point made by Mr. Swinny, and he should just like to correct
+what he had said in his lecture by reference to what he meant by a
+civic
+museum. In Edinburgh, he had in his museum a large room, with a
+geographical model <span class="pagenum">p. 118</span> of the old town
+with its hill-fort, and
+so on; and he hung round this maps and diagrams of historical and
+geographical details. On the opposite side of the room, he had a symbol
+of the market-cross, which stood for the centre of its municipal life,
+of its ideals and independence of environment. Around it was grouped
+what represented the other side of the city; and here he might answer
+another point, and say that they could never settle the great
+philosophical controversy of determinism and free-will. They would
+always incline when young to the novel of circumstance, and later, to
+the novel of character, but they should always feel that life was a
+game
+of individual skill with interfering circumstances. These diagrams of
+his were only the page split. On the one side, he meant to push to the
+extreme the idea that the place makes us, and on the other side, that
+we
+make the place. By what process do men struggle towards the selection
+of
+their ideals? They find themselves within the grasp of their
+environment, their whole heritage of culture, of good and ill, the
+whole
+tradition of the past; but they must select certain elements of
+these&#8212;the elements that seem to them good, and so they might escape
+from the manner of the city. Pointing to a drawing of the old Scotch
+bawbee, Professor Geddes said it was not a very dignified symbol of the
+coinage of the world, but let them mark how it had on the one side the
+hammerman at his work, with his motto "<i>Beat deus artem</i>," and, on
+the
+other side, a larger legend, with the eagle of the empire and the lamb
+of Saint John.</p>
+<p>To return to his civic museum: the room below the one he had
+described
+was the larger museum for Scotland, and in the room below that, again,
+the museum for England, Ireland and America, the whole English-speaking
+world&#8212;not the Empire only. And the whole stood on a museum and library
+representing that larger evolution of the occidental civilisation which
+showed them they were merely children of the past. Professor Geddes
+pleaded for museums in which every city displayed its own past and
+present, but related itself to the whole of Europe and the whole
+occident.</p>
+<p>One or two practical questions of great importance had <span class="pagenum">p. 119</span>
+been
+raised; but, with all respect, he submitted that they could consider
+what was practical and practicable without requiring to go into the
+question of taxing land. That was a matter of political opinion. It was
+as if they were discussing the geology of coal, which they could do,
+without reference to coal royalties. Mr. Weymouth was with them on the
+subject of preserving old buildings; and he thought there was a great
+deal to be learned, if Mr. Weymouth would descend the valley of the
+Thames once more. It was of great importance if he found a great city
+at
+the tidal limit. Going down the Thames and the Tay, they would find, at
+the last ford of one, the old Abbey of Westminster, and at the last
+ford
+of the other, the old Abbey of Scoon. The kings of England and Scotland
+were crowned there because these were the most important places&#8212;a point
+of great historic interest. As a matter of practical interest, he might
+mention that Scoon and Westminster alike passed out of supreme
+importance when bridges were built across the river below; and he would
+next point out how just as Perth became of subordinate importance when
+the great Tay Bridge was built, so it became a tremendously important
+question to London, as it might in turn be much affected by the making
+of a great and a new bridge much further down the stream. This study of
+the descending river had real and practical, as well as historical
+importance. He had been about considerably in the great cities of the
+United States, and had been struck by the amount of good endeavour
+there. It was not, however, by denouncing Tammany that they could beat
+it, but by understanding it. They must understand the mechanism by
+which
+the Celtic chieftain ruled his clan, and they must deal with these
+methods by still other methods; and they might often find it more
+satisfactory to re-moralise the chieftain than to destroy him.</p>
+<p>Professor Geddes concluded by saying that he appreciated the
+admirable
+suggestion of Mr. Still towards the evolution of civic unions. He was
+sure Mr. Still had there an idea of great significance which might be
+developed.</p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<br />
+<span style="font-weight: bold;">NOTES:<br />
+<br />
+</span><a name="Footnote_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1">[1]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> e.g., Erskine Beveridge, LL.D., Bibliography of
+Dunfermline.&#8212;<i>Dunfermline, 1902.</i> 8vo.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2">[2]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> "Sociological Papers," Vol 1., pp. 103-118.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_3"></a><a href="#FNanchor_3">[3]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> Fig. 1.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_4"></a><a href="#FNanchor_4">[4]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> For a fuller justification of this thesis as regards
+Switzerland, see the writer's "International Exhibitions," in
+<i>International Monthly</i>, October, 1900.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_5"></a><a href="#FNanchor_5">[5]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> For a fuller review of these, compare the writer's "City
+Development," in <i>Contemporary Review</i>, October, 1904.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_6"></a><a href="#FNanchor_6">[6]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> A fuller study, upon this method, of the essential origins
+of pastoral evolution, and of its characteristic modern developments,
+will be found in the writer's "Flower of the Grass," in <i>The
+Evergreen</i>,
+Edinburgh and Westminster, 1896. See also "La Science Sociale,"
+<i>passim</i>, especially in its earlier vols. or its number for Jan.
+1905.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_7"></a><a href="#FNanchor_7">[7]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> La Nomenclature Sociale (Extrait de La Revue, "La Science
+Sociale," Dec. 1886) Paris, Firmin-Diact, 1887.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_8"></a><a href="#FNanchor_8">[8]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> Demoulins, La Science Sociale d'apres F. Le Play 1882-1905;
+Classification Sociale, "La Science Sociale," Jan. 1905.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_9"></a><a href="#FNanchor_9">[9]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> Tarde, "L'imitation Sociale," and other works.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_10"></a><a href="#FNanchor_10">[10]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> For the sake of brevity, an entire chapter has been
+omitted, discussing the manifold origins of distinct governing classes,
+whether arising from the Folk, or superimposed upon them from without,
+in short, of the contrast of what we may broadly call patricians and
+plebeians, which so constantly appears through history, and in the
+present also. These modes of origin are all in association respectively
+with Place, Work, and Family, or some of the various interactions of
+these. Origin and situation, migration, individual or general, with its
+conflict of races, may be indicated among the first group of factors;
+technical efficiency and its organising power among the second;
+individual qualities and family stocks among the third, as also
+military
+and administrative aptitude, and the institutional privileges which so
+readily arise from them. Nor need we here discuss the rise of
+institutions, so fully dealt with by sociological writers. Enough for
+the present then, if institutions and social classes be taken as we
+find
+them.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_11"></a><a href="#FNanchor_11">[11]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> The use of <i>lore</i> as primarily empirical, and derived from
+the senses, it is traditional; it is well therefore to restrict it to
+this, and to revive the old word <i>lear</i>, still understood in
+Scotland in
+these precise senses&#8212;intellectual, rational, yet traditional,
+occupational also.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_12"></a><a href="#FNanchor_12">[12]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> Without forgetting the many institutions and workers in
+almost all departments of the field of civics, the rise of definite
+surveys and of scientific groupings like this Society, without ignoring
+also the many admirable workers and institutions of social endeavour,
+and their progressive integration into Social Unions, Institutes of
+Service, and the like, I may be permitted to press for the need of
+uniting both types, the scientific and the practical, into a single
+one&#8212;a civic museum and active centre in one. Of this type, my own
+Outlook Tower at Edinburgh is, so far as I am aware, the earliest
+beginning; and, despite its rudimentary condition, may thus serve to
+suggest a type of institution which will be found of service alike to
+the sociologist and the citizen.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_13"></a><a href="#FNanchor_13">[13]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> Cf. the writer's "City Development," Edinburgh and
+Westminster, 1904.</p>
+</div>
+<a name="Footnote_14"></a><a href="#FNanchor_14">[14]</a>
+<div class="note">
+<p> Since the preceding paper was read, it is encouraging to
+note the practical beginnings of a movement towards a civic exhibition,
+appropriately arising, like so many other valuable contributions to
+civic betterment, from Toynbee Hall. The Cottages Exhibition initiated
+by Mr. St. Loe Strachey at Garden City, and of course also that
+admirable scheme itself, must also be mentioned as importance forces in
+the directions of progress and propaganda advocated above.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+Project Gutenberg's Civics: as Applied Sociology, by Patrick Geddes
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Civics: as Applied Sociology
+
+Author: Patrick Geddes
+
+Release Date: August 17, 2004 [EBook #13205]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CIVICS: AS APPLIED SOCIOLOGY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Jon Ingram, Wilelmina Malliere and Distributed
+Proofreaders Europe, http://dp.rastko.net.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+_Civics: as Applied Sociology_
+
+by Patrick Geddes
+
+
+
+
+Read before the Sociological Society at a Meeting in the School of
+Economics and Political Science (University of London), Clare Market,
+W.C., at 5 p.m., on Monday, July 18th, 1904; the Rt. Hon. CHARLES BOOTH,
+F.R.S., in the Chair.
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+This department of sociological studies should evidently be, as far as
+possible, concrete in treatment. If it is to appeal to practical men and
+civic workers, it is important that the methods advocated for the
+systematic study of cities, and as underlying fruitful action, be not
+merely the product of the study, but rather be those which may be
+acquired in course of local observation and practical effort. My problem
+is thus to outline such general ideas as may naturally crystallise from
+the experience of any moderately-travelled observer of varied interests;
+so that his observation of city after city, now panoramic and
+impressionist, again detailed, should gradually develop towards an
+orderly Regional Survey. This point of view has next to be correlated
+with the corresponding practical experience, that which may be acquired
+through some varied experiences of citizenship, and thence rise toward a
+larger and more orderly conception of civic action--as Regional Service.
+In a word, then, Applied Sociology in general, or [Page: 104] Civics, as
+one of its main departments, may be defined as the application of Social
+Survey to Social Service.
+
+In this complex field of study as in simpler preliminary ones, our
+everyday experiences and commonsense interpretations gradually become
+more systematic, that is, begin to assume a scientific character; while
+our activities, in becoming more orderly and comprehensive, similarly
+approximate towards art. Thus there is emerging more and more clearly
+for sociological studies in general, for their concrete fields of
+application in city after city, the conception of a scientific centre of
+observation and record on the one hand, and of a corresponding centre of
+experimental endeavour on the other--in short of Sociological
+Observatory and Sociological Laboratory, and of these as increasingly
+co-ordinated. Indeed, is not such association of observations and
+experiments, are not such institutions actually incipient here and
+elsewhere? I need not multiply instances of the correlation of science
+and art, as of chemistry with agriculture, or biology with medicine.
+Yet, on the strictly sociological plane and in civic application they
+are as yet less generally evident, though such obvious connections as
+that of vital statistics with hygienic administration, that of
+commercial statistics with politics, are becoming recognised by all. In
+the paper with which this Society's work lately opened, the intimate
+connection between a scientific demography and a practical eugenics has
+been clearly set forth. But this study of the community in the aggregate
+finds its natural parallel and complement in the study of the community
+as an integrate, with material and immaterial structures and functions,
+which we call the City. Correspondingly, the improvement of the
+individuals of the community, which is the aim of eugenics, involves a
+corresponding civic progress. Using (for the moment at least) a parallel
+nomenclature, we see that the sociologist is concerned not only with
+"demography" but with "politography," and that "eugenics" is inseparable
+from "politogenics." For the struggle for existence, though observed
+mainly from the side of its individuals by the demographer, is not only
+an intra-civic but an inter-civic process; and if so, ameliorative
+selection, now clearly sought for the individuals in detail as eugenics,
+is inseparable from a corresponding civic art--a literal
+"Eupolitogenics."
+
+
+
+A--THE GEOGRAPHIC SURVEY OF CITIES
+
+Coming to concrete Civic Survey, where shall we begin? Not only in
+variety and magnitude of civic activities, but, thanks especially to the
+work of Mr. Charles Booth and his collaborators in actual social survey
+also, London may naturally claim pre-eminence. Yet even at best, does
+not this vastest of world cities remain a less or more foggy labyrinth,
+from which surrounding [Page: 105] regions with their smaller cities can
+be but dimly descried, even with the best intentions of avoiding the
+cheap generalisation of "the provinces"? For our more general and
+comparative study, then, simpler beginnings are preferable. More
+suitable, therefore, to our fundamental thesis--that no less definite
+than the study of races and usages or languages, is that of the
+groupings of men--is the clearer outlook, the more panoramic view of a
+definite geographic region, such, for instance, as lies beneath us upon
+a mountain holiday. Beneath vast hunting desolations lie the pastoral
+hillsides, below these again scattered arable crofts and sparsely dotted
+hamlets lead us to the small upland village of the main glen: from this
+again one descends to the large and prosperous village of the foothills
+and its railway terminus, where lowland and highland meet. East or west,
+each mountain valley has its analogous terminal and initial village,
+upon its fertile fan-shaped slope, and with its corresponding minor
+market; while, central to the broad agricultural strath with its slow
+meandering river, stands the prosperous market town, the road and
+railway junction upon which all the various glen-villages converge. A
+day's march further down, and at the convergence of several such
+valleys, stands the larger county-town--in the region before me as I
+write, one of added importance, since not only well nigh central to
+Scotland, but as the tidal limit of a till lately navigable river.
+Finally, at the mouth of its estuary, rises the smoke of a great
+manufacturing city, a central world-market in its way. Such a river
+system is, as geographer after geographer has pointed out, the essential
+unit for the student of cities and civilisations. Hence this simple
+geographical method of treatment must here be pled for as fundamental to
+any really orderly and comparative treatment of our subject. By
+descending from source to sea we follow the development of civilisation
+from its simple origins to its complex resultants; nor can any element
+of this be omitted. Were we to begin with the peasant hamlet as our
+initial unit, and forget the hinterlands of pasture, forest, and chase
+(an error to which the writer on cities is naturally prone), the
+anthropologist would soon remind us that in forgetting the hunter, we
+had omitted the essential germ of active militarism, and hence very
+largely of aristocratic rule. Similarly, [Page: 106] in ignoring the
+pastoral life, we should be losing sight of a main fount of spiritual
+power, and this not only as regards the historic religions, but all
+later culture elements also, from the poetic to the educational. In
+short, then, it takes the whole region to make the city. As the river
+carries down contributions from its whole course, so each complex
+community, as we descend, is modified by its predecessors. The converse
+is no doubt true also, but commonly in less degree.
+
+In this way with the geographer we may rapidly review and extend our
+knowledge of the grouping of cities. Such a survey of a series of our
+own river-basins, say from Dee to Thames, and of a few leading
+Continental ones, say the Rhine and Meuse, the Seine and Loire, the
+Rhone, the Po, the Danube--and, if possible, in America also, at least
+the Hudson and Mississippi--will be found the soundest of introductions
+to the study of cities. The comparison of corresponding types at once
+yields the conviction of broad general unity of development, structure,
+and function. Thus, with Metschnikoff we recognise the succession of
+potamic, thalassic, and oceanic civilisations; with Reclus we see the
+regular distribution of minor and major towns to have been largely
+influenced not only by geographical position but by convenient journey
+distances. Again, we note how the exigencies of defence and of
+government, the developments of religion, despite all historic
+diversities, have been fundamentally the same. It is not, of course, to
+be forgotten how government, commerce, communications, have
+concentrated, altered or at least disguised the fundamental geographical
+simplicity of this descending hierarchy from mountain-hamlet to
+ocean-metropolis; but it is useful for the student constantly to recover
+the elemental and naturalist-like point of view even in the greatest
+cities. At times we all see London as still fundamentally an
+agglomeration of villages, with their surviving patches of common,
+around a mediaeval seaport; or we discern even in the utmost
+magnificence of Paris, say its Place de l'Etoile, with its spread of
+boulevards, but the hunter's tryst by the fallen tree, with its
+radiating forest-rides, each literally arrow-straight. So the narrow
+rectangular network of an American city is explicable only by the
+unthinking persistence of the peasant thrift, which grudges good land to
+[Page: 107] road-way, and is jealous of oblique short cuts. In short,
+then, in what seems our most studied city planning, we are still
+building from our inherited instincts like the bees. Our Civics is thus
+still far from an Applied Sociology.
+
+
+
+B--THE HISTORIC SURVEY OF CITIES
+
+But a city is more than a place in space, it is a drama in time. Though
+the claim of geography be fundamental our interest in the history of the
+city is supremely greater; it is obviously no mere geographic
+circumstances which developed one hill-fort in Judea, and another in
+Attica, into world centres, to this day more deeply influential and
+significant than are the vastest modern capitals. This very wealth of
+historical interests and resources, the corresponding multiplicity of
+specialisms, more than ever proves the need of some means by which to
+group and classify them. Some panoramic simplification of our ideas of
+history comparable to that of our geography, and if possible congruent
+with this, is plainly what we want. Again the answer comes through
+geography, though no longer in mere map or relief, but now in vertical
+section--in the order of strata ascending from past to present, whether
+we study rock-formations with the geologist, excavate more recent
+accumulations with the archaeologist, or interpret ruins or monuments
+with the historian. Though the primitive conditions we have above noted
+with the physiographer remain apparent, indeed usually permanent, cities
+have none the less their characteristic phases of historic development
+decipherably superposed. Thus below even the characteristically
+patriarchal civilisations, an earlier matriarchal order is often
+becoming disclosed. Our interest in exploring some stately modern or
+Renaissance city is constantly varied by finding some picturesque
+mediaeval remnant; below this some fragment of Roman ruin; below this it
+may be some barbarian fort or mound. Hence the fascinating interest of
+travel, which compels us ever to begin our survey anew. Starting with
+the same river-basin as before, the geographic panorama now gains a new
+and deeper interest. Primitive centres long forgotten start into life;
+pre-historic tumuli give up their dead; to the stone circles the [Page:
+108] worshippers return; the British and the Roman camps again fill with
+armed men, and beside the prosaic market town arises a shadowy Arthurian
+capital. Next, some moment-centuries later, a usurper's tower rises and
+falls; the mediaeval abbey, the great castles, have their day; with the
+Reformation and the Renaissance the towns again are transformed; and
+yet more thoroughly than ever by the Industrial Revolution, with its
+factories, railways, steamships, and all that they bring with them.
+Thus, for instance, almost more important than the internal
+transformation and concentration wrought by railway and telegraph, is
+the selection, amidst the almost innumerable seaports of the older
+order, of the very few adapted to the deep draught of modern ships. In a
+word, not only does the main series of active cities display traces of
+all the past phases of evolution, but beside this lie fossils, or linger
+survivals, of almost every preceding phase.
+
+Hence, after many years of experiment and practice in teaching sociology
+I still find no better method available than that of regional survey,
+historical as well as geographical. Beginning with some popular
+excursion of obvious beauty and romantic interest like that to Melrose,
+we see with every tourist how naturally and fully the atmosphere and
+tradition of the Border found its expression and world influence in Sir
+Walter Scott. Thence, passing by way of contrast through the long
+isolated peninsula of Fife, say to representative towns like Kirkcaldy
+and Largo, we still see the conditions of that individualism of which
+Adam Smith and Alexander Selkirk ("Robinson Crusoe") have each in his
+way become the very prototypes. In such ways the connection of regional
+geography, history, and social psychology becomes increasingly clear.
+Again, we explore the other old Fife seaports, a series of survivals
+like those of the Zuyder Zee, or again work out in the field the
+significance of Stirling, so often the strategic centre of Scotland.
+Again, Dunfermline, as early mediaeval capital and abbey, furnishes a
+convenient object lesson preparatory to the study of the larger
+Edinburgh. Here, again, its triple centre, in the port of Leith, the
+Royal Castle, the Abbey of Holyrood, are the respective analogues of the
+port of London, the Tower, and Westminster; while each city-group has
+its outlying circle of minor burghs, tardily and imperfectly
+incorporated into a civic whole. Again, such a marked contrast of civic
+origins and developments as those of Glasgow and Edinburgh has to be
+accounted for; and thus through such progessively complexer surveys we
+reach the plane of modern civic problems and policies. Understanding the
+present as the development of the past, are we not preparing also to
+understand the future as the development of the present?
+
+The impressiveness of the aspect of Edinburgh to its visitors is thus
+not [Page: 109] merely pictorial. Be the spectator conscious of this or
+no, it turns primarily upon the contrast of the mediaeval hill-city with
+its castle ramparts, its fretted cathedral crown, with park and
+boulevard, with shops, hotels and railway stations. But the historic
+panorama is unusually complete. See the hill-fort defended by lake and
+forest, becoming "_castrum puellarum_," becoming a Roman and an
+Arthurian citadel, a mediaeval stronghold of innumerable sieges, a
+centre of autocratic and military dictatures, oligarchic governments, at
+length a museum of the past. So in the city itself. Here the narrow
+ridge crowded into a single street all the essential organs of a
+capital, and still presents with the rarest completeness of
+concentration a conspectus of modern civic life and development; and
+this alike as regards both spiritual and temporal powers, using these
+terms in their broadest senses as the respective expressions of the
+material order and its immaterial counterparts. Thus the royal and noble
+castles of the Middle Age become with the Renaissance here as everywhere
+something of palaces, while with the industrial revolution they have
+become replaced by factories or transformed into breweries. So the
+guidance of speculative thought, once concentrated in the mediaeval
+abbey, becomes transferred to the Reformation assembly of divines, to
+the Renaissance college; and again at the Revolution, is largely taken
+over by the speculative encyclopaedists, of whom Hume and Smith were but
+the most eminent. Nor are later developments less obvious. Of the
+following generation, we have the neo-classic architecture which
+everywhere dominated Europe after the French Revolution and during the
+First Empire, while of the next generation's reaction against all this
+in the romantic movement, the neo-Gothic monument of Scott is the most
+characteristic possible representative. Again, just as in the Oxford
+movement we had the (appropriately regional) renascence of the idealism
+of the Cavaliers, so in Edinburgh we have naturally the simultaneous
+renascence of the Puritan ideal, e.g., in the Free Church, whose
+monument accordingly rises to dominate the city in its turn. The later
+period of prosperous Liberalism, the heroic enthusiasms of Empire, have
+each left their mark; and now in the dominant phase of social evolution,
+that of Finance, the banks, the financial companies, the press are
+having their turn as monument builders. Our Old Edinburgh is thus the
+most condensed example, the visible microcosm of the social evolution
+which is manifest everywhere; so that as a teaching model of
+sociological development it may renew its educational attractiveness
+when its improving hygiene has lessened its medical advantages.
+
+Setting down now these phases of historical development in tabular form,
+we have a diagram such as the following:--
+
+
+            ANCIENT          |          RECENT                 |         CONTEMPORARY          | INCIPIENT
+----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Primitive | Matri- | Patri-  | Greek | Mediaeval | Renaissance | Revolution | Empire | Finance |   ? ? ?
+          | archal | archal  |  and  |           |             |            |        |         |
+          |        |         | Roman |           |             |            |        |         |
+
+
+which, were it placed erect, we might now compare to the increasing
+[Page: 110] nodes of a growing stem, or rather say the layers of a coral
+reef, in which each generation constructs its characteristic stony
+skeleton as a contribution to the growing yet dying and wearying whole.
+I have elaborated this example of the panoramic aspect of Old Edinburgh
+as a widely familiar instance of the method of literal survey with which
+social and civic studies may so conveniently begin; and I press the
+value of extending these even to the utmost elaborateness of
+photographic survey: in my view, indeed, a sociological society has at
+least as much use for a collection of maps, plans and photographs as of
+statistics, indeed scarcely less than one of books. Of course, in all
+this I am but recalling what every tourist in some measure knows; yet
+his impressions and recollections can become an orderly politography,
+only as he sees each city in terms of its characteristic social
+formations, and as he utilises the best examples from each phase towards
+building up a complete picture of the greatest products of civic
+evolution, temporal and spiritual, of all places and times up to the
+present. Such a parallel of the historic survey of the city to that of
+its underlying geological area is thus in no wise a metaphoric one, but
+one which may be worked out upon maps sections and diagrams almost
+completely in the same way--in fact, with little change save that of
+colours and vertical scale. The attempt to express the characteristic
+and essential life and thought of a given region in each period upon a
+series of maps is in fact the best method of understanding the everyday
+map at which we commonly look so unthinkingly.
+
+Much of the preceding, I am assured, must be most unsatisfactory to
+those who look at cities only from the standpoint of so many committees
+dealing with police, water, finance, and so on; or to those who are
+content to view the magnitude, the wealth and the population, the
+industries and the manufactures of a great city without considering
+whence these have come and whither they are leading; equally
+unsatisfactory also, I fear, to those to whom civic dignities and
+precedence, or the alternations of winning political colours, appear of
+prime importance. I can only hope that some of these may, on
+consideration, admit that the points of view I have endeavoured to
+outline above may be worth some thought and study as elementary
+preliminaries to their own more special and developed interests; and if
+the society permit. I hope to approach these more closely in a later
+paper.
+
+[Page: 111] The abstract economist or legalist, the moral or political
+philosopher may also resent the proposed mode of treatment as an attempt
+to materialise sociology by reducing it to concrete terms alone. But I
+would reply that observation, so far from excluding interpretation, is
+just the very means of preparing for it. It is the observant naturalist,
+the travelled zoologist and botanist, who later becomes the productive
+writer on evolution. It is the historian who may best venture on into
+the philosophy of history;--to think the reverse is to remain in the
+pre-scientific order altogether: hence the construction of systems of
+abstract and deductive economics, politics or morals, has really been
+the last surviving effort of scholasticism. Viewed as Science, Civics is
+that branch of Sociology which deals with Cities--their origin and
+distribution; their development and structure; their functioning,
+internal and external, material and psychological; their evolution,
+individual and associated. Viewed again from the practical side, that of
+applied science, Civics must develop through experimental endeavour into
+the more and more effective Art of enhancing the life of the city and of
+advancing its evolution. With the first of these lines of study, the
+concretely scientific, our philosophical outlook will not fail to widen;
+with the second, the practical, our ethical insight will not fail to
+deepen also.
+
+As primarily a student of living nature in evolution, I have naturally
+approached the city from the side of its geographic and historic survey,
+its environment and functional change; yet it is but a step from these
+to the abstract interpretations of the economist or the politician, even
+of philosopher and moralist. Again, since in everyday practice
+co-ordinating the literal maps of each civic surveys with even more
+concretely detailed plans as gardener and builder, I find less danger
+than may at first appear of ignoring the legitimate demands of the
+needed practical division of labour in the city's service. When the
+first mutual unfamiliarity is got over, there is thus also a greatly
+diminished distance between speculative thinkers and practical men, who
+at present, in this country especially, stand almost unrelated: the
+evolutionist student and worker thus begins to furnish the missing link
+between them.
+
+
+C--THE CITIZEN IN PROCESS OF DEVELOPMENT
+
+Leaving now the external survey of the city by help of its material
+framework, its characteristic buildings and predominant styles, for the
+deeper psychological survey of the citizens themselves, we may
+conveniently begin with these also in their process of development--in
+fact, our method compels us to this course. We enter then a school; and
+if we bring fresh eyes we may soon be agreed that the extraordinary
+babel of studies its time-table and curriculum reveal, is intelligible
+from no single one of the various [Page: 112] geographic or historic
+points of view we have traversed from mountain to sea, or from past to
+present. But this unprecedented conflict of studies becomes at once
+intelligible when viewed apart from any and every definite theory of
+education yet promulgated by educationists, and even acquires a fresh
+theory of its own--that of the attempted recapitulation of the survivals
+of each and all preceding periods in their practical or speculative
+aspects, particularly the later legends and literatures, their rituals
+and codes. Thus, the inordinate specialisation upon arithmetic, the
+exaggeration of all three R's, is plainly the survival of the demand for
+cheap yet efficient clerks, characteristic of the recent and
+contemporary financial period.
+
+The ritual of examinations with its correlation of memorising and
+muscular drill is similarly a development of the imperial order,
+historically borrowed from the Napoleonic one; the chaotic "general
+knowledge" is similarly a survival of the encyclopaedic period; that is,
+of the French Revolution and the Liberal Movement generally; the Latin
+grammar and verses are of course the survivals of the Renaissance, as
+the precise fidelity to absurd spelling is the imitation of its proof
+readers; the essay is the abridged form of the mediaeval disputation;
+and only such genuine sympathy with Virgil or Tacitus, with Homer or
+Plato as one in a thousand acquires, is truly Roman or Greek at all.
+The religious instruction, however, re-interpreted by the mediaeval
+Church or the Reformation, has still its strength in some of the best
+elements of patriarchal literature; while the fairy tale, by which all
+this superincumbent weight of learning is sometimes alleviated, is the
+child's inheritance from the matriarchal order. Finally, the apple and
+the ball, at the bottom of this whole burden of books, complete the
+recapitulation; as the one, the raw fruit; the other, the ready missile,
+of primeval man. Our child then is heir of all the ages more fully than
+he or his teachers commonly realise. The struggle for mastery of the
+schools is thus no temporary feud, but an unending battle; one destined
+to increase rather than diminish; for in this there is the perpetual
+clash of all the forces of good heredity and evil atavism, of all the
+new variations also, healthy or diseases.
+
+
+
+[Page: 113] D--THE APPLIED SOCIOLOGY OF THE PRESENT
+
+The city and its children thus historically present a thoroughly
+parallel accumulation of survivals or recapitulations of the past in the
+present. Few types nowadays are pure, that is, keep strictly to their
+period; we are all more or less mixed and modernised. Still, whether by
+temporal or spiritual compulsion, whether for the sake of bread or
+honour, each mainly and practically stands by his order, and acts with
+the social formation he belongs to. Thus now the question of the
+practical civics, that is, of the applied sociology, of each individual,
+each body or interests may be broadly defined; it is to emphasise his
+particular historic type, his social formation and influence in the
+civic whole, if not indeed to dominate this as far as may be. We are all
+for progress, but we each define it in his own way. Hence one man of
+industrial energy builds more factories or slums, another as naturally
+more breweries to supply them; and in municipal or national council his
+line of action, conscious or unconscious, remains congruent with these.
+Representative government fails to yield all that its inventors hoped of
+it, simply because it is so tolerably representative of its majorities;
+and there is thus great truth in the common consolation that our
+municipal governments, like larger ones, are seldom much worse than we
+deserve. Each social formation, through each of its material activities,
+exerts its influence upon the civic whole; and each of its ideas and
+ideals wins also its place and power. At one time the legal and
+punitive point of view, directing itself mainly to individual cases, or
+the philanthropic, palliating sufferings, dispute the foremost places;
+and now in their turn hygienic or educational endeavours arise, towards
+treating causes instead of waiting for consequences. Such endeavours are
+still undeniably too vague in thought, too crude in practice, and the
+enthusiast of hygiene or education or temperance may have much to answer
+for. But so, also, has he who stands outside of the actual civic field,
+whether as philistine or aesthete, utopist or cynic, party politician or
+"mug-wump." Between all these extremes it is for the united forces of
+civic survey and civic service to find the middle course. [Page: 114] We
+observe then in the actual city, as among its future citizens, that our
+action is generally the attempt to mould both alike to some past or
+passing social formation, and, therefore, usually towards the type to
+which our interest and our survey incline, be this in our own city or
+more probably in some earlier one. Even in the actual passing detail of
+party politics we are often reminded how directly continuous are the
+rivals with puritan London, with royalist Oxford; but still more is this
+the case throughout the history of thought and action, and the intenser
+the more plainly; for it is in his highest moments of conviction and
+decision that the Puritan feels most in sympathy with the law or the
+prophets of Jerusalem, the scholar with Athens; or that the man of
+action--be he the first French republican or the latest
+imperialist--most frankly draws his inspiration from the corresponding
+developments of Paris. It is a commonplace of psychology that our
+thought is and must be anthropomorphic; a commonplace of history that it
+has been Hebraomorphic, Hellenomorphic, Latinomorphic, and so on by
+turns.
+
+This view has often been well worked out by the historian of inventions
+and discoveries, of customs or laws, of policies or religions, as by the
+historian of language or the fine arts. What we still commonly need,
+however, is to carry this view clearly into our own city and its
+institutions, its streets and schools and homes, until either in the
+private spending or public voting of the smallest sum we know exactly
+whether we are so far determining expenditure and influence towards
+enlarging, say, the influence and example of renascent Florence in one
+generation or of decadent Versailles in another. There is no danger of
+awaking this consciousness too fully; for since we have ceased
+consciously to cite and utilise the high examples of history we have
+been the more faithfully, because sub-consciously and automatically,
+continuing and extending later and lower developments.
+
+
+E--CITIES, PRESENT AND FUTURE
+
+Hence, after a Liberal and an Imperial generation, each happy in their
+respective visions of wealth and expanding greatness [Page: 115], the
+current renewal of civic interests naturally takes the form of an
+awakening survey of our actual environment. First, a literal mapping of
+its regional elements, and then an historic interpretation of
+these--not, alas, merely or mainly in terms of the cities of sacred or
+classic tradition, nor of the Mediaeval or Renaissance cities which
+followed these, but as stupendous extensions of the mediaeval Ghetto, of
+the Wapping Stairs, of the Lancashire factories and of the Black
+Country, relieved by the coarse jollities of Restoration London, and
+adorned for the most part, with debased survivals from the Italian and
+the French Renaissance. There is thus no more question in our civic
+discussions of "bringing in" or "leaving out" geography or history; we
+have been too long unconscious of them, as was M. Jourdain of his
+speaking in prose.
+
+But what of the opening Future? May its coming social developments not
+be discerned by the careful observer in germs and buds already formed or
+forming, or deduced by the thinker from sociological principles? I
+believe in large measure both; yet cannot within these limits attempt to
+justify either. Enough for the present, if it be admitted that the
+practical man in his thought and action in the present is mainly the as
+yet too unconscious child of the past, and that in the city he is still
+working within the grasp of natural conditions.
+
+To realise the geographic and historic factors of our city's life is
+thus the first step to comprehension of the present, one indispensable
+to any attempt at the scientific forecast of the future, which must
+avoid as far as it can the dangers of mere utopianism.
+
+
+F--LITERATURE OF CIVICS
+
+No discussion of the preliminaries and fundamentals of Civics can omit
+some consideration of the vast and ever growing literature of cities.
+But how are we to utilise this? How continue it? How co-ordinate it with
+the needed independent and first-hand survey of city by city? And how
+apply this whole knowledge of past and present towards civic action?
+
+The answer must plainly be a concrete one. Every city [Page: 116]
+however small, has already a copious literature of its topography and
+history in the past; one, in fact, so ample that its mere bibliography
+may readily fill a goodly volume,[1] to which the specialist will long
+be adding fresh entries. This mass of literature may next be viewed as
+the material for a comprehensive monograph, well enriched with maps and
+illustrations, such as many cities can boast; and this again may be
+condensed into a guide-book. Guide-books have long been excellent in
+their descriptive and historical detail, and are becoming increasingly
+interpretative also, especially since Mr. Grant Allen transferred his
+evolutionary insight and his expository clearness from natural to civic
+history.
+
+[1] e.g., Erskine Beveridge, LL.D., Bibliography of
+Dunfermline.--_Dunfermline, 1902._ 8vo.
+
+After this general and preliminary survey of geographic environment and
+historic development, there nowadays begins to appear the material of a
+complementary and contemporary volume, the Social Survey proper. Towards
+this, statistical materials are partly to be found amid parliamentary
+and municipal reports and returns, economic journals and the like, but a
+fresh and first-hand survey in detail is obviously necessary. In this
+class of literature, Mr. Booth's monumental Survey of London, followed
+by others, such as Mr. Rowntree's of York, have already been so widely
+stimulating and suggestive that it may safely be predicted that before
+many years the Social Survey of any given city will be as easily and
+naturally obtainable as is at present its guide-book; and the
+rationalised census of the present condition of its people, their
+occupation and real wages, their family budget and culture-level, should
+be as readily ascertainable from the one, as their antecedents
+understood or their monuments visited by help of the other.
+
+But these two volumes--"The City: Past and Present,"--are not enough. Is
+not a third volume imaginable and possible, that of the opening Civic
+Future? Having taken full note of places as they were and are, of things
+as they have come about, and of people as they are--of their
+occupations, families, and institutions, their ideas and ideals--may we
+not to some extent discern, then patiently plan out, at length boldly
+suggest, something of [Page: 117] their actual or potential development?
+And may not, must not, such discernment, such planning, while primarily,
+of course, for the immediate future, also take account of the remoter
+and higher issues which a city's indefinitely long life and
+correspondingly needed foresight and statesmanship involve? Such a
+volume would thus differ widely from the traditional and contemporary
+"literature of Utopias" in being regional instead of non-regional,
+indeed ir-regional and so realisable, instead of being unrealisable and
+unattainable altogether. The theme of such a volume would thus be to
+indicate the practicable alternatives, and to select and to define from
+these the lines of development of the legitimate _Eu-topia_ possible in
+the given city, and characteristic of it; obviously, therefore, a very
+different thing from a vague _Ou-topia_, concretely realisable nowhere.
+Such abstract counsels of perfection as the descriptions of the ideal
+city, from Augustine through More or Campanella and Bacon to Morris,
+have been consolatory to many, to others inspiring. Still, a Utopia is
+one thing, a plan for our city improvement is another.
+
+Some concrete, if still fragmentary, materials towards such a volume
+are, of course, to be found in all municipal offices, though scattered
+between the offices of the city engineer and health officer, the
+architect and park superintendent; while the private architect and
+landscape gardener, the artist, sometimes even the municipal voters and
+their representatives, may all have ideas of their own. But though our
+cities are still as a whole planless, their growth as yet little better
+than a mere casual accretion and agglomeration, if not a spreading
+blight, American and German cities are now increasingly affording
+examples of comprehensive design of extension and of internal
+improvement. As a specific example of such an attempt towards the
+improvement of a British city, one not indeed comprehending all aspects
+of its life, but detailed and reasoned so far as it goes, and expressing
+that continuity of past and present into future which has been above
+argued for, I am permitted by the courtesy of the Carnegie Dunfermline
+Trust to lay on the Society's library table an early copy of a recent
+study of practicable possibilities in a city typically suitable for
+consideration from the present standpoint, since presenting within a
+moderate and readily intelligible [Page: 118] scale a very marked
+combination of historic interests, and of contemporary and growing
+activity, both industrial and cultural, with hopeful civic outlook.
+
+That co-adjustment of social survey and social service which has been
+above argued for as the essential idea of civics as applied sociology is
+thus no abstract principle, but a concrete and practicable method. Yet
+it is one not lacking in generality of application. For what we have
+reached is really the conception of an _Encyclopaedia Civica_, to which
+each city should contribute the Trilogy of its Past, its Present, and
+its Future. Better far, as life transcends books, we may see, and yet
+more, forsee, the growth of civic consciousness and conscience, the
+awakening of citizenship towards civic renascence. All this the
+production of such volumes would at one imply and inspire--life ever
+producing its appropriate expression in literature, and literature
+reacting upon the ennoblement of life.
+
+Apart altogether from what may be the quality and defects of particular
+volumes, such as those cited as examples of each part of such a proposed
+civic trilogy, one as yet nowhere complete, the very conception of such
+a possible threefold series may be of some service. For this would
+present a continuous whole, at once sociological and civic--the views
+and the resources of the scholar and the educationist with their
+treasures of historic culture, of the man of action with his mastery of
+immediate affairs, of the thinker with his vision of the opening future,
+now all co-ordinated by help of the design of the artist, and thence to
+be gradually realised in the growing heritage of the city, the enlarging
+life of the citizen.
+
+NOTE--As an example of the concrete application to a particular city, of
+the sociological methods and principles indicated in the above paper,
+Prof. Geddes exhibited an illustrated volume embodying the results of
+his studies and designs towards the improvement of Dunfermline, under
+the Trust recently established by Mr. Carnegie. This has since been
+published:
+
+P. GEDDES. City Development. Park Gardens and Culture Institutes; a
+Report to the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust. With 138 illustrations.
+Edinburgh, etc.. 1904.
+
+
+
+
+[Page: 119] DISCUSSION
+
+
+The Chairman (MR. CHARLES BOOTH) in opening the discussion said:
+
+The paper we have just heard read is one of the most complete and
+charming papers on a great and interesting subject I have ever heard. I
+think you will all agree in this, and I hope the discussion which
+follows will emphasise and, if that is possible, add to the wealth of
+ideas that this paper contains.
+
+
+
+MR EBENEZER HOWARD (Founder of the Garden City Association) said:
+
+I have read and re-read--in the proof forwarded to me--Professor Geddes'
+wonderfully luminous and picturesque paper with much interest. He has
+given us a graphic description of the geographic process which leads to
+the development of the city. We see vividly the gradual stages by which
+the city grows and swells, with the descent of the population from the
+hillsides into the valleys, even as the river which flows through the
+city is fed continually by the streams which flow down to it. But is
+there not this essential difference between the gathering waters of
+heaven, as they pour into the great city, and the gathering tide of
+population, which follows the path of the waters? The waters flow
+through the city on, on toward the mighty ocean, and are then gradually
+gathered upward into the soft embraces of the clouds and wafted back
+again to the hills, whence they flow down once more to the valleys. But
+the living stream of men, women, and children flows from the
+country-side and leaves it more and more bare of active, vigorous,
+healthy life: it does not, like the waters, "return again to cover the
+earth," but moves ever on to the great city, and from thence, at least
+for the great majority, there is no chance of more than, at best, a very
+short stay in the country. No: the tide flows resistlessly [Page: 120]
+onward to make more crowded our overcrowded tenements, to enlarge our
+overgrown cities, to cause suburb to spread beyond suburb, to submerge
+more and more the beautiful fields and hilly slopes which used to lie
+near the busy life of the people, to make the atmosphere more foul, and
+the task of the social reformer more and yet more difficult.
+
+But surely there must be a way, could we but discover it, of imitating
+the skill and bountifulness of Nature, by creating channels through
+which some of our population shall be attracted back to the fields; so
+that there shall be a stream of population pouring from the city into
+the country, till a healthy balance is restored, and we have solved the
+twin problems of rural depopulation and of the overcrowded, overgrown
+city.
+
+This brings me to the second branch of Prof. Geddes' paper, the
+historical. The Professor reminds us how vestiges of one civilisation
+lie super-imposed upon another, like geological strata, and asks.
+"Understanding the present as the development of the past, are we not
+preparing also to understand the future as the development of the
+present?" Following this line of thought, I venture to suggest that
+while the age in which we live is the age of the great,
+closely-compacted, overcrowded city, there are already signs, for those
+who can read them, of a coming change so great and so momentous that the
+twentieth century will be known as the period of the great exodus, the
+return to the land, the period when by a great and conscious effort a
+new fabric of civilisation shall be reared by those who knew how to
+apply the knowledge gained by "Social Survey to Social Service." What
+are the signs? What words can we place under the head of "Incipient" in
+Prof. Geddes' diagram? I would suggest, for one of Prof. Geddes'
+interrogation marks might be substituted "Decentralisation of
+Industry"--as a great, but yet incipient movement, represented by Port
+Sunlight, Bournville, Garden City. For there are now many agencies at
+work making for industrial decentralisation. Industries are being driven
+out of the great towns by the excessive rents and rates which have to be
+paid there--by the difficulty of obtaining adequate space for the modern
+factory, a one-storey building; and for the homes of our workers, which
+must be vastly different to what they now are if England is to maintain
+her place among the nations. And while factories are being driven from
+the city, they are also being attracted to the country by its
+newly-discovered potentialities. Thus Messrs. Lever Brothers, crowded
+out of Warrington, established an entirely new town on a new site at
+Port Sunlight; and, because the site was new and raw, it was therefore
+possible for Mr. Lever to plan his little town with a single eye to the
+best and most desirable conditions, alike from an industrial and a
+health and housing point of view. And the same is true of Bournville.
+Bournville is one of the most beautiful villages in the world, largely
+again because of the potentialities of a new site acquired for the
+definite purpose of building thereon a village in which overcrowding
+shall be deliberately and permanently prevented, [Page: 121] and in
+which work inside the factory may be varied by work in the garden. Now
+that these successful experiments have been carried out in this country,
+is it not time that the idea of establishing new industries on new
+sites, and of surrounding those industries with healthy homes, should be
+carried forward on a larger scale, with wider and more concerted
+aims--carried forward, too, in such a manner as to make it possible for
+the small manufacturer to take part in a movement which has proved to be
+so beneficial alike to employer and employed? It is out of this thought
+that the Garden City idea has grown, an idea now in course of being
+fulfilled. Three thousand eight hundred acres of land, or nearly ten
+times the area of Bournville or Port Sunlight, have been acquired in
+Hertfordshire, two miles west of the town of Hitchin, and on the branch
+line of railway between that town and Cambridge. State aid has not been
+sought; that would indeed be weary work. But a company has been formed,
+through the untiring efforts of the Garden City Association; plans for
+the town have been carefully prepared, plans which, of course, have
+regard to the contours of the land (which were first taken, showing
+every change of level of five feet), to the preservation of its natural
+beauties--its trees and the picturesque villages of Norton and Willian;
+to the necessity for railway sidings and railway station, now, thanks to
+the Great Northern Railway, already provided; to the making of roads of
+easy gradient and of suitable width, affording access to different parts
+of the estate, actual work on which is progressing; the careful guarding
+from contamination of our water supply, already proved to be abundant;
+the provision of a reservoir of suitable elevation, now in course of
+construction; a system of drainage, about to be started with; the
+provision of parks and playgrounds within the town, as well as a wide
+belt of agricultural land around it; sites for homes for 30,000 persons,
+with good sized gardens. About six cottages have already been built, not
+by the Company but by private enterprise, while many others are just
+about to be started upon; the setting apart of sites for schools,
+churches, and other public buildings, while plans are in preparation for
+lighting the town, as well as for providing it with motive power.
+
+The programme which I have sketched out is certainly not too bold or
+comprehensive for the British race. If a hundredth part of the
+organising skill which the Japanese and the Russians are showing in the
+great war now in progress were shown by ourselves as citizens in our
+great civil war against disease and dirt, poverty and overcrowding, we
+could not only build many new cities on the best models, but could also
+bring our old towns into line with the new and better order. Prof.
+Geddes wishes well, I know, to the Garden City Association, a
+propagandist body, and to its first child, the Garden City Company; and
+I am sure you will all unite with me in the hope that the best and most
+lasting success may crown the generous gift of Mr. Carnegie of L500,000
+to the City of Dunfermline, and reward the efforts of the Trustees and
+of Prof. Geddes to make, by the application of modern [Page: 122] skill,
+science and art, the ancient city of Dunfermline a centre of sweetness
+and light, stimulating us all to higher and yet higher efforts to secure
+civic, national and imperial well-being.
+
+MR. C.H. GRINLING said:
+
+Like most of the audience, doubtless, he came not to speak but to draw
+ever fresh inspiration from Prof. Geddes. But there was one aspect of
+the subject he would like to bring out and emphasise. He referred to the
+sociological institute, which, under the name of the Outlook Tower, had
+grown up in connection with the School of Sociology which Prof. Geddes
+had founded and developed in Edinburgh. That institute was at once an
+organisation for teaching and for research, for social education, and
+for civic action. It was, in fact, a concrete and working application of
+the principle indicated in the paper as the very foundation of
+Civics--"social survey for social service." And, seeing that the Outlook
+Tower was an institution designed in every respect for application to
+any given locality, he urged the Sociological Society to advocate its
+general extension, so that no region should be without its own
+sociological institute or Outlook Tower.
+
+If one individual could accomplish so much, what could not be
+accomplished by the sociologists of our day who would concentrate
+themselves, each on his own locality, not necessarily to do the work,
+but to give the inspiration which would call out the work of collecting
+just that material which Prof. Geddes suggested all through his paper
+was one of the great needs of our time? And so one hoped that papers of
+this kind would not merely lead to discussion, but to workers
+accumulating results of this kind, giving the inspiration to others, and
+thus laying up treasures for the sociologists of the future for their
+interpretation. Thus, the Sociological Society should be not only the
+one scientific society in constant touch with all the leading brains
+over the country, but it should be an inspiration, as Prof. Geddes has
+himself been, to groups of workers everywhere for just the kind of work
+which the Sociological Society has been founded to develop.
+
+
+MR. J.M. ROBERTSON said:
+
+I would first add my tribute to this extremely interesting and
+stimulating paper. It recalled confabulations I had with Prof. Geddes,
+many years ago, when he was first formulating in Edinburgh those ideas
+which have since become so widely known. I would like, however, to
+suggest a few criticisms. The paper is, broadly speaking, an application
+of the view of a biologist to Sociology. It is not so much an
+application of Darwin's view as that of Von Baer. Prof. Geddes has
+characterised his paper as one of elementary preliminaries, but he has
+really contributed a paper that [Page: 123] would form part of a
+preliminary study in a series of studies in Sociology. The paper does
+not quite bear out its title: "Civics: as Applied Sociology." The
+application has not begun. The somewhat disparaging remarks on
+encyclopaedias of general knowledge, further, might well be applied to
+the scheme of an encyclopaedia of the natural history of every city and
+every village as an original centre. This atomism will not help
+Sociology. Had he to master all that, the sociologist's life would be a
+burden not to be borne, and we would never get to applied sociology at
+all. There is a danger, too, in following this line, of fastening
+attention on one stage of evolution and leaving it there. The true
+principle is that evolution is eternal and continuous; and I think harm
+may be done, possibly, when you take, say, the phenomenon of the
+communication of general knowledge in schools and call it a derivation
+from the French _Encyclopedie_. Why leave it there? Where did that come
+from? If you are going to trace the simple evolution of civic forms, if
+you are to trace how they have come about, it will not do to stick at a
+given point. This is a survival of that. That is a survival of something
+else. The French _Encyclopedie_ will have to be traced back to the
+encyclopaedia of the mediaeval period; and even to the still earlier
+period of Isidore of Seville. Then again, there is a danger, I think,
+analogous to the danger met with in early botany--the danger of
+confusing a resemblance with a relationship. It is extremely interesting
+to speculate that the Place de l'Etoile is an evolution from the plan of
+the game-forest, with its shooting avenues radiating from a centre, but
+it would be difficult to show that there is any historical connection.
+The thing is not proved.
+
+Of course, the vital question is not this tracing of evolution. The
+question is: Is "Civics" to be only the study of forms? If so, Sociology
+is a dead science, and will effect little practical good until it is
+vivified by such suggestions as Mr. Crane has put in his paper. Mr.
+Walter Crane brought in a vital question when he said: "How are you
+going to modify the values of your civic life unless you grapple with
+political problems?" I am not forgetting that Prof. Geddes promises to
+deal in another paper with the civics of the future; but I insist that
+it will have to grapple with political questions. As he says, a city is
+not a place, but "a drama in time." The question for the sociological
+student of history is: How has this inequality of wealth and of service
+arisen, and how is it to be prevented in the future? That is the problem
+we have to study if we wish to make sociology a vital interest. A
+definition of progress is really the first step in sociology. Prof.
+Geddes' next paper should give us a definition of progress, and it is
+better that we begin to fight over a definition of progress, in order to
+get a dynamic agreement, than that we should multiply the archaeological
+study of many towns. I admit that it is very interesting. In travelling
+in South Africa, I often tried to gather how communities began; what,
+for example, was the nucleus of this or that village. It was surprising
+how very few had an idea of any nucleus at all. I deprecate the idea,
+however, that [Page: 124] we are all to amass an enormous accumulation
+of such researches. Mr. Booth's single compilation for London is a study
+for years; but Mr. Booth's admirable investigation of the difficulties
+of life among the poor of London does not of itself give any new impulse
+to the solution of the problem of London. It merely gives exact
+knowledge in place of general knowledge. The problem of sociology arose
+on the general knowledge. I fear lest the work of sociology should run
+to an extension of this admirable study instead of to the stimulation of
+action taken on that particular knowledge, or on more general knowledge.
+We all knew there was plenty of poverty, and how it was caused. We all
+had Ideals as to how it was to be got rid of in the future; but the
+question is: Is the collection of detail or the prescription of social
+method the kind of activity that the Sociological Society is to take up?
+
+SIR THOMAS BARCLAY said:
+
+I am not sure that I agree with Mr. Robertson that it is desirable to
+define either "progress" or "civilisation." On the whole, their chances
+lie rather in the great variety of ideas of what constitutes them than
+in any hard-and-fast notion of their meaning. They are generalisations
+of what is, rather than an object towards which effort should tend. But
+neither do I agree with Prof. Geddes' restriction of "civics" to the
+mere outward part of municipal effort. In America the word "civics" is
+applied to the rights and duties of citizens, and I should like to see
+Prof. Geddes include in Civics the connection between citizen life and
+the outward improvement of cities. I am sure, however, Professor Geddes,
+as a practical man, will deal rather with realities than theoretical
+views on the subject for which he has done so much himself. Edinburgh
+owes more than many are willing to admit to Prof. Geddes. I think Ramsay
+Lodge one of the greatest embellishments of the Castle Hill in
+Edinburgh. I hope he will now be successful in doing something still
+more admirable for my native town of Dunfermline. My friend Mr.
+Carnegie, whose native town it also is, I believe intends to show by an
+object lesson what can be done for all cities. Prof. Geddes is helping
+him in this work with his suggestions. I hope they will be carried out.
+In America there are several very beautiful cities. No one can ever
+forget Washington, which is truly a garden city. No money is spared in
+America to beautify and healthify (excuse the barbarism) the habitations
+of the thousands. A beautiful city is an investment for health,
+intellect, imagination. Genius all the world over is associated,
+wherever it has been connected with cities, with beautiful cities. To
+grow up among things of beauty ennobles the population. But I should
+like to see Prof. Geddes extend his projects for Dunfermline to the
+population itself. Most of you know what Mr. Henderson did to utilise
+the Edinburgh [Page: 125] police in the care of children. The future of
+the country depends upon them. The subject is too serious to continue to
+be left to the haphazard mercies of indifferent parents. Every child
+born is an agent for good or for evil among the community, and the
+community cannot afford to neglect how it is brought up, the
+circumstances in which it has its being, the environment from which it
+derives its character and tendencies. Necessity may be the mother of
+invention, but need of food and insufficient clothing develop in the
+child an inventiveness that is not for the good of the community. It
+seems a matter of too great an importance to be left even to private
+initiative, as was done under Mr. Henderson's regime in Edinburgh; but
+everywhere else, or nearly so, very little is done by even private
+initiative for the protection of the children against their vicious
+environment. In short, I do not think that civics, in the sense in which
+my friend Prof. Geddes treats it, is a complete subject at all. Civics,
+to my mind, includes everything that relates to the citizen. Everywhere
+something is being done in one direction or another to make them
+capable, prosperous, and happy. In America happiness is taught in the
+schools. Every schoolmaster's and schoolmistress's first duty is to set
+an example of a happy frame of mind; smiling and laughing are
+encouraged, and it is not thought that the glum face is at all necessary
+for the serious business of life. In fact, the glum face is a
+disqualification; is associated with failure, and bad luck and
+ill-nature. In Germany the schoolmaster is in the first place a trainer
+of the body. One of his chief duties is to watch and prevent the
+deterioration of the eyesight, to promote the development of the lungs,
+to prevent spinal deviation. The second part of his business is to watch
+over the character of the child, and only the third part is to ram
+knowledge into the poor little mind. And wherever you go over the world
+you will find something in the course of being done in civics, as I
+understand the subject. I thank Prof. Geddes for what he is doing for
+Dunfermline, and hope he will understand "progress" without requiring to
+define it.
+
+
+DR. J. LIONEL TAYLER
+
+(Author of "_Aspects of Social Evolution_") said:
+
+While agreeing with Prof. Geddes in his belief in the importance of
+institutional and geographical studies as a basis for the investigation
+of the development of cities, it yet seems to me that these studies
+cannot prove of supreme value to society unless they are accompanied by
+a detailed examination of the _natural_ characteristics of all
+individuals who have been born into and existed in, or merely dwelt in,
+these surroundings. It is not enough to trace out, however accurately,
+the various stages of a town's growth from its commencement to the
+present time, because _the cause_ of [Page: 126] the evolution of any
+city aggregate lies deeper, is in large part animate, and not inanimate,
+in character. The value of the surroundings depends at least as much
+upon the capacity of the individual citizen, singly and collectively, to
+utilise what he or she is brought in contact with as upon the
+peculiarities of these surroundings themselves. Place, tradition, social
+organisation, individual development, education, are factors in town
+evolution that cannot safely be overlooked, and they all vary from age
+to age and in place and place.
+
+If it were possible to completely exchange the inhabitants of a large
+town in England with those of an equally large town in France two groups
+of changes would become more or less rapidly observable: (1) the French
+and English citizens would adapt themselves, as far as they desired and
+were able, to their altered conditions; (2) the characteristics of both
+towns would gradually change, in spite of geographical position, in
+response to the altered human needs. Similarly, a town composed of
+individuals who are naturally uncultured and unprogressive will tend to
+preserve its uncultured and unprogressive characters more than another
+that has alert citizens to carry on its activities. Every profession and
+every trade tends to foster its own social atmosphere; and towns will
+vary with their industrial life, and individuals favourably disposed to
+this atmosphere will come to the town, and those unfavourably inclined
+to it will leave. _These changing citizens, as they act upon and react
+to their surroundings and vary in their powers age by age, are the real
+evolvers of the conditions in which they dwell_; hence the citizen must
+not be omitted from our study if we are to understand city growth.
+
+In other words, I think that every investigation of civic, and for that
+matter country life should be studied from two aspects: (1) to note the
+peculiarities, growth and development of the material, non-living and
+non-thinking elements in the problem--the buildings, their geographical
+position, their age, their fitness for past and present life, and the
+distinctive local features that are evolving or retrogressing with the
+multiplication of some trades and industries and the decline of others
+in each area that is studied; (2) the change in the quality of the
+citizens themselves through racial, educational, and other factors,
+noting how far ideals are altering, not only in the mass of individuals
+taken as a whole, but also by examining the changing outlook in every
+trade and profession. With these two parallel lines of investigation to
+study, we could then determine how far environment--social and
+climatic--how far racial and individual characteristics have been
+powerful in the moulding of the fabric around us.
+
+With these two lines of study to our hands, we could predict the
+vitality, the growing power, and the future possibilities of the social
+life of which we are a tiny though not an insignificant part; we could,
+knowing something of the response that we make to that which surrounds
+us, form some estimate of how the future ages will develop, and, knowing
+the [Page: 127] intensity of the different national desires for progress
+_and the causes which are likely to arouse such desires_, we could
+realise what will stimulate and what will retard all that is best in our
+civic life.
+
+PROFESSOR EARL BARNES (in moving a vote of thanks) said:
+
+For years I have been accumulating a debt of obligation to Prof. Geddes
+for ideas, suggestions, and large synthesis of life, and it gives me
+special pleasure to voice the feeling of this meeting concerning the
+paper read to us this afternoon. To me, as an American, it is especially
+interesting to hear this presentation of life as an organic whole. Life
+is but a period of education, and if there is nothing behind this
+present moment of life it is all extremely insignificant. To an
+American, who has lived at No. 1067 in 63rd Street, Philadelphia, and
+at No. 1718 in G Street, in Washington, it is profoundly interesting to
+think of the possibility of a man's so living that his whole existence
+shall be significant, so that the realities of his world, geographical,
+geological, and material, and all that long development of humanity
+through the historic past--that all these things will be really and
+truly significant to him. Prof. Geddes has himself shown us that is
+possible. Any man who has gone to Edinburgh and seen the restoration of
+the old life that has been carried out there under his hand knows it can
+be done. I suppose we all came here to hear Professor Geddes speak on
+practical affairs because his name is now connected with the plans for
+making a city that shall be really expressive of all its potentialities
+to all of its people. I am personally profoundly grateful to him for his
+paper; and I move you that he be given a very hearty vote of thanks.
+
+The Chairman. (MR. CHARLES BOOTH), in closing the discussion, said: I
+myself entirely agree with what Mr Robertson has said as to the extreme
+difficulty of bringing investigations of the kind referred to, to
+practical conclusions--practical points. Practical work at present needs
+the most attention. I perhaps am too old to do it, but I feel the
+attraction of that kind of work, and that was one reason I was sorry Mr
+Loch had to leave before we could hear what he might have to say. The
+description I have given of London does seem to be a foggy labyrinth I
+agree, but nevertheless I cannot but think that we do require a complete
+conception if we are to do the definite work of putting different people
+in their proper places in an organic whole, such as a city is. I do not
+think we can do without it, and I regard the paper of this evening as an
+important contribution [Page: 128] to that complete conception which I
+feel we need. I should like each worker and thinker to have and to know
+his place in the scheme of civic improvement; and I think it perfectly
+possible for every man to know what it is that he is trying to do, what
+contribution it is that he ought to give to that joint life which is
+called here civics, which is the life of a city and the life in the
+city. One man cannot possibly concentrate it all in himself. Within a
+society such as the Sociological Society a general scheme is possible in
+which each individual and each society shall play its acknowledged and
+recognised part. It does not follow that the work done in one city can
+apply as an example to another. Individuality has too strong a hold;
+but each town may work out something for itself. I have been very much
+interested in the work which Mr. Rowntree has done in York, on which he
+was kind enough to consult me. He entered upon it on quite other grounds
+from mine, but so far as the ground was common between him and me we
+tried to have a common basis. Those of you who have not read Mr.
+Horsfall's volumes on Manchester would do well to do so. Prof. Geddes
+gave us a vivid picture of a larger regional unit which culminates
+geographically in the city as industrial climax. In his particular
+instance he referred, I take, to Dundee. In Dundee there is at this
+moment an inquiry being started, and I am in communication with those
+who are doing it, and I hope it will add something to the completeness
+of the picture we have of that city. In Dundee they have excessive
+difficulties in respect to crowding and female labour. What I suggested
+was, that they should make a special study of such circumstances as are
+special to Dundee. Labour there is very largely sack-making and jute
+manufacture, and there is a great deal of girl labour; and that is one
+of the special subjects that will be considered in that inquiry.
+
+Then, with regard to the preservation of such of the natural beauties
+that do remain even quite near to busy town centres, surely it is of the
+greatest importance that they should be watched and protected and
+preserved. Prof. Geddes has contributed a portion of his practical work
+to that practical question at Dunfermline. His charming volume on
+Dunfermline ("A Study in City Development") shows what beautiful
+features there are near Dunfermline, and how much may be done to
+preserve and improve them in ways that are most interesting to study.
+His use of photography in this matter is extraordinarily successful.
+Prof. Geddes has photographed a scene as it now is, with its background
+and distance and its squalid foreground, already ruined by the debris of
+the city--old tin pots and every [Page: 129] kind of rubbish--thrown
+down by the side of the stream, which is naturally beautiful. By
+manipulating the photographic plates he wipes out that which he does not
+want and introduces other features, including a little waterfall; and
+you have, instead of a miserable suburb, a dignified park. Well now,
+that is practical work. It has in it that element which he has described
+by a question-mark in his diagram, the element of forecast. You have the
+same idea in Manchester, in Mr. Horsfall's work. They have laid out
+their map of Manchester and shown in what way it may develop, so as not
+to spoil the beauty that remains on two sides of Manchester. There is
+really exquisitely beautiful natural scenery close to Manchester, which
+may be entirely spoiled or preserved, according as a forecast is made
+and forethought taken. This is not a question on which there is reason
+to think that people will disagree. The difficulties are always supposed
+to be financial. It is a sad thing that we should be so hampered by our
+methods of finance that we throw away opportunities to retain these
+actual beauties which undoubtedly add to the actual money value of a
+district. I cannot suppose that the way in which cities are laid out
+with narrow streets really results in an increase of value. The
+surroundings of our cities are undeveloped estates, which we have only
+to agree amongst ourselves how to lay out, and everybody would benefit
+by such joint action. There is an excellent illustration in regard to
+that in Mr. Horsfall's work in connection with Germany. It must be said
+that from Germany there is a great deal to learn in civic matters. In
+one of its towns the properties lie in extraordinarily long strips. It
+is the final result of properties having been measured by the length of
+the plough's run. When that method is applied to town sites, it is not
+convenient for streets; and there are some quarters in this German town
+ruined in this way, and the people have agreed together to improve
+matters. Every owner is to be given credit for his share in the total
+value of the improvement that is found to accrue from the re-arrangement
+of these undesirable divisions, and any difference of opinion as to the
+just share and proportion is to be referred to an impartial arbitrator.
+All the owners will gain, though some a little more than others. That is
+an example that we may do well to try and follow, and in some way or
+other improve the money value, and social value, and hygienic value of
+towns, and if necessary compel the carrying out of improvements when
+some few might be disposed to hold out against them.
+
+
+
+
+[Page: 130] WRITTEN COMMUNICATIONS
+
+From PROF. BALDWIN BROWN (Professor of Fine Art in the University of
+Edinburgh)
+
+
+I am glad of this opportunity of saying how cordially I agree with the
+method adopted by my friend Professor Geddes in dealing with the life of
+cities. He treats the modern community and its material shell as things
+of organic growth, with a past and a future as well as a present,
+whereas we too often see these wider considerations ignored in favour of
+some exigency of the moment. A historic British town has recently
+furnished a striking object-lesson in this connection. The town
+possesses portions of an ancient city wall and fosse that were made at a
+time when the town was, for the moment, the most important in Great
+Britain. Yet the Town Council, a year ago, destroyed part of this wall
+and filled a section of the fosse for the purpose of providing a site
+for a new elementary school. No doubt, in that school, books "approved
+by the Department" will instruct scholars in the past history of the
+burgh, but the living witness of that history must first of all be
+carefully obliterated. All the rest of this ancient and historic
+enceinte was condemned a few weeks ago to complete destruction, merely
+on the plea that the site would be convenient for workmen's dwellings.
+The monument has now been saved, but it has taken the whole country to
+do it!
+
+Here were chosen officials, governors of no mean city, absolutely
+oblivious of these important interests committed to their care, and all
+for want of having drilled into them these broader views which Professor
+Geddes puts forward so well.
+
+He has himself done practical work in Edinburgh on the lines he lays
+down, and I have lately had occasion to note, and call attention to the
+advantage to the city of much wise conservatism in regard to our older
+buildings which he and his associates have shown.
+
+In Edinburgh we have the advantage that our older monuments, [Page:
+131] in which so much of the past life of the city is enshrined, are
+firm and solid; and it takes some trouble to knock them down. Hence for
+some time to come we shall preserve here object-lessons in civic
+development that will be of interest to the country at large.
+
+
+From MR. WALTER CRANE (President of Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society)
+
+Professor Geddes' very interesting "Study in City Development" is highly
+suggestive, and shows how great a difference thoughtful and tasteful
+treatment might make in dealing with such problems. It is sad to think
+of the opportunities wasted, and of the more ignorant and often too
+hasty clearances for traffic which have often been apparently the sole
+motives in city improvement. The conservation of historic buildings,
+whenever possible, the planting of trees along our streets, the laying
+out of gardens, the insistence upon a proportional amount of air and
+open space to new buildings would go a long way towards making our
+bricks-and-mortar joyless wildernesses into something human and
+habitable.
+
+Whether, under favourable circumstances and the rare public spirit of
+private owners, much can be done, or to any wide extent, so long as
+absolute individual ownership in land and ground values is allowed,
+seems to me very doubtful. We cannot hope to see great social
+improvements without great economic changes, but every effort in the
+direction of improving the beauty of our cities is welcome to all who
+have the well-being of the community at heart; and such work as Prof.
+Geddes is doing should arouse the keenest interest and the earnest
+attention of all who realise its immense social importance.
+
+
+From MR. J.H. HARLEY, M.A.
+
+If sociology is ever to vindicate itself as an art, it must be able to
+analyse and explain the present, and to some extent at least to cast the
+horoscope of the future. It must feel its way through all the tangled
+labyrinths of city life, and show us where we have arrived and whither
+we are going. But this is exactly the part of Professor Geddes' Applied
+Sociology where he becomes most vague and unsatisfactory. "Enough for
+the present," we are told, "if it be admitted that the practical man in
+his thought and action in the present is mainly as yet the too
+unconscious child of the past, and that in the city he is still working
+within the grasp of natural conditions." Now we must all be willing to
+admit that the present is the child of the past, and that we cannot
+adequately understand [Page: 132] the present until we have led up to
+the present by the study of its antecedents more and less remote. But
+what Professor Geddes fails to bring out is that it is only in the
+present or the more immediate past that the City has really become a
+City in the modern sense of the word. The City as City is a product of
+the Industrial Revolution. Its huge and casual assemblages of human
+life, its overcrowding, its poverty line, its East End and its West End,
+its infantile mortality, its trades massed in their own particular
+districts, it aliens, its criminals and its vices--all these problems of
+social pathology arise from the fact that the conditions of modern
+industry have brought people together who have few interests in common,
+and who were compelled to arrange themselves in some kind of decent
+order within a limited area, without sufficient time being given to
+evolve a suitable environment, or to prepare themselves for the
+environment which they actually found on every side of them. London in
+the past, therefore, cannot help us so very much to solve the riddles of
+London in the present, because London in the past had not developed
+these social growths or offered a mature ground to those social
+parasites which make us sometimes despair of being able to get much
+insight into the London of the present.
+
+The fact seems to be that Prof. Geddes conceives sociology too much as a
+primary and too little as a secondary science. He defines applied
+sociology as the application of social survey to social science, when
+social ratiocination or social philosophy are needed before one can be
+said to have gauged the extent of the influence which this comprehensive
+science may have in our actual practice or on our Budget of the future.
+No doubt, "observation, so far from excluding interpretation, is just
+the very means of preparing for it," but this preparation must be made
+in the various specialisms which make up the complete or encyclopaedic
+science of sociology. To me it seems an unwarrantable narrowing of the
+scope or significance of sociology to say that there is no better method
+available of teaching it "than that of regional survey, historical as
+well as geographical." Surely "regional survey" Is the appropriate
+method in the very simplest and most concrete parts of the complete
+science of sociology, and even when we come to history proper we must do
+very much more than make a regional survey. It is very interesting, no
+doubt, to "survey" history in the course of a summer ramble to the ruins
+of some old monastery, but unless the monks had kept records of what had
+been done there in bygone days, the mere outward survey will not carry
+us further than Prof. Geddes is carried in the very general map which he
+makes of the whole field of history. In other words, history, in any
+proper sense, demands more than "survey" in Prof. Geddes' sense of the
+word. It calls to its aid linguistics, criticism, archaeology,
+jurisprudence, and politics--there must be comparison and criticism as
+well as "survey." History is the laboratory in which the sociologist
+sees his social experiments working out their [Page: 133] results, and
+history is to the sociologist what experiment is to the physician, or
+the comparative method to the biologist.
+
+This being so, the scope of "civics" as "applied sociology" is immensely
+widened. The present is the child of the past, but we see that it is
+only in the present that such ancient groups as the colony of Hanseatic
+merchants in Old London have shown us what has been the ultimate
+significance of their embryological life. The modern city bristles with
+sociological problems which demand a knowledge of most of the
+specialisms included in the complete science of sociology, and almost
+invite us to cast the horoscope of the future. We see, as Booth and
+Rowntree saw before us, the poverty line like a fiery portent at every
+point of our study, and we are led finally to ask ourselves whether M.
+Arthur Bauer was not right in choosing the title "Les Classes Sociales"
+as the most characteristic title he could give to his recent and most
+suggestive analysis of the general characteristics of social life.
+
+
+From MR. T.C. HORSFALL
+
+(President, Manchester Citizen's Association, &c.)
+
+The teaching of the paper seems to me to be most sound and helpful. The
+town of the future--I trust of the near future--must by means of its
+schools, its museums, and galleries, its playgrounds, parks and
+gymnasia, its baths, its wide tree-planted streets and the belt of
+unspoilt country which must surround it, bring all its inhabitants in
+some degree under the _best_ influences of all the regions and all the
+stages of civilisation, the influences of which, but not the best
+influences, contribute, and have contributed, to make our towns what
+they are.
+
+
+From H. OSMAN NEWLAND
+
+(Author of "_A Short History of Citizenship_")
+
+The failures of democratic governments in the past have been
+attributable, in part, to the lack of intelligence and
+self-consciousness among the mass of those who were given a voice in the
+government of their country. Citizenship, like morality, was allowed to
+grow by instinct; it was never systematised as a science, or applied as
+an art. Sparta and Athens approached towards a system of civics much
+less elaborate than that expounded by Professor Geddes; but in Sparta
+citizenship became inseparable from Nationalism, and in Athens it
+scarcely rose above Municipalism. In more modern times, civic education
+has had to encounter the same difficulty as in America, where the young
+citizen's first duty is to salute his flag, and as in London, where
+"Civics" is distributed in doles of local [Page: 134] history in which
+the municipality plays a part altogether out of proportion to its
+relation to the country, the age, and the world. Civics, as the applied
+sociology of each individual and each body of interests, has but begun
+to be dreamed of; and before it can be properly developed it is
+desirable, if not necessary, that the general public should know
+something more than at present both of the historic development of the
+"civic" idea, and of the psychology of aggregations as differentiated
+from the psychology of the individual. Not until we can make "the man in
+the street" a conscious citizen, instead of a political automaton, shall
+we be able to enlist his sympathies with "Civics"; and without those
+sympathies the sociologist's "Civics" will, I fear, be but partial and
+inaccurate.
+
+
+From MR. G. BISSET SMITH
+
+(H.M. Registration Examiner for East of Scotland).
+
+There is an elusiveness here and there in this paper which has helped to
+confirm me in the opinion that it is well to emphasise the fact that
+Prof. Geddes is not only a dreamer of lofty dreams but a doer and a
+practical initiator. He has expressed himself not only in words but in
+art and in architecture, and in educational organisation; and he has in
+many ways, sometimes indirectly, influenced scholastic and civic
+activities.
+
+If from the Outlook Tower he dreams of an idealised Edinburgh he has
+only to reply to the scoffer who asks, "What have you done?"
+"_Circumspice!_" There stand the settlements he initiated, the houses
+beautiful, bright, delectable; and the tower itself is an embodiment of
+his ideas, an encyclopaedia in stone and in storeys.
+
+We must, in criticising this paper, take into account these attempts
+towards realisation of its principles. The sociological evolutionist is
+"concerned primarily with origins, but ultimately and supremely with
+ideals," we were reminded in a recent paper read before this Society.
+And in the same paper it was affirmed that, "through the formulation of
+its larger generalisations as ideals, sociology may hope to achieve the
+necessary return from theory to practice." Thus, if Civics is applied
+Sociology, we must rest its claims on these criteria. What, then, we
+have to ask is:--(1) What actually are the generalisations of the
+present paper? (2) How far they are warranted by verifiable sociological
+testimony, and (3) What results do they yield when transformed by the
+touch of emotion into ideals of action? To attempt an adequate answer to
+these questions would perhaps transcend the limits of this discussion.
+But merely to raise these questions of presupposition should tend to
+clarify the discussion. Coming to detail, I may say, as one whose
+occupation is demographic, I regret the unavoidable briefness of the
+reference in "Civics" to a "rationalised census of the present condition
+of the people."
+
+[Page: 135] No one, however, who has studied the concluding portion of
+"The Evolution of Sex" can accuse Prof. Geddes of ignoring questions of
+_population_; and his eulogium, written ten years ago, of "Mr. Charles
+Booth as one of our own latest and best Economists," is familiar to all
+readers of "Education for Economics and Citizenship." In that extremely
+suggestive treatise, Prof. Geddes further points out that population
+must have a primary place in consideration, and that "our studies of the
+characteristic occupation of region by region are the essential material
+of a study of its whole civilisation."
+
+Accepting Mr. Branford's definition of _occupation_ as "any and every
+form of human endeavour, past, present, and future," we see that
+occupation must have a large place in the description, explanation, and
+forecasting of the evolution of cities--such as Edinburgh, Glasgow,
+Dundee--in the scheme of survey outlined so sweepingly in "Civics."
+
+"Life and Labour of the People in London" contains several general
+observations almost equally applicable to our largest Scottish cities,
+with the demographic conditions of which my official duties give me
+special opportunities for becoming familiar and for regional survey.
+
+In the concluding volume of that great contribution to sociology Mr.
+Booth (page 23) remarks:--
+
+"Many influences conspire to cause the poor to multiply almost in
+proportion to their poverty, and operate in the other direction in the
+case of the better off, almost in proportion to their wealth. But," says
+Mr. Booth, "when we bring the death-rate into account this law no longer
+holds."
+
+With the poor living under bad conditions in crowded homes the net
+increase is diminished. To those of us who are hopeful of improvement by
+eugenics it is pleasing to note that Mr. Booth--somewhat unlike Mr. Kidd
+in his well-known "Social Evolution"--is optimistic in his conclusion
+that "on the whole it may fairly be expected that concurrently with a
+rising standard of health we may see a fall in birth-rate as well as
+death-rate, and thus have no cause to fear, as the result of better
+sanitation, that the largest natural increase in population will ever be
+contributed by the lowest class." So the heritage of the city may grow
+not only in quantity but also in quality.
+
+From PROFESSOR W.I. THOMAS
+(Professor in the University of Chicago, U.S.A.)
+
+From the standpoint of its applicability to new countries like America,
+Professor Geddes' programme is inadequate because of its failure to
+recognise that a city under these conditions is formed by a rapid and
+contemporaneous movement of population, and not by the lapse of time.
+[Page: 136] The first permanent white settler came to Chicago precisely
+one hundred years ago, and the city has a population at present of about
+two and a quarter millions. It is here not a question of slow historic
+development but of the rapid drifting towards a certain point, of a
+population from all quarters of the globe, and the ethnological
+standpoint therefore becomes of more importance than the historical.
+
+PROFESSOR GEDDES' reply
+
+I am sincerely glad to be able to express myself in substantial
+agreement with the majority of my critics, only asking them in turn to
+recognise that this is but the first half of my subject--an outline of
+civics as in the first place a matter of science, a geographic and
+historic survey of past conditions, a corresponding census of present
+ones--here discussed and insisted on as affording the needful base for
+their demands upon civics as an art, that of effective social service.
+
+In this respect various critics have in fact anticipated large elements
+of this future portion of my paper, so that in general views, at least,
+critics and writer are not so far apart as would appear were the
+preceding pages submitted as a comprehensive outline of the subject,
+instead of as its scientific introduction merely.
+
+Of criticisms strictly applicable to this paper as it stands, there are
+really very few. I am confident that the chairman must be quite alone in
+too modestly applying to his great work that description of London
+itself, with which the paper (Section A, pp. 104-107) opens, since his
+volumes offer really our first effective clue to the labyrinth, and his
+method of intensive and specialised regional survey, the intensest
+searchlight yet brought to bear upon it.
+
+Taking, however, a concrete point of criticism, such as that of the
+monumental planning of modern Paris as derived from forest rides, the
+critic need only walk through any French forest, or even to consult a
+Baedeker, or other guide-book, with its maps of any historic dwelling
+and its surroundings, from Chantilly or Fontainebleau to minor ones, to
+see that this plan, originally devised for the pleasure, success and
+safety [Page: 137] of the hunt, and later adapted to domination and
+defence, became next appreciated as affording the finest possible
+perspectives of the palatially rebuilt chateau. So that it is not at all
+a fantastic hypothesis, but an obvious and inevitable conclusion that
+Napoleon's and Haussman's plans were not at all invented by them for
+Paris, but were directly imitated from the familiar landscape
+architecture of the preceding century, which again was but the simplest
+development from the spacious forest rides of older hunting nobles, laid
+out without any thought of the architectural and city developments they
+were destined in later centuries to determine.
+
+The citizen of Washington had till lately often forgotten that the
+magnificent perspectives of his city are due to the French
+landscape-architect (Major L'Enfant) whom Washington imported for the
+express purpose of laying out his capital; yet it is no less clear that
+this most magnificent of the New World city plans is derived from Old
+World forest rides, than that its monumental edifices descend from
+Renaissance and classic exemplars.
+
+I plead indeed for such studies of the plans of any and every city from
+the point of view of its natural development. The too purely abstract
+and subjective sociology of the dwellers of great cities like London
+would in this way be helped by the facts of their own topographic
+history, already well known and clearly explained by geographer and
+historian, towards again feeling with the naturalist that even the
+modern city is but the most complex evolutionary expression and
+development of the life of Nature.
+
+This view I take to be indeed a commonplace in France; but I account for
+its apparent unfamiliarity to English readers from the fact of our
+scanty forests in this island being left practically wild, our nobles
+not inhabiting them, but the cultivated pasture and arable regions
+below--planting trees indeed, "plantations," but seldom woods, and
+practically never forests at all. This again brings out the fact that
+the French nobles, despite our urban associations with regard to them
+have belonged far more than ours to the social formation and tradition
+of the hunter--while ours, despite their love of sports, are yet
+fundamentally squires, i.e., essentially and historically approximating
+to the peasants of their villages. The bearing of all this upon their
+respective history will be obvious. Here again we have the origins of
+the vivid contrast of the English or so-called naturalistic style of
+landscape-gardening with the more formal French tradition. Yet in a very
+true sense we see the former to be even more highly artificial than the
+latter. [Page: 138] The English citizen who may even admit this way of
+looking at the contrasted city plans of London and Paris may fail,
+unless he has appreciated the principle here involved, to see why London
+and Paris houses are so different--the one separate and self-contained,
+with its door undefended and open upon the street, while the normal
+Parisian house is a populous, high-piled tenement around a central
+court, with high _porte cochere_ closed by massive oaken doors and
+guarded by an always vigilant and often surly _concierge_.
+
+A moment of historical reflection suffices to see that the former is the
+architecture of a long-settled agricultural place, with its spreading
+undefended villages, in which each household had its separate dwelling,
+the other a persistence of the Continental fortified city crowded within
+its walls.
+
+But beyond this we must see the earlier historic, the simpler geographic
+origins of the French courtyard house as a defensible farmyard, of which
+the ample space was needed nightly for defence against wild beasts, if
+not also wilder men, against whom the _concierge_ is not only the
+antique porter but the primitive sentinel.
+
+I may seem unduly to labour such points, yet do so advisedly, in order
+to emphasise and make clearer the essential thesis of this portion of my
+paper--that every scientific survey involves a geographic and historic
+exploration of origins, but that of the still unwritten chapter, that
+the far-reaching forelook, idealistic yet also critical, which is
+needful to any true and enduring contribution to social service, is
+prepared for by habitually imaging the course of evolution in the past.
+
+Speaking personally, as one whose leisure and practical life have alike
+been largely spent in the study and the preservation of ancient
+buildings, I may say that this has not been solely, or even essentially,
+from an antiquarian interest in the historic past, but still more on
+behalf of a practical interest--that of the idealistic, yet economic,
+utilitarian, because educational and evolutionary, transformation of our
+old cities--old Edinburgh, old Dunfermline, and the like--from their
+present sordid unhygienic failure; and therefore industrial and
+commercial insufficiency, towards a future equalling if not transcending
+the recorded greatness of the civic past.
+
+It has, therefore, been to lay the broadest possible basis of
+evolutionary science, of geographic and historic fact, for what would
+otherwise be open to ridicule as a Utopian hope, that of Civics as
+Applied Social Art, that I have insisted at such length above upon
+Civics as Applied Social Science.
+
+
+
+
+[Page: 139] PRESS COMMENTS
+
+_The Times_ (July 20, 1904) in a leading article, said:
+
+In the paper read on Monday at a meeting of the Sociological Society by
+Professor GEDDES--an abstract of which we print--are contained ideas of
+practical value to be recommended to the study of ambitious
+municipalities. This is the age of cities, and all the world is
+city-building. Almost everywhere is a flow from the country town-ward.
+China and India may be still, in the main, lands of villages. But the
+West, Russia perhaps excepted, is more and more peopled by dwellers in
+cities. In a dim sort of way many persons understand that the time has
+come when art and skill and foresight should control what so far has
+been left to chance to work out; that there should be a more orderly
+conception of civic action; that there is a real art of city-making, and
+that it behoves this generation to master and practise it. Professor
+Geddes truly said the land is already full of preparation as to this
+matter; the beginnings of a concrete art of city-making are visible at
+various points. But our city rulers are often among the blindest to
+these considerations; and nowhere probably is to be seen a municipality
+fully and consistently alive to its duties in this respect. London may
+be left out of the question. Still a province rather than a city in the
+strict sense, wanting what, in the view of the early master of political
+science, was an essential of the true city, that it could "easily be
+overseen," with a vast floating population, it will be some time before
+it can be dealt with as an organic whole. But the rulers of such
+communities as Manchester and Newcastle and York ought long ago to have
+realised, much more than has been done, that they are not so much brick
+and mortar, so much rateable area, so many thousands of people
+fortuitously brought together. They have all a regional environment of
+their own which determined their origin and growth. They have all a rich
+past, the monuments of which, generally to be found in abundance by
+careful, reverent inquirers, ought to be preserved; a past which ought
+to be known more or less to all the dwellers therein, and the knowledge
+of which will make the present more interesting. Even when old buildings
+have disappeared, ancient roads, pathways, and streets can be traced;
+place names keep alive much history; and the natural features reveal to
+the practised eye what must have been the look and condition of a town
+in past ages. Professor Geddes gives a sketch of what he conceives the
+vast and ever-growing literature of cities will one day be. Even if the
+comprehensive monographs which he foreshadows are never [Page: 140]
+written, it is not surely fanciful to expect that, with education
+universal, almost every dweller in our old towns will acquire some sort
+of that feeling with which a member of an ancient family looks upon its
+ancestral house or lands--will, even without much reading, have some
+sort of notion of his predecessors and a certain pride in his membership
+of an ancient community. If he has not the good fortune to be a De Vere,
+a De Bohun, a Howard, Mowbray or Cavendish, he may perhaps be a citizen
+of a town which flourished when some of these families were unknown.
+
+Such pride, or, as the lecturer preferred to term it, such "growth of
+civic consciousness and conscience, the awakening of citizenship towards
+civic renascence," will be the best security for a worthy city of the
+future....
+
+Professor Geddes glanced at the opening civic future, "the remoter and
+higher issues which a city's indefinitely long life and correspondingly
+needed foresight and statesmanship involve," the possibilities which may
+be easily realised if only there be true civic pride, foresight, and
+unflagging pursuit of a reasonable ideal.... It remains to be seen what
+our cities will become when for some generations the same spirit of
+pride and reverence shown by old families as to their possessions has
+presided over all civic changes and developments.... Ruskin somewhere
+points out the mediaeval love of cities, unwholesome, dirty, and
+forbidding though they were. He did not teach his generation that that
+affection might with more reason attach to the modern city if its people
+knew what it had been and steadily strove to make it better, if there
+was in every large community patriotism and a polity.
+
+DR. J.H. BRIDGES in _The Positivist Review_ (Sept., 1904), said: Under
+the title, "Civics, as applied Sociology," Prof. Geddes read on July
+18th a very interesting paper before the Sociological Society. The
+importance of the subject will be contested by none. The method adopted
+in handling it, being in many ways original, invites remark ...
+
+What is wanted is first a survey of the facts to be dealt with--a
+regional survey. This point of view has next to be correlated with
+corresponding practical experience acquired by practical civic life, but
+"aiming at a larger and more orderly conception of civic action."....
+Students of Comte will not forget his well-known maxim, _Savoir pour
+prevoir, afin de pourvoir_.
+
+What is to be the area of survey? Prof. Geddes decides that the City may
+be taken "as the integrate of study." Whether any modern towns, and, if
+so, what, may be taken as integrates in the sense which would
+undoubtedly apply to ancient Athens or to mediaeval Florence, may be
+questioned; but it is too soon to interrupt our author.... Every one who
+heard the lecturer must have been fascinated by his picture of a river
+system which he takes for his unit of study; the high mountain tracts,
+the pastoral hillsides, the hamlets and villages in the valleys, the
+market town where the valleys meet, the convergence of the larger
+valleys into a county town, finally, the great city where the river
+meets the sea. The lecturer went on to advocate the systematic study of
+some of the principal river-basins of the world for the purpose of
+examining the laws which govern the grouping of cities. All would agree
+that much instruction might be derived from such [Page: 141] a survey,
+provided two dangers be avoided. One is the exaggeration of the
+influence of the environment on the social organism, an error into which
+the Le Play school have sometimes fallen; as when, for instance, it was
+sought to explain Chinese civilisation by the rice-plant. The other
+danger, which needs much care and thought to avoid, is the accumulation
+of such a mass of irrelevant detail as renders (perhaps sometimes it is
+intended to render) all generalisation impossible. Thinking men are at
+last beginning to regard the accumulation of memoirs as one of the
+principal obstacles to scientific progress. On the pretext of "more
+evidence," conclusions are adjourned, not merely _sine die_, but _sine
+spe diei_. Yet so long as man is man, he must, and will, have
+conclusions; be they final or otherwise.
+
+From the physiography of the city we pass to its history ...
+
+In this part of his subject he has, as we all know, many precursors and
+fellow-workers. The remarkable series, entitled "Historic Towns,"
+instituted by Prof. Freeman, is known to most. The study of towns was
+the life and soul of Mr. Green's historic labours. Eloquent and powerful
+pictures of the great cities of the world fill the greater part of Mr.
+Harrison's well-known volume, "The Meaning of History"; and the student
+of universal history (a few of these, it may be hoped, are still left)
+finds them very stimulating and helpful. The special note of Prof.
+Geddes' method is that he does not limit himself to the greater cities,
+but also, and perhaps by preference, deals with the smaller, and with
+their physical environment; and, above all, that he attempts not merely
+to observe closely and thoroughly, but to generalise as the result of
+his observation. In biology, the study of any single organism, however
+minute and accurate, could reveal no laws (i.e., no general facts) of
+structure or function. As for instance, many forms of heart must be
+examined before the laws governing blood-circulation could be revealed;
+so here. Countless, indeed, are the forms of cities; even limiting our
+field of observation to those that have grown up in the last century
+they are numerous enough. Their differences and analogies would
+doubtless repay analysis, always supposing that we are clear how far the
+modern town, as contrasted with the mediaeval or Graeco-Roman city, can
+usefully be treated as "an integrate." This raises large questions of
+nation, of groups of nations, finally of Humanity, which cannot here be
+touched.
+
+Meantime, from the teacher's standpoint, there can be no question at
+all, among those who look upon education as something more than a
+commercial asset, as to the utility of looking on every old town, with
+the neighbourhood around it, as a condensed record, here and there
+perfect, elsewhere lamentably blotted, yet still a record, of the
+history of our race. Historic memories survive in our villages far more
+widely than is thought. The descendants of the man who found the body of
+Rufus in the New Forest still live hard by. The builder whom the first
+William set to build Corfe Castle was Stephen Mowlem; and the
+Dorsetshire firm of Mowlem still pave London causeways. A poor woman in
+a remote hamlet, untouched by tourist or guide-book, has shown me the
+ash-tree under which Monmouth was seized after Sedgemoor; a Suffolk
+peasant, equally innocent of book-knowledge, has pointed Out "Bloody
+Mary's lane," through which that bugbear of Protestants passed three
+hundred years before on her way to Framlingham. The abbey immortalised
+in Carlyle's "Past and Present," and still the wonder of Eastern
+England, is surrounded now by the same villages that Jocelyn tells us
+of. The town named after St. Alban, with its memories of Cassivellaun
+and Julius Caesar, of an old Roman city, of the Diocletian persecution,
+of the great King Offa, founder of the abbey that was to become [Page:
+142] at once a school of historical research, and our best epitome of
+mediaeval architecture--all this, with the monument of the author of the
+"Novum Organum" crowning the whole--sums up for us sixteen centuries of
+history.
+
+Professor Geddes for more than twenty years has adopted this method of
+teaching sociology in the open air; "in the field," as geologists would
+say....
+
+This is much more than the study and the description of buildings and
+places of historical interest. His aim is first to study the way in
+which a city grows, always having due regard to its physical
+environment; secondly, by comparing like with like, as a naturalist
+compares the individuals of a species, or the species of a genus, to
+throw light on the laws which govern civic development, and thus to help
+forward and direct civic action.
+
+All this is set forth with greater fulness in the Report which Professor
+Geddes has been asked to write for the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust. The
+purpose of the Report (printed, but not yet published) was to suggest
+the way in which the revenue of the Trust, amounting to L25,000, should
+be spent for the benefit of this ancient and historic town. The scheme,
+with its many pictures, real and ideal, of workshops, parks,
+culture-institutes--physical, artistic, and historical--will deeply
+interest even those who reject much of it as Utopian. But it is at least
+a Utopia specially adapted to a given place and time, one in which every
+feature of landscape and history is made the most of, one in which a
+beginning can be made at once, leaving room for further developments as
+occasion may serve. Moreover, it is penetrated through and through with
+the Republican ideal of bringing the highest truth within the reach of
+all.
+
+Comte has pointed out, in the fifth chapter of his "General View of
+Positivism," and elsewhere, that it is not enough to enunciate sound
+principles of social renovation unless they can be rendered visible and
+palpable. "The principal function of art," he says, "is to construct
+types on the basis furnished by Science.... However perfectly the first
+principles of social renovation may be elaborated by thinkers, they will
+still not be sufficiently definite for the practical results.... But, at
+the point where Philosophy must always leave a void, Art steps in, and
+stimulates to practical action.... Hence, in the future, systematic
+formation of Utopias will become habitual; on the distinct understanding
+that as in every other branch of art, the ideal shall be kept in
+subordination to the real."
+
+Now, the Dunfermline Report is an admirable example of art thus allied
+with science for social service. It is an ideal picture, strictly
+adherent to local colour and conditions, of an ancient city prolonging
+its vitality into the present and future by providing a very high form
+of training for its citizens, a training not of intellect only, but of
+the senses, of manual dexterity, of imagination, of Republican
+sympathy--a training in which "laborious inacquaintance with dead
+languages," infusing into the few touched by it a tincture of caste and
+militarism, gives way to comprehensive study of the evolution of Man,
+preparing the whole, and not a section merely, of the new generation for
+social service.
+
+Such a Utopia as this may be looked upon as fulfilling the true social
+function of Art; standing midway between theory and practice; inspired
+by thought, and stimulating action. Only the social artist has to look
+to it that his thoughts be not merely true but adequate, lest he
+degenerate into a mere decorator. How far will a series of "regional
+surveys," like those of [Page: 143] Mr. Booth in London and Mr. Rowntree
+in York, carry us! Not so far, I fear, as Professor Geddes seems to
+hope. Cities in our modern life are organs inseparable from a larger
+whole, the nation; and before the life of cities can be much changed, we
+have to ask ourselves, What is the national life? What is its ethical
+and religious standard? What is its practice as to the acquisition and
+distribution of wealth? And, again, What is to be the intercourse of
+nations? Is it to be war or peace?
+
+Mr. Carnegie has given half a million for the benefit of a town of
+30,000 inhabitants. Magnificent as the donation is, it is not too much;
+not nearly enough, indeed, for the full realisation of Professor Geddes'
+scheme. Still, wisely used, it might accomplish great results. What we
+have recently sunk in the work of suppressing two free States in South
+Africa would have made it possible to do for three hundred towns what
+has been done for Dunfermline. Half of what we are now spending on our
+army and navy would enable us to endow thirty more of such towns
+annually.
+
+Mr. ISRAEL ZANGWILL in _To-day_ (Aug. 10, 1904), said: The Sociological
+Society is forging ahead at American speed; the professors jostle one
+another, and Geddes treads on the heels of Galton. After "Eugenics," or
+the Science of Good Births, comes "Civics," or the Science of Cities. In
+the former Mr. Galton was developing an idea which was in the air, and
+in Wells. In the latter Professor Geddes has struck out a more novel
+line, and a still more novel nomenclature. Politography, Politogenics,
+and Eu-Politogenics, likewise Hebraomorphic and Latinomorphic and
+Eutopia--quite an opposite idea from Utopia--such are some of the
+additions to the dictionary which the science of Civics carries in its
+train. They are all excellent words--with the double-barrelled
+exception--and still more excellent concepts. But I fancy the general
+idea of them all could be conveyed to the man in the street under the
+covering of "the human shell." This shell of ours is the city. It is the
+protective crust we have built round ourselves. In a smaller sense our
+house is our shell, but in a larger sense each house is only a lobe of
+the complex and contorted whole. Geography shapes our shells from
+without, and the spirit of our particular community shapes it from
+within. History tells us how it has been shaped in the past, Art tells
+us how it should be shaped in the future. Professor Geddes, in fact,
+envisages our civic shell as becomes a brilliant biologist, who also
+happens to be a man of historic imagination, ethical impulses, and
+aesthetic perceptions. For the human shell is not merely geometrical and
+architectural, like those of apian or beaverish communities; it holds
+and expresses all those differences by which we are exalted above the
+bee or the beaver. It is coloured with our emotions and ideals, and
+contorted with all the spirals of our history. And all these
+manifestations of humanity may be studied as systematically as those of
+the lower orders of creation, which have till recently monopolised the
+privilege of pin and label. The old lady who admired the benevolence of
+Providence in always placing rivers by the side of large towns was only
+expressing in an exaggerated way the general failure to think of Civics
+scientifically. The geographers, in whom may be found the bases of the
+science, have always pointed out that the river system is the essential
+unit for investigation. From source to sea goes the line of evolution.
+And yet even the peasant hamlet at the source depends, as [Page: 144]
+Professor Geddes reminds us, on the hinterland of pasture, forest, and
+chase; and the hunter is the germ of the soldier and the aristocrat. The
+whole region contributes to the ultimate city, as the whole river to the
+ultimate sea. The Professor says, justly enough, that we should try to
+recover the elemental or naturalist point of view, even for the greatest
+cities. He sees London as "fundamentally an agglomeration of villages
+with their surviving patches of common around a mediaeval seaport." This
+is accurate vision; but when he discerns "even in the utmost
+magnificence of Paris, say, its Place de l'Etoile, its spread of
+boulevards, but the hunter's tryst by the fallen tree, with its
+radiating forest rides, each literally straight," I cannot help
+suspecting the over-ingenuity of a prolific intellect. The view of
+London as a growth from embryos, and the view of Paris as the outcome of
+atavistic instinct, belong to different planes of scientific thinking.
+That Haussmann in reconstructing Paris was merely an unconscious hunter
+and woodlander, building as automatically as a bee, is a fantastic
+hypothesis; since cities, if they are to be built on a plan at all,
+cannot avoid some unifying geometrical pattern; and there are not very
+many possibilities.... In the department of Eu-Politogenics we shall be
+confronted with the problem of consciously overriding what evolution has
+unconsciously evolved, and building towards a fairer future. No doubt
+much of our creation will be imitation, and Professor Geddes is
+particularly suggestive in bidding us, at least, to be aware which of
+the tangled strands of influence we desire to follow; but a measure of
+artistic free-will remains. With the development of a corporate
+conscience we should be able to turn out far more satisfactory shells
+than many that have blundered into being. "Garden City" is only a
+particular application of the science of Civics....
+
+Eu-Politogenics concerns itself, however, with more than the mere
+configuration of our human shell. Its colour and the music it holds are
+considerations no less important. But they are too important to touch at
+the fag-end of an article. Professor Geddes must, however, be
+congratulated on a stimulating paper, and upon his discovery of Eutopia.
+For Eutopia (unlike Utopia, which is really Ou-topia, or no place) is
+merely your own place perfected. And the duty of working towards its
+perfection lies directly upon _you_. "Civics--as applied sociology"
+comes to show you the way.
+
+
+
+
+CIVICS: AS CONCRETE AND APPLIED SOCIOLOGY, PART II
+
+BY PROFESSOR GEDDES
+
+Read before the Sociological Society at a Meeting in the School of
+Economics and Political Science (University of London), Clare Market,
+W.C., on Monday, January 23rd, 1905, the Rt. Hon. CHARLES BOOTH, F.R.S.,
+in the Chair.
+
+
+A--INTRODUCTION: THE NEED OF CIVIC SURVEYS
+
+To the previous discussion of this subject[2] the first portion of this
+present title, "Civics as Concrete Sociology," would have been more
+suitable than the second, (that of "Civics as Applied Sociology")
+actually used. For its aim was essentially to plead for the concrete
+survey and study of cities, their observation and interpretation on
+lines essentially similar to those of the natural sciences. Since
+Comte's demonstration of the necessity of the preliminary sciences to
+social studies, and Spencer's development of this, still more since the
+evolution theory has become generally recognised, no one disputes the
+applicability of biology to [Page: 58] sociology. Many are, indeed,
+vigorously applying the conceptions of life in evolution, in
+geographical distribution and environment, in health and disease, to the
+interpretations of the problems of the times; while with the
+contemporary rise of eugenics to the first plane of interest, both
+social and scientific, these lines of thought, bio-social and
+bio-geographic, must needs be increasingly utilised and developed.
+
+[2] "Sociological Papers," Vol 1., pp. 103-118.
+
+But Comte and Spencer, with most other biologically-minded sociologists
+have been more at home among biological generalisations and theories
+than among the facts they arise from, and hence it is ever needful to
+maintain and extend a first-hand contact with these. I seek, therefore,
+to press home the idea that just as the biologist must earn his
+generalisations through direct and first-hand acquaintance with nature,
+so now must the sociologist work for his generalisations through a
+period of kindred observation and analysis, both geographic and
+historical; his "general laws" thus appearing anew as the abstract of
+regional facts, after due comparison of these as between region and
+region.
+
+May not much of the comparative sterility of post-Comtean (or at any
+rate post-Spencerian) sociology, which is so commonly reproached to us,
+and to which the difficult formation and slow growth of sociological
+societies and schools is largely due, be thus explained? Is it not the
+case that many able and persuasive writers, not only knowing the
+results, but logically using the generalisations of Comte or Spencer, as
+of old of Smith or now-a-days of List in the economic field, are yet
+comparatively sterile of fresh contributions to thought, and still more
+to action? In fact, must we not apply to much of the literature of
+recent sociology, just as to traditional economics, the criticism of
+Comte's well-known law of three states, and inquire if such writers,
+while apparently upon the plane of generalised science, are not really
+in large measure at least arrested upon Comte's "metaphysical stage,"
+Mill's "abstractional" one?
+
+Conversely, the revival of sociological interest in this country at
+present is obviously very largely derived from fresh and freshening work
+like that of Mr Francis Galton and of the Right Hon. Charles Booth
+especially. For here in Mr. Galton's biometrics and eugenics is a return
+to nature, a keen scrutiny of human beings, which is really an orderly
+fruition of that of the same author's "Art of Travel." Similarly, Mr.
+Booth's "Survey of London" is as truly a return to nature as was
+Darwin's Voyage, or his yet more far-reaching studies in his garden and
+farmyard at home. [Page: 59] Is it not the main support of the subtle
+theorisings and far-stretched polemic of Prof. Weismann that he can
+plague his adversaries with the small but literal and concrete mice and
+hydroids and water fleas with which his theories began? And is it not
+for a certain lack of such concrete matter of observation that the vast
+systematisations of M. de Greef, or M. de Roberty, or the original and
+ingenious readings of Prof. Simon Patten leave us too often unconvinced,
+even if not sometimes without sufficiently definite understanding of
+their meaning? The simplest of naturalists must feel that Comte or
+Spencer, despite the frequently able use of the generalisations of
+biology, themselves somewhat lacked the first-hand observation of the
+city and community around them, and suffered thereby; this part of their
+work obviously not being on a level with the historic interpretations of
+the one or the psychological productivity of the other. And if, without
+warlike intent, I may yet strike a conspicuous shield or two within
+these friendly lists, is it not this one element of concrete observation
+and illustration which is sometimes lacking to give its full effect to
+the encyclopaedic learning and the sympathetic insight of one of our
+recent papers, to the historic and poetic interpretations of another, or
+to the masterly logic of a third?
+
+Before the polemics of our educationists, the voluminous argumentation
+and casuistic subtlety of our professors of economics and ethics, yet
+more before the profound speculations of the epistemologists, the mere
+naturalist observer can but feel abashed like the truant before his
+schoolmasters; yet he is also not without a certain deep inward
+conviction, born of experience, that his outdoor world is yet more real,
+more vast, and more instructive than is theirs. And this impression
+becomes strengthened, nay verified and established, when he sees that
+the initiative thinkers from whom these claim to descend, have had in
+each and every case no merely academic record, but also a first-hand
+experience, an impulse and message from life and nature. Hence the
+contributions of Locke, of Comenius, and of Rousseau. Hence the
+Physiocrats found economics in peasant life; and thus too Adam Smith
+renewed their science, with due academic logic, doubtless, but from his
+experience of Glasgow and Kirkcaldy manufactures and trade. Even the
+idealist Berkeley owed much of his theory to his iridescent tar-water;
+while surely the greater ethicists are those who have not only been
+dialecticians, but moral forces in the world of men.
+
+In such ways, then, I would justify the thesis that civics is no
+abstract study, but fundamentally a matter of concrete and descriptive
+sociology--perhaps the greatest field of this. Next, that such orderly
+study is in line with the preliminary sciences, and with the general
+doctrine of evolution from simple to complex; and finally with the
+general inquiry into the influence of geographical conditions on social
+development. [Page: 60] In short, the student of civics must be first of
+all an observer of cities; and, if so, of their origins and
+developments, from the small and simple beginnings of which the tiniest
+hamlet is but an arrested germ. The productive sociologist should thus
+be of all investigators a wandering student _par excellence_; in the
+first place, as far as possible, a literal tourist and traveller--and
+this although like the homely Gilbert White or the world voyaging
+Darwin, he may do his best work around his own home.
+
+
+B--INITIAL METHODS OF CONCRETE SURVEY
+
+Hence our civic studies began (vol. 1, p. 105) with the survey of a
+valley region inhabited by its characteristic types--hunter and
+shepherd, peasant and fisher--each on his own level, each evolving or
+degenerating within his own region. Hence the concrete picture of such a
+typical valley section with its types of occupation cannot be brought
+too clearly before our minds.[3]
+
+[3] Fig. 1.
+
+What now of the causes of progress or decay? Are not these first of all
+the qualities and defects inherent in that particular social
+formation?--though we must also consider how these different types act
+and react, how they combine with, transform, subjugate, ruin or replace
+each other in region after region. We thus re-interpret the vicissitudes
+of history in more general terms, those of the differentiation, progress
+or degeneracy of each occupational and social type, and the ascending
+and descending oscillations of these types. In short, these occupational
+struggles underlie and largely interpret even the conflict of races,
+upon which Mr. Stuart-Glennie and other sociologists have so ably
+insisted. The fundamental importance of these initial factors of region
+and occupation to all studies of races and types, of communities and
+institutions, of customs and laws, indeed of language and literature, of
+religion and art, even of ideals and individualities, must be my excuse
+if I seem to insist, in season and out of season, upon [Page: 61] the
+services of Le Play as one of the main founders of sociology; and this
+not only _(a)_ on account of his monographic surveys of modern
+industrial life--those "Monographies Sociales" from which our current
+economic studies of the condition of the worker, of the family budget,
+etc., descend--but _(b)_ yet more on account of his vital reconstruction
+of anthropology (albeit still far from adequately realised by most
+anthropologists) through his renewed insistence upon the elemental
+rustic origins of industry, family types, and social organisation alike,
+from these simplest reactions of man in his struggle for existence in
+varied and varying environment.
+
+It does not suffice to recognise, with many economists, hunting,
+pastoral and agricultural formations, as states _preliminary_ to our
+present industrial and commercial, imperial, and financial order of
+civilisation. This view, still too commonly surviving, is rather of
+hindrance than help; what we need is to see our existing civilisation as
+the complex struggle and resultant of all these types and their
+developments to-day. So far, therefore, from leaving, as at present,
+these simple occupational types to the anthropologist, or at best giving
+him some scant hospitality within our city museum, we are learning to
+see how it is at one time the eager miner, or the conservative shepherd,
+or at another the adventurous fisher or hunter who comes concretely upon
+the first plane of national, imperial or international politics, and who
+awakens new strife among these. We not only begin to see, but the
+soldier frankly tells us, how the current sports of youth, and the
+unprecedented militarism of the past century, are alike profoundly
+connected with the hunting world. Hence the hope of peace lies not only,
+as most at present think in the civilised and civilising development of
+international law, or of culture intercourse, excellent though these
+are, but also in a fuller and complete return to nature than has been
+this recent and persistent obsession of our governing classes with the
+hunter world almost alone; in short, in adding the gentler, yet wider,
+experiences of the naturalist, the sterner experiences of other
+occupations also. Nor does such elementary recognition of these main
+social formations content us; their local differentiations must be noted
+and compared--a comprehensive regional survey, therefore, which does
+justice to each local variety of these great types; speaking henceforth
+of no mere abstract "hunter," but of the specific hunting types of each
+climate, and distinguishing these as clearly as do our own milder
+sportsmen of deer-forest and the turnip field from themselves and from
+each other. After such needed surveys in detail, we may, indeed must,
+compare and generalise them.
+
+Similarly for the pasture, the forest. Every tourist in this country is
+struck by the contrast of Swiss towns and cities with our own, and notes
+[Page: 62] too that on the Swiss pasture he finds a horde of cattle,
+while in Scotland or Yorkshire he left a flock of sheep. And not only
+the tourist, but the historian or the economist too often fail to see
+how Galashiels or Bradford are developments of the wool hamlet, now
+familiar to many in R.L. Stevenson's native Swanston. Again, not only
+Swiss wealth, but Swiss character and institutions, go back essentially
+to the high pasture and the well-filled byre. That this rich Swiss
+cow-pasture rests on limestone, and the poor Scottish sheep-grazing upon
+comparatively unmouldering and impermeable gneiss, is no mere matter of
+geologist's detail; it affords in each case the literal and concrete
+foundation-stone of the subsequent evolution of each region and
+population, and this not only in material and economic development, but
+even in higher and subtler outcomes, aesthetic, intellectual and
+moral.[4] It is for such reasons that one must labour and re-labour this
+geographic and determinist aspect of sociology, and this for no merely
+scientific reason, but also for practical ones. Nowhere perhaps have
+more good and generous souls considered how to better the condition of
+their people than in Swiss, or Irish, or Scottish valleys; yet it is one
+main reason of the continual failure of all such movements, and of such
+minds in the wider world as well, that they do not first acquaint
+themselves with the realities of nature and labour sufficiently to
+appreciate that the fundamental--I do not say the supreme--question is:
+what can be got out of limestone, and what can be got out of gneiss?
+Hence the rare educative value of such a concrete sociological diagram
+and model as was the Swiss Village at the Paris Exposition of 1900, for
+here geographic and economic knowledge and insight were expressed with
+artistic skill and sympathy as perhaps never before. Only as similar
+object-lessons are worked out for other countries, can we adequately
+learn, much less popularly teach, how from nature comes "rustics," and
+from this comes civics. But civics and rustics make up the field of
+politics; they are the concrete of which politics become the
+abstract--commonly the too remotely abstract.
+
+[4] For a fuller justification of this thesis as regards Switzerland,
+see the writer's "International Exhibitions," in _International
+Monthly_, October, 1900.
+
+For final illustration, let us descend to the sea-level. There again,
+taking the fisher, each regional type must be traced in his contribution
+to his town. Take for instance the salmon fisher of Norway, the whaler
+of Dundee, the herring-fisher of Yarmouth, the cod-fisher of
+Newfoundland, the coral fisher of the AEgean; each is a definite varietal
+type, one developing or at least tending to develop characteristic
+normal family relations, and corresponding social outcomes in
+institutions; in which again the appropriate qualities and defects must
+be expressed, even as is the quality and twist of the hemp in the
+strength of the cable, or as is the chemistry and the microscopic
+structure of the alloy in the efficiency of the great gun. [Page: 63]
+Our neighbouring learned societies and museums geographical, geological
+and the rest, are thus avowedly and consciously so many winter shelters
+in which respective groups of regional surveyors tell their tales and
+compare their observations, in which they meet to compare their
+generalisations from their own observations made in the field with those
+made by others. So it must increasingly be for this youngest of
+societies. We may, we should, know best our Thames valley, our London
+basin, our London survey; but the progress of our science implies as
+increasingly varied and thorough an inquiry into rustic and civic
+regions and occupations and resultants throughout the whole world
+present and past, as does the corresponding world survey with our
+geologic neighbours.
+
+I plead then for a sociological survey, rustic and civic, region by
+region, and insist in the first place upon the same itinerant field
+methods of notebook and camera, even for museum collections and the
+rest, as those of the natural sciences. The dreary manuals which have
+too long discredited those sciences in our schools, are now giving place
+to a new and fascinating literature of first-hand nature study.
+Similarly, those too abstract manuals of civics which are at present
+employed in schools[5] must be replaced by concrete and regional ones,
+their abstract counsels of political or personal perfection thus also
+giving place to a corresponding regional idealism which may then be
+supplemented from other regions as far as needs demand and circumstances
+allow.
+
+[5] For a fuller review of these, compare the writer's "City
+Development," in _Contemporary Review_, October, 1904.
+
+C--GEOGRAPHICAL DETERMINISM AND ITS DIFFICULTIES
+
+To interpret then our tangle of ideas, both of the city and its
+citizens, let us now bring more fully to our transverse valley sections,
+and to each occupation separately, the geographical view-point which we
+have found of service to elucidate the development of towns and cities
+upon its longitudinal [Page: 64] slope. But this is neither more nor
+less than the method of Montesquieu, whose classic "Esprit des Lois"
+anticipates and initiates so much of that of later writers--Ritter,
+Buckle, Taine, or Le Play. Once more then let their common, or rather
+their resultant, doctrine be stated in terms expressing the latest of
+these more fully than the first. Given the region, its character
+determines the nature of the fundamental occupation, and this in turn
+essentially determines the type of family. The nature and method of the
+occupation must normally determine the mode of its organisation, e.g.,
+the rise and character of a specialised directive class, and the nature
+of these occupational chiefs as contrasted with the people and with each
+other. Similarly, the types of family tend to develop their appropriate
+types of institutions, e.g., for justice, guidance, and of course
+notably in response to social environment as regards defence or attack.
+
+Thus at this point in fact we seem to be pressing upon the student of
+sociology the essential argument of geographical and evolutionary
+determinism, in fact inviting him to adopt a view, indeed to commit
+himself to a method, which may be not only foreign to his habits, but
+repugnant to his whole view of life and history. And if able advocacy of
+this determinist view of society for at least the past five generations
+has not carried general conviction, why raise so controversial a
+suggestion, in the guise too of a method professing to harmonise all
+comers? Yet this is advisedly done; and as no one will deny some civil
+importance to geographical factors, let patience be granted to examine
+this aspect of the city's map and shield, and to get from it what it can
+teach, under the present assurance to the philosophic and idealist
+critic that his view of other factors, higher and deeper, as supreme in
+human life, and therefore in city making, will not be forgotten, nor
+excluded from consideration when we come to them. All that is really
+insisted upon here is that if anything of naturalistic method of
+evolutionary conception is to be permitted at all, we must obviously
+proceed from this simple towards the more complex, and so begin with it
+here and now.
+
+It is the appropriate slope or steppe, the needful rainfall, that
+conditions the growth of grass, this which conditions the presence of
+herds or flocks, and these again which determine the very existence of
+shepherds. These granted then, not only do the pastoral arts and crafts
+arise, but the patriarchal type and family develop, and this not only
+with their hospitality and other virtues, with their nomadic tendencies,
+at any rate, their unfixed land-tenure, very different from the
+peasant's, but their slow and skilful [Page: 65] diplomacy (till the
+pasture is bared or grown again, as the negotiator's interests incline).
+The patriarch in his venerable age, the caravaneer in his nomadic and
+exploring youth, his disciplined maturity, thus naturally develop as
+different types of chief and leader; and it is therefore not until this
+stage, when all is ready for the entry of Abraham or Job, of Mohammed
+the camel-driver, or Paul the tent-maker, that any real controversy can
+arise between the determinist and his opponent, between the democratic
+and the great-man theories of history, towards which these respectively
+incline.[6] And at that stage, may not the controversy stimulate a
+fruitful analysis? After all, what is the claim of free-will but to
+select among the factors afforded by a given set of circumstances? And
+the utmost stretch of determinism to which geography and civics may lead
+us obviously cannot prove the negative of this. But whether the
+psychologic origins of new ideals be internal to the mind of genius, or
+imparted by some external source, is a matter obviously beyond the scope
+of either the geographer or the historian of civics to settle. Enough
+surely for both controversialists if we use such a means of tabulating
+facts as to beg the question for neither view; and still better if we
+can present the case of each without injustice to either, nay, to each
+with its clearness increased by the sharp edge of contrast. If the
+geographical determinist thesis on one hand, and its ethical and
+psychological antithesis on the other, can thus clearly be defined and
+balanced, their working equilibrium is at hand, even should their
+complete synthesis remain beyond us.
+
+[6] A fuller study, upon this method, of the essential origins of
+pastoral evolution, and of its characteristic modern developments, will
+be found in the writer's "Flower of the Grass," in _The Evergreen_,
+Edinburgh and Westminster, 1896. See also "La Science Sociale,"
+_passim_, especially in its earlier vols. or its number for Jan. 1905.
+
+
+D--NEED OF ABSTRACT METHOD FOR NOTATION AND FOR INTERPRETATION
+
+Not only such general geographical studies, but such social
+interpretations as those above indicated have long been in progress:
+witness the labours of whole schools of historians and critics, among
+whom Montsquieu and his immediate following, or in more recent times
+Buckle and Taine, are but the most prominent; witness the works of
+geographers like Humboldt, Ritter, Reclus, or of developmental
+technologists like Boucher de Perthes and regional economists like Le
+Play. The main lines of a concrete and evolutionary sociology (or at
+[Page: 66] least _sociography_) have thus been laid down for us; but the
+task now before us, in our time, in such a society as this--and indeed
+in such a paper as the present one--its that of extracting from all this
+general teaching its essential scientific method, one everywhere latent
+and implicit, but nowhere fully explicit, or at least adequately
+systematised.
+
+It is in fact only as we can agree upon some definite and orderly method
+of description that our existing literature of social surveys can be
+adequately compared or new ones co-operatively undertaken. Hence the
+importance of discussions of scientific method such as those who have so
+largely occupied our first volume. Yet, I submit, here lies the means of
+escaping from these too abstract (and consequently too static)
+presentments of the general methodology of social science into which
+sociologists are constantly falling; and to which must be largely
+ascribed the prevalent distaste for sociology so general in this
+would-be practical-minded community in which we find ourselves, as
+indeed also the comparative unattractiveness of our studies to the body
+of specialist scientific workers, not even excepting those within what
+we consider sociological fields.
+
+The history of each science, be it mathematics or astronomy, botany,
+zoology or geology, shows us that it is not enough to have the
+intelligent observer, or even the interpretative thinker with his
+personally expressed doctrine. This must be clearly crystallised into a
+definite statement, method, proposition, "law" or theory, stated in
+colourless impersonal form before it is capable of acceptance and
+incorporation into the general body of science. But while astronomer and
+geologist and naturalist can and do describe both the observational
+results and their general conceptions in literary form, requiring from
+the ordinary reader but the patience to master a few unfamiliar terms
+and ideas, they also carry on their work by help of definite and orderly
+technical methods, descriptive and comparative, analytic and synthetic.
+These, as far as possible, have to be crystallised beyond their mere
+verbal statement into formulae, into tabular and graphic presentments,
+and thus not only acquire greater clearness of statement, but become
+more and more active agencies of inquiry--in fact, become literal
+_thinking-machines_. But while the mathematician has his notations and
+his calculus, the geographer and geologist their maps, reliefs and
+sections, the naturalist his orderly classificatory methods, it has been
+the misfortune and delay of political economy, and no small cause of
+that "notorious discord and sterility" with which Comte reproached it,
+that [Page: 67] its cultivators have so commonly sought to dispense with
+the employment of any definite scientific notations; while even its
+avowed statisticians, in this country especially, have long resisted the
+consistent use of graphic methods.
+
+I submit, therefore, for discussion, as even more urgent and pressing
+than that of the general and abstract methodology of the social
+sciences, the problem of elaborating a concrete descriptive method
+readily applicable to the study and comparison of human societies, to
+cities therefore especially. To do justice to this subject, not only the
+descriptive labours of anthropologists, but much of the literature of
+sociology would have to be gone through from the "Tableau Economique" of
+the Physiocratic School to the "Sociological Tables" of Mr. Spencer, and
+still more fruitfully to more recent writers. Among these, besides here
+recognising specially the work of Mr. Booth and its stimulus to younger
+investigators, I would acknowledge the helpful and suggestive impulse
+from the group of social geographers which has arisen from the
+initiative of Le Play[7], and whose classification, especially in its
+later forms[8], cannot but be of interest and value to everyone whose
+thought on social questions is not afloat upon the ocean of the abstract
+without chart or bearings.
+
+[7] La Nomenclature Sociale (Extrait de La Revue, "La Science Sociale,"
+Dec. 1886) Paris, Firmin-Diact, 1887.
+
+[8] Demoulins, La Science Sociale d'apres F. Le Play 1882-1905;
+Classification Sociale, "La Science Sociale," Jan. 1905.
+
+Yet with all respect to each and all these classifications and methods,
+indeed with cordially acknowledge personal obligation and indebtedness
+to them from first to last, no one of these seems fully satisfactory for
+the present purpose; and it is therefore needful to go into the matter
+afresh for ourselves, though utilising these as fully as we can.
+
+
+E--THE CITY-COMPLEX AND ITS USUAL ANALYSIS
+
+In the everyday world, in the city as we find it, what is the working
+classification of ideas, the method of thought of its citizens? That
+the citizens no more think of themselves as using any particular
+sociological method than did M. Jourdain of talking prose does not
+really matter, save that it makes our observation, both of them and it,
+easier and more trustworthy.
+
+They are speaking and thinking for the most part of [Page: 68] People
+and of Affairs; much less of places. In the category of People, we
+observe that individuals, self and others, and this in interest, perhaps
+even more than in interests, commonly take precedence of groups.
+Institutions and Government are, however, of general interest, the state
+being much more prominent than is the church; the press, for many,
+acting as the modern substitute for the latter. In the world of Affairs,
+commerce takes precedence of industry, while sport runs hard upon both.
+War, largely viewed by its distant spectators as the most vivid form of
+sport, also bulks largely. Peace is not viewed as a positive ideal, but
+essentially as a passive state, at best, of non-war, more generally of
+latent war. Central among places are the bank, the market (in its
+financial forms before the material ones). Second to these stand the
+mines then the factories, etc.; and around these the fixed or floating
+fortresses of defence. Of homes, that of the individual alone is
+seriously considered, at most those of his friends, his "set," his
+peers, but too rarely even of the street, much less the neighbourhood,
+at least for their own sake, as distinguished from their reaction upon
+individual and family status or comfort.
+
+This set of views is obviously not easy of precise analysis of exact
+classification. In broad outline, however, a summary may be made, and
+even tabulated as follows:--
+
+THE EVERYDAY TOWN AND ITS ACTIVITIES.
+
+PEOPLE                    AFFAIRS                    PLACES
+(a) INDIVIDUALS        (a) COMMERCE          (a) MARKET, BANK, etc.
+(Self and others).         INDUSTRY, etc.        FACTORY, MINE, etc.
+                           SPORT.
+
+(b) GOVERNMENT(S)      (b) WAR               (b) FORT, FIELD, etc.
+Temporal and Spiritual  and Peace
+(State and Church).    (Latent War).
+
+Next note how from the everyday world of action, there arises a
+corresponding thought-world also. This has,
+[Page: 69] of course, no less numerous
+and varied elements, with its resultantly complex local colour; But a
+selection will suffice, of which the headings may be printed below those
+of the preceding scheme, to denote how to the objective elements there
+are subjective elements corresponding--literal reflections upon the
+pools of memory--the slowly flowing stream of tradition. Thus the
+extended diagram, its objective elements expressed in yet more general
+terms, may now be read anew (noting that mirror images are fully
+reversed).
+
+
+              PEOPLE                AFFAIRS           PLACES
+
+"TOWN"    (a) INDIVIDUALS      (a) OCCUPATIONS      (a) WORK-PLACES
+          (b) INSTITUTIONS     (b) WAR              (b) WAR-PLACES
+
+"SCHOOLS" (b) HISTORY          (b) STATISTICS AND   (b) GEOGRAPHY
+            ("Constitutional")     HISTORY
+                                 ("Military")
+          (a) BIOGRAPHY       (a) ECONOMICS         (a) TOPOGRAPHY
+
+
+Here then we have that general relation of the town life and its
+"schools," alike of thought and of education, which must now be fully
+investigated.
+
+Such diagrammatic presentments, while of course primarily for the
+purpose of clear expression and comparison, are also frequently
+suggestive--by "inspection," as geometers say--of relations not
+previously noticed. In both ways, we may see more clearly how prevalent
+ideas and doctrines have arisen as "reflections upon" the life of
+action, and even account for their qualities and their defects--their
+partial truth or their corresponding inadequacy, according to our own
+appreciative or depreciative standpoint. Thus as regards "People," in
+the first column we see expressed briefly how to (a) the individual
+life, with the corresponding vivid interest in biography, corresponds
+the "great man theory" of history. Conversely with _(b)_ alone is
+associated the insistance upon institutional developments as the main
+factor. Passing to the middle column, that of "Affairs," we may note in
+connection with _(b)_ say the rise of statistics in association with
+the needs of war, a point connected with its too empiric character; or
+note again, a too common converse weakness of economic theory, its
+inadequate inductive [Page: 70] verification. Or finally, in the column
+of "Place," the long weakness of geography as an educational subject,
+yet is periodic renewal upon the field of war, is indicated. We might in
+fact continue such a comparison of the existing world of action and of
+ideas, into all the schools, those of thought and practice, no less than
+those of formal instruction; and thus we should more and more clearly
+unravel how their complexity and entanglement, their frequent
+oppositions and contradictions are related to the various and warring
+elements of the manifold "Town" life from which they derive and survive.
+Such a fuller discussion, however, would too long delay the immediate
+problem--that of understanding "Town" and its "School" in their origins
+and simplest relations.
+
+
+F--PROPOSED METHODICAL ANALYSIS
+
+(1) THE TOWN
+
+More fully to understand this two-fold development of Town and School we
+have first of all apparently to run counter to the preceding popular
+view, which is here, as in so many cases, the precise opposite of that
+reached from the side of science. This, as we have already so fully
+insisted, must set out with geography, thus literally _replacing_ People
+and Affairs in our scheme above.
+
+Starting then once more with the simple biological formula:
+
+
+     ENVIRONMENT ... CONDITIONS ... ORGANISM
+
+this has but to be applied and defined by the social geographer to
+become
+
+
+     REGION ... OCCUPATION ... FAMILY-type and Developments
+
+which summarises precisely that doctrine of Montesquieu and his
+successors already insisted on. Again, in but slight variation from Le
+Play's simplest phrasing _("Lieu, travail, famille")_ we have
+
+
+     PLACE ... WORK ... FOLK
+
+It is from this simple and initial social formula that we have now to
+work our way to a fuller understanding of Town and School. [Page: 71]
+Immediately, therefore, this must be traced upward towards its
+complexities. For Place, it is plain, is no mere topographic site. Work,
+conditioned as it primarily is by natural advantages, is thus really
+first of all _place-work_. Arises the field or garden, the port, the
+mine, the workshop, in fact the _work-place_, as we may simply
+generalise it; while, further, beside this arise the dwellings, the
+_folk-place_.
+
+Nor are these by any means all the elements we are accustomed to lump
+together into Town. As we thus cannot avoid entering into the manifold
+complexities of town-life throughout the world and history, we must
+carry along with us the means of unravelling these; hence the value of
+this simple but precise nomenclature and its regular schematic use.
+Thus, while here keeping to simple words in everyday use, we may employ
+and combine them to analyse out our Town into its elements and their
+inter-relations with all due exactitude, instead of either leaving our
+common terms undefined, or arbitrarily defining them anew, as economists
+have alternately done--too literally losing or shirking essentials of
+Work in the above formula, and with these missing essentials of Folk and
+Place also.
+
+Tabular and schematic presentments, however, such as those to which we
+are proceeding, are apt to be less simple and satisfactory to reader
+than to writer; and this even when in oral exposition the very same
+diagram has been not only welcomed as clear, but seen and felt to be
+convincing. The reason of this difficulty is that with the spoken
+exposition the audience sees the diagram grow upon the blackboard;
+whereas to produce anything of the same effect upon the page, it must be
+printed at several successive stages of development. Thus our initial
+formula,
+
+
+     PLACE ... WORK ... FOLK
+
+readily develops into
+
+                                                    FOLK
+
+    PLACE-WORK                WORK               FOLK-WORK
+(Natural advantages)                            (Occupation)
+
+       PLACE
+
+This again naturally develops into a regular table, of which the [Page:
+72] filling up of some of the squares has been already suggested above,
+and that of the remaining ones will be intelligible on inspection:--
+
+   PLACE FOLK           WORK-FOLK             FOLK
+  ("Natives")         ("Producers")
+
+   PLACE-WORK              WORK             FOLK-WORK
+
+     PLACE              WORK-PLACE         FOLK-PLACE
+
+So complex is the idea of even the simplest Town--even in such a rustic
+germ as the "farm-town" of modern Scottish parlance, the _ton_ of
+place-names without number.
+
+The varying development of the Folk into social classes or castes night
+next be traced, and the influence and interaction of all the various
+factors of Place, Work, and Family tabulated. Suffice it here, however,
+for the present to note that such differentiation does take place,
+without entering into the classification and comparison of the protean
+types of patrician and plebeian throughout geography and history.
+
+
+G--ANALYSIS CONTINUED.--(2) THE SCHOOL
+
+Once and again we have noted how from the everyday life of action--the
+Town proper of our terminology--there arises the corresponding
+subjective world--the _Schools_ of thought, which may express itself
+sooner or later in schools of education. The types of people, their
+kinds and styles of work, their whole environment, all become
+represented in the mind of the community, and these react upon the
+individuals, their activities, their place itself. Thus (the more
+plainly the more the community is a simple and an isolated one, but in
+appreciable measure everywhere and continually) there have obviously
+arisen local turns of thought and modes of speech, ranging from shades
+of accept and idiom to distinctive dialect or language. Similarly, there
+is a characteristic variety of occupational activity, a style of
+workmanship, a way of doing business. There are distinctive [Page: 73]
+manners and customs--there is, in short, a certain recognisable
+likeness, it may be an indefinably subtle or an unmistakably broad and
+general one, which may be traced in faces and costumes, in tongue and
+literature, in courtesy and in conflict, in business and in policy, in
+street and in house, from hovel to palace, from prison to cathedral.
+Thus it is that every folk comes to have its own ways, and every town
+its own school.
+
+While the complex social medium has thus been acquiring its
+characteristic form and composition, a younger generation has been
+arising. In all ways and senses, Heredity is commonly more marked than
+variation--especially when, as in most places at most times, such great
+racial, occupational, environmental transformations occur as those of
+modern cities. In other words, the young folk present not only an
+individual continuity with their organic predecessors which is heredity
+proper, but with their social predecessors also. The elements of organic
+continuity, which we usually think of first of all as organic though of
+course psychic also, are conveniently distinguished as the
+_inheritance_--a term in fact which the biologist seeks to deprive of
+its common economic and social senses altogether, leaving for these the
+term _heritage_, material or immaterial alike. This necessary
+distinction between the inheritance, bodily and mental, and the
+heritage, economic and social, obviously next requires further
+elaboration, and with this further precision of language also. For the
+present, let us leave the term heritage to the economist for the
+material wealth with which he is primarily concerned, and employ the
+term _tradition_ for these immaterial and distinctively social elements
+we are here specially considering. This in fact is no new proposal, but
+really little more than an acceptance of ordinary usage. Broadly
+speaking, tradition is in the life of the community what memory is for
+its individual units. The younger generation, then, not only inherits an
+organic and a psychic diathesis; not only has transmitted to it the
+accumulations, instruments and land of its predecessors, but grows up in
+their tradition also. The importance of imitation in this process, a
+matter of common experience, has been given the fullest sociological
+prominence, by M. Tarde especially.[9] Thanks to these and other
+convergent lines of thought, we no longer consent to look at the
+acquirement of the social tradition as a matter requiring to be imposed
+upon reluctant youth almost entirely from without, and are learning anew
+as of old, with the simplest and the most developed peoples, the
+barbarians and the Greeks, to recognise and respect, and, if it may be,
+to nourish the process of self-instruction, viewed as normal
+accompaniment of each developing being throughout the phases of its
+[Page: 74] organic life, the stages of its social life. Upon the many
+intermediate degrees of advance and decline, however, between these two
+extremes of civilisation, specific institutions for the instruction of
+youth arise, each in some way an artificial substitute, or at least a
+would-be accelerant, for the apprenticeship of imitation in the school
+of experience and the community's tradition, which we term a school in
+the restricted and pedagogic sense. This whole discussion, however, has
+been in order to explain and to justify the present use of the term
+"School" in that wide sense in which the historian of art or
+thought--the sociologist in fact--has ever used the term, while yet
+covering the specialised pedagogic schools of all kinds also.
+
+[9] Tarde, "L'imitation Sociale," and other works.
+
+Once more, then, and in the fullest sense, every folk has its own
+tradition, every town its school.
+
+We need not here discriminate these unique and characteristic elements
+to which the art-historians--say of Venice and of Florence, of Barbizon
+or Glasgow--specially attend from those most widely distributed ones, in
+which the traditions and schools of all towns within the same
+civilisation broadly agree. Indeed, even the most widely distributed of
+these--say from Roman law to modern antiseptic surgery--arose as local
+schools before they became general ones.
+
+Similarly for the general social tradition. The fundamental occupations
+and their division of labour, their differentiation in detail and their
+various interactions up to our own day, at first separately considered,
+are now seen to be closely correlated with the status of woman; while
+all these factors determine not only the mode of union of the parents,
+but their relation to the children, the constitution of the family, with
+which the mode of transmission of property is again thoroughly
+interwoven.
+
+
+H--TOWN AND SCHOOL COMPARED
+
+
+"TOWN"                          FOLK
+
+
+
+               WORK
+
+PLACE
+
+SURVEY
+
+               CRAFT-KNOWLEDGE
+
+"SCHOOL"                         CUSTOM
+
+We may now summarise and tabulate our comparison of Town and
+School,[10] and on the schema (p.75) it will be seen [Page: 76]
+that each element of the second is printed in the position of a
+mirror-reflection of the first. This gives but the merest outline, which
+is ready, however, to be applied in various ways and filled up
+accordingly. A step towards this is made in the next and fuller version
+of the scheme (p. 77). It will be noted in this that the lower
+portion of the diagram, that of School, is more fully filled up than is
+the upper. This is partly for clearness, but partly also to suggest that
+main elements in the origins of natural sciences and geography, of
+economics and social science, are not always so clearly realised as they
+might be. The preceding diagram, elaborating that of Place, Work, Folk
+(p. 75), however, at once suggests these. Other features of the
+scheme will appear on inspection; and the reader will find it of
+interest and suggestiveness to prepare a blank schedule and fill it up
+for himself.
+
+[10] For the sake of brevity, an entire chapter has been omitted,
+discussing the manifold origins of distinct governing classes, whether
+arising from the Folk, or superimposed upon them from without, in short,
+of the contrast of what we may broadly call patricians and plebeians,
+which so constantly appears through history, and in the present also.
+These modes of origin are all in association respectively with Place,
+Work, and Family, or some of the various interactions of these. Origin
+and situation, migration, individual or general, with its conflict of
+races, may be indicated among the first group of factors; technical
+efficiency and its organising power among the second; individual
+qualities and family stocks among the third, as also military and
+administrative aptitude, and the institutional privileges which so
+readily arise from them. Nor need we here discuss the rise of
+institutions, so fully dealt with by sociological writers. Enough for
+the present then, if institutions and social classes be taken as we find
+them.
+
+These two forms of the same diagram, the simple and the more developed,
+thus suggest comparison with the scheme previously outlined, that of
+People, Affairs, Places (p. 68), and is now more easily reconciled
+with this; the greater prominence popularly given to People and Affairs
+being expressed upon the present geographic and evolutionary scheme by
+the ascending position and more emphatic printing (or by viewing the
+diagram as a transparency from the opposite side of the leaf).
+
+In the column of People, the deepening of custom into morals is
+indicated. Emphasis is also placed upon the development of law in
+connection with the rise of governing classes, and its tendency to
+dominate the standards previously taken as morals--in fact, that
+tendency of moral law to become static law, a process of which history
+is full.
+
+                                  GOVERNING
+                                  =========
+                                  =========
+                                  CLASSES
+                                  =======
+                                  =======
+                                     ^
+                                     |
+                                  FAMILY TYPES
+                                  ============
+----------------------------------------------
+               INDUSTRIES
+               ==========
+               ----------
+----------------------------------------------
+                                  (FOLK-PLACE)
+REGION         (WORK PLACE)       ------------
+======         ------------       (TOWN)
+  |                               ======
+  |
+  V
+--------------------------------------------
+  |
+  V
+SURVEY                            ("SCHOOL")
+======                            ==========
+!--LANDSCAPE   (CRAFT-TRADITION)
+               -----------------
+                                  (FOLK-LORE)
+?--TERRITORY                      -----------
+   |
+   |
+   V
+---------------------------------------------
+   |
+   V
+[NATURAL       [APPLIED           [SOCIAL
+--------       ========           =======
+SCIENCES]      SCIENCES]          SCIENCES]
+---------      =========          =========
+   |
+   |
+   V
+-------------------------------------------
+   |                               CUSTOMS
+   V                               -------
+                                   MORALS
+                                   ======
+GEOGRAPHY      ECONOMICS           ------
+---------      =========           &
+                                   LAWS
+                                   ====
+                                   ====
+
+In the present as in the past, we may also note upon the scheme the
+different lines of Place, Work and Folk on which respectively develop
+the natural sciences, the applied or [Page: 78] technical sciences, and
+finally the social sciences, and the generalising of these respectively.
+
+Thus, as we see the popular survey of regions, geography in its literal
+and initial sense, deepening into the various analyses of this and that
+aspect or element of the environment which we call the natural
+sciences--but which we might with advantage also recognise as what they
+really are, each a _geolysis_--so these sciences or geolyses, again, are
+tending to reunite into a higher geography considered as an account of
+the evolution of the cosmos.
+
+Again, in the column of School, corresponding to Work, we have the
+evolution of craft knowledge into the applied sciences, an historic
+process which specialist men of science and their public are alike apt
+to overlook, but which is none the less vitally important. For we cannot
+really understand, say Pasteur, save primarily as a thinking peasant; or
+Lister and his antiseptic surgery better than as the shepherd, with his
+tar-box by his side; or Kelvin or any other electrician, as the thinking
+smith, and so on. The old story of geometry, as "_ars metrike_," and of
+its origin from land-surveying, for which the Egyptian hieroglyph is
+said to be that of "rope stretching," in fact, applies far more fully
+than most realise, and the history of every science, of course already
+thus partially written, will bear a far fuller application of this
+principle. In short, the self-taught man, who is ever the most fertile
+discoverer, is made in the true and fundamental school--that of
+experience.
+
+The need of abbreviating the recapitulation of this, however, sooner or
+later develops the school in the pedagogic sense, and its many
+achievements, its many failures in accomplishing this, might here be
+more fully analysed.
+
+Still more evident is this process in the column of Folk. From the
+mother's knee and the dame's school of the smallest folk-place, the
+townlet or hamlet, _ton_ or home, up to the royal and priestly school of
+the law of ancient capitals, or from the "humanities" of a mediaeval
+university to the "Ecole de Droit" of a modern metropolis, the series of
+essential evolutionary stages may be set down. Or in our everyday
+present, [Page: 79] the rise of schools of all kinds, primary,
+secondary, higher up to the current movement towards university
+colleges, and from these to civic and regional universities, might again
+be traced. The municipalisation of education is thus in fact expressed,
+and so on.
+
+Leaving the schools in the main to speak for themselves of their
+advancing and incipient uses, a word may be said upon the present lines.
+
+As a first and obvious application of this mode of geographic study of
+cities appears the criticism, and; when possible, the amendment of the
+city's plan, the monotonous rectangularity of the American city, and the
+petty irregularity more common in our own, being alike uneconomic and
+inartistic because ungeographic, irrational because irregional. With the
+improvement of communications, the physicist's point of view thus
+introduced--that of the economy of the energies of the community--is
+only beginning; the economy of fuel, the limitation of smoke and fogs
+being symptoms of this and pointing to a more economic organisation of
+industrial activities generally. But this next carries with it the
+improved efficiency of the producers themselves, with whom, however, the
+standpoint changes from the mere economisation of physical energies to
+the higher economy of organic evolution. The convention of traditional
+economics, that the productive capacity of the actual labourer is the
+sole concern of his science, thus gives place to what is at once the
+original conception of economics and the evolutionist one, viz., that
+the success of industry is ultimately measured neither by its return in
+wealth of the capitalist nor in money wages of the labourer, nor even by
+both put together, but in the results of industry upon the concrete
+environment, the family budget, the home, and the corresponding state of
+development of the family--its deterioration or progress. The
+organisation of industrial groups or of representative institutions
+found conducive to the well-being and progress of these prime civic
+units, the families, may now be traced into its highest outcome in city
+government. The method of analysis and graphic statement thus outlined
+may be shown to be even capable of useful application towards the
+statement of the best [Page: 80] arguments of both progressive and
+moderate parties in city politics.
+
+Passing from Politics to Culture. Culture, the needs of this also become
+clearer; each community developing a similar general series of culture
+institutions, from the simplest presentation of its geography,
+landscape and architecture, to the complex development of industrial,
+technical and scientific instruction; and for provision also for the
+institutions of custom and ethic in school, law, and church. Just as
+place, occupation, and family are intimately connected in the practical
+world, so their respective culture institutions must more and more be
+viewed as a whole. Civic improvers will find their ideals more
+realisable as they recognise the complex unity of the city as a social
+development of which all the departments of action and thought are in
+organic relation, be it of health or disease. The view of theoretic
+civics as concrete sociology, and of practical civics as applied
+sociology may be more simply expressed as the co-adjustment of social
+survey and social service, now becoming recognised as rational, indeed
+in many cities being begun.
+
+
+I--DEVELOPMENT OF SCHOOL, AND ITS REACTION UPON TOWN
+
+The reactions of the School upon the Town are observed in practice to be
+of very different values;--how are these differences to be explained?
+
+From the very first the school is essentially one of memory, the impress
+of the town-life, even at its best and highest individual quality and
+impressiveness, as in the work of a great master, the observation and
+memory of which may long give his stamp to the work of his followers.
+The fading of this into dullness, yet the fixing of it as a convention,
+is familiar to all in arts and crafts, but is no less real in the
+general lapse of appreciation of environment. Most serious of all is the
+fixation of habit and custom, so that at length "custom lies upon us
+with a weight heavy as death, and deep [Page 81] almost as life." This
+continual fixation of fashionable standards as moral ones is thus a
+prime explanation of each reformer's difficulty in making his moral
+standard the fashionable one, and also, when his doctrine has succeeded,
+of the loss of life and mummification of form which it so speedily
+undergoes.
+
+Of conventional "education," considered as the memorisation of past
+records, however authoritative and classic, the decay is thus
+intelligible and plain, and the repetition of criticisms already
+adequately made need not therefore detain us here.
+
+For this process is there no remedy? Science here offers herself--with
+senses open to observe, and intellect awake to interpret. Starting with
+Place, she explores and surveys it, from descriptive travel books at
+very various levels of accuracy, she works on to atlas and gazetteer,
+and beyond these to world-globe and "Geographie Universelle." With her
+charts and descriptions we are now more ready for a journey; with her
+maps and plans we may know our own place as never before; nay, rectify
+it, making the rough places plain and the crooked straight; even
+restoration may come within our powers.
+
+Similarly as regards Work. Though mere empiric craft-mastery dies with
+the individual, and fails with his successors, may we not perpetuate the
+best of this? A museum of art treasures, a collection of the choicest
+examples of all times and lands, will surely raise us from our low level
+of mechanical toil; nay, with these carefully observed, copied,
+memorised, and duly examined upon, we shall be able to imitate them, to
+reproduce their excellencies, even to adapt them to our everyday work.
+To the art museum we have thus but to add a "School of Design," to have
+an output of more and less skilled copyists. The smooth and polished
+successes of this new dual institution, responding as they do to the
+mechanical elements of modern work and of the mechanical worker-mind,
+admitting also of ready multiplications as patterns, ensure the wide
+extension of the prevalent style of imitating past styles, designing
+patchwork of these; and even admit of its scientific reduction to a
+definite series of grades, which imitative youth may easily pass onwards
+from the age of rudest innocence to that of art-knowledge and
+certificated art-mastery. Our School of Design thus becomes a School of
+Art, a length a College, dominating the instruction of the nation, to
+the satisfaction not only of its promoters, but of the general public
+and their representatives, so that annual votes justly increase. Lurking
+discontent may now and then express itself, but is for practical
+purposes negligible.
+
+[Page: 82] The example of art accumulation and art instruction is thus
+naturally followed in other respects. For the commercial information of
+the public, varied representative exhibitions--primarily, therefore,
+international ones--naturally suggest themselves; while so soon as
+expansion of imperial and colonial interests comes upon the first plane,
+a corresponding permanent Exhibition is naturally instituted. But when
+thus advancing commercial instruction, we must also recognise the claims
+of industry in all its crafts and guilds, and in fact the technical
+instruction of the community generally. Hence the past, present, and
+promised rise of technical institutes upon increasing scales of
+completeness.
+
+In the rise of such a truly encylopaedic system of schools, the
+university cannot permanently be forgotten. Since from the outset we
+have recognised the prime elements of the school in observation and
+memory, the testing of these by examinations--written, oral, and
+practical--however improvable in detail, must be fairly recognised, and
+the examining body or university has therefore to be adopted as the
+normal crown of our comprehensive educational system. Teaching, however
+is found to be increasingly necessary, especially to examination, and
+for this the main field left open is in our last column, that of People.
+Their lore of the past, whether of sacred or classical learning, their
+history, literature, and criticism, are already actively promoted, or at
+any rate adequately endowed at older seats of learning; while the
+materials, resources, conditions and atmosphere are here of other kinds.
+Hence the accessibility of the new University of London to the study of
+sociology, as yet alone among its peers.
+
+Hence, beside the great London, maritime, commercial and industrial,
+residential and governmental, there has been growing up, tardily indeed,
+as compared with smaller cities, yet now all the more massively and
+completely, a correspondingly comprehensive system of schools; so that
+the historic development of South Kensington within the last half
+century, from International Exhibitions of Work, Natural History Museums
+of Place onwards to its present and its contemplated magnitude, affords
+a striking exemplification of the present view and its classification,
+which is all the more satisfactory since this development has been a
+gradual accretion.
+
+Enough then has been said to show that the rise of schools, their
+qualities and their defects, are all capable of treatment upon the
+present lines; but if so, may we not go farther, and ask by what means
+does thought and life cope with their defects, especially that fixation
+of memory, even at its best, that evil side of examination and the like,
+which we often call Chinese in the bad sense, but which we see arises so
+naturally everywhere?
+
+
+[Page: 83] J--FROM "SCHOOL" TO "CLOISTER"
+
+The preceding view is, as yet, too purely determinist. The due place of
+ideals, individual and corporate, in their reaction upon the function
+and the structure of the city, and even upon its material environment,
+has next to be recognised. For where the town merely makes and fixes its
+industry and makes its corresponding schools, where its habits and
+customs become its laws, even its morality, the community, as we have
+just seen, sinks into routine, and therefore decay. To prevent this a
+twofold process of thought is ever necessary, critical and constructive.
+What are these? On the one hand, a continual and critical selection
+among the ideas derived from experience, and the formulation of these as
+Ideals: and further, the organisation of these into a larger and larger
+whole of thought; in fact, a Synthesis of a new kind. This critical
+spirit it is which produced the prophets of Israel, the questioning of
+Socrates, and so on, to the journalistic and other criticism of life
+to-day. The corresponding constructive endeavour is now no mere School
+of traditional learning or of useful information. It is one of science
+in a new and reorganised sense; one of philosophy also, one of ideals
+above all.
+
+As from the Schools of the Law, as over against these, arise the
+prophets, so from the technical and applied sciences, the descriptive
+natural sciences, should arise the scientific thinkers, reinterpreting
+each his field of knowledge and giving us the pure sciences--pure
+geometry henceforth contrasted with mere land surveying, morphology with
+mere anatomy, and so on; while instead of the mere concrete encyclopaedia
+from Pliny or Gesner to Diderot or Chambers, vast subjective
+reorganisations of knowledge, philosophic systems, now appear.
+Similarly, the mere observations of the senses and their records in
+memory become transformed into the images of the poet, the imagery too
+of the artist, for art proper is only thus born. That mere imitation of
+nature, which so commonly in the graphic arts (though happily but rarely
+in music) has been mistaken for [Page: 84] art, thus modestly returns to
+its proper place--that of the iconography of descriptive science.
+
+Thus from the Schools of all kinds of knowledge, past and present, we
+pass into the no less varied Cloisters of contemplation, meditation,
+imagination. With the historian we might explore the Cloisters of the
+past, built at one time from the current ideals of the Good, at another
+of the True, at another of the Beautiful; indeed, in widely varying
+measures and proportions from all of these. How far each of these now
+expresses the present, how far it may yet serve the future, is
+obviously a question of questions, yet for that very reason one
+exceeding our present limits. Enough if in city life the historic place
+of what is here generalised under this antique name of Cloister be here
+recognised; and in some measure the actual need, the potential place be
+recognised also. Here is the need and use, beyond the fundamental claims
+of the material life of the Town, and the everyday sanity of the
+Schools, with all their observations and information, their commonsense
+and experience, their customs and conventions, even their morals and
+their law, for a deeper ethical insight than any rule or precedent can
+afford, for a fuller and freer intellectual outlook than that which has
+been derived from any technical experience or empiric skill, for an
+imagery which is no mere review of the phantasmagoria of the senses. In
+our age of the multiplication and expansion of towns, of their
+enrichment and their impoverishment, of the multiplication and
+enrichment of schools also, it is well for the sociologist to read from
+history, as he then may more fully see also around him that it is ever
+some fresh combination of these threefold products of the
+Cloister--ideal theory, and imagery--emotional, intellectual,
+sensuous--which transforms the thought-world of its time.
+
+The philosopher of old in his academic grove, his porch, the mediaeval
+monk within his studious cloister's pale, are thus more akin to the
+modern scientific thinker than he commonly realises--perhaps because he
+is still, for the most part, of the solitary individualism of the hermit
+of the Thebaid, of Diogenes in his tub. Assuredly, they are less removed
+in essential psychology than their derived fraternities, their [Page:
+85] respective novices and scholars, have often thought. It is thus no
+mere play of language which hands on from the one to the other the
+"travail de Benedictin," though even here the phrase is inadequate
+savouring too much of the school, into which each cloister of every sort
+declines sooner or later, unless even worse befall.
+
+The decay of the cloister, though thus on the one hand into and with the
+school, may also take place within itself, since imagination and ideal
+may be evil, and theory false. That examples of all these decays abound
+in the history of religion, of philosophy, of art also, is a commonplace
+needing no illustration. Nor should the modern investigator think his
+science or himself immune to the same or kindred germs in turn.
+
+
+K--THE CITY PROPER
+
+Now, "at long last," we are ready to enter the city proper. This is not
+merely the Town of place and work and folk, even were this at their
+economic best. It is not enough to add the School, even at its
+completest; nor the cloister, though with this a yet greater step
+towards the city proper is made. For though this is not itself the City,
+its ideals of human relations, its theory of the universe and man, its
+artistic expression and portrayal of all these, ever sooner or later
+react upon the general view and conduct of life. Hence the Academe of
+Plato and the Lyceum of Aristotle, the mediaeval cloister and the modern
+Research Institute, have been so fertile, so creative in their influence
+upon the city's life, from which they seemed to be retired. Hence it is
+ever some new combination of the threefold product of the
+cloister--ideal, idea, and image--which transforms the world, which
+opens each new epoch. Each new revelation and vision, each system of
+thought, each new outburst of poetry and song, has moved the men of its
+age by no mere mechanical pressure of economic need or external force,
+by no mere scholastic instruction, but in a far subtler way, and into
+new and unexpected groupings, as the [Page: 86] sand upon Chladon's
+vibrating plate leaps into a new figure with each thrill of the
+violinist's bow.
+
+Instead of simply developing our morals from custom, and therefore
+codifying them into law as in the school they are now boldly criticised,
+as in part if not in whole, hindrances to a better state of things. As
+this becomes more and more clearly formulated as an ideal, its ethic
+transcendence of convention and law not only becomes clear, but the
+desire for its realisation becomes expressed. This may be with all
+degrees of clearness of reason and vividness of imagery, yet may remain
+long or altogether in the plane of literature, as has Plato's Republic
+or More's Utopia--standard and characteristic types of the cloister
+library as we may call it, one of inestimable value to the world in the
+past, and perhaps in our time needed as much as ever to help us to see
+somewhat beyond the output of the busy presses of town and school. Yet
+our ideal, our "Civitas Dei," "Civitas Solis," need not remain
+unrealised: it may be not only seriously planned towards realisation, as
+was Platonopolis of old, but bravely founded, as has been done in cases
+without number, from the ancient world to modern communities, by no
+means wholly unsuccessful. Though in our great industrial towns, our
+long settled regions, such new departures seem less easy, the
+principle remains valid--that it is in our ideal of polity and
+citizenship, and in our power of realising this, that the city proper
+has its conception and its birth. Again, instead of simply deriving our
+thought from experience we now project our clarified thought into action
+and into education; so that from cloister of philosophy, and from its
+long novitiate of silence, there grows up the brotherhood of culture,
+the culture city itself. Similarly in art, we no longer imitate nature,
+nor copy traditional designs. Art proper appears, shaping bronze and
+marble into images of the gods, and on a burnt and ruined hill-fort
+renewing the Parthenon. In general terms, instead of simply adjusting,
+as in the school, our mental picture to the outward facts, we reverse
+the process; and with a new art conception, be it good or bad, we
+transform the outward world, like wax under the seal. Thus from the
+[Page: 88] cloister and chapel of the musician, the studio-cell of the
+artist, the scriptorium of the poet, comes forth the architect,
+remodelling the city around his supreme material expression and home of
+its moral and material reorganisation, its renewed temporal and
+spiritual powers. Of this, the city proper, the Acropolis of Athens, the
+Temple of Jerusalem, the Capitol and Forum of Rome are classic and
+central examples, and in the mediaeval city, pre-eminently the
+cathedral; though beside this we must not forget the town house and its
+belfry, the guild houses, the colleges, the great place, the fountains,
+the city cross, and if last, still best if good at all, the streets and
+courts and homes. Returning once more to the history of educational
+development, we have here a means of unravelling the apparently
+perplexing history of universities. For the university past or present
+has but its foundations in the school, with its local and its general
+tradition, whatever may be the accordance of these with well-ascertained
+fact, its true novitiate can only be afforded in the cloister of
+reflection and research, of interpretation and synthesis; while for its
+full development it needs the perpetual renewal of that generous social
+life--that inspiring intercourse "of picked adolescents and picked
+senescents"--which has marked the vital periods of every university
+worthy of the name.
+
+                                         Realisation in
+                                         ACROPOLIS  }
+                                         CATHEDRAL  } CITY
+                                         UNIVERSITY }
+(EU)-POLITY
+   ^
+   |                   CULTURE
+   |                      ^
+Rise towards              |
+Formulation               |                 ART
+and Realisation,       Rise through          ^
+through                                      |
+  { Politics            { Action          Rise to
+  { Church Militant     { Education       expression
+   ^                      ^                  ^
+   |                      |                  |
+   |                      |                  |
+   |                      |                  |
+   |                      |              "IMAGERY"
+   |                      |              AESTHETICS
+   |                      |              (Beautiful)
+SOCIAL. ECON. POL.     "IDEAS"
+   ^                  SYNTHETICS
+   |                   (True)
+"IDEALS"
+ ETHICS
+ (Good)                                  Criticism, Selection,
+                                         Re-synthesis, in
+                                           HERMITAGE
+                                           ACADEME
+                                           CLOISTER, etc.
+
+In summary then, to the town has been added the school, with its
+advantages, its increasingly obvious limitations also, which it is for
+the cloister to remedy--even the advantages of the barrack finding a
+main element of its claim in this no less than in its professed training
+as regards citizenship. But here also it is for few to remain, albeit
+free for each to return at will. Ideals, to survive, must surely live,
+that is, be realised; hence for full life one needs "to meditate with
+the free solitary; yet to live secular, and serve mankind."
+
+  TOWN                       |                      CITY
+                    FOLK     |    POLITY
+                             |
+         WORK                |               CULTURE
+                             |
+PLACE                        |                         ART
+-----------------------------+--------------------------------
+SURVEY                       |                         IMAGERY
+                             |
+         KNOWLEDGE           |               IDEAS
+                             |
+                    MORALS   |    SOC. ECON.
+                             |    IDEALS
+                    LAW      |    ETHICS
+  SCHOOL                     |                      CLOISTER
+
+
+L--THE CITY COMPLIED: TOWN, SCHOOL, CLOISTER, AND CITY PROPER
+
+In course of this fourfold analysis, it is plain that we have reached
+the very converse--or at all events the [Page: 90] complement--of that
+geographical determinism with which we started, and that we have
+returned to a view corresponding to the popular one (of "People,
+Affairs, Places," p. 69), which we then set aside for the reasons given.
+The "great man theory" of history, at best less crudely stated, thus
+reappears; in short, to the initial thesis we have now the distinct
+antithesis. It is time, therefore, to bring these together towards the
+needed synthesis. Hence to the page (p. 77) on which was summarised the
+determinist view of Town and School, we now require the complemental
+statement upon page (p. 87) of Cloister and City proper. Nor must we be
+content, with too many controversialists hitherto, to keep in view only
+one at a time; but by folding back the pages of print between these two
+half-schemes, as the book lies open, to take in both together.
+
+We may thus finally compress the essentials of this whole paper into a
+simple formula--
+
+TOWN                  |                   CITY
+                      |
+               FOLK   |  POLITY
+                      |
+        WORK          |          CULTURE
+                 |    |    ^
+PLACE            |    |    |              ART
+-----------------|----|----|----------------------
+LORE             |    |    |              IMAGERY
+                 v    |    |
+        LEAR          |           IDEA
+                      |
+               LOVE   |  IDEAL
+                      |
+SCHOOL                |                   CLOISTER
+
+or most briefly--
+
+|  TOWN   | CITY     ^
+|  -------+--------- |
+v  SCHOOL | CLOISTER |
+
+[Page: 91]--noting in every case the opposite direction of the arrows.
+The application of this formula to different types of town, such as
+those already indicated in the former instalment of this paper (Vol. I.,
+p. 107) or in the present one, will not be found to present any
+insuperable difficulty. It must, however, be kept clearly in view that
+the city of each day and generation subsides or decays more or less
+completely into the mere town anew, as the cloister into the schools.
+The towns and cities of the world are thus classifiable in terms of
+their past development and present condition.
+
+
+Summary
+
+Condensing now this lengthy, yet compressed and abbreviated series of
+analyses into a single page of summary, we may briefly define the main
+aspects and departments of civics from the present point of view. First
+then, comes the study of civics as fundamentally (and ever anew) an
+orderly development--at once geographic, economic, and anthropologic in
+its nature--a survey of place, work, and folk--and these not merely or
+mainly as broken up into the fine dust of censuses and statistics, nor
+even of the three too separate sciences above named, but as a living
+unity, the human hive, the Town.
+
+Corresponding to this objective and organic life we reorganise its
+fundamental subjective life. This is fundamentally, and ever partially,
+the record and reflex of the life of the hive, the Town: of all its
+general and particular environment and function, its family type and
+development; and however overlaid by imported culture or by decayed
+ideals, it is fundamentally expressed in local knowledge, in craft
+tradition, in kinship and its associated kindness, in habits and
+customs, and their developments up to morals and laws. Simple terms
+corresponding to place, work, and folk, are hard to find; say, however,
+till better be suggested, that in close relation to the maternal arms in
+which general social thought and its utmost pedagogic developments
+alike begin, it is place-lore, work-lear, and folk-love, which are the
+essentials of every [Page: 92] School.[11] That existing educational
+machineries may not adequately recognise these is not of course the
+question here.
+
+[11] The use of _lore_ as primarily empirical, and derived from the
+senses, it is traditional; it is well therefore to restrict it to this,
+and to revive the old word _lear_, still understood in Scotland in these
+precise senses--intellectual, rational, yet traditional, occupational
+also.
+
+These three terms, lore, lear, and love are thus well related to their
+respectively deepening levels of sense, intelligence and feeling; and
+their respective relation is thus more plain to the imagery, the theory,
+and the idealism above defined as the essentials of the Cloister. The
+psychology of the processes of poetic, philosophic and spiritual
+awakening and renewal is in these days being approached anew, both from
+the individual and social side, but cannot here be entered upon.
+
+Finally and supremely arises the City proper--its individuality
+dependent upon the measure and form in which ideals are expressed and
+harmonised in social life and polity, ideas synthetised in culture, and
+beauty carried outwards from the study or chamber of the recluse into
+the world of art.
+
+
+
+Practical conclusion
+
+
+The investigation of the City thus tends towards the practice of
+citizenship. Thus social survey prepares for social service, as
+diagnosis towards treatment and hygiene; and these react fruitfully upon
+our knowledge and understanding anew. Beyond social observations, and
+the needed observatories for making them more adequately, we need social
+activities and the laboratories for preparing them, or at least the
+leavens of them; or, again, in happier phrase, at once simple and more
+synthetic, we need some shelter[12] into which to gather the best
+[Page: 93] seed of past flowerings and in which to raise and tend the
+seedlings of coming summers. We need definitely to acquire such a centre
+of survey and service in each and every city--in a word, a Civicentre
+for sociologist and citizen.
+
+[12] Without forgetting the many institutions and workers in almost all
+departments of the field of civics, the rise of definite surveys and of
+scientific groupings like this Society, without ignoring also the many
+admirable workers and institutions of social endeavour, and their
+progressive integration into Social Unions, Institutes of Service, and
+the like, I may be permitted to press for the need of uniting both
+types, the scientific and the practical, into a single one--a civic
+museum and active centre in one. Of this type, my own Outlook Tower at
+Edinburgh is, so far as I am aware, the earliest beginning; and, despite
+its rudimentary condition, may thus serve to suggest a type of
+institution which will be found of service alike to the sociologist and
+the citizen.
+
+
+M--THE HISTORIC CITY-COMPLEX
+
+The criticism may have already arisen in the reader's mind that the
+"Town" and "School" of our analysis are by no means so simple as we have
+assumed them. Our surveys of antique towns ever disclose the material
+survivals, at least the vestiges, of the cloister or the acropolis of
+the past, of its cathedral or its forum. The processes of our
+industries, in what is now their daily artisan routine, include, repeat,
+condense, what were yesterday or longer ago living inventions, each
+instinct with Promethean fire. The hackneyed ornament of our homes was
+once glowing with beauty, radiant or dark with symbolism. So it is for
+our everyday customs and institutions, and so for living languages; our
+own, perhaps, most of all. These, of course, are facts made familiar by
+investigators of all orders, from the scholar and antiquary of old, the
+historian and philologist of yesterday, to the geographer or the
+sociologist of our own time: witness Mr. Spencer's masterly treatment of
+their main results. How, then, shall we correlate this process of all
+things growing old with the analysis of cities above attempted? In other
+words, how shall we interpret the course of their historic evolution,
+their renewed growth and decay, progress and degeneracy, their present
+condition, crowded with residues of the past, with those potentialities
+which our outline discloses? This is the more necessary since this
+fourfold analysis applies in principle to all human groupings from the
+simplest village to the Eternal City. To this, indeed, we have in
+principle already traced it, onwards from our primitive valley section
+with its humble hamlets, its fundamental occupations. Returning then to
+our main diagram, with its four-fold analysis of the City so soon as we
+have completed this, and [Page: 94] carried its progress up to the level
+of city life proper, we must next turn over the leaf and begin a new
+page, with place and work and folk once more. This simplest of acts
+expresses with graphic significance the very process of history; for in
+closing our diagram page its "Cloister" has been folded down on the
+"School," our cathedral and forum, our "City" proper upon the "Town."
+Thus it is that the ideals and the achievements of one day and
+generation and city are ever melting away, and passing out of sight of
+the next; so that to the joy or sorrow of the successors the new page
+seems well nigh bare, though ever there comes faintly through some image
+or at least blurred suggestion of the fading past. Hence each page of
+history is a palimpsest. Hence our modern town, even when yesterday but
+prairie, was no mere vacant site, but was at once enriched and
+encumbered by the surviving traditions of the past; so that even its new
+buildings are for the most part but vacant shells of past art, of which
+now only the student cares to trace the objective annals, much less
+penetrate to the inner history. So for the decayed Renaissance learning
+of our schools, for the most part so literally dead since the
+"Grammarian's Funeral"; and so, too, for the unthinking routines, the
+dead customs and conventions, and largely too the laws and rituals of
+our urban lives. Hence, then, it is that for the arrest and the decay of
+cities we have no need to go for our examples to the ancient East. These
+processes, like those of individual senility and death, are going on
+everywhere day by day.
+
+Upon the new page, then, it is but a complexer "Town" and "School" anew:
+we have no continuing City. This too commonly has existed at its best
+but for the rare generation which created it, or little longer; though
+its historic glories, like those of sunset and of after-glow, may long
+shed radiance and glamour upon its town, and linger in the world's
+memory long after not only these have faded, but their very folk have
+vanished, their walls fallen, nay their very site been buried or
+forgotten. Upon all these degrees of dying, all these faint and fading
+steps between immortality and oblivion, we may arrange what we call our
+historic cities. Obviously in the [Page: 95] deeper and more living
+sense the city exists only in actualising itself; and thus to us it is
+that the ideal city lies ever in the future. Yet it is the very essence
+of this whole argument that an ideal city is latent in every town. Where
+shall we in these days find our cloistered retreats to think out such
+ideals as may be applicable in our time and circumstances: the needed
+kinetic ethics, the needed synthetic philosophy and science, the needed
+vision and imagery and expression of them all?
+
+
+N--THE EVILS OF THE CITY
+
+Disease, defect, vice and crime
+
+I have spoken little of town evils, and much of town ideals, primarily
+for the reason that even to recognise, much less treat, the abnormal, we
+must know something of the normal course of evolution. Hence, the old
+and useful phrase by which physiology used to be known, that of "the
+institutes of medicine." Sociology has thus to become "the institutes of
+citizenship."
+
+Often though philanthropists forget this, diagnosis should precede
+treatment. The evils of the city, by the very nature of our hypothesis,
+demand special survey, and this no less thoroughly than do the normal
+place and work and industry. It is only our most permanent intellectual
+impulse, that of seeking for unity, which excuses the cheap unitary
+explanations so often current; as, for instance, that social evils are
+mainly to be explained by intemperance, as for one school of reformers;
+by poverty or luxury, for a second and third; by Tammany or other form
+of party government, by socialism or by individualism for yet others;
+that they are due to dissent or to church, to ignorance or to the spread
+of science, and so on almost indefinitely--doubtless not without
+elements of truth in each!
+
+Yet let me offer as yet another explanation of civic evils, this more
+general one--distinguished from the preceding by including them all and
+more--that not only is our "Town" in itself imperfect, but the other
+three elements we have been characterising as school, cloister and city,
+are yet more imperfect, since disordered, decayed, or undeveloped anew.
+It is because of each and all of these imperfect realisations of our
+civic life, that the evils of life sink down, or flame out, into these
+complex eruptions of social evils with which our human aggregations are
+as yet cursed.
+
+Hence, to those who are struggling with disease and pain, with ignorance
+and defect, with vice, and with crime, but for the most part too
+separately, it is time to say that all these four evils are capable of
+being viewed together, and largely even treated together. They are not
+unrelated, but correspond each as the negative to that fourfold
+presentment of ideals we have hitherto been raising. To this ideal unity
+of healthy town, with its practical and scientific schools of all kinds,
+with its meditative cloister of ethical and social idealism, of unified
+science and philosophy, of imagination and drama, all culminating in
+the polity, culture, and art which make a city proper, we have here the
+corresponding defects in detail.
+
+The evils of existing city life are thus largely reinterpreted; and if
+so more efficiently combated; since the poverty, squalor and ugliness of
+our cities, their disease and their intemperance, their ignorance,
+dulness and mental defect, their vice and crime are thus capable not
+only of separate treatment but of an increasingly unified civic hygiene,
+and this in the widest sense, material and moral, economic and idealist,
+utilitarian and artistic. Even the most earnest and capable workers
+towards civic betterment in these many fields may gain at once in hope
+and in efficiency as they see their special interests and tasks
+converging into the conception of the city as an organic unity, and this
+not fixed and settled, nor even in process of progress or degeneration
+from causes beyond our ken, but as an orderly development which we may
+aid towards higher perfection, geographic and cultural alike.
+
+Our modern town is thus in a very real sense, one not hopeless, but as
+hopeful as may be, a veritable purgatory; that is a struggle of lower
+and higher idealisms, amid the respective expressions and outcomes of
+these. Indeed, in our own present [Page: 97] cities, as they have come
+to be, is not each of us ever finding his own Inferno, or it may be his
+Paradise? Does he not see the dark fate of some, the striving and rising
+hope of others, the redemption also?
+
+The supreme poetic utterance of the mediaeval world is thus in great
+measure, as each thoughtful reader sees, an expression of impassioned
+citizenship and this at one of the golden moments of the long history of
+city life. This expression--this exiled citizen's autobiographic
+thought-stream--is resumed at every level, from youthful home and local
+colour, from boyish love and hopes, from active citizenship and party
+struggle, to the transfiguration of all these. Hence these mystic
+visions, and these world ambitions, temporal and spiritual; hence this
+rise from cloistered faith and philosophy into many-sided culture; hence
+the transformation of all these through intensest symbol-visions into
+enduring song.
+
+Am I thus suggesting the _Divina Comedia_ as a guide-book to cities?
+Without doubt, though not necessarily for beginners. Yet who can see
+Florence without this, though we may pack below it Baedeker and Murray?
+Or who, that can really read, can open a volume of Mr. Booth's severely
+statistical Survey of London, with all its studious reserve, its
+scientific repression, without seeing between its lines the Dantean
+circles; happy if he can sometimes read them upward as well as down?
+
+
+O--A CIVIC SYMBOL AND ITS MEANING
+
+But such books of the city, whether of the new and observant type, from
+Baedeker to Booth, or of the old and interpretative Dantean one, are too
+vast and varied to keep open before us. Even the preceding open page of
+diagram is complex enough with its twofold, indeed four-fold city; and
+we are called back to our daily work in the first of these divisions,
+that of the everyday town. Since its subjective aspects of school and
+cloister may fade from memory, its higher aspect also, that of city
+proper, how can we retain this fourfold [Page: 98] analysis, and how
+test if it be true? Take then one final illustration; this time no mere
+logical skeleton, however simple or graphic, but an image more easily
+retained, because a concrete and artistic one, and moreover in terms of
+that form of life-labour and thought-notation--that of current
+coin--which, in our day especially, dominates this vastest of cities;
+and hence inherits for the region of its home and centre--"the Bank"
+which has so thoroughly taken precedence of the town-house and
+cathedral, of the fortress and palace--the honoured name of "City." The
+coinages of each time and place combine concrete and social use with
+statements of historic facts; and they add to both of these a wealth of
+emblematic suggestions: but that is to say, they express not only their
+town, and something of its _school_, but much of its thought also, its
+_cloister_ in my present terminology.
+
+So before me lies an old "bawbee" of my own home city. On one side
+stands the hammerman at his anvil, below him the motto of his guild,
+"_Non marte sed arte_." Here then the industrial "Town" and its "School"
+express themselves plainly enough, and precisely as they have been above
+defined. But on the other side spreads the imperial double eagle; since
+Perth _(Bertha aurea)_ had been the northmost of all Rome's provincial
+capitals, her re-named "Victoria" accordingly, as the mediaeval herald
+must proudly have remembered, so strengthened his associations with the
+Holy Roman Empire with something of that vague and shadowy historic
+dignity which the Scot was wont to value so much, and vaunt so high. On
+the eagle's breast is a shield, tressured like the royal standard,
+since Perth was the national capital until the "King's Tragedy" of
+1457; but instead of the ruddy lion the shield bears the lamb with the
+banner of St. John, the city's saint. This side, too, has its motto, and
+one befitting an old capital of King and Commons, both in continual
+strife with the feudal nobles, "_Pro Rege, Lege, et Grege_." Here then,
+plain upon this apparent arbitrarily levised trifle, this petty
+provincial money-token, this poor bawbee, that is, this coin not only of
+the very humblest order, but proverbially sordid at that, we find
+clearly set down, long generations ago, the whole [Page:99] four-fold
+analysis and synthesis of civic life we have been above labouring for.
+For what makes the industrial Town, what can better keep it than
+strenuous industry at its anvil? How better express its craft school,
+its local style and skill, its reaction too upon the town's life in
+peace and war, than by this Hal o' the Wynd by his forge? Nay, what
+better symbol than this hammer, this primitive tool and ever typical
+one, of the peaceful education of experience, form Prometheus to Kelvin,
+of the warlike, from Thor to modern cannon-forge? Turning now from Town
+and School to Cloister, to the life of secluded peace and
+meditation--from which, however, the practical issues of life are ever
+renewed--what plainer symbol, yet what more historic or more mystic one
+can we ask than this of the lamb with the banner? While of the
+contrasted yet complemental civic life of fullest, broadest action, what
+expression like the Roman eagle--the very eyes of keenness, and the
+spreading wings of power?
+
+So rarely perfect then is this civic symbol, that I must not omit to
+mention that it has only come to my notice since the body of this paper,
+with its four-fold analysis of cities as above outlined, was essentially
+finished. Since it thus has not in any particular suggested the
+treatment of cities here advocated, it is the more interesting and
+encouraging as a confirmation of it. It is also to my mind plain that in
+this, as in many other of our apparent "advances in science," and
+doubtless those in social studies particularly, we are but learning to
+think things anew, long after our forefathers have lived them, even
+expressed them--and these in their ways no less clear and popular than
+can ever be ours. That we may also again live them is once more
+curiously expressed by the same symbol; for its re-appearance is due to
+its having been appropriately revived, in a fitting art form, that of
+the commemorative and prize medal of the local arts and crafts
+exhibition, held in the new Public Library, under civic auspices. Little
+scrutiny of this last sentence will be needed to see the four-fold
+completeness of the civic event which it describes.
+
+For just as we have seen on the old coin the hammerman [Page: 100] and
+his motto answer to the town and school; so now on its reissue to the
+renascent local arts and crafts, with their commemoration in this
+library. And as the greater motto, that of widest policy, corresponds to
+the cloister of reflection and resolve, so we note that this new impulse
+to civic betterment is associated with the new library--no mere
+school-house of memory, but also the open cloister of our day. Finally,
+note that this impulse is no longer merely one of aesthetic purpose, of
+"art for art's sake," nor its execution that of a cultured minority
+merely; it announces a re-union of this culture and art with the civic
+polity. What fitter occasion, then, for the striking of a medal, than
+this renewal of civic life, with municipal organisation and polity, art
+and culture, renascent in unison. That such events are nowadays far from
+exceptional is so true that we are in danger of losing sight of their
+significance. Yet it is amid such city developments that the future
+Pericles must arise.
+
+We thus see that our analysis is no mere structural one, made
+post-mortem from civic history; but that it applies to the modern
+functioning of everyday life in an everyday city, so soon as this
+becomes touched anew towards cultural issues. Furthermore, it is thus
+plain that civic life not only has long ago anticipated and embodied our
+theories of it, but once more outruns them, expressing them far better
+than in words--in life and practice. In this way the reader who may most
+resent these unfamiliar methods of exposition, alternately by abstract
+diagram or concrete illustration--which may seem to him too remote from
+ordinary life and experience, perhaps too trivial--may now test the
+present theory of the city, or amend it, by means of the ample
+illustrations of the processes and results of social life which are
+provided by his daily newspaper, and these on well-nigh all its fields
+and levels.
+
+Note finally that it is the eagle and lamb of temporal and spiritual
+idealism that form the "head" of this coin, the craftsman and anvil but
+the modest "tail." The application is obvious.
+
+Thus even numismatics revives from amid the fossil [Page: 100] sciences.
+For from this to our own common coinage, or notably to that of France,
+America, Switzerland, etc., the transition is easy, and still better to
+that of the noblest civic past, both classic and mediaeval. Without
+pursuing this further here my present point is gained, if we see, even
+in the everyday local details of work and people, the enduring stamp,
+the inextinguishable promise, of the flowering of our everyday
+industries and schools into worthier ideals than they at present
+express, and of the fruition of these in turn upon nobler heights of
+life and practice. It expresses the essential truth of the popular view
+of the city; that in terms of the formula--People ... Affairs ...
+Places--above referred to (page 69). It also explains the persistent
+vitality of this view, despite its frequent crudity, and lack of order
+in detail, in face of the more scientific treatment here at first
+employed, that in the elementary geographic order--Place ... Work ...
+People. For though this objective order be fundamental, it is the
+complementary subjective evolution which throughout history has ever
+become supreme; so that our scheme must combine the outward geographic
+presentment with the inward psychological one. This may be graphically
+expressed by changing the order of presentment from that used
+hitherto:--
+
+Town    |   City                   City    |  Town
+--------------------     to     ----------------------
+School  | Cloister                Cloister |  School
+
+
+P--FORECAST OF CITY DEVELOPMENT. SPECIAL AND GENERAL
+
+The dual and four-fold development of the city, as above sketched, is by
+no means far advanced in most of our present towns or cities, which have
+obviously but scanty expression of the ideas shadowed forth for the
+modern equivalents of cloister and cathedral, of academe and acropolis.
+But this is to say that such towns, however large, populous and rich
+according to conventional economic standards, are to that extent small
+and poor, indeed too often little better than cities by courtesy. Yet
+their further development, upon this [Page: 102] four-fold view of civic
+evolution, though in principle the same for each and all, has always
+been, and let us hope may always be, in large measure an individual
+(because regional) one. For if each human individuality be unique, how
+much more must that of every city?
+
+In one concrete case, that of Dunfermline, I have already submitted
+definite suggestions towards the realisation of the civic Utopia, and
+even architectural designs towards its execution,[13] so that these may
+at any rate suffice to show how local study and adaptive design are
+needed for each individual city, indeed for every point of it. It is
+thus, and thus only, that we can hope to have a city development truly
+evolutionary, that is, one utilising the local features, advantages, and
+possibilities of place, occupation, and people. Of course, it is needful
+to supplement these by the example of other cities; but it is no less
+needful to avoid weighting down the local life with replicas of
+institutions, however excellent elsewhere, if really irregional here.
+With the re-awakening of regional life in our various centres, and of
+some comprehension of its conditions among our rulers, they will cease
+to establish, say, a school of mines in Piccadilly, or again one of
+engineering and the like in South Kensington. The magistrates of
+Edinburgh have long abandoned their old attempt to plant mulberries and
+naturalise silk culture upon their wind-swept Calton Hill; albeit this
+was a comparatively rational endeavour, since a population of Huguenot
+refugee silk weavers had actually come upon their hands.
+
+[13] Cf. the writer's "City Development," Edinburgh and Westminster,
+1904.
+
+Similarly, it is plain that we must develop Oxford as Oxford, Edinburgh
+as Edinburgh, and so on with all other cities, great or small--York or
+Winchester, Westminster or London. And so with Chelsea or Hampstead,
+with Woolwich or Battersea. Has not the last of these grown from a mere
+outlying vestry, like so many others, into a centre of genuine vitality
+and interior progress, indeed of ever-widening interest and example; and
+all this in half a generation, apparently through the sagacious
+leadership--say, rather the devoted, the [Page: 103] impassioned
+citizenship--of a single man? And does not his popular park at times
+come near giving us a vital indication of the needed modern analogue of
+cathedral and forum? Civic development is thus no mere external matter,
+either of "Haussmannising" its streets, or of machine-educating its
+people; the true progress of the city and its citizenship must alike
+grow and flower from within albeit alive and open to every truly
+fertilising impulse from without.
+
+Yet since national interests, international industry, commerce,
+science, and therefore progress are nowadays and increasingly so
+largely one, may we not in conclusion foresee something at least of the
+great lines of development which are common to cities, and generalise
+these as we are accustomed to do in history? Witness the Classical,
+Mediaeval, and Renaissance types to which historic cities
+preponderatingly belong, and within which we group their varied
+individualities, as after all of comparative detail.
+
+Here then it is time to recall the presentment of ancient, recent and
+contemporary evolution already outlined in the part of this paper
+previously read (Vol. I, p. 109), dealing with the historic survey of
+cities. We have now to face the question, then postponed, indeed left in
+interrogation-marks--that of seeking not indeed sharply to define the
+future order of things, yet in some measure to discern such elements of
+progress as may be already incipient in the existing order, if not yet
+largely manifest there. Such elements may be reasonably expected to grow
+in the near future, perhaps increasingly, and whatever be their rate of
+growth are surely worthy of our attention.
+
+Contemporary science, with its retrospective inquiries into origins in
+the past, its everyday observation of the present, is apt practically to
+overlook that the highest criterion and achievement of science is not to
+decipher the past, nor record the present, not even to interpret both.
+It is to foresee: only thus can it subserve action, of which the present
+task ever lies towards the future, since it is for this that we have to
+provide. Why then should not Comte's famous aphorism--"_Voir pour
+prevoir, prevoir pour pourvoir_," become applicable in our civic studies
+no less than in the general social and political fields to [Page: 104]
+which he applied it? In navigation or engineering, in agriculture or
+hygiene, prevision and provision alike are ever increasing; yet these
+are no mere combinations of the preliminary sciences and the fundamental
+occupations, but obviously contain very large social elements.
+
+It is proverbially safe to prophesy when one knows; and it is but this
+safe prediction which we make every day of child or bud, where we can
+hardly fail to see the growing man, the coming flower. Yet do not most
+people practically forget that even now, in mid-winter, next summer's
+leaves are already waiting, nay, that they were conceived nine months
+ago? That they thus grow in small, commonly unnoticed beginnings, and
+lie in bud for a period twice as long as the summer of their adult and
+manifest life, is yet a fact, and one to which the social analogies are
+many and worth considering.
+
+While recognising, then, the immense importance of the historic element
+of our heritage, renaissance and mediaeval, classic and earlier;
+recognising also the predominance of contemporary forces and ideas,
+industrial and liberal, imperial and bureaucratic, financial and
+journalistic, can we not seek also, hidden under all these leaves, for
+those of the still-but-developing bud, which next season must be so much
+more important than they are to day? It is a commonplace, yet mainly of
+educational meetings, to note that the next generation is now at school;
+but how seldom do we recognise its pioneers, albeit already among our
+own contemporaries? At any rate we may see here and there that their
+leaven is already at work.
+
+In this respect, cities greatly differ--one is far more initiative than
+another. In the previous paper (vol. I, p. 109), we saw how individuals,
+edifices, institutions, might represent all past phases; these,
+therefore, often predominate in different cities sufficiently to give
+its essential stamp. Why then should we not make a further survey and
+seek to see something of the cities of the future; though we may have to
+look for these in quarters where at first sight there may seem as yet
+scanty promise of flower?
+
+[Page: 105] To recall an instance employed above, probably every member
+of this Society is old enough to remember incredulous questionings of
+whether any good thing could come out of Battersea. Again, how few, even
+in America, much less than in Europe, a few years ago, forsaw the rapid
+growth of those culture-elements in St. Louis, of which the recent
+World-Exposition will not have been the only outcome?
+
+Only a few years earlier, it was Chicago which, for New England no less
+than for the Old World, seemed but the byword of a hopelessly
+materialised community. So Birmingham or Glasgow has won its present
+high position among cities in comparatively recent times; so it may now
+be the turn of older cities, once far more eminent, like Newcastle or
+Dundee, to overtake and in turn, perhaps, outstrip them. But all this is
+still too general and needs further definition; let us attempt this,
+therefore, somewhat more fully, in the concrete case of Glasgow.
+
+
+Q--GLASGOW AS TYPICAL OF CIVIC TRANSITION--FROM "PALEOTECHNIC" TO
+"NEOTECHNIC"
+
+My own appreciation of the significance of Glasgow was first really
+awakened over twenty years ago by William Morris, who in his vivid way
+pointed out to me how, despite the traditional culture--superiority of
+Edinburgh, Glasgow was not only the Scottish capital, but, in his view,
+in real progressiveness the leading and initiative city of the whole
+United Kingdom. And this for him was not merely or mainly in its
+municipal enterprise, then merely in its infancy--although he expressed
+this development in the phrase "In London, people talked socialism
+without living it; but in Glasgow, they were socialists without knowing
+it!" Despite all the ugliness which had so repelled Ruskin, the squalor
+which moved Matthew Arnold to the fiercest scorn in all his writings,
+Morris's appreciation arose from his craftsman's knowledge and respect
+for supreme craftsmanship. The great ships building upon the Clyde were
+for him "the greatest achievement of [Page: 106] humanity since the days
+of the cathedral-builders," nay, for him actually surpassing these,
+since calling forth an even more complex combination and "co-operation
+of all the material arts and sciences" into a mighty and organic whole;
+and correspondingly of all their respective workers also, this being for
+him of the very essence of his social ideal.
+
+For these reasons he insisted, to my then surprise that the social
+reorganisation he then so ardently hoped for "was coming faster upon the
+Clyde than upon the Thames": he explained as for him the one main reason
+for his then discouragement as to the progress of London that there East
+and West, North and South, are not only too remote each from the other,
+but in their occupations all much too specialised--there to finance,
+there to manufactures, or here to leisure, and so on; while on the Clyde
+industrial organisation and social progress could not but develop
+together, through the very nature of the essential and working unity of
+the ship.
+
+Since Morris's day, a local art movement, of which he knew little, has
+risen to eminence, a foreign critic would say to pre-eminence, in this
+country at least. Since Ruskin's savage response to a Glasgow invitation
+to lecture--"first burn your city, and cleanse your river,"--a new
+generation of architects and hygienists have not a little transformed
+the one, and vigorous measures have been taken towards the purification
+of the other. That the city and university pre-eminently associated
+with the invention of the steam-engine, and consequently with the advent
+of the industrial revolution throughout the world, should, a century
+later, have produced a scarcely less pre-eminent leader of applied
+science towards the command of electricity is thus no isolated
+coincidence. And as political economy, which is ever the theory
+corresponding to our phase of industrial practice, and there some of
+its foremost pioneers, and later its classical exponent, Adam Smith
+himself, so once more there are signs at least of a corresponding wave
+of theoretic progress. Students of primitive civilisation and industry
+have now long familiarised us with their reinterpretation of what was
+long known as the stone age, into two very distinct [Page: 107] periods,
+the earlier characterised by few and rough implements, roughly used by a
+rude people, the second by more varied tools, of better shape, and finer
+edge, often of exquisite material and polish. We know that these were
+wielded more skilfully, by a people of higher type, better bred and
+better nourished; and that these, albeit of less hunting and militant
+life, but of pacific agricultural skill, prevailed in every way in the
+struggle for existence; thanks thus not only to more advanced arts, but
+probably above all to the higher status of woman. This distinction of
+Paleolithic and Neolithic ages and men, has long passed into the
+terminology of sociological science, and even into current speech: is it
+too much then, similarly, to focus the largely analogous progress which
+is so observable in what we have been wont to generalise too crudely as
+the modern Industrial Age? All are agreed that the discoveries and
+inventions of this extraordinary period of history constitute an epoch
+of material advance only paralleled, if at all, in magnitude and
+significance by those of prehistory with its shadowy Promethean figures.
+Our own advance from a lower industrial civilisation towards a higher
+thus no less demands definite characterisation, and this may be broadly
+expressed as from an earlier or _Paleotechnic_ phase, towards a later or
+more advanced _Neotechnic_ one. If definition be needed, this may be
+broadly given as from a comparatively crude and wasteful technic age,
+characterised by coal, steam, and cheap machine products, and a
+corresponding _quantitative_ ideal of "progress of wealth and
+population"--towards a finer civilisation, characterised by the wider
+command, yet greater economy of natural energies, by the predominance of
+electricity, and by the increasing victory of an ideal of qualitative
+progress, expressed in terms of skill and art, of hygiene and education,
+of social polity, etc.
+
+The Neotechnic phase, though itself as yet far from completely replacing
+the paleotechnic order which is still quantitatively predominant in most
+of our cities, begins itself to show signs of a higher stage of
+progress, as in the co-ordination of the many industries required for
+the building of a ship, or in the yet more recent developments which
+begin to renew for us the conception of the worthy construction of a
+city. As [Page: 108] the former period may be characterised by the
+predominance of the relatively unskilled workman and of the skilled, so
+this next incipient age by the development of the chief workman proper,
+the literal _architectos_ or architect; and by his companion the rustic
+improver, gardener and forester, farmer, irrigator, and their
+correspondingly evolving types of civil engineer.
+
+To this phase then the term _Geotechnic_ may fairly be applied. Into its
+corresponding theoretic and ideal developments we need not here enter,
+beyond noting that these are similarly of synthetic character; on the
+concrete side the sciences unifying as geography, and on their more
+abstract side as the classification and philosophy of the
+sciences,--while both abstract and concrete movements of thought are
+becoming more and more thoroughly evolutionary in character.
+
+But evolutionary theories, especially as they rise towards
+comprehensiveness, cannot permanently content themselves with origins,
+or with classifications merely, nor with concentrating on nature rather
+than on man. Nature furnishes after all but the stage for evolution in
+its highest terms; of this man himself is the hero; so that thus our
+Geotechnic phase, Synthetic age (call it what we will) in its turn gives
+birth to a further advance--that concerned with human evolution, above
+all subordinating all things to him; whereas in all these preceding
+industrial phases, even if decreasingly, "things are in the saddle and
+ride mankind." This age, now definitely evolutionist in policy, as the
+geotechnic was in theory and in environment we may term the _Eugenic_.
+For its theory, still less advanced, the term _Eupsychic_ may complete
+our proposed nomenclature.
+
+Thus then our conception of the opening future may be increasingly
+defined, since all these apparently predicted phases are already
+incipient among us, and are thus really matters of observed fact, of
+social embryology let us say; in short, of city development.
+
+In summary, then, the diagram of the former instalment of this paper
+(vol. 1, p. 109)
+
+              ANCIENT                 ||
+Primitive | Matriarchal | Patriarchal ||
+
+                 RECENT                   ||
+Greek and Roman | Mediaeval | Renaissance ||
+
+        CONTEMPORARY          ||
+Revolution | Empire | Finance ||
+
+         INCIPIENT
+         ?   ?   ?
+
+[Page: 109] has thus its interrogations filled up. Omitting the
+left-hand half, that generalised as Ancient and Recent in the above
+diagram, so as to give more space to the Contemporary and Incipient
+phases, these now stand as follows:--
+
+          CONTEMPORARY           ||           INCIPIENT
+Revolution | Revolution | Empire ||Neotechnic | Geotechnic | Eugenic
+
+To elaborate this farther would, of course, exceed my present limits;
+but I may be permitted to say that long use of this schematic outline,
+especially of course in more developed forms, has satisfied me of its
+usefulness alike in the study of current events and in the practical
+work of education and city betterment. I venture then to recommend it to
+others as worth trial.
+
+
+R--A PRACTICAL PROPOSAL--A CIVIC EXHIBITION
+
+How shall we more fully correlate our theoretic civics, i.e., our
+observations of cities interpreted as above, with our moral ideas and
+our practical policy--i.e., our Applied Civics. Our ideals have to be
+selected, our ideas defined, our plans matured; and the whole of these
+applied; that is realised, in polity, in culture, and in art. But if
+this be indeed the due correlation of civic survey and civic service,
+how may we now best promote the diffusion and the advancement of both?
+At this stage therefore, I venture to submit to the Society a practical
+proposal for its consideration and discussion; and if approved, I would
+fain hope for its recommendation to towns and cities, to organisations
+and to the public likely to be interested.
+
+Here then is my proposal. Is not the time ripe for bringing together the
+movements of Civics and Eugenics, now here and indeed everywhere plainly
+nascent, and of setting these before the public of this country in some
+such large and concrete ways, as indeed, in the latter subject at
+least, have been so strongly desiderated by Mr. Galton? As regards
+Civics, such have been afforded to America during the summer of 1904 by
+the Municipal Section of the St. Louis Exhibition; in [Page: 110]
+Dresden also, at the recent Towns Exhibition; and by kindred Exhibitions
+and Congresses in Paris and elsewhere.
+
+All these have taken form since the Paris Exposition of 1900, with its
+important section of social economy and its many relevant special
+congresses. Among these may be specially mentioned here as of popular
+interest, and civic stimulus, the _Congres de L'Art Public_; the more
+since this also held an important Exhibition, to which many Continental
+cities sent instructive exhibits.
+
+Other exhibitions might be mentioned; so that the fact appears that in
+well-nigh every important and progressive country, save our own, the
+great questions of civics have already been fully opened, and vividly
+brought before their public, by these great contemporary museums with
+their associated congresses.
+
+With our present Chairman, the Rt. Hon. Charles Booth, with Canon
+Barnett, Mr. Horsfall, and so many other eminent civic workers among us;
+with our committee and its most organising of secretaries, might not a
+real impulse be given in this way by this Society towards civic
+education and action?
+
+Let me furthermore recall the two facts; first, that in every important
+exhibition which has been held in this country or abroad, no exhibits
+have been more instructive and more popular than have been (1) the
+picturesque reconstructions of ancient cities, and the presentment of
+their city life, and (2) the corresponding surveys of the present
+conditions of town life, and of the resources and means of bettering
+them.
+
+Even as a show then, I venture to submit that such a "Towneries" might
+readily be arranged to excel in interest, and surpass in usefulness, the
+excellent "Fisheries," "Healtheries", and other successful exhibitions
+in the record and recent memory of London. The advantages of such an
+exhibition are indeed too numerous for even an outline here; but they
+may be easily thought out more and more fully. Indeed, I purposely
+abstain for the present from more concrete suggestion; for the
+discussion of its elements, methods, plans, and scale will be found to
+raise the whole range of civic questions, and to set these in freshening
+lights.
+
+[Page: 111] At this time of social transition, when we all more or less
+feel the melting away of old divisions and parties, of old barriers of
+sects and schools, and the emergence of new possibilities, the continual
+appearance of new groupings of thought and action, such a Civic
+Exhibition would surely be specially valuable. In the interest, then, of
+the incipient renascence of civic progress, I plead for a Civic
+Exhibition.[14]
+
+[14] Since the preceding paper was read, it is encouraging to note the
+practical beginnings of a movement towards a civic exhibition,
+appropriately arising, like so many other valuable contributions to
+civic betterment, from Toynbee Hall. The Cottages Exhibition initiated
+by Mr. St. Loe Strachey at Garden City, and of course also that
+admirable scheme itself, must also be mentioned as importance forces in
+the directions of progress and propaganda advocated above.
+
+Of such an exhibition, the very catalogue would be in principle that
+_Encyclopaedia Civica_, into which, in the previous instalment of this
+paper (vol. I, p. 118) I have sought to group the literature of civics.
+We should thus pass before us, in artistic expression, and therefore in
+universal appeal, the historic drama of the great civic past, the
+mingled present, the phantasmagoria and the tragi comedy of both of
+these. We should then know more of the ideals potential for the future,
+and, it may be, help onward some of the Eutopias which are already
+struggling towards birth.
+
+
+
+
+DISCUSSION
+
+
+The Chairman (THE RT. HON. CHARLES BOOTH) said:
+
+I feel always the inspiring character of Professor Geddes' addresses. He
+seems to widen and deepen the point of view, and to widen and deepen
+one's own ideas, and enables us to hold them more firmly and better than
+one can do without the aid of the kind of insight Professor Geddes has
+given into the methods of his own mind. I believe that we all hold our
+conceptions by some sort of tenure. I am afraid I hold mine by columns
+and statistics much underlined--a horrible prosaic sort of arrangement
+on ruled paper. I remember a lady of my acquaintance who had a place for
+everything. The discovery of America was in the left-hand corner; the
+Papacy was in the middle; and for everything she had some local
+habitation in an imaginary world. Professor Geddes is far more ingenious
+than that, and it is most interesting and instructive and helpful to
+follow these charming diagrams which spring evidently from the method he
+himself uses in holding and forming his conceptions. That it is of the
+utmost value to have large conceptions there can be no doubt--large
+conceptions both in time and place, large conceptions of all those
+various ideas to which he has called our attention. By some means or
+other we have to have them; and having got them, every individual,
+single fact has redoubled value. We put it in its place. So I hope that
+in our discussion, while we may develop each in his own way, the mental
+methods we pursue, we may bring forward anything that strikes us as
+germane, as a practical point of application to the life of the world,
+and especially anything having an application to the life of London. I
+would make my contribution to that with regard to a scheme that has been
+explained to me by its originator, Mrs. Barnett, the wife of Canon
+Barnett of Toynbee Hall. The idea concerns an open [Page: 113] space
+which has recently been secured in Hampstead. It is known to you all
+that a certain piece of ground belonging to the trustees of Eton College
+has been secured, which extends the open space of Hampstead Heath in
+such a way as to protect a great amount of beauty. The further proposal
+is to acquire an estate surrounding that open space which has now been
+secured for ever to the people, and to use this extension to make what
+is called a "garden suburb." It is a following out of the "garden-city"
+idea which is seizing hold of all our minds, and it seems to me an
+exceedingly practical adaptation of that idea. Where it comes in, in
+connection with the address we have just heard, is that the root idea is
+that it shall bring together all the good elements of civic life. It is
+not to be for one class, or one idea, but for all classes, and all
+ideas--a mixed population with all its needs thought for and provided
+for; and above everything, the beauty of those fields and those hills is
+not to be sacrificed, but to be used for the good of the suburb and the
+good of London. I hope that out of it will come an example that will be
+followed. That is a little contribution I wish to make to the discussion
+to-day, and if I can interest any one here in forwarding it, I shall be
+exceedingly glad.
+
+
+MR. SWINNY said:
+
+Towards the close of his lecture, Professor Geddes remarked that the
+cities of America inherited a great part of their civilisation from
+Greece and Rome and the Europe of the Middle Age. I believe that thought
+will lead us to consider the point whether this geographical survey
+should precede or follow a general historical survey. Now, if we
+consider that a river valley in England, with the towns in that valley,
+are part of the English nation, and that the English nation has shared
+in the general historical evolution of Western Europe, it would seem
+that the first simplification the question allows of is: What is there
+in the historical development of that city that is common to the whole
+of Western Europe, and what is peculiar to its position as an English
+city? And the second simplification that the problem allows of is to
+consider what part of the evolution of a particular city is due to its
+peculiar position in that river valley? So that it seems necessary first
+to get a general idea of the historical evolution of England and the
+West; and then you can proceed to consider what is due to the part
+played by the city in that evolution. Thus you have to consider not so
+much the city as a result of its immediate environment, but the effect
+of its environment in modifying the general course of civilisation as it
+affected that city.
+
+
+DR. J.L. TAYLER,
+
+[Page: 114] referring to Professor Geddes' remarks on the working
+craftsman and the thinking craftsman, said he believed that in a country
+like England, where the prevailing tendencies of thought and action were
+of an essentially practical nature, many people who now felt contempt
+for higher mental ideals would alter their views, if this idea of the
+_causal_ relationship between thinkers and workers could be driven home.
+If business men and women could be made to realise that in the higher
+regions of pure science there were always to be found some thinkers who
+belonged to the same craft or trade as they themselves, they would
+naturally tend to rely on these thinkers when dealing with problems that
+necessitate a wide mental outlook.
+
+Moreover, the thought that students of great mental powers studied the
+objects with which working craftsmen were in daily contact, could not
+fail to deepen, refine and purify their more practical and, in some
+respects, grosser aims; while the knowledge that every science-study had
+an industrial as well as a scientific aspect would make the thinking
+craftsmen more alive to the needs of everyday existence.
+
+Such conceptions, if spread through all classes of our community, would
+inevitably change the feeling of distrust of learning into one of
+healthful enthusiasm, and give in addition a unity and direction to our
+various life pursuits which might in time generate a true modern
+national spirit; for it is precisely this divorce of mental and
+physical, of theoretical and practical, class and individual
+effort--which such a thinking and working craft theory would
+rectify--that destroys our efficiency by creating an unreal chasm
+between refined and unrefined, learned and unlearned, where there should
+be only a progressive evolution from the lower to the higher, from the
+immediate practical to the ultimate ideal.
+
+
+THE REV. DR. AVELING said:
+
+There was one point that the lecturer made which, I think, might be a
+fit and fruitful subject for discussion. He said that we were the
+product of the city. To a great extent that is undoubtedly true; but on
+the other hand, he advocated an improvement in the conditions of
+environment, to be brought about by our own endeavours. Therefore, the
+city can be shaped and made by us. What, then, is the exact value to be
+given to the seemingly contradictory doctrines that the individual is
+the product of the city and also that the city is the product of the
+citizen? The establishing of some fixed relation between--or the
+adjusting of the relations of--these two causes of social progress would
+be, I think, interesting to the philosopher, and useful to the
+economist. The problem is [Page: 115] without doubt a difficult one, but
+its solution would be of great value. I do not venture to offer any
+answer to the question I raise--I merely state it.
+
+
+MR. A.W. STILL said:
+
+We have been passing through a period in which the city has created a
+type of man so wholly absorbed in the promotion of his own individual
+interests that he tends almost entirely to forget the social obligations
+which ought to make the greatest appeal to him. We may take some hope
+from what Professor Geddes has said, that the time is coming when we
+shall bring the force of our own characters to bear on our environment,
+and endeavour to break away from conditions which have made us the
+slaves of environment. I know the lovely little garden city of
+Bourneville intimately, and some of the experiments in other quarters.
+But in the common expansion of cities, I have seen that as the people
+get away from one set of slums, they are creating new areas which will
+become as degraded and abominable as those which are left behind. It has
+always seemed to me that there is room for good work by some committee,
+or some body of men, who would be voluntary guardians of the city's
+well-being, who would make it their business to acquire all that
+knowledge which Professor Geddes has just put before us in terms so
+enchanting, and would use all the ability that they possess in order to
+lead the minds of the community towards the cultivation of the best and
+highest ideals in civic life. I do not think it need be regarded as
+impossible that, from an association of this kind, such a movement as I
+have mentioned should spring. I conceive the possibility of each group
+developing into a trust, capable of acting in the interests of the city
+in years to come, exercising a mighty influence, being relied upon for
+guidance, and administering great funds for the common good. If we could
+get in each of our populous centres a dozen thoroughly intelligent
+broad-minded men, capable of watching all the streams of tendency--all
+the developments of civic life, bringing their judgment to bear on its
+progress, and urging the public to move in the right direction, a great
+service might be rendered. At least once a year, these little groups of
+men might meet together at some general conference, and, by the exchange
+of their opinions and by the mutual helpfulness of intellectual
+intercourse, raise up and perfect civic ideals which would be a boon to
+this country. We suffer at present, I think, from the too great
+particularisation of our efforts. We get one man devoting himself
+exclusively to a blind asylum, another seeming to take no interest in
+anything but a deaf-and-dumb institute or the like, and yet another
+devoting himself to charity organisation. It is all excellent work, but
+the difficulty is to get broad, comprehensive views taken of the common
+good. To reduce poverty and to check physical degeneracy, there must be
+an effort continuously made to [Page: 116] raise the tone of the
+environment in which we live. The home and the city need to be made
+wholesome and beautiful, and the people need to be encouraged to enlarge
+their minds by contact with nature, and by the study of all that is
+elevating and that increases the sum of social responsibility.
+
+
+MR. E.S. WEYMOUTH said:
+
+He found it somewhat difficult to see what was to be the practical
+outcome of civics if studied in the way proposed. Would Professor Geddes
+consider it the duty of any Londoner, who wished to study sociology
+practically, to map out London, and also the surrounding districts, with
+special reference to the Thames River Basin, as appeared to be suggested
+in both Professor Geddes' papers? Looking at civics in its practical or
+ethical aspect, he was bound to confess that, though he had acquired a
+tolerable knowledge of the geography of the Thames Basin, he did not
+feel it helped him materially towards becoming a better citizen of
+London. Would Professor Geddes wish them to study, first, London with
+its wealth side by side with its squalor and filth, and then proceed to
+study another large town, where the same phenomena presented themselves?
+What gain would there be in that proportionate to the labour entailed?
+In his own case, so disheartened had he felt by observing that all their
+efforts, public and private, for the improvement of their civic
+conditions seemed to end in raising considerably the rents of the ground
+landlords of London, while leaving the bulk of the population engaged in
+a hard struggle for their existence, that he had for years past found it
+difficult to take much interest in municipal affairs, so long as the
+rates and taxes were--as it seemed to him--put upon the wrong shoulders.
+And for the study of civics, he had preferred to turn to those cities
+where efforts were being made to establish communal life on what seemed
+to him juster conditions. In 1897, he was struck with the title of an
+article in the "Daily Telegraph." It was headed, "The Land of Beauty,
+Society without Poverty, Life without Care." He found the article was a
+description of Durban in Natal. The writer attributed the prosperity of
+this town to the fact that the suburbs were kept in the hands of the
+community, instead of being handed over to private owners who would
+absorb all the unearned increment. Even if this eulogium betrayed
+exaggeration still a student of civics might feel that the economic
+conditions of that town were worth studying. Similarly, in New Zealand,
+the adoption in 1891 of the tax on land values brought prosperity to the
+towns, and changed the tide of emigration from New Zealand into
+immigration. Again, at home they had Bourneville, Port Sunlight, and
+that most interesting of all present-day experiments in this country,
+the Garden City, all of these being founded by men with ideals. He could
+not help feeling [Page: 117] that a student of civics, possessed of such
+a fair working knowledge of the city he lived in as most of them might
+reasonably lay claim to, would make more real progress by studying the
+success or failure of social experiments, than by entering on the very
+formidable task that seemed to be set before them by Professor Geddes.
+However, when they left abstract civics, as they had it portrayed to
+them in these papers, and turned to the architectural or the historical
+side of concrete civics, there should be no better guide than Professor
+Geddes, whose labours in Edinburgh, and whose projected schemes for the
+improvement of Dunfermline, were becoming widely known.
+
+
+MR. TOMKINS (_of the London Trades Council_) said:
+
+If before any person was allowed to serve on our different public
+bodies, he should be required to attend a course of lectures such as
+those given by Professor Geddes on civics, that would surely be a means
+of developing his social interests, and would tend to eliminate that
+self-interest which too often actuated public men. There was nothing
+more difficult than for workmen to-day to be able to take larger views.
+The workman's whole business was now so different from what is was in
+the days of the arts and crafts guilds of the Middle Ages; they now
+found him ground down into some little division of industry, and it was
+quite impossible for him to work in his own way. Thus he got
+narrow-minded, because concentrated on some minor process. He was kept
+at work with his nose to the mill the whole time, and it became too
+exhausting for him to try and take these larger views of life. He often
+thought of the amount of talent and energy and practical beauty which
+was wasted in our workshops to-day. Referring to the Garden Cities of
+this country and the United States, Mr. Tomkins said the idea of getting
+great Trusts to use their money in a social spirit, and not merely to
+get the workers tied to their mills, was really something which opened
+out a vista of grand possibilities in the future; but if any movement
+was to be successful it would be necessary to teach the great masses of
+workers, and to create a real sound social public opinion amongst them.
+
+
+PROFESSOR GEDDES' reply
+
+Professor Geddes, in replying to the discussion, said he entirely agreed
+with the point made by Mr. Swinny, and he should just like to correct
+what he had said in his lecture by reference to what he meant by a civic
+museum. In Edinburgh, he had in his museum a large room, with a
+geographical model [Page: 118] of the old town with its hill-fort, and
+so on; and he hung round this maps and diagrams of historical and
+geographical details. On the opposite side of the room, he had a symbol
+of the market-cross, which stood for the centre of its municipal life,
+of its ideals and independence of environment. Around it was grouped
+what represented the other side of the city; and here he might answer
+another point, and say that they could never settle the great
+philosophical controversy of determinism and free-will. They would
+always incline when young to the novel of circumstance, and later, to
+the novel of character, but they should always feel that life was a game
+of individual skill with interfering circumstances. These diagrams of
+his were only the page split. On the one side, he meant to push to the
+extreme the idea that the place makes us, and on the other side, that we
+make the place. By what process do men struggle towards the selection of
+their ideals? They find themselves within the grasp of their
+environment, their whole heritage of culture, of good and ill, the whole
+tradition of the past; but they must select certain elements of
+these--the elements that seem to them good, and so they might escape
+from the manner of the city. Pointing to a drawing of the old Scotch
+bawbee, Professor Geddes said it was not a very dignified symbol of the
+coinage of the world, but let them mark how it had on the one side the
+hammerman at his work, with his motto "_Beat deus artem_," and, on the
+other side, a larger legend, with the eagle of the empire and the lamb
+of Saint John.
+
+To return to his civic museum: the room below the one he had described
+was the larger museum for Scotland, and in the room below that, again,
+the museum for England, Ireland and America, the whole English-speaking
+world--not the Empire only. And the whole stood on a museum and library
+representing that larger evolution of the occidental civilisation which
+showed them they were merely children of the past. Professor Geddes
+pleaded for museums in which every city displayed its own past and
+present, but related itself to the whole of Europe and the whole
+occident.
+
+One or two practical questions of great importance had [Page: 119] been
+raised; but, with all respect, he submitted that they could consider
+what was practical and practicable without requiring to go into the
+question of taxing land. That was a matter of political opinion. It was
+as if they were discussing the geology of coal, which they could do,
+without reference to coal royalties. Mr. Weymouth was with them on the
+subject of preserving old buildings; and he thought there was a great
+deal to be learned, if Mr. Weymouth would descend the valley of the
+Thames once more. It was of great importance if he found a great city at
+the tidal limit. Going down the Thames and the Tay, they would find, at
+the last ford of one, the old Abbey of Westminster, and at the last ford
+of the other, the old Abbey of Scoon. The kings of England and Scotland
+were crowned there because these were the most important places--a point
+of great historic interest. As a matter of practical interest, he might
+mention that Scoon and Westminster alike passed out of supreme
+importance when bridges were built across the river below; and he would
+next point out how just as Perth became of subordinate importance when
+the great Tay Bridge was built, so it became a tremendously important
+question to London, as it might in turn be much affected by the making
+of a great and a new bridge much further down the stream. This study of
+the descending river had real and practical, as well as historical
+importance. He had been about considerably in the great cities of the
+United States, and had been struck by the amount of good endeavour
+there. It was not, however, by denouncing Tammany that they could beat
+it, but by understanding it. They must understand the mechanism by which
+the Celtic chieftain ruled his clan, and they must deal with these
+methods by still other methods; and they might often find it more
+satisfactory to re-moralise the chieftain than to destroy him.
+
+Professor Geddes concluded by saying that he appreciated the admirable
+suggestion of Mr. Still towards the evolution of civic unions. He was
+sure Mr. Still had there an idea of great significance which might be
+developed.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's Civics: as Applied Sociology, by Patrick Geddes
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